APRIL, 1929 


BULLETIN 


OF THE 


Department of Elementary 
School Principals 


THE EIGHTH YEARBOOK 


Activities of the Principal 


Edited by 
ARTHUR 5S. GIST 


PUBLISHED QUARTERLY BY THE 
DEPARTMENT OF ELEMENTARY SCHOOL PRINCIPALS 
of the National Education Association of the United States 
1201 SIXTEENTH STREET NORTHWEST, WASHINGTON, D. C. 
Entered as second-class matter November 20, 1922, at the postoffice at 
Washington, D. C., under act of August 24, 1912. Acceptance for mailing 


at special rate of postage provided for in Section 1103, Act of October 3, 
1917, authorized December 18, 1922. 








CoprriGutT, 1929 
By NaTIONAL EpucaTION ASSOCIATION 
Wasnineton, D. C. 





ALL RIGHTS RESERVED 




















———— 
| BULLETIN 
| of the 
DEPARTMENT OF ELEMENTARY SCHOOL PRINCIPALS 
| 

| 

| 


Published quarterly in October, January, April, and July by the Depart- 
ment of Elementary School Principals of the National Education Asso- 
ciation of the United States. « 

The payment of $3 active membership dues entitles a member to 
attend all meetings of the Department, to hold office, and to receive the 
Bulletin quarterly. 

Two dollars of each membership fee is for a year’s subscription to the 
Bulletin. 

Subscription to nonmembers is $3 per year; single copies, 50 cents; 
Yearbook, $2. 

Members are requested to report at once any change of address, giving 
old as well as new address, 








| 
| 


| Entered as secondclass matter November 20, 1922, at the postoffice 
at Washington, D. C., under act of August 24, 1912. Acceptance for 
mailing at special rate of postage provided for in Section 1103, Act of 
October 3, 1917, authorized December 18, 1922. 





Executive and Editorial Offices, 120: Sixteenth Street Northwest, 
Washington, D. C. 








OFFICERS OF THE DEPARTMENT OF ELEMENTARY SCHOOL 
PRINCIPALS OF THE NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION 
1928-29 
President, Eva G. PINKSTON 
Sam Houston School, Dallas, Texas 

First Vicepresident, HELEN B. SHOVE 
Longfellow School, Minneapolis, Minnesota 
Second Vicepresident, JoHN A. SPARGO 
Ashland School, East Orange, New Jersey 
Third Vicepresident, F. H. Durry 

1616 Ridge Avenue, Steubenville, Ohio 

Fourth Vicepresident, Cassie F. Roys 

2609 Bristol Street, Omaha, Nebraska 

Fifth Vicepresident, A. J. HAMILTON 

University Elementary School, Berkeley, California 
Secretary, HerperT C. HANSEN 
315 Plymouth Court, Chicago, Illinois 
Executive Committee 
Mrs. Jessie M. Fink, Buchanan School, Grand Rapids, Michigan 
(Term Expires 1929) 
M. E. Peterson, Twentieth Street School, Los Angeles, California 
| (Term Expires 1930) 
ELIZABETH McCormick, Howe School, Superior, Wisconsin 
| (Term Expires 1931) 
Joun Merrit, Lingemann School, Detroit, Michigan 

(Term Expires 1932) 





Editor, 1929 Yearbook 
Artuur S. Gist, State Teachers College, San Francisco, California 
National Chairman, Enrolment Committee 
HERMAN RiTow, Fort Sheridan, Illinois 


Se 














HE EDUCATION of the public as 

to the opportunities and the service 
of the elementary school principal rests 
on all of us.—Uel W. Lamkin, Bulletin, 
July, 1928, p. 670. 


{ 132 ] 





























PREFACE 


HE DEPARTMENT of Elementary Schools Principals of the 
"TP sationai Education Association is a rapidly growing organiza- 
tion. It is increasing constantly in numbers and in influence. 
During the early part of its existence it was very doubtful if the 
publications would be possible. The expense was great to a young 
organization and the material very difficult to secure. Now after a 
few years, the department finds the financing of its publications less 
of a problem, and the collection of valuable studies much easier. 
Non-members and other organizations find the publications of inter- 
est and value. The increase in interest in the various activities of 
the department is very gratifying. 
The department hopes this yearbook will be of value to elementary 
school principals, and to others interested in elementary education. 
Again the appreciation of the department is extended to members 
of the official staff at the headquarters of the National Education 
Association for valuable services rendered in preparing this publi- 
cation. 
Artuor §. Gist, 
Editor, Eighth Yearbook 
Principal, Training School, 
San Francisco State Teachers College 


{ 133 ] 











S VAN DYKE sang the praise of the 
unknown teacher, may I sing the 
praise of the unknown principal? Great 
superintendents plan school systems, but 
the principal leads and guides the teach- 
ers. He communicates his own joy in ser- 
vice and shares with them the treasures 
of his mind. He lights many candles which 
in later years will shine back to cheer him. 
This is his reward.—Cornelia S. Adair, 
Proceedings, National Education Associ- 
ation, 1928, p. 729. 


L 134 ] 














—_. ant rk hlUlUhelUelC(‘i le 














LOOK INTO YOUR MIRROR 


N 1920 there was no national department of elementary school 
| principals. State associations of principals scarcely existed. Only 

in a few isolated localities were there outstanding professional 
groups. Seldom did one hear of challenging efforts to magnify the 
principalship. 

The nine intervening years have brought remarkable changes. 
Study groups of elementary school principals may be found in the 
smallest communities. State associations are gaining in strength 
and numbers. The time is rapidly approaching when five thousand 
principals will be contributing to and enjoying the benefits of our 
strong national Department. 

This growth is solid. It is the outcome of persistent effort by indi- 
viduals within our own ranks. But no less important has been the 
encouragement and faith of far-sighted superintendents. They have 
done much to magnify the principalship. Our co-workers, the super- 
visors, have joined with us in solving mutual problems. Classroom 
teachers have looked forward to the day when we would assume the 
professional leadership which the principalship requires. 

The idealism and improved technics of progressive supervision are 
being widely adopted. Many persons are joining the ranks of the 
trained and professionally-minded administrator. But there are pit- 
falls in this rapid growth. Principals can use their new authority 
to handicap the work of other professional groups. Such abuses— 
few as they are—arise when individuals adopt the form and not the 
spirit of the new principalship. Again, a little knowledge without 
vision proves dangerous! 

The solution of this difficulty lies with each principal. Little can 
be gained by personal criticism of our co-workers. Rather, each of 
us must honestly face such questions as these: Do I have the prep- 
aration necessary to be a genuine supervisor? Can I maintain a high 
level of work without continuous self-improvement? Do I realize 
that supervision is a codperative enterprise involving superintendents, 
supervisors, and principals? Am I handicapped by my ignorance of 
broad supervisory objectives? Are the teachers under my control 
gaining in the power of self-direction ? 

Such questions can be answered by the individual only in terms 
of his local situation. The answers given will mean much for our 


[ 135 ] 











national aspirations. We may expect the future to bring many bene- 
fits through the committees, yearbook and meetings of our national 
Department. But these advances must draw upon the ability and 
enthusiasm of individuals. Let each of us make a critical inventory 
of his talents and shape his efforts toward ever higher levels of funce- 
tioning. Does your self-evaluation mirror reflect a satisfying image ? 
While we are considering images, let us have a look at our friends 
at Headquarters. Secretary Crabtree has long encouraged principals 
in service through our Department. The counsel and help of Mr. 
Shankland is indispensable. Our committees and officers rejoice in 
the friendly codperation and untiring efforts of the Research Division. 
With the continued aid of these good friends our Department will 
give an ever increasing program of service to the elementary school 
principals of the nation! 

Eva G. Pinxston 
President, Department of Elementary 

School Principals 


{ 136 ] 

















\ 











CONTENTS 


PAGE 

I cs cg) 5 hese Scacchi Sk cain cht wap sede cal Sess Ab sea sae at a 133 
Arthur 8S. Gist, Editor of the Eighth Yearbook. 

SCOR EO TOUS DO isos. .85 6 ikaw tae eawedabeeeeede eee ae 135 


Eva G. Pinkston, President, Department of Elementary School Principals. 


PART ONE—ACTIVITIES OF PRINCIPALS 


CHAPTER 

I. Recent DEVELOPMENT OF SUPERVISION IN OAKLAND........eeeeeeeee: 141 
William S. Briscoe, Principal, Chabot School, Oakland, California. 

II. Tue Scuoon Principat AS ReEvEALED BY SCHOOL SURVEYS............+- 151 


E. H. Stullken, Principal, Goethe School, Chicago, Illinois. 
III. THe ApsustMENT oF New ELEMENTARY ScHoot TEACHERS IN CIty 


NR CINNION 8 os 5 a:uisy: ccchae scbauatinae gia es eee ameter me aes 162 
Orlando H. Johnson, Graduate Student, University of Chicago. 
IV. Tue Revationsuie BeTweEEN PRINCIPALS AND SUPERVISORS..........- 169 


C. W. Crandell, Superintendent of Schools, Monroe, Michigan. 
V. Next Srers iN SUPERVISION FROM THE STANDPOINT OF THE ELEMENTARY 
DOM: TORING ois iocsidisicidedied wot awesssoeensdaGanne denon 179 
Arthur S. Gist, Principal, Training School, State Teachers College, 
San Francisco, California. 


VI. EstaBLISHING STANDARDS IN WRITTEN COMPOSITION........20-eeeeee08 187 
Samuel Berman, Principal, Wm. S. Peirce School, Philadelphia, 
Pennsylvania. 
VII. Can We Improve Our AMERICAN SPEECH?........ccsccccsccccccsecs 207 


Edna Cotrel, Teacher in Charge, Department of Correction of 
Speech Defects, San Francisco Public Schools. 


VIII. A Survey or ELEMENTARY ScHoot Puri, Report ForMS.............. 218 
Francis E. Homer, Principal, Kelley School, Philadelphia, Penn- 
sylvania. 
EX... Bow Pencrmns Tae Tete PONG i. o.sivkiviisssccinned vk essesnsssaeane 235 
John S. Herron, Principal, Lafayette School, Newark, New Jersey. 
X. Srupies or FAILurREs IN THE Sioux Ciry Pusiic SCHOOLS............ 240 


E. E. Briggs (Chairman), Principal, West Junior High School, 
Sioux City, Iowa. 


XI. AN INVESTIGATION OF VACATION LOSS...........cccccccccccccccccccs 245 
William L. Dix, Principal, Jefferson School, Trenton, New Jersey. 
XII. Usine tHe Resutts or STANDARDIZED TESTS...........cccccccccccces 250 


Mrs. P. Lucile Hawley, Principal, Washington Community School, 
Lynn, Massachusetts. 


XIII: SHoutp EXAMINATIONS BE ELIMINATED?.........cccccccccccccccccces 255 
A. J. Williams, Principal, School 9, Buffalo, New York. 
XIV. A GuImpANCcE PROGRAM FOR A SCHOOL SYSTEM.........cccecceccececess 268 


Jennie McMullin Turner, Assistant in Teacher Training, State 
Board of Vocational Education, Madison, Wisconsin. 


XV. A Srupy or CHaracTer EpucaTION IN WISCONSIN SCHOOLS........... 278 
P. M. Vincent, Superintendent of Schools, Stevens Point, Wis- 
consin. 


{ 137 ] 











CHAPTER PAGE 


XVI. Moratty HANDICAPPED CHILDREN ...........cccceesccccccccceeeeeees 281 
Christine Schlenker, Principal, P. S. 61 (Probationary), Brook- 
lyn, New York. 
XVII. AN EXPERIENCE IN CONSOLIDATION..........00cce ccc eee ec ceeeeeeeee 285 


Nat G. Barnhart, Principal, Meadowview Public School, Meadow- 
view, Virginia. 
XVIII. A Srupy on THE SEATING OF THE KINDERGARTEN AND THE PRIMARY 
Re Sa er ee eer ranmn ipa retie 295 
L. D. Lundberg, Director, Department of Research and Statistics, 
Flint Public Schools, Flint, Michigan. 
XIX. A CompreHENSIVE PLAN For MAKING a State Census or SCHOOL 
I 2 = rete te a re EER oe See ore aire 307 
Nora Sterry, President, Elementary School Principals’ Club, Los 
Angeles, California. 
XX. Cuerica, Service 1n Crry ScHoou SYSTEMS..............-00-eeeeeee 318 
Louise H. Henderson, President, Clerical Assistants’ Association, 
Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. 
XXI. Unirorm Fives ror EveMentary ScHoon Principals AND TEACHERS.. 327 
Herman F. Smith, Adams School, Seattle, Washington. 
XXII. Provisions 1n Larce CitT1es ror THE ACCELERATION OF Pupmis........ 337 
Arthur W. Kallom, First Assistant Director, Department of Edu- 
cational Investigation and Measurement, Boston Public 
Schools. 


PART TWO—THE TECHNIC OF SUPERVISION BY THE ELEMENTARY 
SCHOOL PRINCIPAL 


The chapters in this part are reprinted from the First Yearbook of the De- 
partment of Elementary School Principals. The detailed table of contents of 
Part Two will be found on page.............0.cececteeceeees Pees ahead 353 


PART THREE—OFFICIAL INFORMATION 


Local PRINCIPALS’ ORGANIZATIONS. .........-ccccccccccccccccccccrecsecceccs 467 
SraTp PRINCIPALS’ ASSOCIATIONS...........ccccc cccceccccceccccecceeeceeees 474 
MEMBERS OF THE DEPARTMENT OF ELEMENTARY SCHOOL PRINCIPALS.......... 476 


L 138 ] 











PART ONE 
ACTIVITIES OF THE PRINCIPAL 





























CHAPTER I 


RECENT DEVELOPMENT OF SUPERVISION IN THE 
OAKLAND PUBLIC SCHOOLS * 


WiuuraM §. Briscor 
Principal, Chabot School, Oakland, California 


OW SUPERVISION is defined depends upon who defines it. 

H The supervisor is likely to define it in terms of its aims; the 

supervised is likely to define it in terms of what is done, and 

the administrator is very likely to define it in terms of the results. 
All three are important: the aims, the methods, and the results. 

The aim of all supervision may be said to be to effect such changes 
in the behavior of teachers as will result in the improvement of in- 
struction. The only difference between plans of supervision is the 
method by which this changed behavior is to be brought about and, 
of course, in the attendant results. 


OAKLAND’s Puitosopuy OF METHOD IN SUPERVISION 


In Oakland the best method of achieving the aims of supervision is 
thought of as “ teaching,” not in the sense that the word usually con- 
notes, but in its more ideal meaning of “ stimulating and assisting 
the individual to find his problems and to solve them.” If one is to 
find his own problems and to work them out, he must be given con- 
siderable freedom and responsibility.” 


Tuer ORGANIZATION OF SUPERVISION 


It is evident that such a philosophy of method would require a cer- 
tain administrative set-up. It is the policy of the Oakland Public 
Schools to center responsibility in the office of the principal. The 


*This article describes supervision as developed under the direction of Rudolph 
D. Lindquist, Assistant Superintendent of Schools, Oakland, California. 

*In reading the following account, it is necessary to bear in mind that super- 
vision is defined herein as that procedure on the part of a principal or supervisor 
which is intended to effect a change for the better in the teaching skill of the 
classroom teacher. The criterion of whether or not they succeed as supervisors 
is not simply that of “Do the teachers know more about classroom technics 
and problems?” but rather, “Are the teachers more critical students of their 
own classroom technic and materials, and are they more effective in the use 
of the technics and materials? ”—Editor. 


[ 141 ] 











142 ELEMENTARY ScHooLt PRINCIPALS 





principal is not only the chief executive officer in his school, but is 
also the chief supervisory officer, and as such is responsible for all 
instruction in his school. Courses of study which have been worked 
out by committee groups to aid in his educational program are pro- 
vided for him and his teachers, and there are also special supervisors 
whose knowledge and skill may be enlisted in helping him to set up a 
program of supervision and to carry it through. 

The function of the subject supervisor does not encroach upon that 
of the principal. The specialist supervisor finds himself faced with 
the duties and the authority of a technician. He must teach teachers 
to become proficient in his subject and he must acquaint principals 
with standards and methods that they may assist in directing and in 
improving instruction in his subject. He has the responsibility of 
assisting principal and superintendent in the formation of general 
educational policies and plans, especially as they relate to his field. 
It is his duty to assist in survey of teaching practices and results, and 
in diagnosis and remedy of difficulties. He must cause principals, 
teachers, and superintendents to make such changes in practices and 
management as will result in improved instruction. He must cause 
all these things to be done solely by force of the respect others 
have for his knowledge, skill, and ability, by virtue of the validity 
and soundness of his investigations, and by his personal power to 
elicit purposeful thinking and right responses to situations which 
involve his subject. One might say that the principal is a branch 
manager in the city’s business of educating boys and girls, and 
that the supervisor is his consulting engineer. 

From the viewpoint of the principal the typical situation is this: 
he has a school, let us say, of 800 youngsters and 20 teachers; he has 
certain educational materials and supplies; he has a course of study 
which sets up educational objectives and outlines methods; and he has 
a corps of specialist supervisors. What shall his program be, and how 
shall he make effective use of each agency at his disposal? Certainly 
these are tasks in the solving of which the intelligent principal and 
supervisor will welcome aid, and, of course, supervision in its finest 
sense means simply that. 


SuPERVISORY ORGANIZATION AS CarRIED OvTt 1n 1927-1928 


The superintendent in charge of elementary schools, in conference 
with the elementary principals and supervisors, defined codperative 
supervision and outlined a method of achieving it. His remarks may 
be outlined as follows: 

















Tue Eigutu YEARBOOK 143 





1. Supervision involves helping teachers 

a. To develop a theory of instruction 

b. To acquire skill in putting theory into practice 

Teachers develop a theory and acquire skill 

a. By being made aware of the exact nature of the problems 
which they face as teachers of children 

b. By being encouraged and guided in the solution of these 
problems 

Supervision, then, involves 

a. A definite procedure for helping teachers to locate their 
problems 

b. Skill in helping them to solve their problems. 


bo 


7 * 
~~ 
. 


Supervision of instruction is essentially a codperative process in- 
volving the development of a theory of instruction and the acquisition 
of skill in putting theory into practice. Certainly, that process can 
also be applied to the improvement of supervision so that principals 
and supervisors may assist each other in developing a theory of super- 
vision and in putting such theory into practice. After all, a theory 
of supervision is merely a theory of instruction as it applies to 
training supervisors. 


ConFERENCE Groups Drecipep Upon 


Believing such to be possible, the assistant superintendent caused 
principals and supervisors to be organized into groups for the study 
of their problems as supervisors. The aim was to bring together all 
who were concerned with the same educational problem that they 
might profit from an exchange of experiences and from organized 
study of problems common to the group. Thus, if the supervision of 
arithmetic presented difficulty to certain principals, they organized 
into a group for the study of that problem and the arithmetic super- 
visor and the superintendent in charge met with them as members of 
the group. 

At the end of the year’s work, the purposes for which the confer- 
ence groups had been organized were stated as follows: 


1. Discussion of methods of teaching children 

Discussion of methods of teaching teachers (supervision) 

Practice of reporting to the group on supervision to serve as an 

incentive to practice supervision 

4. Criticism of supervisory practice to help principal improve his 
supervision 

5. Practice in leading conference groups, followed by criticism of the 
procedure. 


go bo 











144 ELEMENTARY Scuoot PRINCIPALS 





These purposes were not achieved to the same extent in any two groups, and 
this is one factor that has contributed to the interest of the work. Whereas one 
group has emphasized the discussion of method, another has emphasized super- 
vision, and still another has emphasized the conference procedure as a method 
in supervision. 

I have tried to keep two things constantly before me. First, that if we are to 
make any progress we must really think about our problems. Educational termi- 
nology, as that in other fields of endeavor, is filled with hackneyed and stereo- 
typed phrases which, though once significant, have come to be formal and 
meaningless. Unless we ask ourselves constantly, “ What will this method or 
procedure mean in terms of changed behavior of teacher and children?” we 
are apt to find ourselves just talking glibly about things educational. 

Second, I have tried to keep in mind that no two individuals have exactly 
the same needs and that what means growth and development for one person 
may be useless for another. The big thing, after all, for one who is charged with 
administrative or supervisory or teaching responsibility, is that he realize the 
problems in his own field, and that he work persistently and _ intelligently 
in solving them. If he can do this in a spirit of loyalty to the child, the result 
will be a maximum amount of growth for him and the greatest possible return 
to the Oakland Public Schools.* 


How THe Princrpats’ Groups WERE Formep 


Fach principal was requested to submit his plan for the improve 
ment of instruction in his school. These plans were made the basis 
for the organization of conference groups, principals interested in 
the same problems being placed in the same group. All but seven 
principals gave as their first choice of problems to be studied, 
arithmetic, English composition, social studies, and reading. These 
four groups constituted the conference groups for the first semester. 
During the second semester an additional group took as its task 
the evalution of supervision. 


Wuat THE ConFERENCES Dip 


Each of these conference groups met five times during the semes- 
ter. The meetings were held on school time and minutes of each 
meeting were recorded for reference. Each group outlined its own 
problems and proceeded to solve them in its own way. The same 
aims were not apparent in any two groups nor were the results 
comparable. 

Conference group on English composition—This group, while it 
placed emphasis upon discussion of methods of teaching, also devoted 
considerable attention to the reporting of practices in supervision and 
to practicing conference leadership. Different members of the group 
served as chairmen. 


*Statement by Rudolph D. Lindquist, Assistant Superintendent, Oakland, 
California. 











oe CO ee 


we "S ome 6 


— 


we 


— ovr ™ 


Tue Eieuru YEARBOOK 145 











Conference group on reading—lIn this group less emphasis was 
placed on training in conference leadership than in the English group. 
Each member of the group submitted a list of problems. These con- 
cerned methods, materials, and supervision. Most of the discussion, 
however, dealt with methods of organization for reading instruction, 
and only incidentally with problems of supervision. The technic 
of conference leadership received scarcely any direct attention. In 
demonstrating how diversified can be the types of development in a 
group of people working upon the same general problem, the con- 
ference was most interesting. 

The main achievement of the group was a rather careful and 
thorough-going analysis of two types of classifications for reading in- 
struction—“ the group method within a single room ” and “ vertical 
classification involving the grouping of children from several rooms.”’ 

Conference group on arithmetic—This group really resolved itself 
into a seminar on methods of teaching arithmetic. Though it did not 
consider supervision directly, its work had rather far-reaching effect 
in changing classroom practices and procedures in the various schools 
represented. 

Conference group on social studies—A marked attempt was made 
by this group to learn the conference method and to become practiced 
in it as a procedure for conducting teachers’ meetings. 

Each member was given opportunity to lead the group in discus- 
sion. He was expected to draw such ideas out of the group as would 
assist in solving the problem at hand. The method employed might 
properly be called Socratic. At the close of each conference, time was 
taken to analyze and to evaluate the work of the chairman. At the 
conclusion of the series of conferences the group was unanimously 
agreed that their abilities as conference leaders had been greatly 
improved. 


CONFERENCE GROUP ON THE EVALUATION OF SUPERVISION 


A group of twelve elementary principals set out to evaluate the 
supervision of each member of the group. A more detailed report of 
what this group did is given below. The first approach to the prob- 
lem was to define it, and the following definition was decided upon: 


Supervision is leadership in codperative educational effort which proceeds 
toward clearly defined general aims by a series of specific objectives or steps. 
First attack on the problem of evaluating supervision—Obviously, 
there remained, then, the comparatively simple task of applying the 
definition as a measure to some of the supervisory schemes of the 
2 











146 ELEMENTARY Scuoort PRINCIPALS 





principals. But the logical definition could not be applied in its raw 
state. Further refining was necessary because there was no una- 
nimity of opinion as to what it meant. Therefore, the group pro- 
ceeded to agree upon a list of specific evidences of good supervision 
which would fit the general definition. A committee was appointed 
to try the list out on some principal’s supervisory scheme. This is 
the list which the committee tried to apply: 


1. Do the teachers respect their principal personally ? 
2. Do they respect his ability, his knowledge, his effort, his atti- 
tude, his skill in administering the school and the discipline ? 
Do the teachers bring their problems to the principal ? 
4. Are the teachers able to put forth their best efforts in the 
presence of the principal ? 
Does the principal encourage initiative ? 
6. Does he secure codperative, loyal, and cheerful work from his 
faculty ? 
7. Does he encourage professional study; university courses ? 
8. Does he encourage his teachers so that they read professional 
books and magazines ? 
9. Does he encourage breadth of interests and activities in his 
faculty ? 
10. Are the motives for professional study in his group desirable? 


9 


or 


Conclusion of first attack on the problem—The committee ap- 
pointed to evaluate supervision by these ten points reported that 
they were entirely too subjective. Such evidences of supervision could 
not always be obtained. In the opinion of the committee, an exami- 
nation of the principal’s written plan would yield better results. 
They believed that the written plan could be measured by the follow- 
ing scale and marked A, B, or C, according to the manner in which it: 


1. Makes provision for discovering problems. 

An A Plan—Principal plans program of tests and measurements ; 
visits classrooms systematically, looking for prob- 
lems; holds informal group conferences to dis- 
cover problems. 

A B Plan—Principal analyzes reports of research department 
to find problems; has formal meetings to tell 
teachers the problems he has selected to study. 

A C Plan—Principal does not ask for or plan a testing pro- 
gram; ignores results of research department; 
has no meetings on professional problems. 








of 


m 





Se st a 








Tue Eigutu YEARBOOK 147 





bo 


Makes provision for attacking problems discovered. 

An A Plan—Is comprehensive, well balanced, and codperatively 
made; contains a statement of specific objectives 
and a procedure for achieving them; contains an 
easily adjusted time schedule. 

A B Plan—Is one-sided and arbitrarily made; purposes are 
general; procedure is haphazard and indefinite. 

A C Plan—Principal has no written plan; makes only sporadic 
attempts to stimulate teachers; guidance is in- 
definite and vague; keeps teachers purposefully 
in a state of worry. 

Second attack on the problem—Another committee was appointed 
to evaluate the principals’ written plans according to scale, devised. 
It did so and reported the following conclusions: 


1. Plans do not readily fall into A, B, or C classifications. 

2. A plan should be specific and detailed to the extent that the objec- 
tives might be achieved as well by other equally competent 
persons as by the maker. 

3. There should be some definite logical form to which all written 
plans should conform. 


The committee recommended the following outline as giving proof 
of scientific attack upon the problem of supervision and recom- 
mended that supervision plans follow such an outline: 


1. Evidence of a plan for discovering problems by 
a. General survey through 
(1) Systematically planned visitations. (An easily adjusted 
time schedule should be given. ) 
(2) Systematically planned conferences 
(3) Survey tests of standard type 
b. Evidence that the principal pins his problem down and ana- 
lyzes it by 
(1) Individual thinking and analysis 
(2) Group conferences to get at the specific tasks 
(3) Conferences with supervisors and directors 
(4) Diagnostic tests where they can be used 
ce. Evidence of a certain amount of general professional reading 
on the part of the principal and his teachers to keep 
the general aims of supervision clearly in mind 
2. Evidence of a plan for attacking problems discovered 
a. Plan should be comprehensive 
b. It should be codperatively made 











148 ELEMENTARY Scuoo.t PRINCIPALS 





ec. It should state general objectives 

d. It should state specific objectives 

e. It should list the supervisory means to be used in achieving 
objectives as teachers’ meetings, conferences, visits, 
professional study for specific purposes, diagnostic 
testing, and similar technics. 


General conclusions— 


1. Written supervisory plans are desirable. 

2. They are valuable as one means of rating supervision. 

3. They should be written according to an established logical outline, 
if others are to read them. 


Mopiriep PLAN For Fartut Semester oF 1928 


During the fall semester of 1928 the procedure was changed in 
some respects. Conference groups are no longer organized on the 
basis of subjectmatter, but, instead, the city was divided into sections 
containing twelve schools each, and each of these groups of schools 
constitutes a conference which meets once every two weeks. The plan 
as outlined by the assistant superintendent is as follows: 


1. Organize principals into four groups on basis of geographical 
location. Appoint chairman for each group. 

2. Call for written plans for the improvement of instruction to be 
handed in by each principal by September 1. 

3. Make these plans, their execution, and the evaluation of the 
execution the subjects of discussion in the four study groups. 

4, In each group it is probable that each major subject will repre- 
sent the object of study of one or more principals. 

5. Each supervisor should, on invitation of the chairman of the 
group, attend the conferences in which his subject is the center 
of discussion. 

6. In each group there undoubtedly will be excellent work by single 
teachers reported, or excellent work by schools as a whole, 
which can then be made the basis for planning demonstration 
lessons or open house affairs for the teachers of the section of 
the city represented by the principals’ group. 

7. Since supervision is essentially teaching, and involves causing 
those supervised to plan, to execute, and evaluate, and, 

8. Since in this case we are concerned with getting principals to— 

a. Plan their supervision of teachers, 
b. Carry out their supervision of teachers, 
e. Evaluate their supervision of teachers—therefore : 








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Tue Eiagutu YEARBOOK 149 





9. The seminar organization, which is based on plans of supervi- 
sion, and which calls for reports of actual supervision, seems 
better than the subject organization wherein the emphasis 
may well be on simply “ knowing about ” the teaching of the 
various subjects. 

10. It will be possible and perhaps very desirable to have principals 
from each group interested in a single subject to meet as a 
subject group occasionally. Since each is engaged in a super- 
visory project in the subject; he will have more than an aca- 
demic interest in the course of study in that subject which he 
might well have, if he began with the subject itself. 

11. The criterion of accomplishment that will of necessity prevail 
in each group will not be “ What do I know about the sub- 
ject ?”’ but “ What have I done to improve instruction in this 
subject in my school ?” 

12. These groups can go on from semester to semester with change 
of chairman, and each principal in the one group has some 
contact with all the subjects, but at any one time special inter- 
est in one subject. 


Pian Mopiriep Stitt Furtrurer ror Spring SEMESTER OF 1928-29 


In commenting on the work to date, Lindquist said recently : 


The plan of group conferences by districts carried out during the fall semester 
of 1928 was an improvement over that of group conferences by subjects carried 
out during the spring semester, but it had one weakness, namely, that the 
supervisors’ relationship to it was more or less accidental and incidental. To 
remedy this, I addressed the following letter to each subject supervisor at the 
close of the fall semester: 

“T am forwarding to you herewith a list of the members of the various princi- 
pals’ groups as they will probably work next semester, As soon as you can 
conveniently do so, I would appreciate having from you the names of the 
principals whom you have succeeded in interesting in a study of your particular 
problem during next semester, and with whom you will undertake to work rather 
intensively in a study of your field from the point of view of the school 
principal.” 


The letter to the supervisors and the statement concerning the 
modified plan for the spring semester of 1929 make it evident that 
this change is but the next logical step forward in practice of the 
philosophy that the principal is responsible for educational progress 
in his school and that the subject supervisor is his technical assistant 
and adviser. The plan will make for better all-round supervision and 
for unity of purpose in the educational program of each school. Fur- 
thermore, each group of principals who are allied in the study of a 











150 ELEMENTARY ScHuoor PrRINcIPALS 





special problem will have much valuable information and experience 
to report to their conference as a result of their special studies. 

The complete organization of this plan can best be seen through a 
description of the first meeting of Conference Number One. At this 
meeting each principal outlined to the group the chief educational 
problem he found in his school. He explained the method by which 
the problems were discovored and the program that had been set up 
for their attack. In every case the principal and director had worked 
on the problem together. Each principal was identified with some 
group for the study of a special problem. In a number of cases prin- 
cipals were members of two or three groups, especially where the pro- 
gram. which the principal had set up involved several fields of instruc- 
tion or activity. 

As each principal reported, those who had questions were per- 
mitted to present them for answer. Principals with special problems 
or questions in fields in which they were not devoting special study, 
might send them to the central office for relay to the group consider- 
ing such problems. The answers to such questions were to be given, 
if possible, at the next meeting. 


EvALvuATION OF THE ReEsuLTS OF THE PLAN 


Perhaps no one is in a more favorable position to judge of the value 
of this plan of supervision than the principal who is supervised and 
is himself a supervisor. The success of such a plan is measurable in 
the reaction of principals and of teachers to their problems, the result 
being better teaching. As a principal in Oakland, the writer feels 
that such codperative supervision has given him: 


1. A fuller sense of responsibility for the instruction within his 
school 

2. A feeling that supervision is a codperative undertaking and that 
the supervisor is a co-worker 

8. A finer sensibility of the personalities of those with whom he 
works 

4. A personal philosophy of the purposes, aims and methods of 
education 

5. A better technic of supervision, particularly in the use of the 
conference method 

6. An increased interest in professional study and a heightened pro- 
fessional interest 


To put the matter briefly, it has helped all of us to find our prob- 
lems and to solve them. 





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CHAPTER II 


THE SCHOOL PRINCIPAL AS REVEALED BY 
SCHOOL SURVEYS 


E. H. Srut.Ken 
Principal, Goethe School, Chicago, Illinois 


HE PURPOSE of this study was to determine the nature and 

scope of the work of the school principal as revealed by school 

surveys. An analysis of survey material revealed two types of 
information: first, the status of the principalship; and secondly, the 
recommendations made concerning the principal. The study at- 
tempted an analysis of both types of information. 


Tue Source or Data 


It is because school surveys are so rich in material containing facts 
about the field of school administration that they were used as the 
source of data for the study. Frank E. Spaulding in discussing 
the school survey said, in substance, that they are “ by far the most 
valuable literature available on school administration.” * Some of 
the surveys have been published as standard works in school organi- 
zation and administration. Furthermore, a glance at the names of 
the investigators who made the surveys shows that many of the best 
educational thinkers of the country are represented. They include 
men from the best educational institutions and the most progressive 
school systems. 

Nearly every city survey made since 1911 contains some facts 
about the principal or his work. Other types of surveys do not treat 
the subject except incidentally. Ninety-four city surveys were exam- 
ined which contained discussions of the principal. In addition to these, 
three state and three county surveys which discussed the principal 
were added in order to make the total one hundred. The use of one 
hundred investigations automatically converted all frequency tables 
in the study into percentage tables. The complete list of surveys used 
in this study is presented in chronological order in Table 1. All of 
these reports contain facts about the principal or some phase of his 
work. 


* Spaulding, Frank E., Principles, Policies, and Plans for the Improvement of 
the New Bedford Public Schools. New Bedford, Massachusetts. School Commit- 
tee, 1922, p. 11. 





[ 151 ] 











152 ELEMENTARY Scuoot PRINCIPALS 





The surveys are also valuable as a source of data because they 
cover the United States from Augusta, Maine, to San Francisco, 
California ; and from Aurora, Minnesota, to Galveston, Texas. Of the 
one hundred surveys, sixty-seven are north of the Mason and Dixon 
line and thirty-three are south of it; sixty-three are east and thirty- 
seven are west of the Mississippi River. Thirty-six states are repre- 
sented. The period of time covered by the surveys is the seventeen 
years from 1911 to 1928. 

The study was limited to the material found in the one hundred sur- 
veys insofar as it concerned the principal because the school as a 
whole was not the center of interest. None of the specific problems 
belonging to any group of principals was considered except as it 
related to all principals. No study of the different types of princi- 
pals was made, but special attention was directed to those duties and 
relationships common to all principals. 

The data were collected on two sets of four by six cards, one set 
containing the findings and the other set the recommendations of the 
report. These cards were then catalogued so that the different phases 
of the work of the principal might be shown. The following phases 
of the subject were found: the type of position held by the princi- 
pal, the nature of the duties performed by principals, the degree to 
which the principal’s position was defined in the system and in his 
school, the degree to which his duties were definitely allocated, the 
type of person found in the principalship, the training and qualifica- 
tions of principals, the salaries received by them, and other miscel- 
laneous facts about the position and the people filling it. 


Ture Type or PRINCIPAL 


The type of position held by the principal was classified differ- 
ently by the survey directors. A simple classification was used in 
order to obtain a picture of the whole situation without significantly 
warping any particular classification. Most of the surveys classed 
principals either as those with teaching duties which take up most 
of their time, or as principals having most of their time free from 
teaching duties. A few survey reports used the term “ group princi- 
pals” referring to those persons in charge of two or more buildings. 
Table 1 presents the types of principals found in the cities surveyed. 
In Table 1, and the other tables presented, the frequencies represent 
the number of surveys in which the particular condition is found. 
It should be remembered, since the study included one hundred 
surveys, that each frequency is in reality a percentage. For example, 





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Tur Erautu YEARBOOK 153 





if a given fact has a frequency of 10 it was found in 10 percent of all 
the surveys studied. An examination of Table 1 reveals that there 
are almost as many principals with teaching duties as principals free 
from those duties. 


TABLE 1—Types or Principats Founp sy Survey Directors 


Number of 

Types Surveys 
DE PE SRI INR bon. 5'5:6. 5 ina: on: 5:0 Wedd ecw eames eee eas 28 
Dc UNE ONIN, 952 5.0.s. asco deep alone eco nd eww eles alia aioe een ae 23 
Be IIINIE, of s. Sind ciciare bala bie edited nasa eb old Oh am oa ae en 4 
4. Both teaching and free principals in the same City.............e00eee08 7 
ee NE IN a siitcn cd eensure aia ends es RRO R DI ORAM ORE ER ea oT 38 


The recommendations made by the surveys with reference to the 
types of principals show a marked contrast with existing conditions. 
Table 2 presents a summary of the recommendations. These data 


TABLE 2.—Trype or PrinctpAL RECOMMENDED IN SURVEYS 


Number of 

Type of Principal Recommended Surveys 
L, Pemeipal free: fram teaching Cuties. oc... scikkcdiscdes 0vicwase danse caneed 45 
hs OMNI MINOT ois cain ss ts cosa acd Goran aid Pidgeblw BearCwa Re ee 3 
i PN NEUE s&s spas oes ohh be acmcnse ‘ovinotcacaoen see cease ei ob epee ae 6 


indicate that our best educators advocate a principal free from teach- 
ing duties. In nearly one-half of the surveys the directors recom- 
mended that the principal be relieved from teaching duties. How- 
ever, in three cases some special condition warranted the recommen- 
dation that principals be required to have regular teaching duties. 
The group principals were recommended in six cities where many 
small schools were found operating with teaching principals. The 
surveys explained that combining several small neighboring units 
under the direction of one fulltime group principal made better 
supervision and administration possible. 


Nature OF THE Principat’s DutTIEs 


Table 3 indicates the general nature of the duties of principals. 
Table 4 lists some of the duties more specifically. These two tables 
give the facts as found in the cities surveyed. Some of the terms in 
the tables need a word of explanation. By “ mainly administrative ” 
is meant those duties which have to do with the executive and man- 
agerial services as opposed to supervisory or instructional] duties. It 
will be seen that in one-third of all the surveys examined the prin- 
cipal was mainly an administrative officer. This type of principal, 











154 ELEMENTARY ScHoot PRINCIPALS 





especially when he failed to attempt any supervisory duties, was not 
regarded very highly by most of the investigators. By “ properly 
supervisory ” is meant those duties that are performed by principals 
who spend approximately one-half of their time in the supervision of 
instruction. In these cases the surveys reported that the principal was 
a supervisor as well as an administrator. 


TABLE 3.—Tue Generat NATurRE OF THE PRrINncIPAL’s DuTigs 


Number of 

General Duties Surveys 
a aaa mane caeeein cae kee Red oainnda 33 
a end akee eee aeedneane 17 
3. Both administrative and supervisory...............cceeecceeeeeeeeees 8 
4. Excessive amount of clerical work...............cceecceeeeeeececeeees 20 
se Oe CY OD CI cc cccecavdnnenasncsentetesesdeccesssnen 22 


The comments by survey directors when they found principals 
with supervisory duties are interesting, for they indicated something’ 
unusual, and yet something greatly to be desired. In 20 percent 
of the surveys the directors deplored the excessive amount of clerical 
work performed by principals. 

Table 4 gives a summary of some of the specific duties performed 
under the general headings given in Table 3. It is not as complete 


TABLE 4—Speciric Duties or PRINCIPALS 


Number of 
Specific Duties Surveys 
1. Supervisory : 
I MEN os ca alieibanere cues VAS Rblva cnn senine 8 
Conferences with teachers and supervisors. ................000e0005 10 
Cee ns id COSA EER RUANRhs kab seneee eee rimans 5 
2. Administrative : 
General school management .............e cece cece ee cee cceeenee 20 
cia Rhea Dew heREEeNeARERNR Seba Creseneanes 10 
PD gc ccccnndenestdcahsetsdaedbedeeeenciscecedstevensetce 4 
ET CN a ocie vara cnesuiewnewabarenacned ns Daaldbaeadeia's 3 


as may be desired, for many of the surveyors did not go into as great 
detail as others. The difference in procedure accounts for the differ- 
ence in frequencies found in Tables 3 and 4. 

The recommendations of the surveyors with reference to the duties 
of principals contrast very sharply with the findings. The survey 
directors are practically unanimous in their belief that the principal 
shall have supervisory duties. The suggestion that the principal 
should be a supervisory officer has the highest frequency of all the 
findings and recommendations. This fact shows the emphasis placed 





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Tue EiantH YEARBOOK 155 





by surveys upon the supervisory part of the principal’s duties. As 
one studies the problem of the principalship in the surveys the need 
for more supervision by the principal becomes apparent. The sur- 
veys repeatedly point out that the principal is the key to the super- 
visory situation in the schools. 

Table 5 gives quantitative evidence that surveyors were generally 
agreed on this point. It will be noted from an examination of Table 5 


TABLE 5—Dvties or Principats AS RECOMMENDED BY SURVEYS 


Number of 
Nature of Duties Recommended Surveys 
5 Se OT ss cus x scios boidauiebmasasebsdabbaabaadkauiaan 65 
D, RES WTINUIREE VS GEIOB i o.oo ok biccccsd conscscncsiisseteccaceearenes 1 
is os iat otis chat nie iid wi. eeaaraou ne wlnmeindiotn eae 2 
4, Specific types of supervisory duties: 
ee ee ee eT ee 15 
en IN os a cciscanroiciedraia ow aaioercieaiame eee meta 10 
Be SI REE NINN .io5.5i5r3 daa seen aa eidasee a Ree eee oes 7 
5. Specific types of administrative duties: 
REE DERE TEIN os. ok... 56 vis 00sec nda can hbweneeses 12 
Ne inics cucapnnenbed dabendk aceeeeasa ieee 4 
OS: SUE III a. 5.6 oeo 0b cr ddieidicdcwndedesevbewaceeeeaten 3 
Ee Ir kins de cndavewigticcninannsiccenesehananenesenes 2 


that specific supervisory duties were recommended in only one-half 
as many surveys as contained the general recommendation that the 
principal should have more supervisory duties. Perhaps this indi- 
cates that the specific type of work to be done depends upon local 
conditions and hence could not be prescribed by the surveys. The 
fact that it was recommended that principals have more administra- 
tive duties in only one case, and yet better general management was 
urged in twelve cases indicates that principals should become better 
managers as well as expert supervisory officers. 


Tue Position OF THE PRINCIPAL 


The surveys reveal interesting data concerning the position of the 
principal in the system and within his school. They show that the 
question of the principal’s position has come up in many of the cities 
surveyed. Often there is a difference of opinion as to who is in charge 
of the different phases of the work of supervision, and especially as 
to who is in charge of the instruction carried on in the school. In many 
places the rules and regulations do not specifically indicate the officer 
who is responsible. The question can be broken up into two parts: 
first, Do surveys reveal that duties are definitely allocated, and 
that there is a definite line of authority? Second, Is the princi- 











156 ELEMENTARY ScHoot PRINCIPALS 





pal in full charge of instruction within his school or do others, not 
necessarily his superiors, have charge? The data relating to both 
parts of the question are found in Table 6. 


TABLE 6.—DeriniTIon or THE Principat’s Duties AND PosITION 


Number of 


Definition of Duties and Position Surveys 
1. Duties well defined and allocated...............cccccececcceceeceeces 10 
2. Duties not defined and no line of authority established................ 26 
3. Principal in full charge and responsible for his school................. 15 
4. Principal not in full charge of his school and not held responsible....... 23 


The data recorded in Table 6 show that many cities do not have 
definite policies concerning these issues. Very often principals do 
not know whether or not they are responsible when questions of 
authority arise. Many times too, some one other than the principal 
is responsible for certain phases of the work of the school. Often 
this means that a supervisor or other representative of the superin- 
tendent has charge of the supervision of instruction in the school. 
In such eases the principal is merely an administrator and not di- 
rectly concerned with the chief business for which the school is oper- 
ated, namely, the teaching of the children. Such practices are nearly 
always condemned by the surveys. The preponderance of opinion 
favors the principal as definitely responsible for all the activities 
within his school. The surveys also advocate definitely allocating 
the duties of principals and of other school officials with whom he 
must codperate with relation to the supervision of instruction in the 
school. 

Table 7 summarizes the recommendations made concerning the 
position of the principal. According to the educational experts repre- 


TABLE 7.—Survey REcOMMENDATIONS AS TO THE PRINCIPAL’s AUTHORITY 


Number of 
Recommendations Surveys 
1. Allocation of duties, codrdination of work, and a definite line of 
RIED. «5: karting eicsaissiatontes wa a rss ie abide a aetna) © Aaraerel ihe seiaamalecnae 33 
2. The principal the chief supervisory officer of his school, responsible and 
CN oa oe Cac cad a had a oe near enw enAebNeaadnda 42 
3. Some one other than the principal responsible for the instruction in the 
INIT «os ra gual sans aka Aa anda eae Saaiata rake eh at areeel ae Accel his alin hon eek ok ed 4 


sented, the principal should have definite duties and should be the 
chief supervisory officer of his school. In only a few cases did sur- 
veys suggest making some one other than the principal responsible for 
the instruction in the school. 





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Tue Eiagnutu YEARBOOK 157 





Tue Type or Person ror THE PRINCIPALSHIP 


The question of the type of person found in the principalship was 
discussed by nearly three-fourths of the surveys. This fact shows the 
existence of great concern about the type of person chosen for the 
principalship. The current practice of some school systems in pro- 
moting teachers to the principalship is not necessarily in conflict 
with the need for leadership among principals. An examination of 
surveys indicates that the investigators usually found that where 
many of the principals had been teachers, especially teachers with 
many years of experience, these same principals were often lack- 
ing in educational leadership. The data relating to this phase of the 
subject is presented in Table 8. 


TABLE 8.—Types or Persons FounpD IN THE PRINCIPALSHIP 


Number of 

Type Surveys 
1. A promoted teacher with a long term of experience.............000 17 
2. A person especially trained for supervisory and administrative work.. 6 
3. Both types 1 and 2 found in the same City.............ecceceeeceeess 2 
4. A non-progressive person lacking in educational leadership............ 28 
5. A person possessing the qualities for educational leadership........... 9 
6. Both types 4 and 5 found in the same City............cccccccccccveves 5 
7. One whose experience was gained in the same city...........eeeeeeees 13 

8. One whose experience was gained outside of the city in which he was 

WIN Baa ciel bic Wh Son aera inhi ndRwS eos Ot RE RSE SUE eae 3 


Table 8 shows that many principals were merely promoted teachers, 
lacking in special training, and not possessing the qualities for edu- 
cational leadership. This question of the leadership of the principal 
was given a great deal of attention by the survey directors, and they 
often gave adverse criticisms of the type of leadership found. The 
statement that, “ usually the elementary school principalship is the 
weakest place in the entire system, and one generally finds more dead 
timber in such positions than in any other place ”* is made several 
times, although not always in these exact words. This is a severe 
indictment of the type of person sometimes found in the principal- 
ship. The facts as to where the principal gained his experience seem 
to indicate that there is often more inbreeding than there should be. 

It was difficult to arrive at adequate conclusions concerning the age 
and experience of principals from the data reported in the surveys, 
yet by making approximations from the figures given, it was found 
that the average age of principals was approximately 49 years and 


*Cubberley, E. P. School Organization and Administration: A Concrete Study 
Based on the Salt Lake City Survey. World Book Co., Yonkers, 1915, p. 43. 











158 ELEMENTARY ScHooL PRINCIPALS 





the mean number of years of experience was 22 years. These aver- 
ages are very close to the medians given in the Seventh Yearbook of 
the Department of Elementary School Principals.’ 

The statement, “as the principal so the school,” is one survey di- 
rectors seem to believe. This maxim is shown in the many specific 
recommendations that a better type of person in the principalship 
would make for better schools. Although much of the work of the 
principal was administrative, the surveys recommend that he should 
be an educator in the constructive sense of that word. Because of his 
direct contact with the work of the school, the principal is the great- 
est factor in making teaching effective. The survey directors also 
agreed that training for teaching differs from the training needed 
by principals. They state that this is true, because the work of the 
principal differs radically from that of the teacher. Table 9 presents 


TABLE 9.—Tyrpe or Person RECOMMENDED FOR THE PRINCIPALSHIP 


Type of Person Number of 

Surveys 
1. An aggressive educational leader...............c0cceececccccecccceess 46 

2. A specially trained person capable of being a supervisor and an adminis- 

SEE A dn tae Nadntae tk Oks eRe a dahermaine dake whine Mire athbheaminieanee% 41 
RG E LT EL I PO PD ee ET ere Ee me 1 
4. One whose experience was gained outside the system.................. 13 
5. One who has the training equivalent to four years of college work...... 5 


a summary of the data relating to the type of person recommended 
for the principalship by the surveys. The figures given in Table 9 
show a marked contrast with those recorded in Table 8. This con- 
trast indicates the agreement of the survey directors in demanding 
a high type of principal to overcome the weakness found in the schools 
surveyed. 


Princrpau’s SALARY 


About one-half of the surveys contain facts about the salaries of 
principals. Usually the surveys discussed teachers’ salaries more ex- 
tensively than they did principals’ salaries. A study of the indi- 
vidual surveys shows a wide range in the salaries received by princi- 
pals. It is apparent that the salaries have increased greatly during 
the years since the earliest surveys. Also, the salaries vary greatly . 
in different sections of the country. Fifteen percent of the surveys 
recommended that the salaries should be increased, but did not state 
the amount. Nineteen percent of the surveys state a definite salary 


2 National Education Association, Department of Elementary School Principals. 
Seventh Yearbook, 1928, pp. 168-81. 














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Tue E1tcutn YEARBOOK 159 





increase. A total of 34 percent of all the surveys contain recom- 
mendations for salary increases for principals. 

In order that the amounts received by principals and the amounts 
recommended for them might be compared, an attempt was made to 
find the median of all the figures given in the surveys. The median 
salary received was $1875 for elementary school principals and $3000 
for high school principals. These medians do not represent the salaries 
of the principals for any period of years. They are the general 
medians of existing salaries since the first surveys, and were com- 
puted merely to give comparisons with the recommendations made 
by the surveys. The median salary of $2666 was recommended for 
elementary school principals and $3812 for high school principals. 
It is interesting to note that the amount recommended is approxi- 
mately $800 higher in each case than the amounts the principals were 
receiving. May we conclude that, in general, principals should receive 
an $800 increase in salary ? The surveys sometimes recommended that 
the salary of the principal should be based on his efficiency, training, 
and the size of his school, as well as on his experience. 


CoNCLUSIONS 


The following conclusions are warranted by the data presented in 
the surveys: 

1. The position of the principal is not recognized as surveys would 
have it recognized in a great many of the cities surveyed. The prin- 
cipalship should be exalted. 

2. The principal is one of the most important school officials. His 
position is a strategic one as the key to the whole supervisory situation 
in the schools. 

3. The principal is too often merely an administrator or a pro- 
moted teacher. Frequently, he has no special training for the highly 
technical work he should perform. 

4. Educational leaders, as represented by the survey directors, 
state that the principal should be a supervisory officer without teach- 
ing responsibilities to interfere with this important phase of his work. 

5. Surveys recommend that the principal should be specially 
trained for his work and that he should be an educational leader in 
his community. 

6. Data for the solution of many of the practical problems of the 
school principalship may be found in the school surveys. The survey 
literature is a valuable source of data for use in the discussion of the 
problems of the school principal. 











160 ELEMENTARY ScHoo.t PRINCIPALS 





TABLE 10—Tue Surveys ExamMinep ror Cuapter II 


Directors of 


Date Name Surveys 
ee I os ccm hve cdownbincaeh Brown 
EE “sade wwwarate I I ace ig nde wcnwiiemeunaats Finance Commission 
Pe Me I, FE a ose sk nwkcceadiccwcseces Moore 
een ST Se eee Judd, Elliott, Strayer 
DE hk aanaracnae a it re Van Sickle 
en SRN UE WU Ba icdctencncuatcnawnnaete Deahl 
BE hacaccnane jp Seer rene er Potter 
er ere I I a adien conn oeeaeedansewde Hanus, Goodnow 
er I ais a6 ccna wa wee Cubberley 
ere ee ae en: Strayer 
GE skavncsnns San Francisco, Cal...................0. Collegiate Alumni 
eee MI OG, a daciacdbadwiwlaccdeunada Ayres 
BE ccseseucad BOUT Bem, TAG. ono cikiccsccccccsces Judd, Bobbitt 
eee aaa ne wcned matawacecen Young 
aes PE TR iii os a nideudesieda casera Ayer 
er DG Oe WE eed wiaecciow oa ainoianaws Finley 
ere Leavenworth, Kan. .................... Monroe 
BE aceessuead en ic pci uceshacmciecont’ Cubberley 
DEE ccnceanwen I ai rics areas wicrachece macarete Deffenbaugh 
ee Port Townsend, Wash.................. Lull 
re Salt Lake City, Utal........cccccccccose Cubberley 
SS ee San Antonio, Texas.. ................. Bobbitt 
SE acaneekaas I ii eiciap ard asd Gal Saldqk wala Jones 
re MI eg inch de arsed codsdoaiordcaw dian ecceals Van Sickle, Strayer 
BE basa dsecersoae COMOWOIINE, COED io 5 ook kccccccsccsccceus Ayres 
ere I I bpd se rnciicswedcncesoaeamate Judd, Bobbitt, Cubberley 
rere Grand Rapids, Mich...................« Judd 
eee San Francisco, Cal..................06- Bawden 
DD cis cen snwed BD Gs Ge ook cw sivicccaccasswesed Ayer 
ae I I rs aa ca wigisp seeker ace aera’ Brittain 
DN Gtscacrancn Mss coin ccctacicaneew cease Van Sickle 
eae PD, DUEL. ncdcivcvseicconessoee Smith 
ME cacsneseos I, MIE, vk icvancscamonadavaeseics Horn 
ee i SE idacie cawaenceteaewemenaees Judd 
Serres OG. Pattl, BER. 6c occ cccccccscsccccessterayer, Coffman 
BE cecciacnus oo glacns claim or enenmdieali Sands 
aaa CS oy. s cccrn engine cuca bane Sexson 
a _.... AR reer mtr nee Withers 
BE hidekwaand RI FN Ng os pciusie nadine Kee mare Bunker 
ere MI I as oe sidig aielernnind earmark Deffenbaugh 
rer ee ao alin a dia iby abel Flexner 
Re ET. ccncnecceadwdtabumaunad Cary 
dk Siwacen PT otter ra es Er hE Martin 
ee ee ah ria ete eke kee Monahon 
MD sacecaceus Se Wiley 
MEE Sades denne I, I go wna gc'gcan op aidieechin) esecsird Bunker 
oe MT, pada creda wacakwcwacedasee Wiley 
BD bias ata maid NN aie candle an ainedwens General Education Board 
Seer I 6s ni cisp kde ome caeure aaa Sears 
DD sseconaces . '& & ae ererrT Bunker 
aaa Winchester, Mass. ................0e00. Bunker 


eer LS, food sac fcidwadekdaeseeacs Weber 





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Tue Eieutrn YEARBOOK 


161 





TABLE 10—Tue Surveys Examinep ror Cuapter II (Cont’d) 


Directors of 


Date Name Surveys 
PRR gr eee DORMER NEE occ e soi c erg ainrait te acereinere meng Strayer 
| RPS Preeet Ciey,. IN.. Cian c vcceecaacdscnav Bawden 
ME wos tieassion a. ee eres eee Strayer 
POE sie dteencann DRA NS So aa. 5 icone acne siecenieane Wiley 
UNGER Nee tat WEI. Wg Vik itseisin'n caw aedanacee Bawden 
MME icc aatun eros WME. DONT. ics dcissccecwnwieetsacee Bunker 
ESB Cp Ok Sere re eee annem ry” Quigley 
WE aawicaresa Fairfield County, Ohio... .....65020006. Landsittel 
SE sc vacarnsene NS, | er errr errr freer Strayer 
ME Socsecwascnas NN ON ia cars dale se oleerd cma aaa Inglis 
ME. ein canes TMMOOE: TAGE. oac 65 oalsdsd treme mreuaeiee O’Brien 
|_| Sar rar gS 2 rae nT Finnegan 
ee New Bedford, Maas. ...6...c:6iccceswweder Spaulding 
DE Sscnscaces We NE srg on os esac prarecanatare arene Horn 
Beery I Te. a hae eee seeaceaaae Deffenbaugh 
RUE xcecres decd RPMI, 2b ee ees sacuren, compenieacauemes Bawden 
TE as 5 ca SEMEL, ONS, acs ais aces dma eeaee aan Deffenbaugh 
See PRINS Re Be. inigun 5 eroiee/s cine peace edd Strayer 
sono cask oi RI I, ode. ayaiaid Science oa oe Strayer 
MEE Sccaarncee wrod DUnONE, COM: 6 cnc ce cceine cvacsesesaees Strayer 
BE Kane ccorenascond West: Hartford, Conn. 1.0.0.5 ..6cccscscns Meredith, Simpson 
PE ascccetes i Se BES fie sk kewaerdaredaseas Spencer 
RS eer: OME IIE. os 5 oa a ease ceeeganeee Cavins 
eee I MIS, dsc uc irw clas Gin wads orenes eerie O’Brien 
BOE sc ncpeecns RMONONE IRs. Bo ans pocsesecs toads Wiley 
Re PMNS 5 tc ca ven ew 50s 4 Game Monroe 
ARERR oe PE EE ac bkalis daa eavceccomecanewd Chadsey 
 peeerer SN UNG Gn tdawes ir sccdnemanenae Strayer 
re Ween BMG, COL. o.ceccisiviasecencensns Ganders 
eee PI ooo scones Faaccsnn pen Engelhardt 
PS oe PENN RE. Bas icc oad bie aseuaee we Strayer 
eee pee Hamilton County, Tent. ....<::.s600%. Walker 
rer re I BUG tiecactccusrasceveanwens Shelby 
BE kancccawed a erreerrerr rer err rr Strayer 
BER ee PI, OI oases aie ices 68ecs 4 ave sincerest Montgomery 
SAREE PS, BOND 6. inks cveccvewneseneh Strayer 
ee PN I, sia dis kd. sis a6 mis a de Dae aeaee Barr 
PE, Gienictenescs DO Me Ga. 5.4°d: maniacal alse ee Strayer 
__ eee BEE -drihddbaaedetex he sdkadinheceomnte Tigert 
WE caniad oananee PE EMM i dacasaivas satibonmeeeae Engelhardt 
WE Shieecacsies RON NONE oo oieis: oicins.en Kea adem Strayer 
| Re {ES |) Ce iar Strayer 
re PU ee ie hk os acivien. pncnaeande Strayer 
are ER re pone ee eet Strayer 
ee eer Wiehe ceca comnnns ixtaneaannotet Sears 
eee i gy Engelhardt 
_ (ese MNO EE eb oiicw ns sack kersiass oesateaeaee Breed 
aE GIN Rc Bes Kokas coe ncenecsvance Wiley 


ce 











CHAPTER III 


THE ADJUSTMENT OF NEW ELEMENTARY SCHOOL 
TEACHERS IN CITY SCHOOL SYSTEMS 


Or.tanpo H. JoHNsSON 
Graduate Student, University of Chicago 


ECENTLY attention has been directed the country over toward 
the important problem involved in the introduction of new and 
inexperienced teachers to their work in city school systems. An 

attempt to ascertain the prevailing practices with reference to the 
problem was made recently in a study under the direction of the 
Department of Education of the University of Chicago." 

The problem suggests such questions as follows: How are new 
and inexperienced teachers in the city school systems in the United 
States aided in the adaptations they must make? How do the 
officials of city school systems of the United States help the new 
teachers of little or no experience to become reasonably acquainted 
with their teaching situations? Are there any specific things done 
purposely to facilitate the teacher’s acquaintance with local teaching 
conditions? Are such activities well organized into programs, plans, 
and outlines; or are they of an informal nature and carried out in a 
haphazard manner? What is the prevailing tendency, relative to such 
procedures, in the city school systems of the United States? 

Compilation of the data—The study is based on data from two 
general sources: data sent directly from city superintendents, and 
data from professional literature. Direct statements of city super- 
intendents, outlines, programs, plans endorsed by superintendents, 
were primary sources of data. Professional literature and reports of 
superintendents were secondary sources of data. 

Letters of inquiry were sent to five hundred cities of 10,000 popu- 
lation and above. Replies were received from two hundred and fifteen 
school systems. 

The principal assumptions underlying the study are, that a teacher 
new to a given school system requires a certain period of time for 
adaptation and adjustment to the new teaching situation, and that 
it is possible to shorten the necessary period of adaptation through 
efforts organized to that end. 


*In codperation with Professors W. H. Burton and W. C. Reavis. 
{ 162 ] 








aes 


nd 
An 
the 


ew 
fed 
the 
ew 
ed 
ne 
ng 
ns, 
1a 


wo 


yu- 
en 

















Tue Eieutu YEARBOOK 163 





When the data were analyzed, the school systems could be classified 
under three major groups, as follows: (1) School systems that em- 
ploy post-normal school agencies in the adjustment of new teachers, 
(2) school systems that codperate with training schools in the adjust- 
ment of new teachers, and (3) school systems indicating little or no 
means of aiding new teachers. These groups consisted of forty-nine, 
eighteen, and one hundred forty-eight school systems respectively. 
The three groups of school systems indicated will be referred to in 
subsequent discussions as Group I, Group II, and Group III, 
respectively. 

Cities using post-normal school agencies—As indicated by the data 
concerning the school systems of Group I, the various agencies used 
for facilitating the adjustment of new teachers are shown in Table 1. 


TABLE 1.—Tue Post-Normat Scuoot Acencies Usep sy Cities 1n Group I 


Frequency of 


Agency Mention 
1h, BOGCMG RUDERVINGET GOVIOEES oioi5o.c- cies ccccsucaewesedsaescunn 32 
re I ION is oie vise ccc va cen adeasaadenseoae es 26 
Ic NN NONI 5 Sng 55k seca Safina ose or me Rm nm bere earn oT 18 
Re SO oa ding ccscocc vie eduin caawaannars oa ep eRe ee 8 
Pi I II 5. con 5p ndsisi areie orci ewie.w auon wi aialaieeiabeetelates aectore 6 
6. Informing prior to opening of session...............00eeeeees 5 
(ee nnn me mnt 4 
ne SIE kccdicecavtnedecaiendé pancakes eee Nee 3 
Se CNN NNN 25 in. 5 tlasgonsa 34 dd anlorararmnece rman aed 3 
DO: Beer NOGCREN MOOR ok sin 5 ines sac deca avaceageescesusen 2 
DURES cise ends Sakuma ee kaw bas aeukl Gees ce gene Meme aeees 2 
12.. Fahow-Uup with GQuestiOnnaives: ........oesccsccscecsccecesaacees 2 


The total number of school systems using the agencies listed in 
Table 1 is 49. The column of numbers at the right represents the 
frequencies with which the agencies of adjustment were indicated 
by the 49 school systems in Group 1. The specific supervisory 
devices referred to in item 1 are as follows: Supervisory conference, 
demonstration teaching, visitation, and intervisitation. 

The following statement of the San Antonio school system indi- 
eates the use of all the specific supervisory devices, with the excep- 
tion of visitation: 

Group conferences are conducted by the assistant directors in which some 
definite phase of the course of study is discussed, members of the group being 
encouraged to take part in the discussion. A day or two later the assistant 
accompanied by a small number of his group visits a classroom where they 
observe a lesson in which the theories they have discussed in the group meeting 
are applied in a practical classroom situation. After the lesson a follow-up con- 
ference is held in which the classroom teacher takes part. Sometimes the demon- 
stration is given in the room of an expert teacher, in which case the assistant 
does the teaching. 











164 ELEMENTARY Scuoout PRINCIPALS 





A statement from Augusta, Maine, on the use of visitation is typi- 
cal of the statements made by other superintendents concerning this 
device: 

Brief calls are made on all new teachers the first or second day with the 
purpose of checking up the teachers in order to help them at a teachers’ meeting 
held the second afternoon for new teachers only. Anything is explained which 
seems necessary. Questions may be asked in regard to the manner of handling 
pupils, books used, methods of instruction, school requirements, or anything 
teachers desire to know. .... Frequent short visits are made during the first 
month by superintendent and supervisor. 


“Close general supervision ” was indicated as a means of adjust- 


ment by certain school officials, but because of the vagueness of the 
term it will not be discussed. The agency, “ special meetings,” also 
will not be discussed because the term is self-explanatory. 

“ Cadet teaching,” with the exception of several cities, was indi- 
cated in a general way as a means of aiding teacher adjustment. The 
“cadet system” in operation in Gary, Indiana,’ is the most out- 
standing procedure of its kind treated in this study. 

The most significant facts concerning the “ cadet system” in the 
school system of Gary, Indiana, are as follows: 

1. Six inexperienced teachers are assigned the teaching load ordinarily given 
to five experienced or regular teachers. The inexperienced teachers teach five 
hours per day instead of the regular six-hour teaching day. 

2. The extra hour of the inexperienced teacher’s day is set aside for directed 
visiting, conference, planning, preparation, and specific laboratory work. 

3. The program is operated in such a way that Teacher A has the first period 


free, Teacher B the second, Teacher C the third, Teacher D the fourth, Teacher 
E the fifth, and Teacher F the sixth. 


4. A seventh teacher known as the “ traveling teacher,” teaches six hours a day 
thus relieving the six apprentices. 

5. The six apprentices work under a director who gives full time to prompting 
the development of the teaching powers of these apprentices. 

6. At the end of each week, the apprentice teachers and the director jointly 
work out a program for the training hours of the next week. 

In Table 1, the term “ special instruction ” pertains to special 
courses required of new teachers in some of the school systems. For 
example, the director of research and attendance of the school sys- 
tem of Memphis, Tennessee, reported that all teachers newly inducted 
into the Memphis school system are required to enroll in one or more 
of the following courses: music, art, penmanship, physical education, 
primary methods, and courses in tests and measurements. 

Certain school systems inform the beginning teachers as to certain 
procedures before the opening of the school session. For example, 


* Rossman, John G. “Apprenticing the Beginning Teacher.” Elementary School 
Journal 22:663-73; May, 1927. 








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ich 
ing 
ing 
irst 


ist- 
the 
Iso 


ven 
five 


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ain 
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Tne Eientn YEARBOOK 165 





the superintendent of the Augusta public schools reports the fol- 
lowing: During the summer certain information in regard to the 
school work is sent to the new teachers, and any questions are 
answered through the office in regard to books, requirements, and so 
forth. 

The term “ aiding social adjustment ” in Table 1 pertains to activ- 
ities such as receptions and socials reported by the officials as instru- 
mental in the adjustment of new teachers. 

“Careful placement” pertains to the practice of placing new 
teachers where the conditions are particularly favorable. The officials 
of a few school systems reported that certain of their schools were 
particularly adapted to the supervision of new teachers. 

According to the data, the type of experience gained by new teach- 
ers in “ substitute teaching,” is somewhat like that gained under the 
term “cadet teaching” of Table 1. There is a slight distinction, 
however, as the teachers doing substitute work may or may not teach 
regularly, while those doing cadet teaching usually teach regularly. 

The term “ regular teachers’ meetings ” is self-explanatory. The 
item ‘ transfer” in Table 1 pertains to the practice of shifting teach- 
ers about within given school systems as a means of adjustment. 

The officials of some school systems reported that special question- 
naires were sent to new teachers to secure data that would help to 
plan attacks on the adjustment difficulties. 

Cities codperating with the training schools—It has been indicated 
that Group II consists of 18 school systems in which procedures 
for adjusting the new teachers are carried out in connection with 
the training schools. In the majority of the school systems of 
this group the chief way is to adapt the new teachers through the 
practice teaching done in connection with the city training schools. 
Nearly all of the teachers of the school systems of this group are 
required to spend a certain period of preparation at some training 
school. Usually, this is a local or city training school. These train- 
ing colleges use the public schools for the practice teaching required 
of student teachers. 

Four school systems of Group II are particularly distinguished by 
their procedures. In these systems new teachers have both practice 
teaching and the advantage of close follow-up supervision by the 
training schools. These school systems include: Boston, Massachu- 
setts; Cincinnati, Ohio; Detroit, Michigan; and Kansas City, Mis- 
souri. The adjustment of new teachers in these cities was pointed 
out as one of the main interests of the officials of the city training 
schools. The officials of these training schools believe that the task 








166 ELEMENTARY Scuoot PRINCIPALS 





of the training institutions should not end simply with the gradua- 
tion of the student teacher, but includes the adjustment of beginning 
teachers to their work in the school systems. This idea is expressed 
in the following statement received from the superintendent of the 
Boston school system : 


The graduates of the Boston Teachers College, the main source of our supply, 
fe - assigned as substitutes and temporary teachers immediately after graduation. 
\ util their appointment as permanent teachers—a term varying from three 
months to a year or more, dependent upon their position on the merit list—they 
are visited regularly by the supervisors from the Department of Practice and 
Training who have oversight of the unappointed teachers. As a result of these 
visits and many individual conferences, the beginners are adjusted to their 
problems. 

When these teachers are appointed to permanent positions in the primary 
schools they are visited by the primary supervisors. These supervisors give each 
year extension courses on primary methods for teachers in service. Through these 
courses, individual conferences, and classroom supervision, the work in the primary 


school is carefully followed. 


Visitation, demonstration, individual conferences, and group con- 
ferences are indicated as important devices in the follow-up super- 
vision of the training schools of Boston, Cincinnati, Detroit, and 
Kansas City. 

Before beginning the discussion of the third major group of school 
systems, the importance of the supervisory devices mentioned in con- 
nection with Groups I and II should be emphasized. Such supervisory 
devices as conferences, demonstration,’ intervisitation, and visita- 
tion,” are well recognized by authorities on supervision. It is inter- 
esting to note that supervisory devices of such theoretical significance 
are used frequently in the teacher-adjustment procedures of a rela- 
tively large number of school systems of Groups I and II. 

Cities not reporting organized adjustment agencies—Group III 
consists of the 148 public school systems that reported little or no 
means of aiding the adjustment of new teachers. In this group 
of school systems, there are three distinct subgroups. The first sub- 
group consists of school systems whose officials recognize the prob 
lem suggested, as shown by the unorganized means reported. Super- 
vision, substitute teaching, aid given new teachers by co-workers, and 
the practice of lessening the teaching loads of the beginning teachers 


* Barr, A. S., and Burton, W. H. The Supervision of Instruction. D. Appleton 
and Company, New York, 1926, pp. 158-59. 

*Cubberley, E. P. The Principal and His School. Houghton Mifflin Company, 
New York, 1923, pp. 468-70. 

* Barr, A. S., and Burton, W. H., op. cit., p. 433. 

‘Burton, W. H. Supervision and the Improvement of Teaching. D. Appleton 
and Company, New York, 1922, pp. 397-98. 

















he 


ly, 
on. 


ey 
ind 
ese 
eir 


ary 
ich 
ese 
ary 


oy 
nd 


no 


up 
ib- 
»b- 
er- 
nd 
Ts 


ton 


ny, 


ton 








Tue Eiagutu YEARBOOK 167 





were the chief means found in the statements of these school officials. 
Eighty-seven school systems were included in this first subgroup. 

The second subgroup consists of five school systems. As the replies 
received from these cities afforded for the study neither positive nor 
negative data, it is not necessary to say more concerning them. 

The third subgroup consists of 56 school systems. These cities 
reported no specific means for adjusting new teachers to their wor ' 

Conclustons—As was suggested in the beginning, the aim of this 
article was to consider the procedures for adjusting new elementary 
school teachers to their work in the city school systems of the United 
States, and to set forth the prevailing practices. 

The intangible nature of the problem made it unwise to draw many 
exact inferences in regard to particular school systems. Some of the 
sources of data, such as mimeographed letters, bulletins, programs, 
schedules and so forth, were not easily classified and analyzed. The 
questionnaire method of collecting data has certain well known weak- 
nesses. Yet, in spite of these limitations, the following conclusions 
are ventured : 

First, the procedures in helping new teachers, as reported in this 
study, were phases of, or closely related to, the supervisory functions 
of school systems. 

Second, school systems having well defined schemes for adjusting 
the new teachers are limited in number. In only a few places have 
the officials of the school systems brought about organized efforts to 
solve the problem of teacher adjustment. 

Third, there are enough procedures in actual operation to indicate 
that the matter is an important one and that school systems may profit 
by a well organized program of teacher guidance. 

One-third or 67 of the school systems included in the study 
have some definite procedures as to the problem of teacher adjust- 
ment. Just where to draw the line between the school systems having 
the most definite procedures and the school systems having the least 
definite procedures cannot be decided. The important fact is that 
certain school systems do possess organized procedures to facilitate 
the adjustment of new teachers. 

The basic materials of the study indicate that the schoo! systems 
in the following cities have well defined teacher adjustment pro- 
grams: Boston, Massachusetts; Cincinnati, Ohio; Decatur, Illinois; 
Detroit, Michigan; Gary, Indiana; Kansas City, Missouri; Los 
Angeles, California; and San Antonio, Texas. Probably other school 
systems possess significant procedures for aiding new teachers in 











168 ELEMENTARY Scuoort Principars 





adjustment, but the above cities were outstanding in this particular 
study. 

Fourth, certain well organized devices of supervision hold promi- 
nent places in the school systems with organized programs for aiding 
new teachers. These outstanding supervisory devices include con- 
ferences, demonstration, visitation, and intervisitation. 

Fifth, in a certain school system practice teaching is the chief 
means of facilitating the adjustment of new teachers. With adequate 
supervision this device probably serves as an unusually helpful 
adjustment procedure. 

Sizth, officials of a few school systems, recognizing that the begin- 
ning teachers need special attention, have codperated with city train- 
ing schools in providing extensive supervision. The training-school 
officials stated that the duty of the training schools did not end with 
the graduation of the student teacher, but extended to the supervi 
sion of the beginning teachers after their appointments. The descrip- 
tions of the procedures of adjustment of Boston, Cincinnati, Detroit, 
and Kansas City were particularly promising. 

Seventh, in the majority of school systems reporting there is no 
organized effort toward helping the new teachers become adjusted 
to their positions. One hundred and forty-three school systems, or 
approximately two-thirds of the school systems included in the study, 
confirm this conclusion. Reports indicate that in most of the school 
systems of the country informal aid to new teachers constitutes the 
principal efforts toward their adjustment. 

Eighth, the study indicates that there was no positive relationship 
between the sizes of school systems and definiteness of the adjust- 
ment procedures used with new teachers. Some of the largest school 
systems pay little or no attention to the new teachers. Some of the 
smaller school systems have well organized procedures for adjusting 


new teachers. 











lar 


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on- 


ief 
ate 
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CHAPTER IV 


THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN PRINCIPALS AND 
SUPERVISORS 


C. W. CRANDELL 
Superintendent of Schools, Monroe, Michigan 


HE INCREASE of variations in school organization that has 

occurred in recent years has made the problem of the articula- 

tion of the work of the several agents a matter of great moment. 
Principals, general supervisors, and special supervisors have many 
dual responsibilities. Does this overlapping mean conflicts in au- 
thority ? What should elementary school principals do about it ? 

A questionnaire was used to ascertain what uniformity or lack of 
uniformity of practice exists in certain cities in allocating responsi- 
bilities to principals and supervisors. Questions were asked to ascer- 
tain the understanding among principals and supervisors in cities of 
medium size, as to the nature and extent of their responsibilities. 

Replies were received from 57 principals, 25 special supervisors, 
and 32 superintendents, assistant superintendents, and other general 
supervisors in 62 cities. From the 57 principals and 20 special 
supervisors 20 paired comparisons were made of the same school 
systems. 

The total number of and percent of dual or multiple responsibili- 
ties of agents is shown in Table 1. The replies of 57 principals show 


TABLE 1—Tue Duat Responsisiuities or AGENTS AS SHOWN FROM THE 
Repwies oF Firry-SevEN PRINCIPALS 


Number of Number of oun is 
Agents Responsible for Performing the Same Activities Cases Possibilities of Column 3 
(1) (2) (3) (4) 
1. Principal, General Supervisor............... 207 652 31+ 
2. Principal, Special Supervisor................ 168 626 26+ 
3. Principal, General Supervisor, Special Super- 
MN a her wins teats ehee ni dara npune aan aarane 137 607 22 
4, General Supervisor, Special Supervisor...... 42 357 11 
5. Principal, Superintendent .................. 22 225 9 
6. Principal, Superintendent, General Super- 
NN soo eds veh cicceure dh kano eee am ea asTial 13 197 6+ 
7. Principal, Superintendent, Special Super- 
NE ira Sa oe as RANG CON Oh KES ESRI 24 396 6+- 
8. Principal, Assistant Principal..............--. 10 177 5 


The table is to be read: The principal and general supervisor are responsible for performing the 
same activities in 207 cases out of a possible 652 or an overlapping of 31 percent in their duties. 
Only the most frequently mentioned replies are given in this table. 


{ 169 ] 











170 ELEMENTARY ScuHoo.t PRINCIPALS 





overlappings of functions between principal and general supervisor; 
principal and special supervisor; and principal, general and special 
supervisors. There is much less overlapping between general super- 
visor and special supervisor; principal and superintendent; princi- 
pal, superintendent, and general supervisor; and principal and assis- 
tant principal. 


TABLE 2.—Tue Dua ReEsponsrsILities oF AGENTS AS SHOWN FROM THE 
Repies OF TWENTY-FivE SPECIAL SUPERVISORS 


Number of Number of on is 
Agents Responsible for Performing the Same Activities Cases Possibilities of Column 3 
q) (2) (3) (4) 
1. Principal, General Supervisor............... 20 120 16 
2. Principal, Special Supervisor ............... 87 425 20+ 
3. Principal, General Supervisor, Special Super- 
ES aoahe iat aisiarach a deta G SEs oA 21 154 14 
4. General Supervisor, Special Supervisor...... 11 72 15 


Read table as follows: The principal and general supervisor are responsible for performing the 
same activities in 20 cases out of a possible 120, or an overlapping of 16 percent in their duties. 

There were other combinations of agents indicated, but the numbers were so small as to render 
them of little or no value in making comparisons, therefore all combinations of less than 10 per- 
cent are omitted. 

Table 2 shows the number of and percents of dual or multiple re- 
sponsibilities of agents as shown from the replies of 25 special super- 
visors. The overlapping is smaller but of the same type as that indi- 
cated by the replies of the principals. The main dual responsibili- 
ties are between principal and special supervisor; principal and gen- 
eral supervisor; general supervisor and special supervisor ; principal, 
general supervisor, and special supervisor. 


TABLE 3.—Tue Dvat RESPONSIBILITIES OF AGENTS AS SHOWN FROM THE 
Repuies oF THIRTY-Two GENERAL SUPERVISORS 


Number of Number of Pie ong is 

Agents Responsible for Performing the Same Activities Cases Possibilities of Column 3 
(1) (2) (3) (4) 
1. Principal, General Supervisor............... 203 464 43 
2. Principal, Special Supervisor................ 39 288 13 

3. Principal, General Supervisor, Special Super- 

ME <i ud cea aan wucd aceckie ee diame abe Aetna 126 427 29 
4. General Supervisor, Special Supervisor...... 65 309 21 


Read table as follows: The principal and general supervisor are responsible for performing the 
same activities in 203 cases out of a possible 464, or an overlapping of 43 percent in their duties. 

All combinations showing an overlapping of less than 10 percent are omitted. - 

The term general supervisors is used to include: superintendents, assistant superintendents, and 
others with general supervisory duties. 

Table 3 shows the dual or multiple responsibilities of agents noted 
in the replies of 32 general supervisors. There are main overlappings 
of work between the principal and general supervisor; principal, 
general supervisor, and special supervisor; general supervisor and 


special supervisor; and principal and special supervisor. 





~~ 


——— 





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rr ee 





ee rrr 








Tur Eiautn YEARBOOK 171 





In Tables 1, 2, and 3, the overlapping of responsibilities by princi- 
pal and general supervisor is given first rank in the replies of the 
principals and general supervisors, and second rank by the special 
supervisors. Overlapping of duties between the principal and spe- 
cial supervisor is given first rank in the replies of the special 
supervisors, second rank by the principals, and fourth rank by the 
general supervisors. Dual responsibilities between principal, ‘general 
and special supervisor is given second rank by the general super- 
visors, third rank by the principals, and fourth rank by special super- 
visors. Overlapping between the general supervisor and special 
supervisor is given third rank by the general supervisors and special 
supervisors, and fourth rank by the principals. 


TABLE 4—Tue Dua REsponsIsILITIES AS SHOWN FROM THE REPLIES OF THE 
PAIRING OF TWENTY SPECIAL SUPERVISORS FROM THE SAME CITIES 


Are the Dual Responsibilities Noted 





Agent Yes No Omitted Total 
NOE | a iksowtidsovenedelee anandwad 177 173 66 416 
Boesial BUGCLVISO .... 6... .ccvicesicsccis 114 213 89 416 
Both, Principal, Special Supervisor.. 47 233 24 304 


_ Table 4 should be read: From the replies of 20 pairings of princi- 
pals and special supervisors, the principals indicated 177 dual re- 
sponsibilities, and the special supervisors indicated 114 dual responsi- 
bilities, while both recognized 47 identical dual responsibilities. Thus 
principals and special supervisors “ Both ” recognized 26 percent of 
the dual responsibilities recognized by the principal alone and the 
principals and special supervisors “ Both ” recognized 41 percent of 
the dual responsibilities recognized by the special supervisors alone. 


TABLE 5—Are Conruicts REcoGNIZED BY PRINCIPALS, SPECIAL SUPERVISORS, AND 
GENERAL SUPERVISORS? 


Percent 
Number of Number of Column 2 
Noted Possible is of 
Agent Conflicts Cases Column 8 
(1) (2) (3) (4) 
NE bio snicadesicesineiniegeteseriinnsos 38 652 8 
NN IIE oo occ nvicviucs ddacnensewtans 6 211 3— 
General Supervisors .......ccccscccccscscccees 8 464 2— 


Table 5 shows a relatively low percent of actual conflicts, although 
the preceding tables indicate a relatively high overlapping of respon- 
sibilities. 

Acceptance of responsibility for certain activities is shown in Table 
6 which summarizes the replies of 57 principals, 25 special super- 
visors and 32 general supervisors. Entire responsibility is assumed 











172 ELEMENTARY Scuoot PrRINcIPALS 





by the special supervisors in 37 percent of the possible number of 
cases; by the principals in 35 percent of the possible number of 
cases, and by the general supervisor in 25 percent of the possible 
number of cases. There is failure here to recognize the principal 
“in control of his building.” 


TABLE 6—Entire RESPONSIBILITY FOR CerTAIN ActTiviTIES ACCEPTED BY AGENT 


Number Percent 

Accepting Possible Column 2 
Responsi- Number is of 

Agent bility of Cases Column 3 
(1) (2) (3) (4) 
DL. wcntd pbs canetbcasaondinhesbeobnseunse 736 2052 35 
I. .. cc cenbsvaeneertwendeenud 335 900 37 
CRUE TRON TIIOE occ cc cccccnccccncccccecees 293 1150 25 

CoNCLUSIONS 


I. There were relatively few recognized conflicts as compared with 
recognized dual or multiple responsibilities. This may have been 
due to several reasons, among which the following may be suggested: 


1. Hesitancy to indicate actual conflict. 

2. No grave situation existing caused by overlapping respon- 
sibilities. 

3. A feeling that even though dual or multiple responsibili- 
ties exist, conflict is not present because of codperative efforts 
of the agents involved. 

4. Lack of uniformity in definition of terms. 


II. The several agents view school activities in the light of their 
own interests and departments, rather than in the light of the curricu- 
lum as a whole. 

III. It appears that there is a decided lack of understanding on 
the part of supervisors and principals as to the nature and extent 
of their responsibilities. This may be due to faulty organization. It 
would seem that a type of organization should be encouraged which 
defines and allocates the activities of the several agents, and reduces 
or eliminates overlapping responsibilities of the agents within a school. 

IV. The study presents specific questions for the consideration of 
the principal: What ought the principal to do about the situation ? 
What ought to be his attitude in coming to a professional recognition 
of his job? In what way will he prove himself skilful enough to war- 
rant the delegation of functions to him? When will principals be 
prepared to assume genuine supervisory control of their schools? 








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‘ 


Tue Eigutu YEARBOOK 17 





CompLETE TABULATIONS 


Tables 7, 8, 9 and 10 are to be studied in connection with the 
items on pages 177 and 178. The reader is reminded that replies 
were received from 57 principals, 25 special supervisors, and 32 
general supervisors. 


TABLE 7.—Tyres or Entire Responstsiuities Acceptep AccorpING TO COMBINED 
Repties OF Principats, SpectaAL SuPeRvISORS, AND GENERAL SUPERVISORS 


Activity Principal Special Supervisor General Supervisor 
Number Actual No. Actual Number Actual Number 

A l 13 17 10 
2 4 20 10 
3 16 17 12 
4 21 13 8 
5 24 10 11 
6 18 3 17 
7 15 7 16 
8 8 20 15 
9 32 8 6 
10 10 18 8 
11 14 8 12 
12 17 9 7 
13 15 10 7 
Bp I 19 2 13 
2 3 16 12 
C 13 4 4 
D 18 12 12 
E 9 3 3 
a 23 14 6 
2 13 15 6 
G 11 8 9 
Hia 17 10 8 
b 19 8 8 
Cc 17 8 8 
d 21 11 § 
2 35 8 6 
3 39 8 5 
I i 23 8 5 
2 19 7 "ji 
3 25 10 6 
4 22 13 3 
5 34 6 3 
J 43 0 4 
K 49 0 2 
L 30 0 7 
M 27 4 9 

None omitted J-K-L omitted None omitted 

in list in list in list 
Explanation: The numbers in the first column under activity number, refer to the several items 
of the questionnaire—A 1, means ‘‘ controls methods’; A 2, “‘ provides outlines of required work.” 


See the questionnaire at the end of this chapter. 











174 ELEMENTARY Scuoot PRINCIPALS 





Table 7 shows that the greatest variation in the recognition of the 
acceptance of entire responsibilities by the supervisory agents exists 
in matters pertaining to the directing of teaching activities, the con- 
trol of teachers’ programs and the directing of experimental work. 

Table 8 shows the frequency of the types of dual responsibilities 
from the replies of 57 principals; Table 9 shows the frequency of 


TABLE 8.—Frequency or Tyre oF Duat RESPONSIBILITIES AS SHOWN BY THE 
Rep.ies OF PRINCIPALS 


Principal 
General General 
Principal Principal Supervisor Supervisor 
Activity General Special Special Special 
Number Supervisor Supervisor Supervisor Supervisor 
A l 8 7 7 5 
2 5 4 3 12 
3 6 5 6 2 
4 5 11 5 Ae 
5 8 5 2 1 
6 7 6 2 
7 10 5 3 ba 
8 5 8 6 2 
9 4 3 2 2 
10 8 11 10 1 
11 13 9 5 1 
12 10 6 5 1 
13 8 10 11 a 
B 1 8 1 2 2 
2 4 3 5 4 
C 10 8 11 1 
D 7 8 4 
1D 7 9 12 
F 1 6 8 5 = 
2 5 8 4 4 
G 3 6 1 3 
H la 1 4 2 
b 2 4 3 
c 2 2 2 
d 2 4 1 - 
2 3 4 1 
3 2 3 ‘a 1 
I 1 5 5 4 “ 
2 2 4 3 1 
3 5 3 4 
4 3 10 4 
5 2 a 4 
J 7 1 
K 2 <a 
L 7 
M 8 


Read table as follows: From the replies of 57 principals, in 8 cases the control of methods is 
shared by the principal and general supervisor ; in 7 cases it is shared by the principal and special 
supervisor ; in 7 cases it is shared by the principal, general supervisor, and special supervisor; and 
in 5 cases it is shared by the general supervisor and special supervisor. 

The activity number in the first column refers to the number of the question on the questionnaire 
as given at the end of this chapter. 








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Tue E1igutu YEARBOOK 175 





the type of dual responsibilities from the replies of 25 special super- 
visors, and Table 10 shows the frequency of 32 general supervisors. 
These tables agree closely with Table 7 in that the widest overlapping 
of responsibilities occurs in matters pertaining to the directing of 


TABLE 9.—FRequeNcy oF THE Types or Duat ReEsponsiBILItTy AS SHOWN FROM 
THE Repuies oF SreciIAL SUPERVISORS 


Principal 
General General 
Principal Principal Supervisor Supervisor 
Activity General Special Special Special 
Number Supervisor Supervisor Supervisor Supervisor 
A 1 2 2 ma 
2 bs 1 = 1 
3 1 2 1 1 
4 1 1 
5 1 4 
6 2 2 oe 
7 1 2 1 - 
8 1 2 
9 4 tt ‘ie 
10 1 1 2 
11 1 1 4 1 
12 2 4 1 
13 5 4 
B i -_ 1 1 
2 1 1 a 
C 1 7 4 1 
D 1 4 ee 
E l 4 5 
F 1 3 1 
2 1 1 in 
G 5 1 2 
H la ‘i 1 
b 1 ade 1 
c 1 1 se 
d 1 oa 1 
2 I 1 is 
3 3 1 2 
a3 4 1 
2 3 1 1 
3 3 1 1 
4 = 5 1 
5 1 3 1 
J 1 1 1 
K 3 2 
L 3 1 sc 
M 1 5 1 


Read table as follows: From the replies of 25 special supervisors, in one case the control of 
methods is shared by the principal and general supervisor ; in two cases it is shared by the principal 
and special supervisor ; and in two cases it is shared by the principal, general supervisor, and special 
supervisor. 

For meaning of the activity numbers see the questionnaire at the end of this chapter. 











176 ELEMENTARY ScHoot PRINCIPALS 





teaching activities, the control of teachers’ programs, and the direct- 
ing of experimental work. 

All tables show that the persons in each group have a tendency to 
view school activities in the light of their own interests. 


TABLE 10.—Frequency or THE Tyres or Duat ReEsponsiBILity AS SHOWN FROM 
THE Rep ies oF GENERAL SUPERVISORS 


Principal 
General* General 
Principal Principal Supervisor Supervisor 
Activity General Special Special Special 
Number Supervisor ' Supervisor Supervisor Supervisor 
A l 7 1 6 2 
2 4 1 2 7 
3 2 2 2 5 
4 6 3 3 2 
5 7 1 1 2 
6 2 1 l 
7 7 a 1 1 
8 1 2 1 5 
9 + <s 1 1 
10 8 1 8 l 
11 7 4 
12 10 si 2 46 
13 7 2 9 1 
B 1 3 2 1 1 
2 2 ai 4 6 
Cc 9 1 13 1 
D 11 2 a 3 
E 8 2 13 di 
F 1 5 4 7 1 
2 7 3 5 3 
G 3 2 5 5 
H la 1 2 2 1 
b 2 1 l 1 
c 2 l 2 
d 2 2 dt 
2 4 1 
3 5 1 ‘i 
I 1 6 6 1 
2 7 2 1 
3 3 1 6 2 
4 5 7 
5 4 3 
J 8 1 
K 6 - 1 
L 7 1 ae 
M 6 3 1 


Read table as follows: From the replies of 32 general supervisors, in seven cases the control of 
methods is shared by the principal and general supervisor ; in one case it is shared by the principal 
and special supervisor; in six cases it is shared by the principal, general supervisor, and special 
supervisor ; and in two cases it is shared by the general supervisor and special supervisor. 

For the meaning of the activity numbers see the questionnaire at the end of this chapter. 











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Tue Eteutu Yrarsooxk 177 





THE QUESTIONNAIRE 


The following instructions were included in the questionnaire: 
Please place a check mark in the proper column to indicate what 
agent is responsible for the several functions listed. If more than 
one agent performs the same function, indicate by placing a check 
mark in the column, under IJ, under each agent performing that 
function. !n case conflicts in authority arise because of divided re- 
sponsibility in executing any listed function, place a check mark for 
that function under ITI. 





| 
II. Agent | 
| 
I. Function | ae ieee’) iaahe | mee 
, Princi- haat General | Special | Conflict 
pal | Batis Super- | Super- 
| : visor | visor | 





A. Directing Teaching Activities. 

1. Controls methods ............ 

2. Provides outlines of required} —S | | 
MEE sadaves ono aueeens 


3. Sets up achievement standards| 
| ree ry nee 


4. Measures progress of pupils... 





6. Arranges visiting days for | 
IN Ga cacxicecteevienesan 

7. Determines nature of teachers’ | 
WEI hn. bxpecenaancesans | 


| 
| 
| 
5. Develops study directions..... | | | | 
| 
| 
| 
| 
| 


8. Demonstration teaching ...... 


9. Plans visitation program in| 
EEE re aA eae oe 


10. Plans conferences ............ 





NI, bos aspecccdewnsunas 


12. Develops standards for self- 


| 

| 

11. Suggests reading applicable wil | 
| 

| 

improvement ..........++-| | 





13. Conducts teachers’ meetings .. 


B. Control of Teachers’ Programs. 7 
1. Fixes time allotment .......... 
2. Determines course of study.... 


C. Measures progress and efficiency | 
of teachers .........eseseeeees 


D. Directs experimental work....... | 





4 


























178 ELEMENTARY Scnoo.t PriIncIPats 
QUESTIONNAIRE (Continued) 
II. Agent 
III. 
I, Function Princi- Ase’t _  ooeeng Conflict 
pal Prine. visor visor 
E. Rates teachers ...........002e00% | 
F. Control of requisitions (instruc-| ‘Diwan a ie 
tional) 
BEE aba dicancevencnevdeses 
 svedstnsawscneaenenden 
G. Approval of special equipment. 
Who gives approval?....... 


H. Clerical work 
1. Written reports of 
a. Visitations 


b. Meetings 


re 


c. Conferences 


d. Work covered 


er 


2. Supply accounting 


re 


3. Inventories 


ee 


I. Publicity and Community Con- 
tacts. 
1. Interviews with reporters...... 


2. Written articles 


re 


3. Annual report 


4. Exhibits 


ee 


5. Community meetings 


J. Controls pupils’ promotions...... 


K. Controls 
pupils 


classification of new 


L. Controls size of classes........... 


M. Who is principally responsible for 
results in learning?.......... 




































































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CHAPTER V 


NEXT STEPS IN SUPERVISION FROM THE STAND- 
POINT OF THE ELEMENTARY SCHOOL 
PRINCIPAL 


ArtHuur §S. Gist 
Principal, Training School, State Teachers College, San Francisco, California 


ROM THE STANDPOINT of the elementary school principal, 
there seem to be several important tendencies in supervision. The 
most important are as follows: 


1. Clearcut conceptions of the aims, technics, and ultimate results of supervision. 

2. Adequate allocation of functions among the various officials having super- 
visory duties. 

3. Thorough training for supervision, both the pre-service type and the in- 
service type. 

4. Intelligent and sympathetic recognition of the major human problems in- 
volved in such undertakings. 

5. The codrdination of all plans, purposes, and functions in one administrative 
department, that each official will render the highest type of service possible 
in his field. 


Because of the limited space, I shall treat only the last mentioned 
phase of this question, that of codrdination. In discussing codrdina- 
tion of supervisory efforts, I shall limit my paper to the principals’ 
attitude toward this important movement. It is largely an adminis- 
trative question, based upon our conceptions of the most practical 
functions for each group to perform, and upon the exigencies of 
local situations. 

To secure some idea of the attitude of the principals of the coun- 
try toward their functions in supervision and in administration, and 
their relationships toward the supervisors in such duties, a question- 
naire study was made. This study included the following questions: 
_ 1. Should the principal assume some responsibility for the instruction of sub- 
jects for which there are several supervisors? 

2. Should the principal take the initiative in discovering problems which arise 
in the teaching of the special subjects in his school? 

3. Should the principal attempt to prevent an over-emphasis upon any of the 
special subjects? 

4. Should the special supervisor have any administrative duties within the 
school? 

5. Would supervisors be justified in reporting to the superintendent’s office any 
principal who showed little or no interest in her subject? 


6. Would she be justified in reporting him when he continually seems to be 
unable to discover the major problems in teaching her subject? 


{ 179 ] 











180 ELEMENTARY Scrnoout PrINcIPALS 





7. Should the principal and supervisor confer regarding the rating of teachers 
in the special subjects? 

8. What is the primary purpose of the supervisor’s rating of teachers? 

9. What is your basic attitude toward special supervisors? 

Questionnaires were sent to 142 principals in various parts of the 
country, at least two being selected in each state. Eighty-eight replies 
were received, or 61.9 percent of the broadcast. This is an excellent 
return for a single broadcast not followed by a second request. The 
replies represent 37 states and the District of Columbia. States not 
replying include Nevada, South Carolina, Kansas, Mississippi, New 
Mexico, Oregon, Montana, New Hampshire, Maine, and Tennessee. 
The numbers of replies from each state ranged from one to six. 

Tabulation of the replies by city size shows an emphasis upon the 
large cities. This condition is due to the mailing list which included 
many outstanding principals who are employed in the larger cities. 
Probably this condition is fortunate for many smaller cities do not 
employ special supervisors. The distribution of the return is given 


in Table 1. 


TABLE 1.—DistrisuTion OF THE QUESTIONNAIRE Rep.ies By City Size 


City Size Number Percent 
as ocr cece ead stag han ind akwaaheninn adke 56 63.7 
Rs io cae Los ced bette aseNnsaa rier eaees 20 22.7 
cd cia Rare va eaw Mawar Aen Oe 9 10.2 
 i66<ndienn teh beheenedbesunen ke bubensninws 2 23 
I er Gs ieeee Sr en tals pea oe Rais 1 1.1 
__EPRPER S emer a tra aster te ea reece he NG Pa 5 eee 88 100.0 
TABLE 2 
Question Answer Number Percent 
Should the principal assume soME responsi- a - " 
bility for the instruction of subjects for <~ 
: : “wy bens ne — 
which there are special supervisors? Total 88 100.0 


The replies to Question 1 have been indicated in Table 2. It will 
be noted that the principals were in complete agreement. Certain 
comments are: 


1. He is the responsible head of the school in all respects. 

2. The responsibility which the principal should assume is that of giving the 
special subject the intimate supervision and general development that cannot be 
given by the special supervisor. 

3. The principal is the supervising head of his building. He therefore cannot 
escape the responsibility for the kind of teaching that is done in his building. 

4. I believe a principal is responsible to some extent for all teaching in his 
building. 





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Tur Eriautu YEARBOOK 181 





TABLE 3 
Question Answer Number Percent 
eli , f 75 
Should the principal TAKE THB INTIATIVE in bw ns 99.7 
discovering problems which arise in the No report 9 23 
teaching of the special subjects in his |~ BH ; 

? 

school? Total 88 100. 


The tabulation for Question 2 is given in Table 3. On this ques- 
tion there was a tendency for the group to “ break up,” or to be less 
positive. Some interpreted the phrase “ taking the initiative” as 
not permitting others to take the first step. Certain comments are: 


1. The teacher should take the initiative, as she is in touch with the children 
in her room. But it is the business of the principal to help her if necessary and 
by all means lead her to take such a step. 

2. The statement is a little strong. Certainly the principal should not be barred 
from taking the initiative—but it does not follow that the principal should be 
depended upon when there is adequate supervision and understanding on the part 
of those heading special departments. 

3. I answered “no” because I believe it is primarily the job of the “ consulting 
expert ”"—the special supervisor. The principal should be willing to investigate, 
listen to both sides, and make any necessary administrative adjustments. 

4. He is responsible for proper codrdination of subject matter and activities and 
for a progressive régime. Of course, the special teacher should also take the 
initiative. 


TABLE 4 


Question Answer Number Percent 
Yes 85 96.6 
Should the principal arreMPT TO PREVENT an |xs 2 23 
unusual emphasis upon any of the special + No report 1 1.1 
subjects? — wa 
Total 88 100.0 


The report on Question 3 has been tabulated in Table 4. Once 
again there is unanimity of opinion toward concentrating the au- 
thority in the hands of the principal. The principal seems to serve 
as “ governor ” for the machinery. Comments are: 

1. This is the only way to keep a well-balanced sense of values in a school. 

2. Most certainly they should codrdinate all the subjects and see to it that no 
one subject is over-emphasized to the detriment of other subjects. 


3. A competent administrator will demand a well-balanced program. 
4. No, unless it becomes a hobby. 


TABLE 5 


Question Answer Number Percent 

Yes 77 87.5 

° ‘ N 1 114 

Should the special supervisor have any AD- No report 11 


MINISTRATIVE duties within any school? 


Total 88 100.0 











182 ELEMENTARY ScHOoOoL PRINCIPALS 





Turning now to the second part of the questionnaire we have tabu- 
lated in Table 5 the returns for Question 4. The answers show that 
these principals have not been stampeded into an attitude which 
would exclude supervisors from all authority. Administration seems 
to be a secondary concern of supervisors. Comments are: 


1. The supervisor is the consulting expert and as such is only incidentally con- 
cerned with administration. 

2. The supervisor may be of great help in administrative duties, but he should 
always work in conjunction with the principal. The principal must not be an auto- 
crat, but he must be the head of his school. 

3. The principal must be the administrator of his building, but a supervisor has 
a right to expect the principal to simplify problems of routine so far as the in- 
struction is concerned. 


TABLE 6 
Question Answer Number Percent 
Would the supervisor be justified in report- (Yes 79 89.8 
ing to the superintendent’s office any prin- | No 9 102 
cipal who SHOWED LITTLE OR NO INTEREST in — a 
her subject? Total 88 100.0 


The report on Question 5 has been tabulated in Table 6. The re- 
turn on this question is interesting, for we might expect principals 
to assume a “ defensive” attitude. The returns indicate a reasona- 
ble attitude toward supervisors. Comments are: 


1. There would be something serious the matter with a principal who did not 
take an interest in every subject taught in his building. The superintendent should 
know it. A supervisor should have the same right ethically to discuss the principal 
with his superior officer or vice versa. 

2. The principal who is not constructively interested in a given subject is failing 
to meet his responsibility and should be reported. 

3. As I understand it the supervisor is one who comes into a school to supervise 
the teachers not the principal. 


TABLE 7 
Question Answer Number Percent 
Yes 73 82.9 
Would she be justified in reporting the prin- | No 11 12.5 
cipal when he CONTINUALLY seems to be J No report 4 46 
unable to discover the major problems in | — —- 
teaching her subject in his school? [ Total 88 100.0 


The tabulations on Question 6 are given in Table 7. Once again 
we principals are subjected to a question which touches our “ pride,” 
if not our authority. Naturally we did not agree entirely, but the 
majority are reasonable toward the supervisors. There is some 
tendency to urge a conference with the principal before the super- 
visor reports to the superintendent. Comments are: 





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; 





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Tue E1iagutn YEARBOOK 183 





1. If the principal is unable to discover major problems in a given subject then 
he becomes one who ought to be expertly supervised. If the director and super- 
visor are unable to enlarge his vision and interest, then through the director his 
case should be brought before the superintendent. 

2. I answered “ yes,” but would like to add that supervisors should first “ talk 
over” with the principal the state of affairs, before reporting to the superintendent. 

3. To answer “ yes” to this question would be to place the special supervisor 
over the principal. He should be his expert advisor. 

4. I do not want to see the incompetent principal protected, but it is not the job 
of the supervisor to ferret him out. As soon as the supervisor becomes a tale 
bearer so soon does she lose her value to the system as a supervisor. It is the job 
of the superintendent and assistant superintendents to discover the short-comings 
of the principals. 


TABLE 8 
Question Answer Number Percent 
Should the principal and the supervisor confer hg . poe 
regarding the rating of teachers in the spe- . Pos 
cial subjects? Total 88 100.0 


The tabulations on Question 7 are given in Table 8. There seems 
to be considerable agreement that principals and supervisors should 
confer when rating teachers. Some thought the ratings should be 
assembled in the Central Office. Comments are: 

1. This would depend upon the purpose of rating; if to inform the superin- 


tendent, “no”; if to improve the teacher, “ yes.” 
2. I have always done so. It enables me to recognize meritorious work and to 


discipline shirkers. 
3. I think it is better for the superintendent to assemble ratings. 


TABLE 9 
Question Answer Number Percent 
Administrative 6 6.9 
Check the primary purpose of a supervisor’s | Supervisory 82 93.1 
rating of teachers, as you see it. — omen 
Total 88 100.0 


The returns on Question 8 are tabulated in Table 9. The princi- 
pals agree that the supervisor’s ratings should not be for administra- 
tive purposes. Several dissented from this view, probably due to a 
different interpretation of terms. Comments are: 

1. Any rating of teachers should be supplementary to that of the principal. Such 
ratings should be for phases of technic and teaching power. 

2. The supervisor's rating is administrative and becomes one factor in the final 
rating given a teacher. 

The replies to Question 9 are given in Table 10. In so far as the 
larger cities are concerned, the supervisor is rapidly becoming a 
consulting expert. Some principals indicated that “ demonstration 











184 ~ Exrementary Scroot PrIncIpas 





teaching ” would be one of the activities of the expert. No principal 
checked the term “ intruder.” Comments are: 


1. In some instances supervisors are both demonstration teachers and consulting 
experts, particularly in small cities. 

2. First duty is that of consulting expert, although I also consider them demon- 
stration teachers. 

3. The supervisor is a consulting expert in her subject. As such she will find 
opportunity for demonstration teaching, but her major function is to serve the 
school as an expert. 


TABLE 10 
Question Answer Number Percent 
Expert 70 795 
Teacher 16 18.2 
What is your Basic attitude toward special | Intruder 0 0 
supervisors? No report 2 23 


Total 88 100.0 


TABLE 11.—SummMary or REPLIES TO THE QUESTIONS 


Number Percent 
on each on each 
Questions Answer answer answer 
1. Should the principal assume soME responsi- - 
bility for the instruction of subjects for a . . 
which there are special supervisors? . 
2. Should the principal TAKE THE INITIATIVE 
“vigge tenet rr “ro Yes 66 75 
in discovering problems which arise in N 99 
the teaching of the special subjects in his _ - 22.7 
oaieaie® No report 2 23 
3. Should the principal ATTEMPT TO PREVENT | Yes 85 96.6 
an unusual emphasis upon any of the + No 2 23 
special subjects? No report 1 1.1 
4. Should the special supervisor have any 85 — 
ADMINISTRATIVE duties within any schoo! ? _— 3 
No report 1 1.1 
5. Would the supervisor be justified in re- 
porting to the Superintendent’s office | Yes 79 89.8 
any principal who SHOWED LITTLE oR No 7) No 9 10.2 
INTEREST IN HER SUBJECT? 
6. Would she be justified in reporting the 
principal when he conTINUALLY seems | Yes 73 82.9 
to be unable to discover the major prob- 1 No 11 12.5 
lems in teaching the special subject in } No report 4 4.6 
his school? { 
7. Should the principal and the supervisor Yes 79 89.8 
CONFER regarding the rating of teachers 
: s , No 9 10.2 
in the special subjects? 
8. Check the primary purpose of a super- {Administrative 6 6.9 
visor’s rating of teachers, as you see it. Supervisory 82 93.1 
Expert 70 79.5 
9. What is your Basic attitude toward special | Teacher 16 18.2 
supervisors? Intruder 0 0 


No report 2 23 








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Tue ErientH YEARBOOK 185 





Somr GENERAL CoMMENTS 


I think that the principal should have complete authority in his 
school. Since principals are not sufficiently expert in all subjects, 
especially those subjects most recently added to the curriculum, spe- 
cialists are needed to help make the work effective. Such supervisors 
must of necessity work under the immediate direction of the super- 
intendent, but as helpers to him and to the principals, not as admin- 
istrative officers. Supervisors with administrative functions would 
divide authority and decrease efficiency. Authority must be coinci- 
dent with responsibility, and since the principal is responsible for 
his school, the authority also must be his. 

As between supervisor and principal, the latter is supreme in his 
school. The supervisor is a specialist, an adviser, and a helping 
teacher who gives model lessons and helps in other ways. The super- 
visor knows more about the subject than the principal, who should 
lean on the former for technical advice. The principal should work 
with the supervisor and give her full credit for special ability. But 
the principal is the head of all in his school, and that includes the 
whole department of the supervisor. 

Of course, there is a twilight zone between administration and 
supervision which may be better defined. In general, however, I 
believe the supervisor is an advisory expert, and should not be con- 
cerned with administration, except in the matter of materials and 
equipment as related to instruction. The principal is also a super- 
visor of instruction, and he ealls upon the supervisor as an expert, 
especially when some research problem is confronted. 

The attitude of the supervisor toward the principal depends quite 
largely upon the principal. If he commands the respect of super- 
visors, they will take their correct place. The relationship between 
a principal and supervisor also depends upon the personality of the 
supervisor. When supervisors come into my office they ask what I 
wish to have done. They advise, but never command. 

I am a firm believer in the unity of the educational program. In 
the principal this unity finds its strongest support, but in the special 
supervisor and special teacher it too often finds its greatest obstacle. 
The correction of this condition is one of the great opportunities for 
principals and supervisors. 

Principals of schools are the responsible administrative heads of 
their respective schools, and are charged with the organization, super- 
vision, and administration thereof. Every person coming into direct 
contact with the teachers and pupils of a school should be under the 











186 ELEMENTARY ScHoot PRINCIPALS 





supervision and direction of the principal of the school. The princi- 
pal should be the sole rating officer for the teachers of the school. 


SuMMARY 


This study seems to indicate several tendencies in the organization 
and administration of supervision : 

1. The tendency to lessen, if not eliminate, all the administrative 
duties of the special supervisor in the schools, and for the principal 
to assume the major responsibilities in his own school. 

2. A tendency to increase the responsibility of the principal in 
supervision. 

3. A tendency to regard the supervisor as a consulting expert to 
assist the teacher and the principal in the solution of problems. 

4. A tendency to study local problems in advance of the visit of 
the supervisor that she might function to the best advantage. 

5. A very decided tendency to lessen the questioning of authority, 
the shirking of responsibilities, and the indications of petty jealousies. 

6. A tendency for principals and supervisors to recognize com- 
mon aims and purposes in securing higher standards of attainment. 





S SOON as the principal accepts and approves a pro- 
gram proposed by the supervisor, the responsibility for 
the successful development of the program of instruction no 
longer rests on the supervisor. The initiative now lies with 
the principal. If he desires aid, the supervisor stands ready 
to render it, but the supervisor acts only when invited to do 
so by the principal.—Charles L. Spain, A New Definition of 
the Functions of the Supervisor, 1926, p. 502. 





























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CHAPTER VI 


ESTABLISHING STANDARDS IN WRITTEN 
COMPOSITION 


SaMvUEL BERMAN 
Principal, Wm. 8S. Peirce School, Philadelphia, Pa. 


PRELIMINARY PROBLEMS 


RITTEN COMPOSITION is primarily an art. As such it 

does not lend itself readily to scientific testing and measuring. 

Certain standards, however, are now fairly well established in 
the technical fields of spelling, punctuation, vocabulary, and gram- 
mar, but the general problem of rating written composition remains 
astonishingly complex. This complexity is related closely to three 
problems of importance to the elementary school principal—the prob- 
lems of general merit, teacher judgment, and diagnosis of written 
composition. 

The problem of general merit—A written English composition is 
a unit of written expression. It is evaluated to help the pupil im- 
prove his work. At the same time the teacher usually rates the 
quality of the pupil’s composition in order to keep his reports up-to- 
date and to register the relative standing of each of his pupils. How 
may all of this best be done? Is it better to rate a composition as a 
complete unit on the basis of general impression or to analyze it into 
its elements and then rate each, so as to obtain a total score? Both 
technics have been widely recommended. Hudelson writes: 

Specific qualities can and often should be measured separately; but when the 
general effect of written expression, such as society is usually concerned with, is 
to be judged, it must be considered in its entirety. In matters of appreciation the 
sum of the parts does not necessarily equal the whole. One may stand before a 
painting and scrutinize one by one the quality or composition of the pigments, the 
dimensions, design, color, or workmanship of the frame, the quality of the canvas, 
the artist’s name, his technic, or his mastery of proportion or perspective; but 
if one would judge the picture as a work of art he must either combine his 
separate judgments of these various aspects or, what is more probable, consider 
all elements simultaneously. He must see it singly and see it whole. So with 


sculpture and architecture and music, Imagination, which, after all, renders the 
final verdict upon art, defies mere analysis; and composition is an art.? 


*Hudelson, Earl. “ English Composition. Its Aims, Methods, and Measure- 
ment.” The Twenty-Second Yearbook, Part I, National Society for the Study of 
Education, 1923, p. 55. 


[ 187 ] 











188 ELemMentary Scuoot. Principats 





On the other hand, Gainsburg insists that general merit begs the 
question.” 


It does not define what it indicates and leaves the same diversity of opinion as 
though no scientific study of teaching composition had even been attempted. 
There is every chance that those judging by such standard use some favorite 
quality of their own which colors their opinion of the whole composition. This 
makes the judgment neither fair, nor one by “general merit.” 


The more complex and difficult the elements, the harder they are 
to analyze, Gainsburg concludes, and so measurement becomes unre- 
liable on the basis of general merit. In a more recent article Gains- 
burg discusses this principle again and questions the validity of 
composition scales as compared with the subjective judgment of 
teachers." The disagreement does not end here. C. H. Ward writes 
that general merit does not take care of minimum essentials or so- 
called “ slight errors.” * He claims that a well-ordered and pleasing 
theme may be scored below passing after a certain time of the year 
because of a few errors which show that a pupil has not mastered the 
rudiments of composition. 


No surveyor of educational efficiency, unfamiliar with this variable standard, 
can evaluate these minuti#, and general impression by a scale method will not 
accord with the values that teachers must assign at certain times to certain 
blunders if they are following the strategy of minima. 


Although placed out of their context, these quotations briefly sum- 
marize both sides. Each is justified. The elementary school princi- 
pal, however, is interested in their respective influence on standards. 
These will be interpreted later as compromise standards—a series of 
representative pupil compositions, Grades 3B to 8B, selected on the 
basis of general merit, analyzed into their elements by means of 
positive and negative criticisms, and checked with use of an objec 
tive composition scale. Sample 1 illustrates a specimen from the 
composition scale. 


*Gainsburg, Joseph C. “Fundamental Issues in Evaluating Composition.” 
Pedagogical Seminary 31: 70-71; March, 1924. 

*Gainsburg, Joseph C. “The Problem of Rating Compositions.” Bulletin 
6: 81-87. Department of Elementary School Principals, National Education Asso- 
ciation. January, 1927. 

* Ward, C. H. What is English? Scott, Foresman & Co., 1925, pp. 332-42. On 
the scale illusion. 








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Tue Eiegutru YEARBOOK 189 





SAMPLE 1 
Excellent TT 
Hudelson Score 4.3 Paper No. 305 


The Pet of the Camp 


Billy was the pet of the camp. The first time I saw him he was 
eating out of a sardine can. He was the drollest little pig I ever saw. 
He was about seven inches high. He had long reddish bristal hair. 
His home was a soap box. It had ‘a swinging door which Billy could 
push open to let himself out. When the sargain came around in the 
morning he would ask, “ Billy have you had your rations yet?” 
Billy would anser, “ wee,” which is pretty good french for yes. In 
the evening the sargain would knock at the top of Billies house. 
Then he would hear a grunt which might have meant all is well. 
Then the sargain would say, “ Billy is safe in his quarters, I wish I 
were.” 


Positive Negative 
The originality of treatment is so The first seven sentences present 
dominant as to make mechanical no variety of structure. Misspel- 
errors appear slight. The composition ling: “sargain,” “ Billies,” “ bristal,” 
proceeds definitely through a begin- “ anser.” 


ning, a middle, and a conclusion. 
The principle of unity is very well 
illustrated. 


The problem of teacher judgment—Voluminous evidence points 
to the unreliability of teachers’ marks. On the other hand, when 
teachers have used an objective composition scale as a guide, their 
judgment tends to become more reliable.” This is true, however, 
only in the case of teachers who have become expert in the use 
of such objective instruments. These scales are often unwillingly 
adopted because their mastery demands hours of arduous practice in 
order to increase reliability and to reduce variations in judgment. 
Concerning this Leonard adds: 


Experience with using a scale really reduces these variations; but it has not 
been proved that this reduction is any greater than would be produced by a similar 
expenditure of time and effort by the same teachers in marking the same number 
of themes without a scale and discussing wide diversities of grading.? 


Nevertheless there remains the urgent need of the beginning 
teacher for some objective help, and even the experienced teacher, 
who has become set in her ways, needs the stimulus of new standards. 


*Hudelson, Earl. “The Effect of Objective Standards Upon Composition 
Teachers’ Judgments.” Journal of Educational Research 12: 329-40; December, 
1925. 

*Leonard, S. A. “Building a Scale of Purely Composition Quality,” The 
English Journal 14: 760-75; December, 1925. 











190 ELEMENTARY Scuoou PRrRINcIPALS 





The problem of diagnosis of written composition—Neither teach- 
ers nor principals are satisfied with the mere tabulation of scores in 
any testing program. They now expect to be able to make a diagnosis 
of pupil-failure on the basis of well-established standards in order 
to improve instruction. It is not enough to know that one’s class is 
2.4 points below the national standard for the grade. If the measure- 
ment of teaching efficiency is to be based upon the achievements of 
pupils—and there is reason to believe that this is coming to be the 
tendency ‘—then each teacher should be trained in the process of diag- 
nosis or be furnished with such simple instruments of measurement 
as will give him a working basis for the diagnosis of results. Because 
of this attitude, some composition scales and composition samples 
contain analytical comments in terms of merits and demerits. 

It must be admitted, however, that no written composition ever 
can be exactly like a given sample in a scale or in a graded series of 
annotated papers. It may approximate any one of these, but it hardly 
can be rated with the same precision as 2 + 2 or the spelling of the 
word “cat.” Nevertheless, units of composition which give more 
than just a numerical score and contain diagnostic notes are much 
to be desired. 

Furthermore, valid rating of the mechanical elements of written 
composition is dependent upon clearly defined specific objectives, 
properly graded. While there have been dozens upon dozens of tests 
in this field, those which yield the greatest return to the classroom 
teacher are chiefly diagnostic in character. However, before these 
tests can be of greatest service, a number of problems will first have 
to be settled. What mechanical abilities in written English are needed 
by children in their free self-expression life? What are the appro- 
priate school grades in which the development of these abilities 
should be sought?” What constitutes valid diagnosis ?* That there is 
an awareness of such problems is indicated in the painstaking re- 
search of the Essentials Committee of the National Council of Teach- 
ers of English. A study of 24 representative courses of study re- 
vealed a startling lack of uniformity concerning the mechanics of 
composition. 


* Monroe, W. S., and Clark, J. A. “ Measuring Teaching Efficiency.” Hduca- 
tional Research Circular No. 25. University of Illinois Bulletin. Jan. 28, 1924, 
pp. 14-26. 

*Guiler, W. S. “Analysis of Children’s Writings as a Basis for Instruction in 
English.” Journal of Educational Method 5: 259-64; February, 1926. 

* Willing, Matthew H. Valid Diagnosis in High School Composition. Contribu- 
tions to Education, No. 230, 1926. Teachers College, Columbia University. 














in 


l- 








Tue EigutuH YEARBOOK 191 





While many new courses include fine graded material worked out in consider- 
able detail, apparently well chosen and practical, no course combines all the 
desirable qualities.’ 


Assuming that they are reliable, many language, grammar, and 
punctuation tests are more exact measuring instruments for indi- 
vidual pupil needs than any composition scale can ever hope to be. 
Because of this they are being used widely for diagnosing students’ 
shortcomings. In this connection, it is not the purpose of the writer 
to summarize the investigations in this field. While they are signifi- 
cant, and continue to be increasingly so, they are not the major 
problem of this article. 


Current TENDENCIES IN Ratinc WrittEN CoMPoOsITION 


An examination of typical courses of study will indicate in a meas- 
ure the varied type of standards already established to measure writ- 
ten composition. 

Topeka, Kansas—A supplement to the English Course of Study 
is the 1914 Scale for the Measurement of Merit. It consists of a series 
of 20 compositions so arranged as to show a gradual development 
in thought and in application of the fundamental principles of com- 
position. The making of this scale showed the need of another which 
would indicate definite standards of technical accomplishment, the 
unity of purpose in the teaching of composition in the elementary 
and secondary schools, definite standards for marking attainment, 
and clear definition of the meaning of symbols used to mark attain- 
ment. Therefore, another scale was derived—the 1920 Scale for the 
Measurement of Technical Achievement. This scale is specifically 
designed to measure technical ability in composition in the elemen- 
tary and secondary grades. Each of the 20 compositions has critical 
comments attached giving the requirements for the grade and an 
analysis of E, VG, G, F, and P for the grade. Samples, grades 2B to 
6A, are exact reproductions in the handwriting of the pupils. 

Chicago, Illinois—Definite standards of achievement are pro- 
vided in English in the Elementary Schools, Bulletin No. 21, 1921. 
Sample compositions rated in terms of fair, good, excellent, and 
superior, are set up as standards; each has a critical note. Fair is 
interpreted to mean a composition which at least 75 percent of the 
pupils could equal or excel at the end of the term. These standards 


*Camenisch, Sophia C. “ Representative Courses of Study in English.” The 
English Journal 16: 288; April, 1927. 











192 ELEMENTARY ScHuoot PRINCIPALS 





were designed originally to measure oral composition. However, they 
have been used widely for both written and oral work because the 
samples are free from mechanical errors. Although they lack the 
mathematical precision in their derivation which composition stand- 
ards are expected to have, the Chicago standards have had a nation- 
wide influence in the creation of purely local standards. 

Charleston, Illinots—Specimens of children’s work in terms of 
best, good, average, minimum, and not passing are given in The Course 
of Study in English for the First Six Grades, Eastern Illinois State 
Teachers College, Bulletin No. 74, 1921. The derivation of these 
specimens is not indicated. However, each grade has a few specific 
attainments in mechanics which each child should achieve. The 
standard for these is 100 percent. 

Baltimore, Maryland—Grade standards for written composi- 
tions in terms of good, fair, and poor are found in The English Course 
of Study for Grades Four, Five, and Six, 1924. Fair, as in Chicago, 
is understood to mean such a composition which at least 75 percent 
of the pupils could equal or excel at the end of the grade. The com- 
position standards based on the consensus of teacher judgment are 
homogeneous narrative from experience—and are free from mechani- 
eal errors. They are not intended as models to be imitated, but are 
used as a help to both teacher and pupils in estimating the quality 
of work done. Technical requirements are listed for each grade. 
The specimen compositions are not supplied with critical notes as 
the pupils are given standard “ criticism” outlines for the correc- 
tion of form and content. 

Minneapolis, Minnesota—The Education Bulletin, No. 6, 1925, 
English in the Elementary Schools, contains a scale for rating 
friendly letters, Grades 3-6, and a scale for rating narratives based 
on personal experiences, Grades 1-6. Samples are rated in qualities 
poor, fair, good, and excellent. Each has an analytical note criticiz- 
ing content and form. The letters were written without oral prepara- 
tion and the narratives were compositions given orally and criticized 
before they were written. No detailed account of procedure is given, 
but the Bulletin indicates that these standards are tentative. It is 
recommended that both scales be posted where they can be readily 
accessible to the children in comparing and judging their own work. 

Denver, Colorado—The Denver Composition Scale is published 
in The Course of Study Monographs, Number Nine, English Junior 
High School, Grades Seven, Eight, and Nine, 1925. This scale was 
devised by grading papers with the Nassau County Supplement to 
the Hillegas scale. From a large number of samples 100 papers were 





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Tue Eientn YEARBOOK 193 





selected. These were again scored with the same scale by 137 English 
teachers, and given values according to the median judgment. The 
compositions selected represent percentile points and range from 
third grade achievement to college ability. Those which represent 
the median may be considered satisfactory for the “ average ” child. 
While ability by grades is indicated, no critical notes are appended 
to the samples. 

The Alabama Tentative Course of Study in Language, Grades 
I-VI, 1927, uses graded specimen compositions derived for the most 
part from the Chicago Course and Sheridan’s Speaking and Writing 
English. The course provides specifically for the mastery of mechani- 
cal elements by grades. There are only a few critical comments in 
connection with the compositions set up as standards. It can be 
stated that the use of standards from other courses seems to be a 
prevalent practice. 

Many textbooks are veritable courses of study which offer spe- 
cific standards by grades. Where local courses do not contain sample 
compositions those in textbooks are frequently used. 

Scales and Other Scoring Devices—The use of well-known objec- 
tive scales derived with scientific precision seems to be restricted 
more and more to state and city surveys rather than classrooms. 
Teachers are not generally willing to practice in order to increase 
their own reliability and reduce variations in judgment. In several 
cities there are now a number of teachers who may be definitely 
called “experts” in the use of a composition scale. Among others 
such a group may be found in the faculty of the Central High School, 
St. Paul, Minnesota. 

The general merit scales which have avoided most of the limita- 
tions of their predecessors are The Hudelson English Composition 
Scale, 1921, and The Typical Composition Ability Scale, 1923. They 
are distinguished for the even spacing between the qualities of con- 
secutive samples, for the scientific control of conditions of testing, 
and for the appealing subjectmatter of the assignments. The prac- 
tice samples in scoring appended to each scale are invaluable devices 
to train scorers. These scales do not contain critical notes for each 
sample. 

By far the most significant departure are The Scales for Measur- 
ing Special Types of English Composition by E. E. Lewis, 1923. 
There are five scales: simple order letters, letters of application, sim- 
ple narrative social letters, expository social letters, and narrative 
compositions on the topic, “One of My Most Interesting Experi- 
ences.” The first four supply a definite need in the rating of com- 

5 











194 ELEMENTARY ScHoo.t PRINCIPALS 





position. The writing of letters is coming to be one of the most im- 
portant subjects in written composition and, as such, requires the 
special types of specific measurement that these scales attempt. 

A study by Leonard, “ Building a Seale of Purely Composition 
Quality,” * offers typical scales of ability in English composition, 
without ary consideration whatever for mechanics, or form of speech 
or writing. Critical notes indicate the value and defects of each 
sample. If teachers can be trained to isolate “ purely composition 
quality ” without being influenced by mechanical errors, they will 
find the rating of compositions a much simpler task than it has been 
so far. 

A new development is The Driggs-Mayhew National Scales for 
Measuring Compositions for Junior High School, grades seven, eight 
and nine. While this scale is not of primary interest to the elemen- 
tary school principal, its basic idea may be of value. There are fif- 
teen samples for each grade, three of each quality: A, B, C, D, and 
E. The characteristics of these qualities are indicated for each group 
of three. A feature of these scales is a preliminary oral test-lesson 
to motivate pupil spontaneity for the actual written composition 
test period of 15 minutes. Tentative median ratings are given in 
percents for each quality. 

In addition to standardized scales, arbitrary guides for criticizing 
written composition are widely used. While such standards do not 
have scientific objectivity, they certainly are better than unrestrained 
subjective judgment. One teacher uses a grade sheet of 10 items 
worked out on a percentile basis which deals with such items as the 
mechanics of writing, interest, originality, effectiveness, organiza- 
tion, effort, and appearance.’ Another presents an arbitrary outline 
of composition qualities to be used as a basis for grading. Klapper 
offers an Analytic Rating Chart to objectify teacher judgment. It 
has three major divisions with appropriate subdivisions: (1) Con- 
tent aspect of composition, (2) Language aspect, and (3) Formal 
aspects.” Other writers give sets of questions to guide the judgment 
of both pupil and teacher. 


*Leonard, S. A. “Building a Scale of Purely Composition Quality.” The 
English Journal 14: 760-75; December, 1925. 

* Holley, Hilda Jane. “Correcting and Grading Themes.” The English Journal 
13: 29-34; January, 1924. 

*Klapper, Paul. Teaching English in Elementary and Junior High Schools. 
D. Appleton & Co., 1925. 








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Ture Etentu YEARBOOK 195 





A national questionnaire—It can be seen at a glance that a mere 
summary of the use of standard and home-made composition scales 
is not sufficient data from which to draw valid conclusions. There- 
fore, the writer sent the following questionnaire to 525 superin- 
tendents of schools. 


QUESTIONNAIRE BLANK 


January 27, 1927. 

1. Does your course of study in written English contain sample compositions of 
children’s work? 

(a) If “ Yes,’ when was the course adopted? 

(b) If “ Yes,” are these samples rated in terms of excellent, good, fair, poor or 
their equivalent? 

(c) If “ Yes,” are there critical notes added to these samples? 

If your answer is “ No” to the first question, are you planning to introduce 
such samples into your course? 

Giiiissxebecesdulénewibowasn ances NOG co inisss incon es xine ee otek 


i) 


The good response, probably due to the simplicity of the answers 
required, was 359 or 68.4 percent of all the questionnaires sent out. 
An analysis follows: 


1. Does your course of study in written English contain sample compositions 
of children’s work? 

(a) Replies to Question 1. 
Cities reporting “ Yes”: 76 (21.2%) 
Cities reporting “ No”: 283 (78.8%) 

(b) If “ yes” when was the course adopted? 
Cities not reporting data: 8 
Distribution by year of adoption: 


NE esa distene erate 2 Pe tsa dssee insane 9 
ME pains cates 2 | so aa 8 
ECP 1 ee 9 
ROP Sicwsiasccicn 4 oo peers 10 
PE wyicsraiv's e mtear’ 2 ee 9 


(c) If “ yes,” are these samples rated in terms of excellent, good, fair, poor, 
or their equivalent? 
Cities reporting “ Yes”: 56 (16.2%) 
Two cities report that only “good” samples are used; another, that 
only “ excellent ” samples are used. 
(d) If “Yes,” are there critical notes added to these samples? 
Cities reporting “Yes”: 47 (13.1%) 
2. If your answer is “ No” to the first question, are you planning to introduce 
such samples into your course? 
Cities reporting intention to include samples: 
130 or 45.9% of the cities reporting “ No” in Question No. 1. 
Cities which are not planning: 
153 or 54.1% of the cities reporting “ No” in Question No. 1. 


‘Includes courses in process of revision. 











196 ELEMENTARY Scuoot PrINCcIPALS 





Many cities made comments in replying to this question. The 
following are a few from cities which intend to include sample com- 
positions : 

It is a good idea. 

We have our samples collected and specimens chosen. 

Yes, I think standards are fine. We like the Chicago English course of study, 
We have in mind and have had in mind for some time the idea of doing this 


very thing. We hope to make a beginning this semester. 
I believe it would be advantageous. Revision being planned. 


Cities not planning to introduce samples commented as follows: 


Under advisement. 

No, but it should. 

No decision yet. 

Have not considered it. 

Texts give samples. 

No, but I can see where it would be of great value. 

I believe children ought always to sce the ideal, if possible. 
Think plan ought to be carefully considered. 


On the basis of these returns it is possible to give partial lists of 
the cities which have sample compositions in their courses of study, 
as follows: 


TABLE 1—Cirres witH Grapep SAMPLE CoMPosITION STANDARDS’ 


EE, crane addincnsuede BOZG 4 «AMOONR, PA. noc oiciccicccccccsces 1924 
Escanaba, Mich. ..............+- 1926 San Francisco, Cal............... 1924 
SS GD See ee 1926 Okmulgee, Okla. ................ 1923 
MOPNMEOR, FR. oc ccccccccccccccscas 1926 Jackson, Mich. ................. 1923 
New Castle, Pa...............06. 1926 Nampa, Idaho .................. 1923 
New Haven, Conn. (developed Hamtramck, Mich. ............. 1923 

during past five years) Chicopee, Mass. Se aehieieleberikin'd clare 1923 
Hannibal, Mo. .......0ccccccese 1925 Sault Ste. Marie, Mich.......... 1922 
POVOR, CO. ccc ickccccaciccas 1925 Lawrence, Mass. ................ 1922 
I UE. Desi ccvccnaceecanas — eee 1922 
pr 1925 Orange, N. J....... : eee 1922 
Minneapolis, Minn. ............. 1925 Wyandotte, Mich. .............. 1922 
Berkeley, Cal. ............cce0s- 1925 Boston, Mass. (in some grades).. 1922 
B,D, oviccvccdccacaece Se MO i cnsniccctcvencsians 1921 
MN TIED ov acicinswacsdiecannes 1924 Mason City, Iowa............... 1920 
Preparers, BEd. own. occ ccccccees 1924 Topeka, Kansas ................ 1920 
Stillwater, Minn. ............... 1924 Providence, R. I................. 1918 


Summary of current practices—At present there is no single 
tendency which predominates. There is a variety of tendencies, the 
most representative of which will be briefly summarized. 

1. City school systems have taken their cue from the makers of 
standard composition scales. At attempt is being made to produce 
similar scales based upon local products. In most cases, however, 


*The writer will be glad to receive additions to these lists. 





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Tur Eigutu YEARBOOK 197 





—_—_ 


these local products do not have scientific validity, but because they 
have been derived from actual classroom work in a given city and 
represent voluntary participation by the local teaching staff, they 
arouse more enthusiasm and interest in objective measurement than 
an outside scale. Home-made standards seem to be in order.’ 

2. The use of well-known objective scales derived with scientific 
precision is found more and more in state and city surveys rather 
than in active classrooms. Few teachers are willing to master scales 
which require a great deal of time and effort. 

3. The elementary school principal may choose from a wealth of 
material relating to the subject and take a definite stand as to stand- 
ards in written composition. 


TABLE 2—Courses or Stupy witH CoMposITION SAMPLES WHICH Lack 
CriticaL Notes 


Alabama State Course.......... Wt TRO. VSi ns hvcccadendeeieeees 1923 
NS eo ciglne cae a arciemesetee 1927 Birmingham, Ala. .............. 1923 
Davenport, LOWS: 5.0.6 ses sccnesee 1926 Laramie, Wyo. ............. .e.. 1923 
RN, WH WRG, 5s. cn hs ciaiseaisideucace 1926 Highland Park, Mich............ 1922 
PUM MONOOEL, Tae. scciicciccssasven 1926 Des Moines, Iowa............... 1922 
Grand Island, Mich.............. ECR Ti CR, Wi. co vkeisrccsesncas 1922 
PE. Os bie acnecncceuedred 1925 Santa Barbara, Cal.............. 1921 
a I apna pooner aren = ROD «PO, Me ioisaikio doe ciaanceacees 1920 
mee Cre. TN. Dice s cccseedie cn Re i re 1920 
POMENGEG: GROGE. xo oo:sics sienna TUOe ‘CRARRIOG, Fhe Bos cisincceecacag ich 1919 
ME Re wadaiscics sce inser 1924 Montana State Course.......... 1918 
Pete Dit, BOK... oc ce sicncnine 1924 Mount Vernon, N. Y............ 1917 
Walt Bive?, Maes... osiscccc cscs. 1924 


TABLE 3.—Cit1rs PLANNING TO INCLUDE STANDARDS IN ReEvisep CourRSsESs 


Saginaw, Mich. 
Fargo, N. D. 

Grand Rapids, Mich. 
Minneapolis. Minn. 
Annapolis, Md. 


Quincy, Mass. 
Clarksburg, W. Va. 
Gary, Ind. 

Kansas City, Mo. 


4, The results of the writer’s national questionnaire indicate a 
growing tendency to include graded annotated composition samples 
as standards in courses of study. One hundred and thirty cities with- 
out standards, plan to adopt them in the near future. 


An ExpEerRIMENTAL Stupy IN THE PHILADELPHIA ScHoorts 


In the light of the problems already discussed and of the brief sum- 
mary of current tendencies in rating written composition, the writer 
conducted a codperative experimental study in District Two of the 


*Wohlfarth, Julia H. Self-Help Methods of Teaching English. World Book Co., 
1925, Chap. XI, “ Composition Standards and Measuring Scales.” 











198 ELEMENTARY Scuoot PrINcIPALS 





Philadelphia school system.’ District Two is one of the 10 districts 
into which the public educational system is divided. It comprises an 
area of approximately eight square miles, contains 19 elementary 
schools, and two junior high schools; in February, 1927, there were 
in Grades 3B to 8B inclusive, 12,000 pupils. 

The purpose of this study was to establish tentative standards in 
written composition, Grades 3B to 8B inclusive in District Two. 

Procedure—Ten representative schools were selected so as to in- 
elude the widest possible range of achievement in the district. In 
order to standardize details of procedure very definite instructions 
were sent to principals and teachers. Compositions based upon the 
requirements of each grade were written by 12,000 pupils. Ten 
representative papers for each grade section, 3B to 8B, were selected 
on the basis of general merit, as follows: 





papers to which the teacher assigned ExceLLent 
papers to which the teacher assigned Goop 
papers to which the teacher assigned Fam 
papers to which the teacher assigned Poor 
papers to which the teacher assigned Very Poor 


bo dh bo bo 


bo 


In this way 1070 papers were chosen. Each of these papers was 
scored by teachers through voluntary codperation. Since the papers 
had already been marked once as submitted by the classroom teacher, 
it was thought best to have them scored nine times more, each time 
by a different scorer or judge. This would give a total of 10,700 
judgment marks for the complete set of papers. 

For the purposes of this study those papers which showed the 
greatest uniformity of judgment would be most desirable and those 
which showed the greatest variation would be least desirable. It 
would be necessary to find at least four papers of each quality (Ex- 
cellent, Good, Fair, Poor, Very Poor) within each grade to be used 
as a reasonable working basis. If arbitrary weights were assigned 
to each quality, 7. e., Excellent 5, Good 4, Fair 3, Poor 2, Very 
Poor 1, it would be possible to select those papers which showed 
greatest uniformity. Thus perfect scores would be Excellent 50, 
Good 40, Fair 30, Poor 20, Very Poor 10—or ten similar scores 
for each paper. In this case, to have found the median for each paper 
would not show its relative position nearly so well as the weighting 


method. 


*For complete details see: Berman, Samuel. Standards in Written Compost- 
tion: An Experimental Study in District Two of the Philadelphia Public School 
System. Temple University, Philadelphia, Pa., 1928. 





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Tue Eiantn YEARBOOK 199 





Even with 1070 papers from which to make a selection it was 
difficult to find 20 papers for each grade. In all there were only 44 
compositions in which the scores were in absolute agreement—less 
than five percent of all the compositions: E’s 7, G’s 3, F’s 9, P’s 11, 
V. P’s 14. However, there were 109 papers with nine scores in agree- 
ment. On the basis of the 220 papers selected the representation is 
as follows: 


Number Number of Percent 
of Papers Similar Scores of 220 
eS pane: 10 (perfect agreement) ..............00. 20.0 
DNs 5 atoca'srarbe ns. a:austs ONG We NO seis s.ias esa cdenssixzaswens 49.5 
cic wicsaip mas aires SD CE ONG ONO icc inkeivssawnenacanue 26.8 
Sse Correia © UME OR CRO io iiicaeacrnswiwrnanveem cea 3.7 


While a composite of multiple teacher judgment is more relia- 
ble than individual judgment, it certainly is not so reliable as to be 
accepted without some objective check. For this reason each of the 
220 compositions selected was scored ten times by trained experts 
using the Hudelson English Composition Seale. These experts are 
on the staff of the Central High School, St. Paul, Minnesota, a school 
which has produced the Saint Paul Central High School Composition 
Scale. 

3. The most important check, however, was to determine each 
composition’s approach to the national standards set up by Hudelson 
for the grade concerned. If “ fair” represents a quality midway 
between excellent and very poor, then the national standards which 
are the median or middle scores could be interpreted as the “ fair ” 
standard for the grade on the basis of a five-point quality grouping. 
With this in mind the writer had the compositions scored by these 
10 experts. A further selection reduced the total to 101 papers. 
Each paper now had two scores: the multiple judgment mark in terms 
of Excellent, Good, Fair, Poor, or Very Poor; and second, the 
median score of 10 experts who used the Hudelson Scale. 

4. The compositions so selected would fail of their purpose if 
they were returned to the teachers with two scores. A further analy- 
sis seemed to be necessary. Therefore, a committee of ten teachers 
and principals was chosen to study the papers for the purpose of 
analyzing their merits and demerits. This codperative study would 
furnish a means for diagnosis of the compositions selected, show how 
closely they conformed to the requirements of the Philadelphia course 
of study in English, and indicate typical weak spots for drill pur- 
poses. Criticisms of each paper were summarized under two heads: 
positive and negative. 








200 ELEMENTARY Scuoot PRINCIPALS 





Results—In accordance with procedure briefly explained, we now 
have 101 representative samples which can be used as tentative 
standards in written composition. The following, for example, are 
the tentative standards for grade 4A (first half of fourth year) : 


4A GRADE 
Excellent 


Hudelson Score 3.2 


4A GrabE 
Paper No. 116 


Mary’s Pets 


One summer day Mary was walking along the road. She heard a 
noise in the bushes. She looked all around. Then she looked in the 
bushes and saw two hungry kittens. She took them home and gave 
them some smik. When they were done they both ran into the barn. 
They both tumbled into the hay, and went fast asleep. 


Positive Negative 
Sentences are clear, definite, and There is no paragraph indention. 
personal. An adequate “sentence “ Smik.” 
consciousness” is indicated. One 
sentence leads to the next. The last 
sentence is an effective closing. 


Excellent 
Hudelson Score 3.1 


4A GrRabE 
Paper No. 103 


My Pet 


One day my father was out. When he came home he had three little 
Puppy dogs. He kept one and gave the other two away. I used to 
feed him. We called him “ Duk”. I would say to him “ here Duk” 
He would come jumping all over me. He grew so big we had to give 
him to my uncle. We went up to see him a month ago. He was so 
big and hairy! His hair was five inches long! He is an airdale, and 
I still love him. 


Positive Negative 





This composition has the merit of 
clear sentences. These seem to be 
abrupt, but they lead to a definite 
conclusion. They are personal and 
give specific details. 

“T still love him ” is effective. 


First sentence is indefinite—“ one 
day” and “out.” “Puppy” is capi- 
talized. “Duk” probably “Duke.” 
Quotation “here Duk.” “He is an 
airdale” seems to be in the wrong 
position. There is no _ paragraph 
indention. 








Tur Eienutu YEARBOOK 201 





Good 4A GrapDE 
Hudelson Score 2.8 Paper No, 124 


The Fox and the Grapes. 


Once a fox was walking along a rood. When he saw a grape vine 
He wanted the grapes very much. After a while when he saw that 
he could not reach the grapes he said those grapes are sour anyway 
who would eat them. I like the story because I wanted to see if the 
fox got the grapes for being so greedy. 


Positive Negative 


Sentences are clear and lead to a 
definite conclusion. The last sentence 
might be questioned for its relation- 
ship to the preceding sentences, but it 
gives a personal note to the repro- 
duction. “‘ When he saw ” and “ After 
a while” help to vary sentence 
structure. 


Period after title is unnecessary. 
Misspelling of road. “ He” in second 
sentence should not be capitalized. 


Good 4A GRADE 
Hudelson Score 2.8 Paper No. 134 


Spoiled Fun 


One Sunday my aunt uncle and my cousin and I went to White 
stone beach. My uncle aunt and I went in swiming my little baby 
cousin went with us. My uncle took me in very deep. He took me 
in so deep that my uncles mouth was full of water. I told my uncle 
that I wanted to go with my aunt a little while. 

My uncle took me off his sholders. When I Was going to my aunt 
I steped on a piece of glass and cut my foot thats how my fun was 





spoild. 
Positive 


Exactness of details and a dramatic 
ending put this composition in the 
“good ” group. 


Negative 


Punctuation weak: “stone beach,” 
commas missing in first and second 
sentences; “uncles,” no period after 
foot, no capital “T” or apostrophe 
in “thats.” Misspelling: “steped” 
“spoild,” “ swiming.” 











202 ELEMENTARY Scuoo.t PRINCIPALS 





Fair 4A Grave 
Hudelson Score 2.3 Paper No. 150 


Marion and her shepherd dog 


Once there was a little who was playing on the beach, with her 
bucket and shovel. Her little shovel fell in the water, She tried to 
get it but she fell in the water herself. She cried for help, The dog 
heard her calling down the beach, he heard the little voice crieding 
he knew it was his play maid so he ran down the beach and bought 
her back to land. 


Positive Negative 
This composition proceeds from an Structure is involved in last “ sen- 
introduction through a body of detail tence.” Punctuation really at fault 
to a definite ending. in the use of commas. “In” is used 


for “into”; misspelling—“ crieding,” 
“play maid,” “ bought.” 


Fair 4A GRADE 
Hudelson Score 2.6 Paper No. 155 


Mary’s Pat 


Mary lives in a ald farm house in the country. One day Mary wint 
to take a walk in the woods. She saw two little kitten in the bushes. 
She got them and brought them home 

She got a saucer of milk and Whitey was drinking his milk. 

They had to take a turn each. 

Every day Mary made them drink milk. 


Positive Negative 
Sentence structure is’ generally Poor idea of form; sentences 
definite. An attempt at telling an do not immediately follow after each 
interesting episode is made. “ They other. The seventh sentence about 
hed to take a turn each” is naive. “Whitey ” is not clear. Misspelling 


“nat,” “kitten,” “wint.” Vocabulary 
is limited. 











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Tue ErantuH YEARBOOK 203 





Poor 4A GRADE 
Hudelson Score 1.5 Paper No. 158 


The Dog and His Shadow 


A dog ocme had a piece of meat. He had to go across a stream to 
his house. on the way he look down in the water and sed his shadow. 
He thought tohimsaf. I will get meat them a will have twa piece of 
meat. So he bark at the dog and the piece of meat fell out of his 
mouth. and learm the greedy dog a lesson. and he had to go home 
without his dinnner 


Positive Negative 
The thought is clear and proceeds Mechanical elements spoil this 
definitely to a climax. composition. 


Misspelling: “ ocme ”—once 

“sed ”—said 

“ tohimsaf ”—to himself 

“twa ”—two 

“learm ”—learn (teach) 

“ dinnner ”—dinner 

Punctuation is faulty; see “sen- 
tences ” 3 and 4. 


Poor 4A GRADE 
Hudelson Seore 1.4 Paper No. 176 


The Ants and the Grasshoppers 


Once upone a time their was some Ants and some Grasshoppers it 
was summer time The ants where very busy in the summer time 
and the Grasshoppers jumping over fences a playing in the grass 
and haveing a very good time. And the ants were doing very hard 
work. then winter came the grasshoppers were hungry the Ants were 
gatheraten food for winter 


Positive Negative 
General thought is clear. This composition lacks “ sentence 
sense.” Proper use of periods is nct 
indicated. Misspelling: “ upone,” 


“their,” “gatheraten,” “haveing.” 











204 ELEMENTARY Scrroot PrRINcIPALs 





Very Poor 4A Grave 
Hudelson Score 1.2 Paper No. 187 


The New Skates 


I have a pear of Skates and eney day. 

I Skates to The store and The school. 

My Mothe take me to store whit here. 
Enery day I go out Skates om my Skates. 


Positive Negative 


Form is immature; there is no 
“sentence sense.” Spelling and 
punctuation are at fault; capitaliza- 
tion is particularly bad. “The” 
“ Skates,” “ Mothe.” 


Very Poor 4A GrabE 
Hudelson Score 1.0 Paper No. 191 


Spoiled Fun 


My uncil tock me on his truck and my uncil hot flow and I went 
to chitch it I omost fel off the truck and thaits hea my Fun wes 
Spoiled. 

Positive Negative 


Leads to a conclusion. All written in one sentence. Spell- 
ing, punctuation, and sentence sense 
completely at fault, 


Interpretation and application—An analysis of each paper for 
merits and defects in the form of positive and negative comments 
yields a basis for diagnostic testing and remedial teaching with every 
class at the beginning of each new term. Since these comments are 
in conformity with the requirements of the course of study in English, 
they really furnish the teacher with a definite evaluation of the quali- 
ties of excellent, good, fair, poor, and very poor at the beginning of 
each term. While it must be admitted that no composition ever can 
be exactly like a given sample, there will be enough specific simi- 
larities to warrant a tabulation of the errors most common to a given 
class at the beginning of a school term. This should furnish a reli- 
able working basis for instruction. 








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THe ErautH YEARBOOK 205 





2. These tentative standards can be printed on one long sheet like 
a spelling scale or handwriting scale. The teacher can place this 
before him when rating a set of papers. 

3. If the teacher finds that at the very beginning of the term his 
class equals or excels the good quality median, he should attempt 
the “excellent ” quality as his goal. In this connection, he should 
note that the composition standards of the next higher grade are 
equivalent to the compositions of his class at the end of the term. 
That is, the beginning-of-term standards for the next higher grade 
can be interpreted as his end-of-term standards. 

4, Any principal can readily discover the achievement level in 
written composition of his school in Grades 3B to 8B. If at the 
beginning of each term, he has each teacher collect a set of composi- 
tions in conformity with the procedure outlined and then has the 
teacher score them with the use of the tentative standards, he will 
have a distribution of scores for each grade. If the median quality 
is not “ good,” he can at once assume that a given class is not up 
to standard. He may discover plateaus of achievement, or places 
in the school organization where there is no perceptible gain in 
achievement. This condition can be detected by means of the ap- 
proximate or “check” scores. In conference with the teacher con- 
cerned, he can suggest a plan for the improvement of instruction. 
A discussion, too, of standards in written composition would make 
an interesting and valuable professional meeting with his faculty. 

5. No beginning teacher should be allowed to score a set of com- 
positions without some insight into the technic of scoring and with- 
out some definite objective standards. In practice schools these ten- 
tative standards can be used to advantage. They will be of help to 
the student-teacher and will give the training teacher a definite basis 
for criticism. While the proposed standards may not be in keeping 
with any other district’s achievement, they are decidedly better than 
no standards at all. 

6. These tentative standards are not intended for pupil’s use. 
They are solely for the use of teachers. 


ConcLusION AND SuMMARY 


(a) Every elementary school principal should meet the challenge 
of a subject difficult to measure. He should delve into its com- 
plexities and help his teachers to objectify their judgments. If his 
particular scheol district. does not have a set of standards in written 
composition, his own school should. 











206 ELemMentary Scuoont PrIncripats 





(b) While emphasis has been placed upon the “ good” quality 
composition as the median for any given class at the beginning of 
the school term, this study shows the wide range of achievement pos- 
sible even in a single grade. Samples of five qualities for each grade 
should bring this clearly before the classroom teacher. The critical 
notes appended to each representative paper indicate definitely the 
relative position of papers and show the amount of progress which 
is discernible in each grade. 

(c) Tentative standards based upon local products have the merit 
of measuring that which has been taught or should be taught. Too 
often tests and scales bear no relationship to the actual requirements 
of local course of study. Therefore, tentative standards in accord 
with the needs of a given locality are much to be desired. It is to be 
hoped that their use will stimulate a widespread effort to objectify 
teacher judgment in measuring the quality of written compositions. 





HE CONTENTION so often heard that the most re- 

liable mark of the educated man is the character of his 
discourse, especially his deliberate written discourse, has the 
best foundations in our study of the educative process itself. 
And we see clearly again the very important principle that 
some of the best training in composition must of necessity 
come out of its use in the mastery of the subjects which are 
found especially in the science type of teaching but also in 
the appreciation and practical arts types. Further, we see 
how it is that the adaptation must in the nature of things 
come slowly as the result of a long process of intellectual 
growth.—Henry C. Morrison, The Practice of Teaching in | 
the Secondary School, 1926, p. 478. | 














Te 








» 


CHAPTER VII 
CAN WE IMPROVE OUR AMERICAN SPEECH ? 
Epna CotTret 


Teacher in Charge, Department of Correction of Speech Defects, San Francisco 
Public Schools 


INTRODUCTION 


DWARD BOK ealls us “ Lip-lazy Americans.” Is he justified 
kh; in this criticism? Does he inelude us—the members of the 
teaching profession—or does this just apply to the lawyers, 
women’s clubs, and improvement associations? Is it a true criticism ? 
At your next faculty or club meeting—listen, look, and inwardly 
take note. Did you hear that last motion? What was it the speaker 
said? Who was nominated? Then watch the lips of the speaker and 
you will not fail to say that Edward Bok is right. The very fact that 
even the actor, with clear distinct enunciation, is commented on again 
and again, proves its unusual character. Of how many of us could 
it be said, “ Your words bring daylight with you when you speak ” ? 
What are the school people doing about it? Is clear speaking a 
quality born in the child, innate, as brown eyes or curly hair, or is it 
a learned, an acquired trait? And shall its learning be left entirely 
to chance ? 
3ut watch again and this time yourself as well as your students 
and your friends. You are called upon to address the meeting, you 
practiced your speech at home—why did you forget the best part ? 
Why that trepidation in the solar plexus? Why those shaky knees ? 
In the 1928 yearbook,’ the Department of Superintendence in- 
cluded in its statement of educational objectives the following: 


The development of an understanding and an adequate evaluation of the self. 
The development of an understanding and an appreciation of organized socicty. 


Those adjustments involve the elimination of fear, envy, and hatred 
and the cultivation of cheerfulness and goodwill. What more can 
this mean? Does it not mean the understanding of the hidden feel- 
ings and the development of such control and poise as are necessary 
in making our adjustments to people and to situations? Speech is 


"National Education Association, Department of Superintendence. The Sixth 
Year Book, 1928, pp. 51-56. 


[ 207 ] 











208 ELEMENTARY Scuoo.t PRINCIPALS 





the avenue through which we display all of our emotions. In de 
veloping speech control, we cannot fail to develop emotional control 
as well. 

There seem then to be two felt needs in the speech of the children 
and of the adults of today. One is the need of clear, distinct speech 
unmarred by foreign accent or too great provincialism. The other is 
the need of a certain thing which, for lack of a better name, we call 
“ poise ”’—that combination of ease, control, relaxation, confidence, 
and self-reliance that has such a definite bearing on every speech 
situation and on every life situation as well. 

Now, what can we do? The curriculum is so filled now, is there 
room for another subject? Is there time for “ speech improvement ” ? 
Mind you, not elocution, not oratory or dramatics, but just everyday 
speaking. Can a good, clear, pleasing voice and a fair degree of poise 
be acquired by everyone of average intelligence? How can it be done? 
How much time will it take? Can it be handled by the regular class- 
room teacher under a trained supervisor ? 


A Practica ExpPpeERIMENT 


Let me answer the above questions by describing an experiment 
in the San Francisco publie schools. We shall not hold altogether 
to the idea that education is preparation for life and that this work 
may help in earning a better living in the future. But we shall em- 
phasize the newer aim: that it helps today in the book review, tomor- 
row in the basketball game, and the next day at student council. Our 
program required but five minutes of each school day! 

It is plain that the five minute daily drill must include: 

1. The development of poise. 

2. The development of the muscles of the lips, jaw, and tongue, so that the 
mouth opens easily and the muscles move flexibly and without conscious effort. 
This result can be brought about only by the formation of the habit of loose, 
flexible mouth action! 

3. The correction of careless endings, sloppy enunciation of consonants, sounds, 
and combinations. 

Tt is understood, of course, that this work does not aim to correct 
speech defects resulting from a malformation of the jaw or teeth, 
or from the wrong tongue or teeth position, or from any emotional 
maladjustment. Such defects need the care of a specially trained 
teacher, and individual attention. 

The development of potse—The greatest enemy of poise is fear— 
fear of failure, fear of what someone will think of what we say or 
do, fear of criticism and of laughter. Our first step here is to teach 
the children to relax. Relaxation is the physical opposite of fear and 





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Tue Eigutn YEARBOOK 209 





—_——— 


the acquisition of the physical aspect helps to set the emotional atti- 
tude. 

The teacher may illustrate by stories how tight muscles go with 
fear feelings and relaxed muscles with ease and courage. The cat 
sitting by the fire is a perfect picture of relaxation. Lift up one silky 
paw and see how loose and soft the muscles are, how easily the paw 
drops to the floor. But suppose a strange dog comes in the room— 
what a change! Back stiff and arched, legs straightened and even the 
hair of the fur standing out rigidly! What fear has done to the 
muscles ! 

Again—you are riding in the back seat of an auto, over a good 
road with a skilled driver in whom you have perfect confidence. 
How restfully you lean back on the cushions and stretch out your 
feet! But the road is narrow and you know the driver is most inex- 
perienced. What a difference in how you sit! 

Dramatize both these situations and have the children guess from 
your muscles whether you are fearful or at ease. The next step is 
to relax yourself and let some pupil lift your arm and watch it fall. 
A game follows in which the child who lifts your arm tells you 
whether or not it is relaxed. If he is correct, he may be the leader 
in his turn. 

Then have the children sit comfortably in their seats, feet flat on 
the floor and hands resting either on desk or lap. Show them a rag 
doll, preferably the French variety with the long arms and legs, and 
talk about the loose joints. Let the children lift the arms and watch 
them fall. Tell them to make believe that they are rag dolls. 

With quite small children, the following verse by Margaret Gray 
Blanton may be read by the teacher and dramatized by the children: 


Let’s play rag-doll, 

Don’t make a sound! 

Fling your arms and bodies 

Loosely around. 

Fling your hands! Fling your feet! 
Let your heads go free! 

Be the raggest rag-doll 

You ever did see. 


Then the teacher may continue as follows: 


Now that we are all comfortable, close the eyes and let us float away to some 
lovely, still place. There is a beautiful little lake, the sun shines on the water, 
all around I see great trees, so still; and beyond, the tall mountains and the 
blue sky! Just by my feet, the water ripples on a tiny pebble beach, I hear a 
robin sing—everything is so still—I can feel the stillness right through me! 


Sometimes a well-selected poem read by the teacher adds to the 
feeling of relaxation and stillness. Sometimes a peaceful picture sug- 


gests where we would best like to rest. 
6 











210 ELEMENTARY ScHoot PRINCIPALS 





It is said that there are more nervous breakdowns in America than 
in any other country, because the American people have never been 
taught how to relax. 

The children soon realize that this exercise makes them fee] 
“ good ”! One nine-year-old said to his teacher just before his arith- 
metic lesson, “‘ Can’t we have the stillness exercise now?” “ But 
you have already had it this morning.” “ Yes, but I think if I did 
it now, I could get more examples perfect!” In another fourth grade, 
the children were working hard to raise their spelling score and told 
me with pride that when they took the “ stillness exercise ” just 
before the test, they made a better score! An over-grown, sixth 
grade group who were competing in interclass field sports, were sure 
their victory was due to the fact that they all took the stillness exer- 
cise when waiting their turn! 

A variation of the “ stillness exercise ” consists in standing with 
feet parallel and slightly apart, arms and shoulders easy and relaxed, 
neck against coat collar, eyes on level with child’s head in front. 
Hold this for 30 seconds at first, and gradually increase to 60, think- 
ing at the same time: “ stillness, strength, control.” 

When the children can relax readily and enjoy it, help them to 
make mental pictures of themselves the way they want to be. If it 
is throwing a basketball, let each one see himself as calm, steady, 
aiming accurately and sending the ball right in the basket. If it is 
diving, he visualizes the perfect position and the perfect angle at 
which he enters the water. If it is giving a book report, he sees his 
standing position, feels the calmness and ease he desires, and hears 
the clear flowing speech and the applause of his classmates. 

In the daily drill, this relaxing and stillness exercise takes between 
one and one and a half minutes. If done intelligently and regularly, 
it brings astonishing results in poise development. 

The development of flexible mouth-action—The second part of our 
program is the training for easy, flexible mouth-action or the “ slay- 
ing of the Dragon of the Closed Mouth.” 

Start by reciting two verses of poetry to the class. In one case, 
keep the teeth and lips almost closed. In the other verse, use easy, 
flexible mouth-action, but be careful not to caricature and over- 
exaggerate. Ask the children which they could hear the best. Why! 
You may have to repeat a bit to make them see the cause of the dif- 
ference. Perhaps, some of the boys play, or know someone who plays, 
the saxophone or cornet. What happens if you fill the horn with 
three or four soft handkerchiefs? What has become of the sound? 


? 








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Tue Eigutu YEARBOOK 211 





Follow by having the pupils sit with eyes closed and guess at 
which part of the paragraph you had your mouth opened and flexi- 
ble, and at which part closed and tight. Convince them that every- 
one can learn to speak distinctly, if he will train the muscles of the 
jaw, the lips and the tongue to move quickly and easily. But we 
must watch our speech muscles for a while just as the mother watches 
the baby she is training in the right habits of holding the spoon in 
the hand and not turning it over in his mouth. For this reason it is 
desirable that each child have a small pocket mirror so that he may 
watch his jaw and tongue and teeth and sce that they obey orders. 

The following list of mouth gymnastics is taken from several 
sources. Not more than two or three of these exercises should be 
given in one day. About one and a half minutes only of our five 
minutes time allotment is consumed. It is better to vary the exer- 
cises from week to week, using one from jaw, one from lips, and one 
from tongue: 


I. GYMNASTICS FOR JAW: 
1. Up and down. 
Tip back the head. Open the jaw wide and close it 12 times. 
2. Side to side. 
Swing the lower jaw alternately from right to left 12 times, 
3. Thrust. 
Thrust the lower jaw forward and alternately draw it back to position 
12 times. 

4. Biting upper lip. 

Draw down the upper lip and cover the red portion with the lower teeth. 
Alternate with relaxation 12 times. 

. Biting lower lip. 

Place upper teeth over the red portion of the lower lip. Alternate with 
relaxation 12 times. 
6. Biting lower and upper lip. 

Bite first the upper and then the lower lip. Repeat 12 times and gradu- 
ally increase the speed. 

II. Lips. 
1. OO—EE—AH—AW. 

To produce flexibility of the lips, the following series of exaggerated 
vowel positions are given in succession: pucker the lips for oo, expand 
them on ee, drop the jaw and stretch them on ah and finish with aw. 
Then begin again with oo and repeat the series 12 times. First prac- 
tice slowly; then gradually increase the speed. 

2. Lip thrust. 

Stretch the lips forward, as for oo, as far as possible. Then bring them 

back tight against the teeth. Alternate the movements 12 times. 
3. AH—M—AH—OO. 
Stretch the lips well on ah. Give this with a soft breathing tone. 


or 





‘The writer acknowledges help from Mrs. M. F. Gifford, State Department of 
Speech Correction in California, and Miss McKenzie, San Francisco State 
Teachers College. 











212 ELEMENTARY Scuoo.t PRINCIPALS 





III. Gymnastics ror TONGUE. 

1. Drop the lower jaw downward and backward by relaxing the muscles 
completely until two fingers can be placed between the teeth without 
touching them. Take great care that the tongue is not moved out of 
the normal position and that it lies relaxed and still in the floor of the 
mouth. Do this several times. 

2. Drop the lower jaw while mentally counting four. Thrust the tongue 
slowly outward as far as possible without straining the root or touching 
the teeth. Tense the muscles of the tip only. On the fifth beat, relax 
the muscles suddenly and completely, letting the tongue slip back to 
normal position without moving the jaw. 

3. Drop the lower jaw with the tongue in the normal position. While 
mentally counting four, slowly lift the tip until it touches the hard 
palate just back of the front teeth. Tense the muscles of the tip in 
lifting. Relax the muscles of the tip in returning to the normal 
position. 

4. As No. 3, then lift the tip until it touches the soft palate. Relax. Repeat 
a number of times. 

5. Now combine No. 3 and No. 4, touching first the hard and then the soft 
palate. Repeat a number of times. 

6. Tip flop. 

Open the mouth wide, scrape the under side of the tip of the tongue 
against edge of the upper front teeth. Repeat slowly and increase 
the speed. 

7. Sweep the palate. 

Place the tip of the tongue on the edge of the upper front teeth. Sweep 
it back along the palate as far as the tongue will permit. Then sweep 
it forward again to first position. Repeat 12 times. 

8. Dot the palate. 

Take the same position as for sweeping the palate. Make a dotted line 
with the tip on the palate from the teeth to the uvula and return, 
about six dots in each direction. Repeat six times. 

9. Diamond shape. 

Open the mouth wide, curl the tip of the tongue to the middle of the 
upper lip and the middle of the lower lip. Repeat 12 times. Next 
move the tip to the opposite corners rapidly. Then start tip of tongue 
at the right corner of the mouth; touch middle of upper lip, left 
corner; middle of lower lip and return to right corner. Repeat 12 
times. 


Many teachers have students lead the gymnastic exercises while 
they note after each exercise someone who is doing particularly well 
or someone who has made improvement. The best results in all this 
work are obtained by giving much attention to the correct perform- 
ance and ignoring as far as possible the incorrect. 

The radio game with a toy microphone, announcer, and a program 
broadcasted from the dressing room, gives a fine opportunity to show 
the need of clear speech and loose mouth action. 

The correction of carelessness—The correction of sloppy, careless 
endings, of d’s and ¢t’s substituted for th sounds, of n for ng, of s for 
z, w for wh, the adding of final r’s where none should be, really con- 
stitutes a new habit formation. The correction must be made in such 











es 
ut 


in 


wer (8 ot ~ 


=e AD 


we 








Tue Erantu YEARBOOK 213 





a way that it becomes an unconscious mechanism or it will never 
carry over into life situations. This is not an easy problem, for the 
speech correction must not be a thing apart but must be correlated 
with life situations and with other school subjects. The drills must 
hold high interest value. There must be a strong feeling of pleasure 
associated with the correct pronunciation and some slight displeasure 
associated with the incorrect. One must realize always that with 
children and with adults as well, attention is a pleasure, even if the 
attention is uncomplimentary. 

For these reasons, we have developed what we call speech games. 
These are simple guessing games or riddles, with a wide range of sub- 
jectmatter and of difficulty but following the same general principles. 

Perhaps it will make it clearer if I particularize. We will suppose 
a fourth grade is studying the geography and history of California. 
This week’s speech outline calls for work on th and ng. 

A leader is chosen for a geography game. The teacher makes it 
clear that a speech game is like any other game, in that it has rules, 
and if you do not follow them, you cannot win. She then writes the 
following speech rules on the board, bringing out the point that the 
rules make the game more enjoyable, because they give everybody, 
even the boy ’way at the back of the room, a fair chance to hear 
everything. 


SpeecH GAME RULES 


1. Good, easy standing position without touching chair or desk. (One looks 
better this way and we have to look at the leader) 

2. Wide, easy mouth action. (Then we all can hear) 

3. Correct th, ng and other endings. (So we can copy the leader) 


If the leader disobeys any rule, he must lose his chance and take 
his seat. If the pupil who is guessing disobeys, the leader must say: 
“T cannot answer you because you have broken Rule Blank” (Rule 
1, 2, or 3, as the case may be). In case the leader fails to do this, he 
loses his own turn. The game proceeds very much as follows: 

Leader: I am thinking of a valley where they raise many prunes. Guess what 
it is. (All pupils with an idea stand, being careful to follow Rule 1.) 

Pupil: Are you thinking of San Joaquin Valley? 

Leader: No, I am not thinking of San Joaquin Valley. 

Pupil: Are you thinking of Santa Clara Valley? 

Leader: Yes, I am thinking of Santa Clara Valley. 

So the game goes on, the one answering correctly becoming leader. 
Other speech games may take in streets, rivers, automobiles, charac- 
ters in history or fiction, flowers, animals, airplane routes, explorers, 
inventions, and so forth. 








214 ELEMENTARY Scuoou Principats 





Lip reading games call attention unconsciously to mouth action. 
Here is a simple one for a second or third grade. The teacher reads 
or recites some short verse, as: 

What are little girls made of? 


Sugar and spice and all things nice. 
That’s what little girls are made of. 


What are little boys made of? 
Scissors and snails and puppy-dogs’ tails. 
That’s what little boys are made of. 


She recites it again, telling pupils to watch her lips. She then gives 
one line with lip action only, being careful not to exaggerate. The 
one guessing may become leader, but if the tongue protrudes for the 
s sounds or does not take the right position for the th, he must lose 
his turn. 

These give you but an outline of how games may be used in speech 
improvement. The game work is adapted to classes of from 30 to 
40, and it must be good, because it works! 

General technic—What we aim to do is to have the speech muscles 
function perfectly when the conscious mind is interested in an en- 
tirely different subject. If we can put this over, the correction will 
carry into life situations. Also, associating the correct form with 
the pleasure of being the leader and the center of the attention in 
the entire group does much toward setting it emotionally. The end 
is lost if we allow attention to be directed toward the incorrect per- 
formance, either by reprimand, by repetition, or by any attention 
whatsoever. The whole attention is to be focused on the correct 
performance, or else speech games are valueless. 

Audience reading in which three or more children compete is valu- 
able if handled constructively, and if the emphasis is placed not on 
the standard of the result achieved but on the improvement made. 
Have the class act as as judges and at the close of the contest, report 
those pupils who have made improvement in the following: 

Good, easy standing position 
Relaxed, pleasing tone quality 
Flexible mouth action. 


Good pauses so that the meaning is made clear to the audience 
Better “ seeing the picture ” by the reader that the audience may see it also 


$ > $9 b0 


If some pupil shows no improvement, just say nothing. It is sur- 
prising what silence can do. Even the finest can become a little finer. 
Someone has said: 

Good speaking, like singing, can never be measured by absolute standards. 


There is always room for growth. Perhaps the pronunciation can be made a little 
neater,—the voice, more pleasant,—the tone, rounder. 





=~ Ss > 3 


ow 











Tuer EiantuH YEARBOOK 215 





Much criticism has been directed against American speech because 
of its strident, unpleasant quality. Is this a thing apart? Or is it 
simply an indication of a tenseness, a ceaseless activity, a too great 
stimulation, a lack of relaxation which is so characteristic of many 
American people. What can a classroom teacher, with little under- 
standing of voice placement do, to start his children in the right 
direction ¢ 

In the first place, he can use a relaxed tone himself, coming from 
the diaphragm and not from a hard tight throat. 

The following exercise may help to develop this relaxed condition : 

Sit in a relaxed position, place the hand lightly on the diaphragm 
and, as it goes back, give a whispered “ah.” Repeat this five times 
and then give it with three-fourths whisper and one-fourth tone. 
Then half whisper and half tone. Follow this with a line of poetry 
given in the same way. 

When the teacher has mastered this simple exercise, he is ready 
to introduce the subject to his class by a group discussion. Start the 
discussion by reading a selection first in a relaxed, easy tone, and 
then in a hard throaty tone. Ask the pupils which tone is easier to 
listen to, which is easier on the speaker, which irritates, and which 
soothes, which produces huskiness, and which has great endurance. 

The children find it interesting to test for tones with the most air 
by holding their hands in front of their mouths while giving a line 
of poetry. This test helps one to deduce why the relaxed tone has a 
better carrying quality. 


SuMMARY AND ConcLUSIONS 


Is the above program too much to put over in a short five-minute 
drill? Let us see: 


Activity Time in Minutes 
> rare desi avaip eae breDarainiate ie ante arenes 1 
SIRs odcncccrccenscenaenseeausddaneeeenee tenia 1.5 
INN ek ocira. wamacih oe komme swat d asia ee caiee aaa one eee ete 2.5 

PRO «a, arsrciosk 0) ccdin acai waeus lo Sk a urd are Dae eee 5.0 


Naturally, it needs planning and planning by a speech expert. 
The work must be so arranged that all types are covered by the end 
of a semester. There needs to be sufficient variety in speech games 
to take in the words whose pronunciation you feel has need for cor- 
rection. 

In our school system outlines covering a twenty-week program 
have been made by the Speech Department for schools with large 
foreign enrolments, 7. e., Italian and Spanish. Entirely different 











216 ELEMENTARY Scuoo.t PRINCIPALS 





outlines, also for 20 weeks, have been made for schools where the 
children all come from English-speaking homes. Other programs 
are needed for schools where a large majority of the children are of 
Japanese or Chinese parentage. Other variations are needed when 
the children come from homes where Russian is spoken. 

Successful work depends, not only on good planning and a regular 
time set for the five-minute lesson, but on supervision. The best of 
teachers will profit by seeing an expert demonstrate just how the lesson 
should be carried on. Without regularity in such work, the teacher 
will form few new habits. 

Also, the idea must be sold to the classroom teacher and to the 
principal. Both must be convinced that the work is good, that it is 
needed, and that it will bring the desired result. It cannot be forced 
on any group. The five-minute work must be a happy time for both 
the teacher and the pupils, if we are to attain our goals. 

In the junior high schools, the work must be introduced in such 
a way that the pupils will feel the necessity for it and want to do it. 
It is not difficult to establish this attitude, and the time spent is well 
worth while. 

Start with stories illustrating the value of good speech in business. 
All junior high pupils are interested in their earning capacity in the 
near future. Show what an influence it has in salesmanship, in the 
law, in real estate, in the ministry, in politics, and its value even in 
an automobile mechanic. This point can be brought out by the story 
of the young fellow who lost his first job because the foreman could 
not waste time in forever asking him to repeat. The value of good 
speech in organizations, professional clubs, unions, is evident from 
the influence it gives the easy, clear speaker in directing the activi- 
ties of the society. In social life, the ability to speak easily and pleas- 
antly adds tremendously to the amount of pleasure for yourself and 
for others. We do not need to stress how much the whole class enjoys 
hearing a clear speaker give a report. How much time and energy 
and nerve strain are saved to everyone in the school group by dis- 
tinct, pleasing voices ? 

Dramatize and illustrate by stories the Two Dragons that inter- 
fere with good speech. The first Dragon is Lack of Poise, such as 
stage fright, nervousness, forgetting, becoming confused and hurry- 
ing. The Dragon of the Closed Mouth causes indistinct speech, 
mumbling, poor endings, and so on. 

The speech work in the junior high schools must include some 
work in helping children to understand themselves. There are innu- 
merable stories in any book on mental hygiene or behavior problems 





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18 
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Tue E1tentuH YEARBOOK 217 





to illustrate the causes back of everything. The cause may be a 
material one, as in the story of The Bridge of San Inis Rey ; it may 
be a hidden memory, as in The Teacher and the Wind Storm; it may 
be an unexpressed, unthought desire, as in the many examples of shell 
shock; or it may be an association, as shown by the knee jerk. 

From this, take up the question of fears. The fears innate, the 
fears learned, and most important, how fears can be overcome. The 
development of the anger instinct and the various stages of the love 
instinct are of tremendous interest to the adolescent. The sublima- 
tion of all these instinctive urges can be illustrated by stories. Ex- 
periences can be made real and something possible of attainment. 

An idea of how we think, of day-dreaming, and of “ wish-think- 
ing” may help these young people to understand themselves. They 
need to realize that happiness, our ultimate desire, comes through 
adjustment. 

Lack of space makes it impossible to go into a more detailed ac- 
count of this supplemental speech work and of the detailed 20 week 
outline of the general speech improvement work. If you are inter- 
ested, write to the author, for we have before us a great problem. 
Our great task may be solved by working and thinking together. 





RAINING IN SPEECH deals with two large educa- 

tional purposes. First, it unites with all other agencies 
in education to enable the student to develop thought power, 
to develop ideas, to find the “ something to say.” But, sec- 
ondly, and more especially, it deals with the training to 
which one should subject himself in order that he may be 
able to communicate fully his own ideas to the mind of 
the auditor—Glenn N. Merry, Better-Speech Year. The 
National Council of Teachers of English, 1924, p. 9. 


ce 




















CHAPTER VIII 


A SURVEY OF ELEMENTARY SCHOOL PUPIL 
REPORT FORMS 


Francis E. Homer 
Principal, Kelley School, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania 


HIS SURVEY of pupil report forms for elementary grades’ 

was made to ascertain the conditions which prevail throughout 

the country, and on the basis of existing practices to formulate 
a report form superior to those being used at the present time. 

The procedure consisted in obtaining and studying sample report 
forms from the principal cities throughout the country. Alaska, 
Hawaii, Philippine Islands, and the five states of Mississippi, Ar- 
kansas, South Dakota, New Mexico, and Nevada failed to respond. 
Cities in the remaining 43 states and Porto Rico sent forms for 
study. The number of responses totaled 224. The distribution of 
the replies by states is indicated in Table 1 and the subsequent 
discussion. 


TABLE 1.—Partiau DistrisuTION oF THE Repwies By States 


NUMBER NUMBER 

State or District or CITIES State or District or CITIES 
Massachusetts .............200c0ee Me WE ccc cntcccsmnncs eativaceeen 6 
ME ME atctecsccctuckasmeceuce he i eae ka hn Ohancdee ns 6 
OE as ices eutacaeee memes I 5 2059s wih anak Wa mace 6 
EN ines casi sauaeneoeoemaken 14 Connecticut ...............c eee 5 
PORMMVIVOMIG. 6.0 c ccc ccccccceccnse I dn enains 3a pamacaaca catnake 5 
ae ; ieee mdienaeaes ed be puree 5 
IIL, kc csica cauneweionawecae’ Re basing - od caboa Sowa awens 5 
BE ace ncasvacsdweansim ey 9 Washington .......... a ee eels 5 


Four replies were received from each of the following states: 
Maine, Rhode Island, Maryland, Texas, Montana; three replies each 
from Vermont, South Carolina, Georgia, Minnesota, Missouri, Okla- 
homa, Colorado; two replies each from New Hampshire, Delaware, 
North Carolina, Alabama, Tennessee, Nebraska, Kansas, Louisiana, 
Wyoming, Oregon; and one reply each from West Virginia, North 
Dakota, Idaho, Utah, Arizona, Porto Rico, and the District of 
Columbia. 


*This report constituted a part of the work of a committee appointed by 
Dr. Samuel L. Chew, Superintendent of District No. 5, Philadelphia, Pa. 


{ 218 ] 








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Tue E1ieutu YEARBOOK 219 





GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS OF Puptts’ Reports 


Time covered—Sixty-five and one-half percent of the cities have 
cards which cover an entire year. The remaining 34.5 percent of the 
cards are for one term only. 

Frequency of issue—In slightly over one-third of the cities re- 
ports are made out each month. Three issues per term is second 
with 28.7 percent. Nineteen and one-half percent of cities give re- 
ports twice each term. Four reports per term are given by 13.3 per- 
cent. Bi-monthly reports are given by 3.5 percent. Issues of once 
and three times a year are used by one city each of those reporting. 

Subjects listed—Fifty-five percent of the cities name general school 
subjects only, while 42.9 percent list general subjects, habits, and 
attitudes. Three cities list no subjects, but space is given for any 
report which the teacher deems appropriate. Two cities list habits 
and attitudes only. 

Sequence of subjects—Approximately 67 percent of the forms list 
the subjects in the order of importance. About 14 percent of the 
listings are irregular. Subjects are arranged according to related 
groups on 11.2 percent of the forms. Alphabetical order is used by 
8.4 percent. 

Marking symbols—Forty percent use the symbols A, B, C, and so 
forth. The letters E, G, F, and so forth (standing for excellent, 
good, and fair) are used by 28 percent. Marking on the basis of 100 
is used by 14.8 percent; on the basis of five by three percent; on the 
basis of 10 by 1.3 percent; on the basis of four by 1.3 percent; and 
on the basis of six by .4 percent. Four cities use either “ satisfac 
tory’ and “ unsatisfactory ” or the plus and minus signs. 

Explanations to parents—About three-fourths of the forms con- 
tain brief explanations for the home. In about one-fourth, the cards 
give lengthy explanations. Only about five percent omit explanations 





entirely. 

More than one-half of the reports contain brief advice. Lengthy 
advice is given on about one-tenth. The remaining reports omit this 
item. 

Parents are definitely invited to visit the schools in two-thirds of 
the cities, while in almost as many the codperation of the home with 
the school is requested. 

Size—Cards approximately four inches by six inches are used by 
45 percent of the cities replying. Seventeen percent use the folder 
size. Two percent use small booklets. 











220 ELEMENTARY Scuoot PrIncrpats 





Color—White prevails in over three-fifths of the cities. Yellow 
is used by 18.6 percent, tan by 9.5 percent, and blue by 4.2 percent. 
Gray, salmon, pink, brown, and green are in evidence from 1.7 per- 
cent to .4 percent of the forms. 


Miscetianeous Irems on Report Forms 


Diagram 1 shows the percent of cities listing attendance, lateness, 
conduct, and other miscellaneous items. It will be seen, for example, 
that “ days or sessions absent ”’ is listed in 95 percent of cases. The 
item “ dismissed early,” frequently used in New England, is listed 
by 14.7 percent of the 224 cities. The other items concerning at- 
tendance vary from 9.3 percent for “ number of school days” to 3.7 
percent for “ days or sessions present.” 

With the exception of 4.5 percent, all the report forms studied list 
“days or sessions late.” Only four cities have the item “ minutes 
lost by lateness.” 


DIAGRAM 1—MiIscet._angous Items on Report Carps 

















Seruects Ze i iz 2° 22. cos £ rT? ze ge an 
Attensence “7 
Days or Sessions Ansent|f! a 
Dismisses E arly a 
Ne. of School Days 173 
Tikege! Absence fo 
E xeused Absence + 
Days or Sessions Present 3 
Lateness 
Days or Sessions Late |* 
Minutes Loot oy L qtevess| 7 
Condyet 
or Citizenship 6 
caus Hoe oe se eae Me: 
or Industry 


re | 


Tntermation Regering |, 























Exemingtions- 
Information Regarding 62 
Health 
of Papil Z 
Rating = 
Not Indicated TS EE 
Average = 
Genera! Standing id 
Total 47 
Present Standing 43 
Scholarship 43 
Rank any | 








S40 i @ets cA 7] - 2 iz. 4s F cc . ae = 




















sh 


sit 


fo 


at’ 
an 
tw 
on 
cil 
ou 


Or 


hi 








Tue Eiantu YEARBOOK 221 





More than three-fourths of report cards list “‘ conduct or citizen- 
ship.” In most of the others, compensation is made for the omis- 
sion by the listing of appropriate habits and attitudes. 

Likewise, “effort or industry” is listed by 59.8 percent of the 
forms. Cities omitting this item, list appropriate habits and 
attitudes. 

The next three items in Diagram 1 regarding ‘‘ promotions, 
aminations,” and “ health of pupil” are self-explanatory. 

The last item referred to in Diagram 1 is the rating of pupils. In 
two-fifths of the cities no general rating is indicated. In a little over 
one-third, an average of marks is used. In 19.6 percent of the 224 
cities “ general standing” is the term employed. Other miscellane- 
ous items are shown in the diagram. 


? 66 oy. 


GENERAL Sussects Listep on Report Forms 


Diagram 2 shows the 44 general subjects which are found printed 
on report forms in typical cities of the United States. Arithmetic 
leads with 97.7 percent. Reading, handwriting, English, spelling, 
history, geography, art education, and music follow very closely with 
percents varying from 96.4 for the first to 89.2 for the last. 

From this point down the bars of the graph decrease in length 
very rapidly to the infrequent mention of subjects such as memory 
poems and humane instruction. A study of the diagram will show 
that subjects of more general application are the most widely listed. 
Subjects of more specific application are much less frequently named. 

The subjects which lead the list with percentages above 90 are of 
broad application. So likewise are health education, shop work, physi- 
cal education, and civics, ranging from 71.8 to 49.1 percent. In con- 
trast, agriculture and orchestra are given limited consideration. 

A study was made of the report cards as to the average number 
of school subjects and the average number of habits and skills. Al- 
though the data were incomplete, there is evidence that certain cities 
and states consider it relatively unimportant to report upon the pupil’s 
personal qualities. 











222 ELEMENTARY ScHoot PRINCIPALS 





DIAGRAM 2.—Percent or Cities Listinc GENERAL ScHoot SusBJEcTS ON 
Report Carbs 








rte me Cconcnics 
C tthing Sewing 20 


Literature bs 

General Science '223 
Ce oking Ft 
Narure Study 163 
Hlandwork 74 
Written E ngiieh /t 

Ay feultare oe 
Oret E mgtisn se 
Phenies 58 
A Igebea £3 
Auditerian 26 
Sociology 26 
L ibrery 2.2 
Bockhkeeping “7 
Declemation “7 
Heme Reading 17 
Orchestre fn 


Mechanical Draw |/ 2 
Cureent Events jo 
General Lessons [08 
Word Study os 
Desk Work Cry 
Extra School Activity Oo“ 
Health Pregran o4 
Humane Tnstruction o4 
MemeryPoems a4} 
No. Letters Writ lo} 
Typing a4 f 





























ae mo ve 7° *o ve se ro oI ‘oa 
erthmetic ne 
Reading %4 
1 
FHanawrsting 859) 
E egteh 98: 
S palling ws 
Flistery +. 
Greegeaphy 141 
Aw Eo. Draw [924 
Music a2 
Health Ea ue 
Shep Work 62 
Pile « Gym [8 
Cives 191 
G@ ammar 3g 




















Sarjiaces eo a 20 4° se re ? eo To Fo 700 











a . es .. 4. ham An eaneae COS oo > 





msl 





Tue Eigutu YEARBOOK 





Hasits anp Artirupes Listep on Report Forms 


Diagrams 3 and 4 give 163 habits and attitudes arranged accord- 


DIAGRAM 3.—Percent or Cities with Hasir anp Artirupge Items on 
Report Carps 























a | 











Section i. Seetion 2. 
Subpsects e le Subjects 
ourtesy er PBliteness 18.7 Attention 
Cooperation 74 Fretp fainess 
Seit Contest 156 Interest in Work 
Neatness 4-2 Whispers’ Tee Maeb 
Heath Merits 12.9 Crheertatness 
Obedience Rs Loyalty 
Atttude towards Work Te} Manners or Goes Mamers 
Dependevieness Ws Perseverence 
Shows Improvement in Work 10.7 A pplication 
Lrattention 102 Attendance 
Premptness ge Honesty 
Citizenship 93 Initiative 
Wastes Time 93 Copies 
Anneys Others 9.9 Lndotent 
Caperie of Doing Much Better a9 Accuracy 
Care of Property £9 Concentration 
Cleanliness £97 Hapits of Stusy 
Consideretion of Others %9 Restless 
Werk is Carelessly Dene a9 Seldom Does Weil 
Industry 24+ Seis Direction 
Theift ¥4 Respect for Property 
Care of Scheot Material ro Truth fulness 
Seif Reliance ee Obeys Watlingly or Creerfully 
Shews Improvement in Conduct fo Personal Appearance 
Enceteat, Commendabic - Mery Coemnene. 175 Tries Te De Best Work 
Gets To Help 75 Tru stwo.-thiness 
Gives U, Too Easily 75 Workmanship 
Very Good or Ex. oe Commend. in Conduct 12.5 Hapits Incleding Citizenship , ete 
Very Setrsfectory in Restations or Werk 175 Independence i» Work 
Conce FRerly Frepared a) Leadersmp 
Fane Panes Viens ns Minne  SAee 
Recitations CArrrude fewere) A] Team Work 
E consiny Sf Time ana Matersats éé A ppre satvon 
Inctinee to Mischies 63 Clear Trinnong 
Respeet for Aatnorty | 6% Conserventiousness 
Ordcrtiness 62 Ca.cage 
Appears Nut te Try a8 Durgence 
Pamctuality Se D, scourteous 
Rade or Discourteous at Times Sy Does Good Worr or Daing Weil in 
Work «f Grate Too Diffieult £8 Aavits Filaeg t Surjects of Stuty 
Werk Shows A Faiting Or Se Liacn of Effect J 
Sursects 0 —— 10 a) tubieets D 






































224 ELEMENTARY Scuoont PrINcIPALS 





ing to the frequency of mention. Figures are presented in percent 
of the total number of 224 cities. 


DIAGRAM 4.—Percent or Cities witn Hasit ano Attitupe ITeMs on 
Report Carps 


























Section 3. Section 4 
paby get 8 10 4 Subsects le te 2k 
feeds Encouragement 13 Genera Inteligence a 
RRegaerity 3 Generesity ard Brostmundedness 0. 
Sedeot Interest 13 Gotten Rute in Factice 04 
Scdeat Service 13 Favits of Work 0. 
Speech 43 Insolence 0 
Studwasness 4a Interest in Community Welfare oO. 
Apprecietion of FRoper Use ot Money [0.88 Interest in FRysieat Wen Being 0. 
Aste Geet Questions oa Interest or Subjects 0) 
C aretutness osp Lack of Com 04 
Crharecter: Baurtiing osp Lifeless, Fssitly Due to Late Foaral 0 
Civibty of Speen ose Mechaniest Skil 6. 
Di sevedience op dboreiy ree} 
Dysoraer osm Masica Skin i oa 
theme Staty ose Needs Home Enoceregement on 
Theme Work osp Patrietism ong 
Indifference oop Prysicat Energy oa 
Tevespensidle ose Pigs Freely og 
Wisdness osm Pays Hare and Fair oe 
Mere Stuty Needed oon FRide in Fersonat Appearance ow 
Opservation ose FRegress in Havits 04g 
RRepares Anignments Weil oss Parposesuiness ost 
Schoo! Spirit oop Readily Aggits Mustares ant Tries te | 049 
Secsedility osm Reasoning oe om 
Willingness te Render Fare Service [08 7 Resents Correction oW 
Ability to Think and Dis Independent. Work |0 4 Sees His Tek Theovgh 04 
Ability in Verious Branches of Staty og Sense of Hamer ow 
Alert and Wide Awite of Siew te Orey og 
Answers Questions Rintedty a4 Social Sadgment 043 
Appreciaticn of Beauty 04 Speed in Work og 
Appreciation of Ouvenite Literature ]O4 Stubborn 0.48 
Asks Unnecessary Questions on Success in Schoo! Work 04 
Attitate Toward Others ow Takes Care of Seif o.4R 
Attitede Towers Sets ong Tardy With Werk 0.48 
Carelessness om Theroughness 04 
Careot Cicthes end FRrsenel Belongings on Thoughtfuiness og 
Deceit fuiness ow Tidiness ry | 
Destructive oan Too Mary Social Engazements [0-48 
Disterss Cress om Tries to Measure Up to High Stovdead 0-49 
Does Na Try on Witingness ‘te ee o.4§ 
Frankness aap Work Carefully Done 0.4 
General Infiuenee oe Werks te Maximum Arility 0.48 
‘rere car 40 web iect s Le 

















ha 














Tue Eiautu YEARBOOK 225 





The cards examined showed nearly 600 habits and attitudes. These 
have been combined into 163 items. Even in the smaller list there 


DIAGRAM 5.—Percents SHow1nG OvutstaNpING Hasit AND ATTITUDE 
Items or Report Carps 


Dependablenes 
Trustworthiness 
Jelf Contro/ 
Fromptness 
Regularity 
Trresponsibility 

Attitede Towerd Other 

rfesy 
ir Play 

al Judgment 
deness 


tness 
ere of Materials and Property 
Order/iness 
Corelessness 
Cooperatio 
le/prulness 
espect for Authority 
choo/ Interest 
Init 
it etion 
If Reliance 
é; ment 


cess in School Work 
improvement in Work 
in Work 
es te bo Best Work 
erable ef Doing Better 
ef Grade Too Difficult 
Indgst - 
plication 
r3everence 
Th Lack of Effort 
vs 
. nomy. of Time end Materials 
Time 


/t bits 
Cleanliness 
Cheerlulness 

ttention— 
ttention 
neent ration 
Inattention 


paresAssignments Well 
Comes Roorly Frepered 
Citizenshi 
~— irtues 
eadershi 
Conduct 4 
Shows Improvement in Conduct 
ommendedb/e in Conduct 
Annoys Others 
Inelined te Mischiel 
Whispers Too Much 
Frest/ess 
_Cdoes wet Behere) 
D, scernment 


lear inking 
lertness 

Appreciation 
sks Unnecessary Questions 





Explanation: Solid bars indicate grouped items, white bars show positive traits, and dotted 
bars represent negative traits. 











226 ELEMENTARY ScuHooL PRINCIPALS 





are overlappings. For example, “ attention ” and “ inattention ”’ are 
the positive and negative forms of the same quality. “ Dependable- 
ness” and “ trustworthiness” have practically the same meaning. 
Since the nomenclature is interesting and suggestive, the 163 char- 
acteristics are given. 

Diagram 5 shows the combination into 14 groups of the 163 habits 
and attitudes named in Diagrams 3 and 4. The qualities given under 
each heading are also the results of combination. 

Diagram 5 shows some really strong habits and attitudes. Many 
of these characteristics are well worth considering in the selection 
of items for an improved report form. 

Solid bars indicate group headings. The hollow bars show posi- 
tive qualities within the group. Last in each group is a dash bar 
representing an allied negative quality. 

The most frequently mentioned group headings are “ dependable- 
ness,” “ attitude toward others,” “ carefulness,” and “ codperation ” 
ranging from 28.6 percent to 23.2 percent. Outstanding specific items 
are “courtesy” and “ helpfulness ” as shown by 21.9 percent and 
19.2 percent respectively. 

The negative habits and attitudes, “ needs encouragement” and 
“inattentive,” are the two most frequently used. Each is listed by 
10.2 percent of the cities studied. 

Diagram 6 shows the number of habits and attitudes used on the 
report forms of 98 cities. Solid bars indicate cities using one report 
form for all elementary grades. Diagonally hatched bars indicate 
report forms for upper elementary grades, and dash bars those for 
the lower grades. 

Ninety-eight of the 224 cities list habits and attitudes in numbers 
varying from 47 on the Kansas City, Missouri, report to one on the 
report of Santa Barbara, California. The median number of sub- 
jects listed is ten. 

A detailed study was made of the habits and attitudes in relation 
to the geographical location of the cities. It is evident that some 
cities and states give marked attention to habits and attitudes. From 
incomplete returns, the area of greatest interest is from the Eastern 
coast through the center of the United States to Missouri. The Paci- 
fic Coast states are apparently second in the amount of interest shown 
in habits and attitudes. 








gh SIDE TE SLY EAL TM TL NL DO ES CE LL ROL I LGN. SI PEE TE LE NEE GE SEE GONE DE NOIR OE EET LE NS EE I NT PT LET I ELIE TEI 





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Tue EreutH YEARBOOK 


227 








DIAGRAM 6—Nvmser or Hasir anp Artirupe Irems Usep sy Cities 


Kansea City, Me 
Lynchburg, ve 
Allegany Ce. , Md 
maemo mee 1 we 
Kansas Cif *. 
Helene , Went 
Miam: , Fle 
Oakland , Cal 
Cranston , AI 
Berdentewn MI 


New Brunswick WA 


Erie P Fs 
Bristle 


1, Fe 
Grand Rapids , Mich. 


Atlante , Ga 
Lima , O. 
Peoria , Lil. 
Peoria, [it 
Rock [sland , Iv 
Portland , Ore 
Allegany Co , Md 
Muashegee , Ohta 
Terre Haute , lad 
hong Beach Ca 
les Angeles , Ca/ 
San Bago Cal 
Homestead , Pa 
Fert Wayne ° dnd 
Wich ta, Mans 
Barlagton , V2. 
Newton , Mass 
Dayton, O. 
b oethle we ‘ rd 
conghield 
LM Cares 0, dad 
Seg: sen, Mick 
ance, jad 
Glerersri/le_, MK 
Bristel , Fa Mi 
Magerstowa , Me. 
, ,0 
Merion, O. 
Ann Arbor , Mich. 
Glerersejlle aK 
Newton , Mass 
Fresno , Cal 
Elmira, AE 
Great falls, Ment 
Oy mpia , Wash 
Seatth , Wash 
Camden NT 
Indianapolis , Ind 
Erervetl , Wash 
Catlend , Cal 
Camden , WS. 
Dubugue , lowe 
Washington , OC 
Berkeley , Cal 
Berteley , Cal 
Bridgeport , Conn 
Richmend , Ind 
Rich ment, lad 
Superior , Wis 
Otleheme Lity , Otue. 
Dellas , Tesas. 
Bridgeperl , Conn 
Charlesten Va. 
Lansing Mich 
Pasadene, Cal 
dyae Mess 


Dalath, Minn 
Lincoln , New 
San Feancisee, Col 
Sen Franessee , Cal 
; paneer Cel 
Cringlen A 
Sap a tag 
Rochford, LH 
Penrer, Cole 
Rochester, 
Rechester WY 
Eiyia » dit. 
8 tormngten fu 
Bloomington LH 
Omehe . Neb 
Cheyenne ° Wren 
Salem , Ore. 
Salem , Ore 
Stamterd , Coan 
Ci ften yy 4 
Ci ften , aS 
MeMeeipert , Fa 
Werlelt , ve 
aon > *, 
ecrhagtean owe 
Mabie de. 
Ten 
hes ’ 
eangslean 
Aattin , Ng 
Seet he , Wash 
ome 


ws 
Vehenectad,, MV 


PRR e eee eG KOR uvvu ss £42904 COO~ 8 


5 ele ted ee 


HAB/75 & ATTITUDES 


Number of Subjects on Report Cards 
of Cities Listing Same 


Liementar 
Elem. 6redes 
Llem. Cred: - mmm 


Z egend { Migher 
d 


omer 


98 Cites 


“7 Peper? Forms 


Gredes . 


Seon - $'0/% 


‘ ’ 
Portsmeath , Ve. 
Portsmenth , Va 
Paducah, &. 
Colambas, gd 
Moline , Tht 
Green Bay, Wa 
De Mone ,lewe 
Daren pert , Lewes 
Cheyenne , Wem 
Peealelle , Ta . 
Bellingham , Werk 
Sante Berbveora ,Cé/ 


we SS SS SS SSB 














228 ELEMENTARY Scuoou PrINcIPALS 





Features or Certain Report Carps 


The reproduction of certain report forms in this section will serve 
to illustrate some of the previous paragraphs. None of these forms 
are recommended for acceptance in school systems without adapta- 


tion to local conditions. 


FIGURE I 


LAST NAME FIRST NAME AND MIDDLE INITIAL 


SCHOOL YEAR ENDING _ 
JUNE 30, 192 


SESSIONS PRESENT 





ENGLISH 


GEOGRAPHY, NATURE 


x 
fs] 
x 
f 
< 
z 
= 
CS 
° 
=z 
ra 
- 
a 
tt 
uv 
tod 
we 
@ 
- 
V 
c) 
2 
a 
2 
@ 
J 
4 
< 
z 
> 
« 
°o 
- 
< 
a 
8 
- 
< 
a 
2 
.4 
a 
fe] 
Ff 


REMARKS: 





il 


WE ne 














FORM E 6—MONTHLY REPORT, BOYS—SCHOOL DISTRICT OF PHILA. 


Tovar) 


l[ewelesiostesi aim ieaoltaimimialiwelialminimiainio enw 1? 








am 


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Tur E1iautn YEARBOOK 229 





FIGURE II 










































































REPORT ON STUDIES, EFFORT AND BEHAVIOR Ailes 
‘ FOR THE PERIOD ENDING NOVEMBER———— wes 
Abseot 
Tunes 
Tandy 
Times 
PROSPECT OF PROMOTION 
FOR THE PERIOD ENDING FEBRUARY a 
Absest 
Tunes 
Tasdy 
Times 
PROMOTED TO GRADE SCHOOL 
FOR THE PERIOD ENDING APRIL——— seas 
Absent 
Time 
Tardy 
Tunes 
PROSPECT OF PROMOTION———_—_——— 
FOR THE PERIOD BENDING JUNB- ai 
Absent 
Times 
Tardy 
Times 
PROMOTED TO GRaADs——_-—— SCHOOL 
FIGURE III 
METHOD OF GRADING N. B. This Mark X is placed opposite to 
E Excellent, - - - Grade from 9 to 100 trait to which attention is called 
G Good, - - - - - Gradefrom8to 90 ATTITUDE TOWARD }j_ 1 | 2nd | 3rd | ath 
F Fair, - - - - - Gradefrom65to 80 SCHOOL WORK | Period Period | Period | Periud 
P Poor, Ss eS. 2? Grade Below 65 Very Commendable 





Attendance 
Deportment & Studies 


| Leearsparses 
| Period | Period) Period Perivd | Average Gives Up Too Easily 


Shows Improvement 





tet |] 2nd | 3rd | 4th | Half-year 











Sessions Absent 














| 
| 


| Gets Too Much Help 



































| 
| 
| 
| 

































































Manual Training 


Domestic Science 





Physical Training || 


Times Tardy | 
Arithmetic a: WAC e eh | 
ee ————EE——————EE————— RECITATIONS | 
Language = es Se ee Very Satisfactory 
Civics “Showing. Improvement 
History ane eae Comes Poorly Prepared 
Geography zz hs ee = po Appears Not to Try I 
Reading = a es Bes Bis Seldom Doss Well i 
‘tweens i 2 a ae ee cacrennsss ot a | 
—~-|——<—j —____ Promotion in gor ! 
Spelling | | ; Capable Doing Much Better | 
Writing i “Work Shows a Falling Of | 
Physiology = se “CONDUCT | 
Muzsie Satisfactory 
Drawing nemed ene ro | 





‘Restless: Inattentive 
Inclined to Mischief 














Rude: Discourteous at Times 


| 

























































































230 ELEMENTARY ScHuoou Princrpats 














































































































XL. Sense of Responsibility—Civie and Per a Public Schools of Kansas City, Mo. 
s. Conforms to the will of the magne Report Card 
when no principles are violated......... ms 192 192 
b. Is serious in attitude toward work...... ro Sie 
©. to measure up to high standards off Report of. Grade.............. 
WE cccnccececseensansegonesd : 
d. Elects a candidate because of his fii TeBeOd cnsccccesnrecsnnsssonvccsnneconnsconvesconsccensesonscsensonsssnssessssetesscscssese 
GP GED GOR occcccnccccccccecsesas = 
e. Tries to prevent the spread of disease. . eeacenonidians wencmr mda ne parmcemenan Teacher 
Qr. Date Parent’s Signature Grade ....... Grade ..... 
ni SUBJECT MATTER 1Q | 2Q | Av. | $Q | 4Q; Av 
S = 
saad as — 
| } 
a eee 
} | 
a ef | | 
| 
EE | 
| | 
vo | 
| } 
" = = 
-_ | 
siccacad Ab ke: ehecoeauene ...+-Principal M—meane Senne, Sebouer: see 
> 
6a) 
ew 
me 
~ 
g 
FIGURE V fe 
To Parents: Quarters 
This card is to show what the school is trying to accomplish VL _— Helpful Initiative and Self Reliance J \2 316 
both in subject matter and in habits and attitude desirable for > = Se ee ae Gn j 
iat hip. Your jon and help are requested in de- b. Fi way of improving his weak points — 
veloping in your child the following habits and attitudes. ae d of making up work missed during j 
Your attention is called only to those habits: DUNNE ddddheoceanctcetecceseescoses« 
Which are especially well developed indicated by..D. ¢ Does more than minimum amount of work } 4 
Which especially need to be developed indicated by. .U. Pp eg fin ont apie ceiegeaneateas 
Which show Bete Bie cccecsccessocsls orks to maximum a’ a4 eececcececes |... 
. ne ae —- VIL. "Self Control and Obedie — 
Habits and Atiude Deal for Good Ciseuship Toe T—3_——«% ae tt quae nor len entra of tom] | 
L Health and Posture - : " : i | 
nly in habi and dress... .}...... | --.....).... joes not molest other people........... _ 
b. Is 3S prone A 1 of his sven, keeping book or} e ee ye in authority courteously and j j 
a proper distance............. senee ni Fo Ocecceccccossccescoecccscoces — 
ec. Keeps hands and cxatenial away from d. Holds himself” ——_ to abide by ' | 
i rules made Se GD oscccescncss= 
a : e. Obeys rules and regulations of > school 
I. VIII. Courtesy and'Good Sportsm 
a. = 8. Pays.attention while ethers po ” talking | | 
b. b. " 
e ce. Has polite habits of speech 
d. Does not let other roe copy or make | 
m1. ng use of his work...........00.005 ‘ 
a. Uses time to advantage. . te 2 e. Stands for tondieg y | SR } 
b. Is careful in expenditure of money hanee = 7 f. Claims no more t! his share of time l | 
c. Seoun tine ter caveteiy ly p _ ork. . = * pf. ae escceccccocces ! | 
Does waste re . a ee es 
° ~catannacracietn Imater * 1x. Honesty and Trustworthiness = 
@. Does not deface books or other property. a respects ay property of. 1 | | 
Iv. Promptness . » sarees oes Seccssccecessecccesvcoseeses | 
ht place at the right time} {| | |  & Does not cheat....................... 
i cela Get aol ee os ae ses ae ne = om ¢. Tells the trate trying to give the correct | 
BR di A f authorit: “ BENE. escscscccwccsscécocsccccecs 
. di without . hoe dks TE = a 3 eopelatments and other agree- | 
ec. Hands in work on time..............+- weg MIE St dneescdsconcoccccecssesscccces ! | 
Vv. Clear iz x. | | 
a. C upon the task at hand... .}... “as a. Works and plays with others harmon-| | | 
b. I between essentials and DB “REM. .coscesceccess -| 
agdadcepes eccceccesesoos = oo b. es ne Se eggs Gate ty the 
ec. Is ——— 5 S . [ “Sesqqeqgseeqees: = =o oe = GROUP cn ccccerccecrcereeceeeesnseereces | } 
a. it ‘clearly and keeps to the e. = his ‘part in an the recitation) {| | | 
point > daecnsdien pecsenceseseecesdien a -L- +~_-~profitable and interesting............. cial Sail 




















— 
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Tue Eigutn YEARBOOK 











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INHUVd AHL OL 








IA Gano 

















232 ELEMENTARY Scuoo.t PRINCIPALS 





Figure I illustrates the report card which lists only the regular 
school subjects. Cards of this type usually report attendance, late- 
ness, conduct, effort, and a general rating. 

Figure II shows a form which provides spaces in which the teacher 
may write subjects or other notations. Only a small proportion of 
the cards examined were of this type. 

The habits and attitudes shown in Figure III are used by a number 
of cities in various parts of the United States. An outstanding char- 
acteristic of such cards is the grouping of items under the heads: 
work, recitations, and conduct. The danger of over-emphasizing the 
negative traits is a problem deserving more study by elementary 
school principals. 


FIGURE VII 


TO PARENTS OR GUARDIANS “THE HOME AND THE SCHOOL SHOULD WORK 
TOGETHER FOR THE GOOD OF THE CHILD.” 
Our public schools are trying to train our children to 
become good American citizens. 


every way fot the good of the cud.” = er in SAN FRANCISCO PUBLIC 
Please see that your child comes to school regularly, ELEMENT. ARY SCHOOLS 


and on time every day. 
GRADES 4 TO 8 
In case of absence or tardiness please send an excuse 
= definitely the cause, as required by the School 





If your child is often absent, r loses his time, his Report of 
lessons, his interest, and p his 





? 


Watch your child’s weight. Teacher 





If a child is not happy at school, or if he does not 















































seem to be going ahead, come and talk it over with the School 
principal and teacher, who will be glad to see you and to 
do all in their power to help your child. Principal 
Let us work together for the good of the children. 
Grade._............Term Ending ......._.19___.. 
I (parent or guardian) have carefully inspected this moe . 
report. , REPORTS 
Ist 2nd 3rd 3rd | 4th 4th 
First Report Attendance s 
Days Absent iano 
Second Report............... | & oe ie 
Times Tardy...........-.......-- a 
Third Report... Health Conditions | Re i 
Physical Condition.._.._____! _....... ne 
Fourth Report. Underweight * 











Porm ish 





atti 
to! 
dir 
sub 


ful. 
tra’ 
tue 


vwwrKT 


anc 
tic 
Th 
chi 








Tur Erantu YEARBOOK 233 





Figures IV and V represent a card which contains 47 habits and 
attitudes arranged in 11 groups. In this case the teachers are directed 
to mark only those items toward which the child and the home should 
direct attention. This report form also includes the regular school 
subjects. 

Figures VII and VIII show a report form which includes a care- 
fully chosen list of personal traits. The explanation under each 
trait is helpful. The qualities named emphasize positive social vir- 
tues, as contrasted with cards which list individual faults. 

Several of the figures illustrated in this section show appropriate 
and well-written messages to the home (see Figure VI). A par- 
ticular significant message found upon many cards is as follows: 
The home and the school should work together for the good of the 
child. 


FIGURE VIII 


CITIZENSHIP: ATTITUDES TOWARD SCHOOL RATINGS IN SUBJECTS: 

(Note: This page for use of grades 4 to8,) Marks 
are as follows: 

A—Exceptional. 


Education for good citizenship must be the chief aim 
and end of schools which gain their support from public 


funds — <= taxes. The training of boys and B—Very 
girls to be good citizens is not so much a matter of Cc pow 
_ ge ( should work harder). 
teaching them the facts as it is a matter of bringing forth D—Not up to Grade (promotion in danger). 


within them the right spirit. The word “Attitudes” gn E—Failin 
the card is intended, then, to show a number of ways in ain — 
which the pupil’s civic spirit is made evident. — : ee REPORTS 


(The parent should note that a cross (x) means that 
his child’s attitude is unsatisfactory.) 1st | 2pd | 3rd | 4th 


a a Oral Reading 
REPORTS 






































ott nt Silent Reading | 

Ist | 2nd | ard | Ath = | 

ee Spelling | 

(Neatness, Orderliness, and Thought- Grammar | 


lulness in handling books and other 























| 
CAREFULNESS | — | 
| 
! 
| 
| 


























| 
property. | re | 
a a a Oral Composition 
COOPERATION = é | —|—_|—_} — 
( =a oe join with others in | Written Composition | | 
Sane Eee, eee ee | | | 
COURTESY | i i | 
(Kindliness toward others as shown | | Actiontec a See — i 
in manner and action. } | . 
—— a en pee Science | | 
FAIRNESS alate ; a ian as es “ea 
~—sy to respect the rights of | Geography | | | | 
a, Zee. Pa "eee =e Ge ee 
INDUSTRY | | History and Civics | | 
| 


Uenene of purpose to try hard all 
the time; sustained effort.) 






































eee, eee een! ee Writing | | 
CReadnce te PR | | ec meee 
ea | Drawing PF 
PROMPTNESS | Teas ees gone | 
ap ry tng S act or eerve at the! | | Shop Work i 2 ee Oe 
___... ae - Sewing | | | | 
REMARKS: Cooking | | i | 
eon a. ees 
2 
4 a 4 = sacscatuseniid 














234 ELEMENTARY ScHuoot PRINCIPALS 





ConcLUSION AND CoMMENTS 


1. Report cards are indicative of the education aims of the schools 
of America. 

2. According to data previously cited a typical card would prob- 
ably have the following general characteristics: Report marks for 
the whole year; issued three times a semester; lists more items deal- 
ing with regular school subjects than with personal qualities of 
pupils; uses marking symbols A, B, C, and so forth; contains ex- 
planations to parents; about 4 x 6 inches in size; and printed on 
white cardboard. 

3. Since the schools aim to make good citizens, many cards pro- 
vide for the marking of the pupils’ personal qualities. Some of these 
habit and attitude lists are not well chosen, contain duplications, and 
emphasize negative qualities. Should such lists include items which 
do not lend themselves directly or indirectly to the development of 
good citizens ? 

4, There is evidence that a few cities give little or no space to 
the pupils’ personal and social virtues. Probably these cities are 
not aware of the usefulness of trait rating in developing young 
citizens. 

5. About two-thirds of the report forms urge parents to visit the 
school. A majority of the cards contain some printed message re- 
questing codperation from the parents. Such efforts indicate the 
importance of enlisting parental interest in the school and its work. 

6. The data submitted above should be helpful to local committees. 
Certainly the problem of adequate report cards is an open one. There 
is a need for further study and the formulation of basic principles. 
Such basic principles would do much in improving and standardiz- 
ing practice throughout the United States." 


*In this connection see “Uniform Records and Reports,” Research Bulletin, 
National Education Association, Vol. 5, No. 5, 1928, pp. 267-73, a chapter on 
“Reports on Teachers to Parents,” by M. R. Trabue. 








VS &@ & 





CHAPTER IX 
HOW TEACHERS RATE THEIR PUPILS 


JoHN S. Herron 
Principal, Lafayette School, Newark, New Jersey 


OME YEARS ago the standard testing movement began. Re 
ceiving impetus from the parallel development of the “ efficiency 
era” in the business world at that time, the movement spread 

and developed until the use of tests was general. The motive power 
behind the movement was the goal of greater efficiency in the school 
product, through measurements upon a purely objective basis. Later 
came the intelligence testing movement which was adopted by educa- 
tors for the same general purpose: to use specialized knowledge in 
more efficiently placing the individual and in organizing homogeneous 
groups of pupils. 

The past decade and a half presents stupendous efforts on the part 
of American educators to solve experimentally the new problems that 
have been raised by new developments. Psychology, method, and 
administration changed with the newer trend. Yet, strange to say, 
the technie for the evaluation of pupils’ work in the school has ap- 
parently not improved. Today the same unreliable, individualistic 
expression of the teacher’s judgment continues to exist. 

Is the rating of pupils important?—Many educators argue that 
ratings are in themselves fetters on school authorities. A number of 
experimental schools have eliminated them altogether. Some extrem- 
ists contend that the real, precious outcomes of education cannot be 
measured. Others say that marks in a few formal subjects can only 
partially indicate the child’s school experience, and that even these 
unreliable ratings cannot be given with a wholesome regard for all 
members of a class. Therefore, away with all marks! 

Goldstein * enumerates five fundamental reasons why ratings of 
pupils are indispensable: 

(a) Children have the right to know how they are progressing. 
(b) Parents desire the same information regarding their children. 
(c) Promotions are made by school officials on the basis of marks. 


(d) Ratings constitute the basis of placement when pupils are transferred from 
one school to another. 


(e) Ratings are used by teachers and school officials to justify non-promotions. 


*Goldstein, Henry M. “ Pupil Rating and Report Cards.” Journal of Educa- 
tional Method 7: 128-33; December, 1927. 


[ 235 ] 











236 ELEMENTARY Scnoot PRINCIPALS 





Whether or not the teaching profession, or the public in general, 
places any value upon school ratings, the fact remains that the prac- 
tice is in general use throughout this country. There is no evidence 
to warrant a belief that the public will not continue to demand re- 
ports from the school on the work of pupils. Therefore, if ratings 
are to remain as operating tools of school administration, all will agree 
that marks should be made to signify something as real and depend- 
able as possible. Fifteen years of scientific effort in education should 
show decided improvements in the technic of rating and in the mes- 
sage of report cards. But is this the situation today ? 

Technic of research—The purposes of the study were to secure 
first-hand information on present day methods by which elementary 
school teachers arrive at school marks, and to ascertain the improve- 
ment made during the last decade in the technic of marking. A ques- 
tionnaire was circulated among teachers of grades four to eight, in- 
elusive, in the schools of Newark, Bloomfield, East Orange, and Nut- 
ley. The schools cireularized are representative of both city and 
suburban practice in New Jersey. The questionnaire was made by a 
committee consisting of Susan F. Lockhart, principal of the Wash- 
ington School, Nutley; Mrs. Eva P. Miller, principal of the Spring 
Garden School, Nutley; and the writer. The work was done as a 
part of a principal’s course of Teachers College, Columbia Uni- 
versity.. One hundred and fifty teachers returned the questionnaire. 
The questions asked are printed at the end of this article. 

Presentation of data—The next section of this article will present 
a summarization of the replies. Percents are calculated in terms of 
the number answering each question. 

Rating the daily recitation—Fifty-nine, or 41 percent of the 
teachers rate the daily academic work of pupils with separate daily 
marks. The remaining 59 percent do not use a daily mark but trust 
to memory for an evaluation. 





Making weekly marks—Eighty-one, or 56 percent of the 
teachers summarize the daily recitation by a weekly mark. In other 
words, a number of these teachers who depend upon memory for the 
daily work must arrive subjectively at the evaluation of the weekly 
rating. 

Determining report card marks—Most teachers use both daily 
work and written tests in arriving at report card marks. 


* Under the direction of Dr. James F. Hosic. 





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ere 


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ve 


Tue Eiautu YEARBOOK 237 





One-third of all teachers allow a credit of 75 percent of the 
report card mark for daily work, 85 percent of all teachers allow 
credit of one-half or more for daily work. Daily work of pupils, then, 
is the major factor in determining the worth of a pupil’s work in 
school. 

Frequency of written tests—Most of the teachers returning the 
questionnaire give formal tests either weekly or biweekly. The 
various replies are as follows: 

40 percent of all teachers give written tests once a weck. 
30 percent of all teachers give written tests once in two weeks. 
20 percent of all teachers give written tests once a month. 

8 percent of all teachers give written tests once in six weeks. 

Value of the daily work—-Six out of every 10 teachers would 
fail a pupil who passes the formal tests but fails consistently in daily 
work, 

Outside work—A majority of teachers reported giving extra 
credit for outside work. 

Testing the reading—One out of every six teachers judges the 
reading ability of his pupils by oral tests alone. The majority of 
teachers employ both oral and silent reading tests. 

Report card symbols—Most schools use letters on report cards 
instead of figures. This fact was also brought out by Goldstein in 
his study previously referred to. 

Check on value of daily work—Sixty percent of the teachers 
replied that they would pass a pupil who works diligently, but fails 
on the formal written tests. This result bears out, in another way, 
the fact that most teachers place greater emphasis upon the daily 
work of pupils. 

Class standards—Eight out of every nine teachers recognize in- 
dividual differences and rate accordingly. They do not believe in a 
strict standard for all members of the class. 

Most important factors in reports—Twenty-five percent of those 
replying would pass or fail a pupil on test results alone, irrespective 
of effort. Seventy-five percent of the teachers take a broader view 
and consider effort as the dominant factor. 

Value of standard tests—Two-thirds of the teachers feel that 
their own tests are more serviceable to them than standard tests. 

Conclusion—Although this investigation was limited in scope, it 
should have discovered some evidence that the scientific movement 
in education has brought improvement in the evaluation of the work 
of pupils. Yet, there is little or no uniformity of practice. Teachers 
rate to suit their fancies. Report card marks reflect teacher opinions 
and not the work of pupils. 














238 ELEMENTARY Scuoot PRINCIPALS 





Scientific education has attempted to eliminate the subjective ele- 
ment in measurements. Yet our elementary schools go blithely on 
and apparently ignore the results of this movement. The replies sub- 
mitted show that some teachers have little faith in the serviceable- 
ness of standardized objective tests. The replies show that most of 
the evaluation of pupils’ work is done subjectively. This fact is 
brought out most strikingly by the following findings of the investi- 
gation: 

(1) In arriving at the report card mark, most teachers allow two- 
thirds credit for the daily work. 

(2) Yet, most teachers determine the worth of the daily work by 
a weekly mark. 

(3) This weekly mark (for daily work) is decided according to 
memory of the teacher. Marks determined in this way are unavoid- 
ably affected by many subjective influences. 

It is fair to ask such questions as these: If teachers place so much 
emphasis upon daily work, why should they not employ some objec- 
tive evidence to counteract the vagaries of the human mind? How 
long can we continue to proclaim that scientific education is at hand 
while we close our eyes to the true situation? How long will we be- 
fuddle ourselves and the public by employing a scheme of evaluation 
which is as dependable and reliable as the weather ? 

The writer believes that the majority of our teachers are meeting 
the problem of report cards as well as they know how. But authori- 
tative data are not exerting the benefits which we can expect. Must 
this knowledge be developed or is it simply ignored in practice? 
Certainly, we have a right to expect scientific education to develop 
principles and systems to guide in the rating of pupils. 

The questionnaire—The queries below were sent out in question- 
naire form to classroom teachers. 

1. Do you rate the daily recitation of each pupil with a separate mark? 
2. — the worth of the daily work of each pupil by a weekly 
. Do you give written tests in the major academic subjects once a week? 
. Do you give written tests in the major academic subjects twice a month? 
. Do you give written tests in the major academic subjects once a month? 
Do you give written tests in the major academic subjects once in six weeks? 
. For the report card mark, do you depend entirely on daily recitations? 
. For the report card mark, do you depend entirely on written tests alone? 
. Do you combine the marks given for daily work with the marks made in 
written tests in order to arrive at a pupil’s report card mark? 
. If you combine the two (No. 9), what percent of the report card mark do 
you allow for daily recitation? 


. If a child fails consistently in daily recitations but receives a passing mark on 
your written tests, do you give him a passing mark on his report card? 


CONT Cr me wo 


= = 
- ©€& 











Tue EriegutH YEARBOOK 239 








16. 
17, 


18. 
19. 


20. 


. Do you allow additional credit in a subject if a pupil does extra outside work 


in it? 


. In arriving at a pupil’s mark in reading do you depend entirely on oral read- 


ing tests? 


. In arriving at a pupil’s mark in reading do you depend entirely on written 


silent reading tests? 


. In arriving at a pupil’s mark in reading do you depend entirely on both oral 


and written silent reading tests? 

Do you use letters on your report cards? 

If a pupil works conscientiously and fails in your written tests, do you think 
he should be given a passing mark in the subject? 

Is it possible to have one strict standard for a class of 40 pupils? 

Which should be the greater factor in determining a child’s report card 
mark—test results or effort? 

Do you think that standardized tests are more effective than your own tests? 








HEN A TEACHER observes that a child of great | 

natural ability secures a relatively high achievement 
with little effort and with small gain, she rates him as less 
successful than a child of little natural ability who through 
great effort succeeds in making large gains, even though the 
final level of ability reached in the latter case is a relatively 
low achievement with reference to the class as a whole. The 
teacher’s action seems justifiable to her because school marks 
are conventionally used as a means of reward and punish- 
ment, but to the degree to which they are so used, they cease 
to be pure measures of success.—Courtis, S. A. Why Chil- 
dren Succeed. Courtis Standard Tests, 1925, p. 63. 

















CHAPTER X 


STUDIES OF FAILURES IN THE SIOUX CITY 
PUBLIC SCHOOLS* 


KE. E. Brices (Chairman) 
Principal, West Junior High School, Sioux City, Iowa 
| “ss YEAR the Administration Club of Sioux City Schools 


has taken over some definite piece of research work. This past 
year their committee, in conference with the superintendent, 
decided upon a study of the failures in the Sioux City public schools 
for the first semester of the school year of 1927-1928. The mem- 
bers of the committee were FE. E. Briggs, Chairman, D. D. Zinn, 
Minnie L. Steckel, Fannie Foster, Fern Boan, and Rachel Cook. 
This study was undertaken with three objects in mind: First, to 
ascertain in what grades and subjects the most failures were oceur- 
ring in our schools; second, to find by tabulation the various reasons 
given by teachers for failures in their classes; and third, to provide 
the teachers with an incentive to study their failure problems. 


Meruop or Procepure 


A questionnaire was given to each teacher of a room in the ele- 
mentary schools and each subject teacher in the junior and senior 
high schools. These blanks were filled out showing the number of 
pupils who had entered each class during the semester, the number 
promoted and dropped, and finally the number of failures. A space 
was indicated upon each sheet for the teacher to list the names of his 
failures in each class and to give the reason which in his opinion 
caused such failure. These results were tabulated by the research 
committee of the Administration Club and the findings were listed 
below. 

The reports are presented in two sections: the first deals with the 
causes of failures as listed by the teacher, the second deals with the 
number of failures in the schools. The committee felt that it was 
more feasible to allow the teacher freedom in the study of causes 
rather than to put a check list of failures before him and ask that 


* The complete report includes failures in the junior and senior high schools, but 
these data were omitted as not pertinent for this yearbook. See General Circular, 
No. 2. Sioux City, Iowa, M. G. Clark, Superintendent. 


[ 240 ] 





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Tue Eieutn YEARBOOK 241 





certain reasons for failure be checked. The committee felt that the 
plan that was adopted would give the teacher a better opportunity to 
analyze his particular problems. When the reports were all collected, 
the causes were inspected by the committee and the classification was 
made as the reports came from the teachers. 


TABLE 1.—TeAcuers’ Opinions as To Causes oF Faiture IN ELEMENTARY 


SCHOOLS 
Distributed 
Probable Cause of Failure Total Total Percent 
Be Be ri ons aoe d ve ciency ann kweows nv 304 22.87 
1. Positively stated by teacher.............. 195 
2. Assumed by teacher..........0006s-c00% 45 
BESO oc giera Wasciaracec asia aos aie okie ass wid alee re 64 
II. PERSONALITY AND Benavior Dirricutrigs.... vie 292 21.97 
Bi ONO Ss aa dams aneenainvis sens aeeate 70 
2. LOCK OF SHOCaliOn. .....o..6cck. 8k cess nese 38 
3. Lack Of ooncentration. ......6..00..06000- 33 
ei NEE, oe aac ada dies saw eae ee 26 
Fh, ee PONE ow diccdlaint madineatceaes caw 20 
G. EMGE OF QMIDINIOD. «i. 00 seeccccaccccscrss 13 
Re iste ares tecategeiare eit cake dal cas done siento 12 
S. Emotional mstabiity .... ...:06.0cs.0s 00s. 6 
Dy i IG inset cS adie cca Deas canen 6 
ee NONI > occa: onan ohare. Scadale diareeas 2 
DE, BREGTIOFIEY COMNOIEN oes c cb sieves cscs 1 
ees ME MANION 5 5. sc. cccciccwrecesacuesceus 0 
Ri, INE ivgicscne ae eecnx or Gin s cedemane 65 
III. ATTENDANCE PROBLEMS ...............0c000. S 259 19.48 
iy NI, <5 ecsrcrici ts als aid iawn wale ee 70 
ie AMIN co ack isco: 3 essaneyc a rlerele Aca oieoarei 49 
3. Irregular attendance .................05- 47 
4. PROISMMEd ABBOERCE: 2... 265 cc ccccsecseas 42 
5. Habitually changing schools............. 3 
IV. AcapeMic DIFFICULTIES ..............00000 ve 188 14.14 
Rs. We SURI: og. 6: cae ence acs cc cisncedicmi's 142 
D. TRG GO iia io occ lekes asa essinwice 26 
3. Arithmetic difficulties ........060ss06000. 14 
R, Titty GOMOD one ck ccccccccwsacass 3 
5. Spelling difficulties ...............ce000e 3 
D: ROO MA COI i 6 oi kk cctsisiindaccsicnce 0 
Dy ee NE i gc cteceanwa sh Uadansewen 0 
V.. Hipatem on Eimatrer PIA@ITs:...... 2... ..0ccccces oa 139 10.45 
DE , DEER SRI, Siccadiscitadccaicnawagen 53 
On PEE eee eer Tee 21 
Pe CE, vent ocsun cher see otenseuees 16 
Bo a ade wa re ac umea de eames 14 
Di OE NA ccs whoa koa ehatene Rak wae esate 14 
Oe er eee 11 
Me VD ask alta nave acs okie ie ahca ee aaah 1 
i INI foo cs as er wccnioreebidtara she blarmiaie ts 1 
i III sk cess n tenia dirmcsanananeae 1 
Dh: FE skmecnerenvevsrpccxsians 1 


Qo 











242 ELEMENTARY Scuoot Principas 





TABLE 1.—Teacuers’ Opinions as To Causes or Faure iN ELEMENTARY 
ScHoots—C ontinued 


Distributed 
Probable Cause of Failure Total Total 


11. Lack of sleep 
12. Not clean 
13. Smoking 
14. Nose 
15. Throat 
DEEN Uae ees Cn eg ees 
17. Spinal trouble 
Se II 63.5 Gn co cae na capes aewacereie 
Wes WN MINS. oc cc ccccaneccevcccvecses ; 117 8.80 


Percent 


ee 


wcc°coco corr 


b. Poverty 

ce. Lack of parental control 

2. Foreign home (Language) 
TEIN scaie iach easecin chek aa ee 5, ee eaetenaree a 

VII. Acrivitres Outsme CLASS...............000- ‘ 2 001 
1. Social 
ER are hada ae acre aeate tence 

3. Athletics 
MT ac ce aaeucnce nigte orate niaigae are waimcmiecsels 
VIII. Uncwuassiriep REASONS..............eeeeeeee ay 28 2.10 
SE IN i cGtwaacauaansincanena cannes 1329 1329 99.811 


Ce ed 


4 
ie MINI ois cee Sadndweaau seweceere 4 
1 
0 


ee 


to 
Nom 


ey 


ee | 


Cooow: 


Cavusk or Fat.ures 


Table 1 shows that the largest classification of failures in elemen- 
tary schools comes under the group of low mentality, since over one- 
fourth of the entire number are so classed. .\ number of teachers 
stated low mentality or “ slow” as the cause for failure but gave no 
I. Q. asa basis for their judgment. Since the committee had no way 
of determining whether the child had been tested or not, the case was 
counted as low mentality, positively stated by the teacher, or placed 
under the classification “slow.” The committee recommends that a 
follow-up study be made of the children reported as slow or of low 
mentality in order to ascertain whether the children are subnormal 
or whether some other cause makes them appear to have low mental 
ability. 

Attendance problems rank second in importance. The type of at- 
tendance problems that are prevalent in the elementary schools shows 
that they do not come within the range of the law or school authorities. 

Academic difficulties rank third in Table 1. New entrants com- 
pose the majority of these cases and remedial work seems to be the 
only solution for this problem. 





resp 
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mor 


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Tue Eiautn YEARBOOK 243 





a Personality and behavior difficulties rank fourth. Indifference, not 
responsive, and lack of application constitute one-half of the total 
reent number of cases in this group. Since this is a classroom problem a 


more intensive study of these children would be worthwhile. 
The unclassified reasons in Table 1 for the elementary schools are 
as follows: 








17 Habitual repeaters 
1 Dislikes school 
. 1 Too old for the grade 
2 Lack of codrdination 
2 Guesses 
1 Depends on copying 
1 Only child 
1 Large 
01 1 Twin 
1 Overdressed 
TABLE 2.—CLassiFIcaTION oF FAILURES BY GRADES—ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS 
) Per- 
(1 Grade Enrolment Number of Failures Per- cent 
ae ae " A cent Pro- 
Boys Girls Total Boys Girls Total Failed moted 
i Sr 338 347 685 3 4 7 1 99 
OE. isd 319 366 685 12 5 17 2 98 
Mets oauien 439 390 829 62 30 92 1l 89 
et ee 338 341 679 48 30 78 11 89 
“ke Seer 364 322 686 26 18 44 6 94 
p _ = Sa 319 273 592 32 14 46 7 93 
rs bE. SE eae 357 323 680 32 7 39 5 95 
Ap rere 269 264 533 19 9 28 5 95 
° So See 390 341 731 34 11 45 6 94 
Vy RR See re 307 296 603 23 15 38 6 94 
is | Setar 365 355 720 27 17 44 6 94 
J We ds eins 280 268 548 27 7 34 6 94 
/ i Sa 356 311 667 24 23 47 7 93 
U ee gas 273 301 574 19 17 3 6 94 
, ea 4714. 4498 9212 388 207 595 6 94 
] re Coat: sis. 51 49 100 65 35 100 100 
: NuMBER OF FAILURES 
In Table 2 certain facts are striking and deserve further comment. 


First, the percent of failures is almost the same in all grades with 
the exception of the kindergarten and first grade. In the kinder- 
garten the basis of promotion is chronological age and when a child 
reaches the age of six, unless he is very immature, he is promoted 
to the first grade. This makes our first elimination take place in the 














244 ELEMENTARY Scuoot PRINCIPALS 





— 


first grade, hence we may expect a large percent there. If we failed 
children in the kindergarten, as we do in the other grades, the per- 
cent would probably be the same in all grades. This can be seen by 
comparing the percents on the four-semester plan. A child should 
attend 14 semesters to complete the work. The total percent of fail- 
ures equals 25 for the first four semesters, 23 for the second four 
semesters, 24 for the third four semesters, and 13 for the last two. 

Second, the percent of failures among boys is greater than among 
girls, but this study did not reveal any outstanding cause for that 
fact, hence we must leave our readers to draw their own conclusions. 


RECOMMENDATIONS 


1. The committee recommends that this study be continued and 
data for another semester be added to the material herein presented 
in order that a more complete analysis of our failure situation may 
be made. 

2. The committee recommends that the teachers in thinking of 
their failure problem be constantly on the alert to observe small fac- 
tors that may present themselves leading to possible failures. This 
frequent analysis of the pupils’ difficulties will do much to eliminate 
unnecessary failures. 

3. We further recommend that a study be made of the reasons 
for the preponderance of failures among boys over girls, and that a 
readjustment of our technic be planned to meet better the needs of 


the boys. 





HE STANDING of any professional organization is in- 

dicated by the evidence found in its office files and in the 
type of publications which it sends out. The codperative 
studies made by the Club and published in its special bul- 
letins, and especially in the Yearbooks, represent the con- 
certed efforts of the Club as a professional organization to 
make worthwhile contributions to the progress of public edu- 
cation.—Chicago Principals Club, 1928 Yearbook, p. 7. 




















CHAPTER XI 
AN INVESTIGATION OF VACATION LOSS 
WiuraMm L. Dix 


Principal, Jefferson School, Trenton, New Jersey 


RINCIPALS and supervisors have sometimes accounted for the 
[Ce of pupils at the beginning of the school year by re 

minding the teacher that he is judging his new class by the 
standard of last year’s class—as he remembers it from June. Its 
accomplishment in arithmetic, its ready response to any appeal, its 
organization, its social accomplishment—these are the scales with 
which he weighs his new class. And he finds it “ short weight.” 

Experiments have shown a consistent loss in the learning process 
through forgetting, and educators talk about the need of “ over- 
learning” to enable one to retain for a longer period. Yet this in- 
formation has rarely been used as an answer to the apparent unpre- 
paredness of the incoming class in September. 

This article reports an attempt to uncover the amount of loss, and 
the possible time of recovery. Incidentally, there appears some light 
on the summer school pupil and the summer school problem. 

In June, 1927, the Woody-McCall Mixed Fundamentals test was 
given to about 150 children in the fifth grade. The test was given 
again the first day of school in September to these same children. 
This test was repeated four weeks later. 

Table 1 shows the gain or loss, for the entire grade, for the sum- 
mer school pupils separately, for the non-summer school pupils 
separately, and for the whole group four weeks later. 

A study of the losses in Table 1 shows that the average loss is about 
two points in a maximum of 35, or about six percent. The last column 
shows that this loss has been recovered at the end of four weeks. Be- 
tween June and September about 70 percent of the entire group had 
lost one or more points; nine percent had not gained or lost, and 21 
percent had gained. Thirty-four percent of those who had attended 
summer school had gained, and 58 percent had lost. In October 41 
percent of the entire group had gained, and 40 percent had still some 
to go before they were as good as they were in June. 

[ 245 ] 








246 ELEMENTARY Scuoot PRINCIPALS 





TABLE 1.—Distrisutions SHOWING GarINs AND Losses IN ARITHMETIC During 
THE SUMMER VACATION 
September Test 











June Test ‘Summer Non-Summer October Test 
All School School 
Pupils Pupils Pupils Pupils 
f 8 1 1 0 3 
7 1 1 0 1 
6 0 0 0 2 
ea 5 3 1 2 4 
GE Nadunssesass +4 4 0 4 8 
3 3 1 2 15 
2 7 5 2 17 
1 13 4 9 18 
eee 0 14 3 11 15 
EE. 21 4 17 15 
2 17 5 12 19 
3 22 5 17 10 
4 14 4 10 6 
5 10 1 9 2 
6 5 0 5 2 
DN catcénadandae 4 - 7 1 6 9 
8 1 0 1 1 
9 0 0 0 1 
10 2 1 1 0 
11 1 0 1 0 
(12 1 1 0 0 
Total 147 38 109 141° 


1 Six of the pupils had left during the first month, but there were no extreme scores or varia- 
tions in any of their results. 


More illuminating, however, is the following tabulation based on 
the median scores at the three different dates: 


TABLE 2.—Mep1An Scores IN ARITHMETIC TeST COMPARED WITH MaxIMUM 
ScorE AND GRADE STANDARDS 





Median Scores 
September Standards — . 
oo Summer Non-Summer Maxi- 
Fifth Sixth School School Entire mum 
Month Grade Grade Pupils Pupils Group Score 
ae rant Ou hence aa, aed 17.8 22.5 22.0 19.2 21.6 35 
September ............ 178 22.5 19.5 19.3 19.5 35 
MIOUONEE oo cccicceicccce 178 22.5 22.6 19.3 22.0 35 


From Table 2 it is evident that the class in June was only 0.° of 
a point below the standard for the sixth grade for September, or in 
matter of time about two months behind a normal schedule. But in 
September the same pupils are 2.0 points below, or about a half year 
behind, although one-fourth of them attended summer school. 





m 


m 


th 








Tue EriagutuH YEARBOOK 247 





The fact that these pupils are nearly a half year below standard, 
according to this test, and that some of them must have been over 
a year below, may seem to call for some explanation. Why they 
were promoted is outside the purpose of this paper. A partial ex- 
planation for the low inedian in the test is that the school is largely 
of foreign parentage. The median I. Q. is 80 for the class under 
consideration. The range in intelligence quotients is from 43 to 112 
for the whole class and the median I. Q. is 76 for the summer school 
group. 

The “summer school” group was about three points below the 
rest of the group in June. In spite of the extra work during the 
vacation they show practically no gain, and in October they have 
apparently made no advance. Tas the summer school helped ? 

The same experiment was repeated again in 1928 with almost 


identical results, as seen below: 


CONE Ts 6s re cinncieernueaeae RRND CRON isis. 53. 85ecerec aware 24.0 
A es bas aacleds wade oe September median .......... 21.7 
Summer School Group........ PUNO AGO rissa sc cactvncucs 20.5 
Summer School Group........ September median .......... 20.2 


Here the loss of the whole group is 2.3 points, and for the sum- 
mer school group is 0.3 point. 

These findings led me to make use of some other available test 
material about this group. Table 3 shows the results of summer 
losses for three classes as shown by the Woody Arithmetic Scales. 


TABLE 3.—SumMMe_nr Losses IN ARITHMETIC AS MEASURED BY FHE Woopy 
ARITHMETIC SCALES” 


Median Scores 





Addition Subtraction Multiplication | Division 
Date (Maximum Score19) (Maximum Score15) | (Maximum Score 20) (Maximum Score15) 








| 


A B Cc A B C B 


| } 
| | A | c A lB c 

i Class Class} Class, Class |Class| Class| Class Class | Class Class 
| 


} 


|15.410.6|} 6.1 | 99] 86) 4.9 


| 
| 
=a | 
| 
| 








JUNE... ccccocces 14.9 | 12.4| 10.9 | 12.7 8.7 8.4 

September ..... 13.3 | 11.4 9.2 | 8.9) 8.2 5.7 |10.7| 8.6 4.6 | 7.2 5.4 | 3.4 

Loss over the | | | 
summer ,,.... 1.6 1.0) 1.7 | 3.8] 0.5 2.7 | 4.71 2.0 16 | 2.71 8.2) 1.6 

Average loss... 1.4 ae 2.3 sine 2.6 2.4 





1The personnel of Classes A, B, and C changed slightly over the summer. We have presumed 
that the children entering these classes were as well prepared as those leaving. 











248 ELEMENTARY ScHooL PRINCIPALS 





Table 3 shows losses as follows: 


OD ab Sikvic deen cORLenu@enernewus ic 1.4 points, or 7 percent. 
EEE RR eee rere 2.3 points, or 15 percent. 
NS oc neha ube deenmulnia 2.6 points, or 13 percent. 
DN, duds gcpkgkednsecaunod couse: 2.4 points, or 16 percent. 


Taking the four tests together, the greatest loss was in Class A 
(passing from the fifth to the sixth grade) in spite of the fact that 
the summer school group was in that grade. This is probably due 
to the fact that there is greater opportunity to forget in attempting 
20 examples than in attempting 10. On this basis the percentage of 
mistakes is about the same as that of the other grades. 

Further study in this matter of “loss ”’ was available in the sub- 
ject of reading. The tabulation of the results is given in Table 4. 


TABLE 4—SummMer Loss 1n ReabDING ABILITY 


April 1927 September 1927 Average 
Class Reading Quotient Reading Quotient Loss Loss 
| GEES emer ree 93.4 89.8 3.6 
RESET eee eos 95.4 89.7 5.7 5.2 
MCA ak cates ected tends 91.0 84.6 6.4 


Two new factors make these figures in reading very interesting. 
In the first place the R. Q., and not scores, are given. To main- 
tain a constant R. Q. there must be a higher score for each succeed- 
ing month. Consequently, as the children were in school some three 
months after the April tests under good instruction, and as the quo- 
tients are under the norms, it is probable that the June R. Q. would 
have shown improvement. But in September we find what we have 
learned to expect—a loss due to the summer vacation period. 

Class A (passing from fifth to sixth grade) also contains the “ sum- 
mer school” group. Without this group it is probable that the loss 
would have been greater. 

The second factor to be considered in interpreting these results 
is that the processes and the information used as a basis for these 
tests in reading is not all of recent acquisition. Most of it is the accu- 
mulated and often used material of the previous three to five years. 
If the tests had been on the subjectmatter of the previous year only, 
the loss would have been very much greater, probably as high as 50 
percent in many cases. 

It would be unwise to draw very definite conclusions from this 
small study. But certain tendencies may be noted. First, that pupils 
do not bring back in September what they carry away in June, either 





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Tue Erantu YEARBOOK 249 





in subjectmatter or in habits. Second, that the low summer school 
group seem to hold up better for the extra work, but the others over- 
take them in the course of a few weeks. 

Also, that in order to use norms of standard tests in measuring the 
work of a grade, a school, or a city, the principal must know exactly 
what time during the first few weeks of the school the norms repre- 
sent, for the rapid change during these days represents practically 
one-half year of progress. 

The significance of these findings will vary according to the 
reader’s point of view. The advocate of the all-year school will see 
at once arguments for the all-year school. The “ vacationist” will 
point to the rapid recall and the value of such a period of rest. 

One real value of this information seems to the writer to be the 
understanding of this loss, and the possible quick recall, and the con- 
sequent adjustment of the work to meet this situation. 





HY DOES IT HAPPEN that some learning persists 
and other learning fades out? The answer is obvious: 
Some things were in fact learned and others were not. Some 
had amounted to actual adaptations; others had been mere 
memory content, good until after examination and then lost. 
The test of a real product of learning is then: first, its 
permanency; and, second, its habitual use in the ordinary 
activities of life. Indeed, so fundamental is the latter of 
the two tests that any truly educated person can appraise the 
whole education of his fellow in its terms.—Henry C. Mor- 
rison. The Practice of Teaching in the Secondary School. 
The University of Chicago Press, 1926, p. 25, 29. 




















CHAPTER XII 
USING THE RESULTS OF STANDARDIZED TESTS 


Mrs. P. Lucite Haw.ey 


Principal, Washington Community School, Lynn, Massachusetts 


HE WASHINGTON elementary school enrolls about 800 chil- 
dren. Nearly all of them come from the homes of foreign speak- 
ing parents—Jewish, Greek, and Italian races predominating. 

At present, there are five first, five second, four third, four fourth, 
and three fifth grade rooms. All of the classes in these rooms have 
been organized on the X Y Z grouping plan, after a standardized 
testing program for all pupils in grades one to six, inclusive, through- 
out the city. 

The testing program was arranged and carried out under the direc- 
tion of the research department of the Lynn public schools." The 
regular classroom teachers administered and scored the tests. 

The testing program—The testing program which influenced this 
year’s grouping at the Washington School included the following 
tests: 

I. Intelligence Tests (Grades 1-6 inclusive), October, 1927. 
Grades 1 and 2: Pintner-Cunningham. 
Grades 3 to 6: Illinois General Intelligence. 

II. Achievement Tests (Grades 3-6 inclusive), January, 1928. 
Grade 3: Stanford Achievement, Primary, (Form A). 
Grades 4-6: Stanford Achievement, Advanced, (Form A). 

III. Achievement Tests (Grade 2), May, 1928. 
Grade 2: Stanford Reading (Form A). 

IV. Intelligence Tests (Grade 1), October, 1928. 
Grade 1: Pintner-Cunningham. 

The results of these tests showed that the old form of school organi- 
zation was far from perfect. Many classes contained children who 
differed widely in mental capacity. Children were found whose 
chronological ages varied greatly from the standard for the grade. 

As the teachers themselves expressed it, the tests showed exactly 
what they had believed for a long time. Less than half of the chil- 
dren in the ordinary classroom were doing work consistent with their 
capacity. The others were doing work which was too easy for them 
or were attempting something which was entirely too difficult. All 


*Burr, Lynn E. “How to Formulate a Testing Program and Utilize Test 
Results.” The Nation’s Schools 2: 61; December, 1928. 


[ 250 ] 





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Tue ErianutH YEARBOOK 251 





agreed that the results under such an organization were unfair to 
both teacher and pupils. Therefore, the teachers welcomed the idea 
of trying out a plan of X Y Z grouping for the year 1928-29. Every- 
one hoped that a more homogeneous grading would help each child to 
progress better according to his individual needs and ability. 

Grouping of pupils—The first step in the grouping of the pupils 
for the present school year had to do with placing them appropri- 
ately in the various grades. 

In making promotions, the child’s mental age, his school attain- 
ment, his chronological age, his social environment, and the teacher’s 
opinion were all given due weight. The general rule followed was 
that of placing the child in the grade and in the group where, all 
things considered, he would be able to make the most satisfactory 
progress. 

Every teacher’s promotion list was carefully gone over by the prin- 
cipal in conference with the teacher. Doubtful cases were discussed 
with the supervisory staff. 

With the exception of the first grade, there were few non-promo- 
tions. Failure in only one subject did not hold a pupil back, unless 
that subject was first, second, or third grade reading. Repeaters, 
except in the first grade, were grouped on the basis of the I. Q., the 
teacher’s opinion, and the physical development. The thirty first- 
grade repeaters were put into one group, largely because of their 
maturity as compared with the September beginners in this grade. 

Children who had already spent two years in a grade, but who had 
not yet made satisfactory progress, were given a trial promotion to 
the next higher grade. These pupils were also listed for special indi- 
vidual testing by the school psychologist, who is a member of the 
research department staff. 

Children who were considered worthy of double promotions were 
promoted to the next grade with the recommendation that they would 
probably be ready for another promotion at the end of the first semes- 
ter. Such children were given special tests this year, the final deci- 
sion concerning their promotion resting with the supervisory staff, 
who rightly took into account the mental, physical, and social ma- 
turity of these children as well as their accomplishment. 

After they were assigned to grades, the teachers listed all of the 
pupils consecutively according to the intelligence quotients. The 
children with an |. Q. of 111 or above were classed as X pupils; 
those with an I. Q. from 110 to 86, inclusive, were classed as Y 
pupils; while those with an I. Q. of 85 to 75, inclusive, were classed 











252 ELEMENTARY ScHoot PRINCIPALS 





as Z pupils. Pupils with an I. Q. below 75 were put on the waiting 
list of the special class for mentally retarded pupils. 

The above procedure gave a tentative grouping on a plan of three 
regular sections per grade. Modifications of this tentative grouping 
were made in terms of mental ages, educational quotients, teacher’s 
estimates, and, in a few cases, chronological age and resulting social 
development. 

The final outcome as to groups varied widely from the typical 
grade. Usually, there are about 25 percent X pupils, 50 percent Y 
pupils, and 25 percent Z pupils. In our second grade there was one 
X group of 45 pupils, two Y groups of 40 pupils each, and two Z 
groups of 30 pupils each. Grade three contained two X Y groups of 
44 pupils each, and two Z Y groups of 35 pupils each. Grade four 
had one X group of 40 pupils, two Y groups of 35 pupils each, and 
one Z group of 30 pupils. In grade five, there was one X group of 
47 pupils, one Y group of 45 pupils, and one Z group of 40 pupils. 

The final grouping showed some overlapping of the elements con- 
sidered. Both X and Y pupils were necessarily found in some classes, 
and Y and Z pupils in others. However, the median I. Q. and E. Q. 
was found to be progressively higher from class to class, and the 
median M. A. and C. A. were progressively higher from grade to 
grade. 

Size of classes and assignment of teachers—Wherever possible, the 
size of the classes was determined according to ability of the pupils. 
The X classes contained from 40 to 47 pupils, the Y classes having 
from 35 to 40 pupils, and the Z classes having from 30 to 35 pupils. 
We found Z groups of over 30 pupils to be both unpopular and 
unsatisfactory. 

The teachers drew lots for the various groups. Two teachers made 
special requests for Z group pupils. In the future, we hope to assign 
to the X, Y, or Z classes, those teachers whose ability and training 
best fit them for these particular groups. 

After the grouping was made, all comparisons between classes 
were stopped. The teacher centered her attention upon helping each 
child in her room to accomplish a full year’s work according to his 
ability. 

The curriculum—Any X Y Z grouping plan makes it necessary to 
adjust the curriculum upon a three track basis, as follows: 

1. Minimum essentials to be mastered by all pupils of the grade. 


2. Average accomplishments which both X and Y pupils will complete. 
3. An enriched and broadened offering for all X pupils. 





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Tue Eientu YEARBOOK 253 





For the past several years, Lynn has been working toward a child 
activities program, as the best recognized medium for meeting the 
needs of the children of all ability levels. 

A statement of minimum essentials is already in the hands of 
every teacher. The teachers, the administrative and supervisory staff 
officers are now at work upon the other requirements. They meet 
once a week as a curriculum research council, with the Director 
of Research as chairman, to discuss the material for a revised course 
of study for Lynn. A number of sub-committees are working out 
the program outlined by this council. 

Individual differences and remedial teaching—The plan of X Y Z 
grouping, backed by the testing and the activity program, empha- 
sizes the individuality of every child. It brings the teacher face to 
face with the imperative need for considering and meeting individual 
differences. 

Much remedial work is going on in each classroom. Further reme- 
dial work was effectively accomplished at the Washington School last 
year by a fulltime coaching teacher. She helped those children of 
grades one, two, and three, who were not up to grade, but who had 
the ability to profit by special help.’ 

Other children who are handicapped by poor hearing are attend- 
ing the lip reading class three times a week. This class is in charge of 
a special teacher who goes from school to school. 

Professional study—Along with the reorganization of the work 
at the Washington School, has come a demand on the part of the 
teachers for their own professional study group. They wanted to 
discuss the testing movement, its relation to a new curriculum and 
other applications which can be made in an elementary school. A 
series of six meetings is being carried out this year. In March the 
professional study will culminate in a Research Department demon- 
stration for parents. 

The teachers of the Washington School have reviewed such books 
as: After Testing—What? by Corning; The Individual Pupil, by 
Mort; The Technic of Curriculum Making, by Harap; Foundations 
of Method, by Kilpatrick; and Curriculum Making in an Elementary 
School, by the Lincoln School Staff. Throughout the year, the teach- 
ers have enjoyed the experience of codrdinating theory and practice. 





? See three articles on the work of the coaching teacher, by Samuel Engle 
Burr, Director of Research, Lynn Public Schools, in Journal of Education, Decem- 
ber 5, 1927, February 27, 1928, April 9, 1928. 











254 ELEMENTARY Scuoot Principeats 





SuMMARY 


The experiment in ability grouping at the Washington School is 
far too new to warrant any profitable conclusions. We know that 
X Y Z grouping has been helpful in other places. We hope, through 
continued testing and by studying carefully tabulated results, to 
determine its worth with us. 

We have, however, come to feel that through the use of standard- 
ized tests and their results, personal prejudice is giving way to truth 
in estimating children’s accomplishments. Informal tests for judg- 
ing and comparing regular classroom work have taken on a new 
meaning for the children. Also, there are better and more compre- 
hensive records to pass on with each child from year to year. 

To summarize, the results of the testing program call attention to 
the following outcomes: 


A. Ability grouping. 

B. The use of improved informal classroom tests. 

C. Increased attention to individual differences. 

D. Remedial work in the classroom. 

E. Remedial work by the coaching teacher. 

F. The professional study group of a research nature for teachers. 

G. A public demonstration of the work of the research department 
for parents. 

H. Membership in the curriculum reconstruction council. 

I. A better card record system of pupil ability and achievement. 





VERY CHILD in the school should be studied each term 

with reference to the relation between mental ability and 
performance. Tests of accomplishment in subjectmatter must 
go hand in hand with the intelligence test. Proper place- 
ment cannot be made without both types of tests. In the ideal 
school each child would be working fully up to his ability.— 
Virgil E. Dickson, Mental Tests and the Classroom Teacher. 
World Book Company, 1923, p. 213. 




















CHAPTER XIII 
SHOULD EXAMINATIONS BE ELIMINATED? 


A. J. WILLIAMS 
Principal, School 9, Buffalo, New York 


URING the past several years there has been considerable agi- 
D tation in some quarters for the entire elimination of examina- 

tions as they have grown up in connection with school work. 
A number of arguments are advanced for this procedure, among 
which are: 


1. Examinations are an artificial thing which will not be met by the child 
in any phase of life outside of school work. 

2. It is not fair to pupils to expect their entire term’s work and sometimes 
their entire year’s work to depend on an examination lasting two or three 


hours. 
3. Ratings on examinations are not the same when made by different teachers 


teaching the same subject or by the same teacher at different times. 

4. Examinations in a subject may vary in value from year to year. 

Developing informal tests—During the past three years at School 
Number 9, we have done considerable experimental work in attempt- 
ing to answer these different objections, and have arrived at a solu- 
tion which seems satisfactory. This involved two steps: Making 
new type examinations for the work which should be covered in a 
monthly test, and administering the testing program in such a way 
that it would not be burdensome to any individual. In order to ac- 
complish these ends we appointed committees to take charge of each 
subject. For example, the teachers who had reading classes were on 
the reading committee, and those who taught English were on the 
English committee. 

The chairman of each committee then assigned sections of each 
month’s work to the various members of the committee. Each person 
prepared a certain amount of material for the monthly test. This 
material was in the form of objective tests. For the first month or 
two, examinations were compiled in the office, as the committees were 
not experienced in arranging objective tests. Since that time, how- 
ever, the material has been supplied and arranged by members of 
each committee, with only minor changes by the office. 

Our practice has been to give the same test from grades four to 
eight. This means that the test must be of such difficulty that fourth 
grade pupils can answer a reasonable number of items, and the eighth 
grade pupils cannot answer all items. 


[ 255 ] 











256 ELEMENTARY SCHOOL PRINCIPALS 





There are several reasons for using tests for several grades, as 
follows: 

First, to save time in the mimeographing of materials. If we use 
a different test for each grade, it would be necessary to make at least 
25 or 30 stencils instead of the 10 now required. 

Second, these tests serve as a check on the work throughout the 
school. Where there is no check-up from grade to grade, teachers 
may assume that the child knows everything taught in the previous 
grade. Such assumptions tend to advance pupils without adequate 
foundation for the new material. Each grade tends to become a 
water-tight compartment, as far as subjectmatter is concerned. 

It was a revelation to some of the teachers in the upper grades to 
find through our new tests that a few pupils were failing on fourth 
or fifth grade material. That rarely happens at present, because all 
the teachers codperate in eliminating obviously weak spots in the 
lower grade subjectmatter. Each teacher feels responsible for all 
material from the fourth grade up. 

Test results are checked each month to find whether the tests are 
easy enough at one end and difficult enough at the other; also, 
whether the difficulties are distributed evenly enough, so that the 
difference in scores between the various classes is about the same 
each time. Table 1 below shows the distribution of scores on a recent 
test in reading. 


TABLE 1.—DistrisuTion oF Scores IN THE READING TEST 


0 5 10 15 20 25 30 85 40 45 50 

Scores 4 9 14 19 24 29 34 389 44 49 54 Total Medians 
(8b a ee ee ee 1 10 29 45 3 88 45.5 
7a a eer oe ee le. 38 43.8 
7b «aw. « hw S&B Bee 1 93 40.0 
Number of 6a, a ee as 2 Oe Ue CUE ks 37 35.9 
cases in 4 6b os ee Be oO ae OCOD ce 92 32.5 
each grade.|5a .. .. .. ‘£m @ 721 .«. 3 30.6 
5b dip tot dene aan il & eee ee eee 61 23.9 
4a, Jo lee. ee ee ee ee aS ee 32 23.0 
\4b Se ee ee Pt ee Gece a. Bi 82 17.1 





For example, referring to Table 1, in reading the median, scores 
range from 17 in the Somnth grade to 46 in the eighth grade. The 
steps from grade to grade are practically even, so that a line drawn 
through the medians in the various grades is almost a straight line, 
except that it curves slightly at the upper end. In arithmetic (table 
not given) the medians are not in a straight line. The 5A follows a 
little behind, and the 7B goes a little ahead. However, they come 





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Tue ErieutH YEARBOOK 257 





very close to the line. The even distribution shows that the difficulty 
of these two examinations is very well graduated. There are no 
places in the examinations where the difficulty increases at a much 
more rapid rate than in other parts. The range within each grade, 
which is found no matter how careful the grading is done, is con- 
siderable. It is somewhat more in the 6B grade, in both cases, than 
it is in any of the others. 

For our own use in making comparisons between classes and be- 
tween pupils in the class, it is entirely satisfactory to use the test 
scores. We know the relationship between the scores in the various 
grades, and can compare a pupil directly with the pupils in his own 
class. For instance, take a child in the seventh grade with a score 
of 45 or 46 in reading. Table 1 shows that only 13 pupils in the 7B 
grade were equal to or better than his score. On the other hand, if 
he had a score of 25, we see immediately that only one pupil had a 
poorer score. 

Marking report cards—-The marking of report cards would not be 
satisfied by this method. So the question arises of how we may change 
test scores into marks of the same relative value, and in terms that 
are understood by the parents. This can be done by establishing 
standards for the various points in the marking scale commonly used 
on report cards. Theoretically this scale runs from zero to 100 al- 
though the lower half is not used, because comparatively few marks 
are found below 60 or 65. The main part of the report ecard seale is 
from 75 to 100 with some marks between 65 and 75. The first ques- 
tion that arises is: What percent of the marks should be below 75, 
and what percent of the marks should be above 90 ? 

There are two ways of making a tentative settlement of this ques- 
tion. First, we might ask a number of authorities in education for 
their opinions. A second method would be to assume that the marks 
given by the teachers were reasonably satisfactory, and then to find 
the various points on the scale from the distribution of the teachers’ 
marks. This second method was selected as probably the most satis- 
factory, and a tabulation of teachers’ marks was made. 

In connection with the Annual Survey of the Buffalo Public Schools 
in 1925-26, teachers were asked to give the marks of pupils in read- 
ing, arithmetic, English, and spelling. These marks were to be the 
average of the three monthly marks of September, October, and 
November. About 40,000 marks were tabulated in several grades 
and ages, and it was discovered that in practically every case the 
distribution of marks followed closely the curve of normal distribu- 
tion, or the normal] probability curve. 

9 











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ELEMENTARY Scuoort PrINCIPALS 





TABLE 2.—Distrisution or TEACHERS’ Marks 








Total of Total of Total of Sixth and 
Eighth Grades Sixth Grades Eighth Grades 
S 8 § s S i 
se 2+ 22 2 3 & 3 
gf 3S 28 #38 38 2 #8 22 & 
Teacher EES sé ES $a 28 ES £5 28 ES 
Marks < fa} Zz < fae) Z < a2) 4 
100 18 1 21 21 1 22 39 1 8 
95 627 47 53 600 29 49 1227 36 33 
90 20138—s 151 115 2620 124 105 4633 135 101 
85 3094 232 205 4504 214 172 7598 219 203 
80 3214 242 233 5449 258 212 8663 251 261 
75 2401 181 192 3819 181 195 6220 182 220 
70 1077 81 110 2074 98 136 3151 92 120 
65 451 34 45 903 43 71 1354 39 42 
60 223 17 13 560 26 27 783 23 10 
55 79 6 3 196 9 9 275 8 1 
50 73 5 183 9 2 256 7 1 
45 20 2 aa 67 3 Ae 87 3 
40 9 1 ae 64 3 wit 73 2 
39 and below..... 5 ua a 54 2 es 59 2 
| ERE Spe gos 13304 21114 34418 
Average ......... 82.95 81.4 82.0 


In Table 2, the actual distribution of these totals is shown, and 
compared with the normal distribution on the basis of a thousand 
eases. It seems reasonable to say that the basis of marking pupils 
ought to be the same in all classes. It does not seem reasonable that 
there should be many more failures in sixth grade classes than in 
the eighth grade classes. Of course, there are arguments that can 
be advanced to support that condition, such as elimination of poorer 
pupils. With proper methods of classification that argument ought 
not to have much force. 

In every case then, the actual distribution of the marks is very 
nearly the same as its normal distribution. The eighth grade scores 
on the whole come more closely to the normal distribution than do 
the sixth grades. It is reasonable to suppose that the eighth grade 
teachers are a little more accurate in their marks than are the sixth 
grade, since they have the final examination, and must submit their 
papers to the office for review. If we select a normal distribution in 
which there are 17 percent below 75 and about 18 percent above 90, 
we will have a scientific basis for the distribution of marks. This 
will compare very closely to the actual distribution of al] marks by 
all teachers in the city. Such a table has been made and used for 
three years to the satisfaction of everyone concerned. 














Tue EreutuH YEARBOOK 259 





TABLE 3—Key ror TraNnsmMutTinGc Test Scores into TEACHERS’ Marks 


Percent Mark Percent Mark Percent Mark 
0.0-2.5 100 38 .3-42.8 85 93.4-94.7 70 
2.6-3.1 99 42.8-47.6 84 94.8-95.9 69 
3.24.1 98 47 .6-52.4 83 95 9-96.9 68 
4. 2-5.3 97 §2.5-57 .1 82 97 .0-97 .6 67 
5.4-6.7 96 57.2-61.8 81 97.7-98.2 66 
6 8-8 4 95 61. 9-66 .2 80 98.2-98.7 65 
8.5-10 4 94 66 .3-70.5 79 98.8-99.1 64 
10.5-12.7 93 70.6-74.5 78 99.2-99.3 63 
12.7-15.4 92 74.6-78.2 77 99 31-99 .4 62 
15.5-18.4 91 78. 2-81 .5 76 99 41-99 .65 61 
18.5-21.8 90 81.6-84.6 75 99. 66-99 .75 60 
21.9-25 5 89 84 .7-87.2 74 99 .76-99 .83 59 
25.6-29.5 88 87 .3-89 6 7 99 .84-99 .88 58 
29 .6-33.7 87 89.7-91.6 72 99. 89-99 .93 57 
33. 8-38 .2 86 91.7-93.3 71 


Using the key table—Let us suppose that a teacher gives one of our 
informal arithmetic tests to a class of 40 pupils. After scoring the 
tests he makes a distribution of the scores as shown in Table 4. 


TABLE 4.—DistrisuTion or Test Scores IN 
ARITHMETIC TEST 


Score Frequency 
WOE a visWitasaswenesaeesucaawnne 4 
MS cL saat ol eadlnce nubcsiaiaities 9 3a ee ed 6 
PE asco ahs eda vetamaentnentcg 25 
RUE Sabor dis cid-gitca dda baie aie ateiaite racers 4 
WE cop cb ecicc cals ckees ks aenen 1 

MONS ienictd od Bae oe nae ae 40 


Examining step 20-24 it is seen that there are four pupils receiv- 
ing this score. Statistically it is correct to assume that these four 
cases are scattered evenly upon this step. Hence, 38 or 95 percent 
of the class is above the midpoint of the step. Examining Table 3, 
we find that the mark corresponding with 95 percent is 69. There- 
fore, a score of 23 on the test is entitled to a teacher’s mark of 69. 
Scores below 23 would be marked less than 69, and higher scores 
would receive proportionally higher grades. 

Let us determine the mark of the one pupil receiving the highest 
score. The midpoint of the highest step is 43. Theoretically, the 
highest scores are scattered evenly on the step. Hence, one-half of 
a score out of the class of 40 is above the midpoint 43. In other 
words, 1.25 percent of the total number of scores is above point 43. 
Examining Table 4, we find that the teacher’s mark 100 corresponds 
with 1.25 percent. 











260 ELEMENTARY Scuoou PRINcIPALS 





In the same way the teacher determines the standard teacher’s 
mark, which corresponds to each pupil’s score on the test. In this 
way his report card marks can be placed upon the same basis as all 
other teachers of the system. 

The total amount of time required by the teacher in scoring papers 
and putting on the marks is considerably less than would be used 
by a conscientious teacher in scoring old-type examinations, on the 
basis of 10 points per question. Our method not only gives a much 
more accurate mark, and one which is comparable from grade to 
grade, but also from subject to subject. Furthermore, it actually 
takes less of the teacher’s time than he would use in making his 
own examinations, and scoring them in the old-fashioned way. 

Some of the advantages of the plan described above are as follows: 


1. A more thorough knowledge of the pupil’s ability in a given subject is 
acquired by the teacher. Instead of ten or twelve items, such as are found in 
the old type examinations, the pupil is tested on from 50 to 100 items. 

2. The pupil has a better chance on this test to show what he can do. He 
might miss two or three items out of the ten in the old type examination and 
thus get a poor mark. In the new test several unfamiliar items would not 
influence his mark so disastrously. 

3. The new examination has the great advantage of codrdinating the work of 
the teachers in several grades in a given subject. For example, heretofore the 
eighth grade teacher in arithmetic has concerned himself largely with the problem 
of his immediate course of study and comparatively little with the subject- 
matter which has been presented in previous grades. Now the eighth grade 
teacher has to consider the subjectmatter from the fourth grade up, because the 
examination contains items from each of several grades. 

4. These tests are of considerable diagnostic value. Each of the teachers in 
the committee has his own ideas as to what should go into the examination and 
each is assigned some particular phase of the work which has been covered during 
the month. After the papers have been corrected a table is made showing the 
percent of errors in each class on each item of the test. This table helps the 
teachers to determine the particular type of error which is most frequent among 
the classes and to take measures in correcting the situation. 

5. The new scheme provides scientifically accurate marks, which are directly 
comparable between pupils of the same class and different classes. Marks are 
directly comparable for the same pupil from month to month and from year 
to year. Moreover, the marks in one subject can be compared directly with the 
marks in another subject, because the scheme of rating makes all the examinations 
identical in value no matter what the month, grade, or subject. 

6. The objection sometimes made by pupils and parents—“ The teacher doesn’t 
like me,” “She has a grudge against me,”—can no longer serve as an alibi for 
poor marks. The teacher has nothing whatever to do with giving a child his 
mark except to help in preparing the examination. We have entirely eliminated 
complaints of this kind from parents during the last year, as they can readily 
see the real situation. 

7. These examinations have helped the faculty to realize the importance of 
coéperation between teachers of the same subject. The course of study has become 
a continuous matter instead of a series of isolated compartments, such as are 
likely to exist where the teachers work independently. 








~~ ee we 





Tue EragutuH YEARBOOK 261 





Sample tests—The next section of this article has been given over 
to illustrations of the tests described above. 


SAMPLE 1.—Reapinc Test ror GRADES 3 TO 5 


1. Jack lived with his mother in a little cottage. His father was dead. A big 
giant had stolen all his money. His mother had to work very hard, and they had 
very little to eat. 

Draw a line under the word that tells what kind of boy Jack was: 


rich fortunate poor 


2. Jack’s mother sent him to the fair to sell their only cow. Jack traded the 
cow for a hatful of beans. When he returned home, his mother punished him and 
sent him to bed. 

Draw a line under the word that tells what kind of boy Jack was: 
wise helpful silly 


3. Jack’s mother threw the beans out of the window. When Jack woke up the 
next morning, he looked out. Jack exclaimed, “Oh, mother! Come and look! 
A beanstalk has grown up to the sky! ” 

Draw a line under the word that tells you how Jack felt: 
sad surprised ill 


4. As soon as Jack was dressed, he ran out of the house and began to climb 
the beanstalk. He climbed and climbed until he reached the top. 
Draw a line under the word that tells you the kind of boy Jack was: 


lazy weak strong 


5. At the top of the beanstalk Jack saw a big castle. When he knocked at the 
door, a kind old woman let him in. She told Jack that the big giant who had 
stolen his father’s money lived there. Jack made up his mind to get the money. 
The old woman said she would help. 

What kind of a boy was Jack? 
frightened brave stupid 


6. Jack found the money bags and started home. He climbed down the bean- 
stalk as fast as he could. The giant climbed after him. When Jack reached the 
bottom, he took an ax and chopped the beanstalk down. 

What kind of a boy was Jack? 


quick slow clumsy 


Peter Rabbit was dreadfully frightened. He rushed all over the garden for he 
had forgotten his way back to the gate. He lost one of his shoes among the 
cabbages and the other among the potatoes. 

After losing them, he ran on four legs and went faster. I think he might have 
got away, if he had not run into a gooseberry net and got caught by the large 
buttons on his jacket. It was a blue jacket with brass buttons. 


ee 


oe 
oman 
= 
> 
© 
= 
© 
= 
Q 
> 
® 
Oo 
te) 
=. 
ic] 
=a 
a 
7] 
oy 
ic) 
oO 
cr 
~~ 


Susano is a little Japanese boy. He lives far away on a big island, called 
Japan. Susano has yellow skin and coarse, black hair. His eyes are small and 
slanting. We cail them almond eyes, for they are just the shape of an almond. 
They are as black as coal. Susano has a sister called Fumi. She, too, has black 
hair and eyes. Susano and Fumi are dressed just alike. They both wear long 











262 ELEMENTARY Scuoot PRINCIPALS 





gowns. They wear sashes about their waists. Fumi’s sash is longer than Susano's 
and hers ties behind in a big bow. You should see their stockings. They are 
made of white cotton. They have a place for the big toe, just as our mittens 
have a place for the thumb. When Susano and Fumi are in the house, they 
walk about in their stocking feet. 


ee CN NN i aso. a dads curccccasawetderaabaedewns 
ee es ee SE Ns. dances deeds bareeseesubes¥aeseies 
er NO gdh hg scene ace eemne Cea cae eau eieea ne 
nt I I o-oo oa adi pa piace emiee naw aun aia hin.i samatacied hair. 
16. His eyes are as black as (tar, coal, ink)....... OF ARS eA 
re Ce I dae hnneic aie oukae ange amiwatn ad tings isenivads 
ee ccc ca cnceens kasha eae dn edanweseedas 
19. Their stockings are made Of..........ccccc..cccccccccees iibiicsan 
20. In the house they walk about in their....................0005. 


The port of Chicago owes much to the Chicago River which has been repeatedly 
widened, epened, and straightened. It is today one of the world’s most important 
rivers, commercially considered. After extending about one mile westward from 
the lake, the river divides into two branches, one extending northwest, the other 
southwest. Many docks have been built along its fifteen miles of navigable 
channel, and its banks are lined with factories, warehouses, coal yards, and grain 
elevators. 


21. To what does it say Chicago owes much?...................... 
22. The Chicago River has been widened (once, several, many) times. 
23. It is (the least known, broadest and widest, among most im- 
portant) rivers. 

24. It is important because of (its water, its scenery, its commerce). 
25. How far westward does it extend before dividing?.............. 
26. In what two opposite directions does it flow?.................. 
27. Write the word that means boats may safely travel on it. 

BMG 066466 Seneces GE Naknke wenens are storage places for ...... 


More than twenty centuries ago, a wise old Chinese philosopher recognized 
the importance of fine table manners, when he cautioned his countrymen always 
to eat as if in the presence of a king. He saw that if they were to have good 
table manners, they must practice them daily at home. 

On dotted line, write the number which you find, before the correct meaning 
for each word. 


- SERPs centuries 1. warned 
Mikaereaacn ee wise 2. learned or wise men 
 aiiis oe aamanen philosopher 3. do over and over 
eer recognized 4. hundreds of years 

DR aiaaa Kaw ec wae importance 5. worthy of notice 

—_ ee manners 6. having a good judgment 
REE eee cautioned 7. be with a person 

a wicecan s taee countrymen 8. your behavior 
Ea presence 9. to have knowledge 

ese tivencuawed practice 10. people of your land 


SAMPLE 2.—Reapinc Test ror Grapes 4 To 8 


A quaint figure is the candy vender of Japan. Down the narrow street he 
comes singing, with his small stand and his stock of candy figures. A crowd of 











Tue Eieutu YEARBOOK 2638 





children follow him. When the crowd is large enough the candy man sets down 
his stand and begins business. 

With a little bamboo tube he blows bubbles of hot sugar somewhat as a child 
blows soap bubbles. These he twists and shapes into flowers, fruits, animals, and 
fishes. When he completes a figure he hangs it on a nail in the edge of the stand. 

All the while the candy man is working he entertains the children with 
humorous remarks or with tales of adventure in which the hero is always one 
who eats quantities of candy. Most of the candy venders are old men who are 
fond of children and who love their calling. The Japanese have a saying, “ Once a 
candy man, always a candy man.” 

In each of the sentences below underline the word or words that make the 
sentence right. 


1. The paragraph tells about (Japanese children, why we should 
eat candy, the candy man). 

The candy man comes down the street (soberly, merrily, slowly). 
He tells the children (exciting, boresome, long) stories. 

The children (dislike, adore, abhor) the candy man. 

Copy the word in the paragraph that means peddler 
Copy the word that means amuses 
Copy the word that means funny..........ccccccscesscccccens 
Copy the word that means finishes.............cccceecccceees: 


re | 


ONO oe 


Daniel Boone was one of the pioneers. When he crossed the mountains to 
Kentucky the whole of that section was a wilderness. There were no roads. 
The pioneers built a few log huts in which to live, and surrounded them with 
a stockade as a protection against the Indians, who were apt to attack them 
at any time. The men of the company cleared some ground and tried to raise 
some grain and vegetables. Often they went on hunting trips to secure wild 
animals for food. The women dared not leave the stockade while the men 
were away. 


12. Ww hat did they pag to raise?. ; 
13. Why did they go sont 


eer es eoereesr eer eeeeereeeeeseese 
ee 


The fresh green of the wheat fields began to turn to a golden brown. The 
harvest was ripening. Before long the air rang with the steady beat of the flail, 
as the Pilgrims threshed their first crop of golden grain. 


BE: Whisk Mine OF Te Wear Wak IEE esiccsiscisiciciescessdis cc deedlvbn 
Underline the word which makes the sentence true: 

16. The Pilgrims were (planting, harvesting, cultivating). 

17. The flail was (a bird, a tool, grain). 

18. These people were (industrious, lazy, careless). 


Betty skipped merrily into the house, and snatching up some broken corn-cake 
left from the morning meal, ran lightly out to the field where Daisy was kept, 
her own horse, which she had helped to raise from a colt. 


19. Betty skipped (sadly, soberly, happily). 

20. What word means picking 25 Ee a eer OTe, Ae OS 
22. Find a word in the paragraph that means as ussisted sapien 
23. A colt is a young (deer, horse, cow, sheep). 


eee eee eee eee ee 











264 ELEMENTARY Scuoot PRINCIPALS 





SAMPLE 3.—Reapina Test ror Grapes 4 To 8 


Mother Nature is a tireless worker. At all seasons you may find proof of her 
labors. In the spring and summer, she adorns field and byway with beautiful 
flowers. What does she do in fall and winter? 

Find a word in the paragraph which means: 


I eich me cca as sa hth cece Palio Gel ea wc re 
EL 461 ou dd baine henna Sanam aA ae KO waes bknie mein weckn 
INI ia Gicaia taal eas Markt we decain cara aies waa ed We Ddoniniky Semaine 
NOI 8a xt org Cit arin pret tte Ae ree ee ata 
IE oid ci dita Giger ciovencin ecciaakorne meal acne aie aera oes veiieeed 
SE cindy hada Aedes ae R RMR kena Heck Pekka dkenbeodiiae 


Se 9 BO 


Cheapside is one of the busiest streets in the largest city of the world. Do 
you know the name of that city? 
London is not in the United States. It is in England, a beautiful country 
across the Atlantic Ocean. 
Underline the word which makes the statement true: 


7. Cheapside is a (city, street, country). 

8. London is in (United States, England, America). 

9. To reach London you would sail (west, across Atlantic Ocean to 
Europe). 


The sun flashed on the little red and black vase which sparkled like a brilliant 
jewel before the wondering eyes of the king, while from the crowds of people 
rose cries of delight. 


i | eae ne 
11. This was not in our country because they were ruled by a...... 
12. With what kind of eyes did the king look?..................... 
13. How do you know the people were pleased?.............. uid 
14. The vase was (full, ugly, shiny). 

15. Select a word that means a gem.............c cece eceecenceces 
16. Select one meaning groups or herds...............0..0.00ceeees 
17. Rose means (flower, pink, issued). 


The trophy was an exquisite thing—a small silver standard, and on that, 
poised on tiptoe and balanced as if for instant flight, was the delicately wrought 
silver figure of a girl in regular athletic costume, bloomers, middy, and tie, just 
what every girl in Midlands was wearing for school sports. The little figure 
seemed vivid and alive, with tie and hair ruffled a bit as though being blown by 
friendly, invisible breezes. 


18. This describes, explains, questions. 

EN es cca aoa cd aad hae AaNiieusislb atm dale cia ieniseneoatel standard. 
ee us camecibbasadamebebsnees 
Bc a INGE NO abcess a por csakasratcey clyde ohains aveiiérscmua a Kip. dcbcdcw 
22. The costume was composed Of............cccc-ccccccccccccces 
23. Invisible means (apparent, unseen, noticeable). 
ree een seemed vivid and alive. 


26. Costume (duty, habit, dress). 


From the above paragraph select a word meaning: 


rrr MO: WOMAN. oicinvincnccccceccvose 
BE. GI on cc ccccceccccs 31. strong, robust ............. 
29. support, base ............ Be EE Sa ccccinceavesas 











Tue E1gutH YEARBOOK 265 





Select another word for: 


BEEN OE RE Te rene Ee PI eT ene eer ee yn 
Bee MN has al aie aia wc big aaa orale asa alae ea a OES 


The following sentences are out of order. Using the numbers, indicate the 
correct order: 


1. So we know that coal is made from plants, because it consists 
mainly of a substance, called carbon, which is abundant in 
plants, and because in connection with coal beds we find leaves, 
tree trunks, roots, and fruits in petrified or fossil condition. 
2. In ancient periods in the history of the earth, forests grew 
in great swamps and on their borders. 3. This mass of plant 
substance was turned into coal, in much the same way as 
vegetation in swamps may now change into the brown sub- 
stance called peat, which is used for fuel in Ireland and in a 
number of other countries. 4. The wood, leaves, and mosses of 
the forests gathered for a long time and were kept from decay 
by the water. 


SAMPLE 4.—Reapina Test ror Grapes 6 To 8 


The ideal wheat climate, with a rainy winter and a dry summer, is sometimes 
called the Mediterranean type of climate because it is characteristic of most 
countries facing that body of water. The western part of our country (about 
40-45 percent of the whole) is mostly too arid for cultivation, except when irri- 
gated. The district that is most arid is in the Great Basin. Going from the east 
toward the arid region we find close to the line of 20 inches of rainfall the most 
important wheat belt in America, reaching from Texas north through Oklahoma, 
Kansas, Nebraska, the Dakotas, and Minnesota into Canada. A second belt is 
found as we go north and northwest from the deserts of the Great Basin, into an 
area of increased rainfall which gives the wheat areas of eastern Oregon and 
Washington. To the west of the Great Basin, across the Sierras in California, is 
the great valley of the State, one of the most important wheat regions of the 
country. Its essentially Mediterranean conditions give it the best wheat climate 
in America. 


1. Select a word that means artificial watering of land............ 
2. One that means area. Or GIstrieh a 5.iio.i oo. 4.0iss0,s:sisaeiso:0 0:0 0'0:04.000'0 5 600 
3. One that means dry, parched from heat.............00.ceee0e 
4. One that means tilling the land or raising of a crop............ 
.. Di WOE THRE MRCANG CHOCIOE a. ics «oie stiscddcecncsidawcunndndeetees 
6. What is the rainy winter and dry climate sometimes called?...... 
7. Write the first six words of the sentence which tells the region 
NNN UNNI AI. 5:c-tuae 5 acces cin ons bile eemeaeie ean 
8. Write the first four words that tell where the most important 
WE GEE BE CCID 18 og. oie kev orn'n digs vn bass a meme R RES 
9-10. Write the names of the states that are included in the second 
WO UG 5 ocsiara, tdachicaice eaten sama meen ace RE Re ry ee 
11. Write the name of the state that has the best wheat climate in 
SO TCO LOB os a oinkiee sorensouaasdesasanee toda tees ree 
12-15. The best climate for wheat is that which has a.............. 
IO sis octane ae Ahr eos Rae ea nae 
16-17. Hizcopt whem ......cccesscee the western part of the United 
PAIN PR EOO ies 53)sic slice de eeasaaes for wheat raising. 


18-19. The district that is most arid is found in the................ 











266 ELEMENTARY Scuoot PRINCIPALS 





Underline the word that spoils the meaning in the two paragraphs below: 


20. The postage was so high for carrying the mails in Colonial times 
that few letters were written. As the charge of twenty-five cents 
on a single letter was common, people wrote often to their 
friends. 

21. The high mountains near the coast of Alaska shut out from the 
interior much of the warmth and rainfall which the winds bring 
to the shore lands. Consequently, interior Alaska is much 
warmer and a temperature of fifty or more degrees below zero 
is common in the winter. 


Combine each of the following groups into a sentence: 


a aucwanuas ROWE: onc cxcnes Ot ME oo sccee ns WB os a sciices in the 
United States Navy. 

22. 

BD. Mi WHER oc cscs every American .......... the splendid 
ieee re BN e525 cc seas he should appreciate. 

23. 

C. in our colonial history .......... who is one of the noblest 
figures to the principals of freedom .......... deserves to be 
ee Roger Williams .......... for his heroic 
devotion. 


In the following selection “power” is needed for the first blank so it is 
numbered (1). Number the remaining words in the list to correspond to the 
blanks: 


| Cree trade Buffalo with the ...... De scacscuites of 
ERE poured Niagara Falls at hand has ...... 
i ac exw cae ee WD enwats become the 
Sic arcensenes competing ceeee. Pere milling center of 
Saadeh pasiebeeate power North America. On the natural 
. Sapam ee ee ne ee * Rees route between 
Mvacnnaseees manufacturer OO sctnns eee grain fields 
30............second and the Atlantic ...... Mie caes 
__ PES ese- elevated wheat was ...... ert from 
| Speer recently the holds grain vessels and 
Mine a/ cata sesh ti TemeG hhh eee Me 6 hiisG: 9 
ee western j-..... cars. From a trans-shipper 
of wheat, Buffalo has become a 
asa 10 ...... of it, and is now 
és eeiaed 1l_ ...... with Minne- 
apolis for the first place in flour 
milling. 


Sentence (b) gives the same thought as sentence (a) if you use the right 
word. Underline the one word in parenthesis in sentence (b) which could not 
be used. 


(a) To carry the goods from this place to their destination is 
expensive. 
35. (b) To (transport, transfer, ship, insure) the goods from one 
place to their destination is expensive. 
Do the same for (ce), (f) and (h). 
(c) The people of that community refuse to work together for 
the common interest. 





ne 


at 
at 








Tre Eieuru YrarBookK 267 





36. (d) The people of that community refuse to (compete, codper- 
ate, join, associate) for the common interest. 

(e) The three branches of the government are that which makes 
the laws, that which enforces them, and that which decides what 
they mean. The last two have no power to make laws. 

37. (f) The three branches of our government are the legislative, 
judicial and executive. The last two have no (continental, 
congressional, legislative) powers. 

(g) Henry Clay who arranged the compromise of 1850 said that it 
was evident that the people of each section would have to yield 
some of the points in the dispute to prevent war. 

38. (h) The people of each section should have to (compromise, 
concede, adjust, ratify) some of the points in the dispute to 
prevent war. 

Read the following problem. Do not solve it, but answer the question printed 
below it. 


A clerk receives a salary of $8.00 a week and in addition a commission of 
4% on the total amount of his sales each week. What is his weekly income if 
his sales average $250 a week? 


39. What amount is the clerk sure of receiving each week whether 


ee RO: a UN OF OE ia i inc treavcasacadsosrnsaeads 
40. If his commission for a certain week is ten dollars what will 
Fs eons be fOr CAKE WOE sks. os dsna<xeeancesanenscnedcnns 
41. If his sales average less than $250 a week will he receive any 
URE Siccnccnsciswocdcmenevinns SRE, Pee eran 
42. If his sales should be as high as $400 would he get a commission 
on the $400 or only on the $2507 ...........ccccccccccccvccce 


The word “grain” has the following definitions: 


1. The cereal grasses themselves. 
2. Texture; fiber. 
3. To paint in imitation of the grain (fiber) of wood. 


In the blank before each sentence place the number of the definition you 
think has been used: 


GBs dei erations He grained the top of the table with great care. 
errr re The wood is of a very fine grain. 
MS aicesicta eons We passed field after field of grain. 











CHAPTER XIV 
A GUIDANCE PROGRAM FOR A SCHOOL SYSTEM 


JENNIE McMuLLIN TURNER 


Assistant in Teacher Training, State Board of Vocational Education, 
Madison, Wisconsin 


INTRODUCTION 


N EDUCATIONAL pioneer of my acquaintance believes that 
our school curriculum should be organized around a fundamen- 
tal subject, physical science, with emphasis particularly on biol- 

ogy, the science of life. He would make the schoolroom and all out- 
doors a laboratory for studying life and its surroundings at first hand. 

Another educational pioneer friend would like to make of every 
schoolroom a good library rich in biography, history, fiction, science, 
and travel. He would like to make drill in the mechanical processes 
of reading, writing, and spelling incidental rather than fundamental 
and to substitute wide reading and browsing among the thinkers of 
the past and present for the tedious analysis of a few pieces of litera- 
ture chosen from a little miscellaneous reader or two. 

A third educational dissenter would put modern foreign languages 
very early into the public school curriculum. He would broaden the 
minds of our whole nation by making it possible for all to come into 
actual contact with the peoples of other countries. He would like to 
open to all, even the poorest, some of the opportunities for personal 
and public international contacts which are greatly increasing today. 
He would like to break down the language barriers which separate 
us from our neighbors. 

A fourth pioneer or dissenter would like to see the schools put 
more time into real training for citizenship; into the study of history, 
of economies, of sociology ; into the study and practice of government. 

One unifying purpose runs through all these suggestions for re- 
form: that of taking the emphasis off the mechanical processes of 
reading, writing, spelling, and calculating, and putting it upon life 
and preparation for life. Every one of these pioneers wants to intro- 
duce the youth of the country to something real, to the physical proc- 
esses going on around them; to the thinkers and seers of yesterday 
and today; to peoples separated from them by the barrier of lan- 
guage; to the social and economic problems we all face. 


[ 268 ] 











Tue E1ieHtH YEARBOOK 269 





Every one of these purposes is important. But where shall we 
get the time to carry them out? ™ is such a difficult task to teach 
the mere processes of reading, v. ., spelling, and arithmetic that 
there is no time for these other fancy things! Even now we have 
young people who stay in the elementary schools for eight years or 
more and who come out unable to read a newspaper, to write legibly, 
to spell the simplest words, to add a column of 10 figures, to speak 
an English sentence correctly. What good does it do to give them all 
these advanced ideas if they disgrace themselves and us by being 
unable to do these elementary things ? 

Perhaps one answer to this may be found in the experience which 
we often have in our part-time schools. It happens frequently that 
we get here a young person 14 years of age or over who is badly 
retarded ; who after spending eight or nine years in school is unable 
to speak a sentence, write a paragraph, read a page, or add a 
column correctly. He may seem like impossible material for any 
occupation or any phase of life for which we train people. Yet again 
and again boys and girls of this type when confronted with a real 
need for these elementary processes for practical work in homemak- 
ing or shop or business life have simply buckled down to work and 
mastered these processes. Again and again, boys and girls who have 
read nothing and show absolutely no taste for reading and no ability 
to read have been led through literature courses which introduce 
them to attractive books on animals, Indians, the west, the south, 
mysteries, and every other subject in which boys and girls delight. 
Often these children become indefatigable readers and patrons of 
the public library. 

Our experience in the part-time school with people who have been 
declared hopeless has led us to believe that the will or motive to learn 
plays a considerable part in the ability to learn. When we have 
dropped the tactics of the drillmaster and have simply shown the 
necessity for mastering some process before going on to something 
the pupil wants to do, we have conquered his prejudice against 
mastering the process. Many of our young people are wasting much 
good effort in resisting our attempts to make them do something for 
which we have not furnished a motive or reason. Some teachers seem 
to take a delight in a “ that’s for me to know and you to find out” 
attitude toward the purpose of their assignments. 

Many educators have come to feel that we can save much time 
in learning the fundamental processes of reading, writing, arith- 
metic, and other subjects, if we give children worthwhile reasons 
or motives for learning them. The possible motives are legion. The 











270 ELEMENTARY Scuoot PRINCIPALS 





study of animal and plant life at first hand will provide some of 
them. The presence of attractive books of all sorts and frequent ex- 
cursions into these books with an enthusiastic teacher furnish others. 
The study of the languages of other peoples makes us see our own 
as we never saw it before. The study of the social problems of our 
community, and the history of the way they came to be as they are, 
develop interest and curiosity which can only be satisfied through 
reading. 

One of the strongest motives in the part-time school is the occupa- 
tional motive. When the pupil finds out how few things he ean do 
to earn a living without some degree of mastery of reading, writing, 
spelling, and arithmetic, he ceases to resist and goes to work to make 
up for his deficiencies. Experience with the strength of this oceu- 
pational motive might well lead one to the conclusion that it should 
be introduced as early as possible into the elementary grades. This 
means the introduction of another subject, “ Occupations,” into an 
already crowded curriculum. If, however, the fundamental proe- 
esses become easier because of the introduction of the study of occu- 
pations, of more literature, physical science, social science, language, 
or other motivating subject, it may well be that the curriculum will 
grow less crowded as it grows richer. It may be that as the emphasis 
in the elementary grades shifts from the acquisition of a few funda- 
mental tools like reading and writing to guidance into life, it will 
be found that the tools can be picked up more easily than when they 
were the chief object of educational effort. 


A Gurpancre ProGcRAM 


It will not be a matter of surprise that the guidance program 
which I am going to outline briefly does not place its primary empha- 
sis upon tests or records of the individual or any of the parapher- 
nalia often associated with the idea of guidance. It places it upon 
something which many educators seem afraid to defend in these 
days when almost everyone is shouting, “ Don’t teach the subject, 
teach the child.” It places it upon all the subjectmatter of instruc- 
tion. 

I am not able to subscribe to the theory that it makes little differ- 
ence what you teach a child provided you say to yourself all the 
time, “ This is a human being who must be treated as an individual.” 
The world is full of many wonderful and vital and challenging prob- 
lems. It is also full of many trivial and inconsequential things which 
we can well afford to miss. Many people spend their lives flitting 





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Tue E:ranru Yrarsoox 271 





from one trivial activity to another. The first item, therefore, in a 
program of wise guidance must be the opening of the eyes of young 
people to the important and vital problems of life. 

That can only be done effectively when those who teach our schools 
overhaul their stock, look at it critically, and cast out the trash. The 
first step in reorganizing a school for guidance might well be to call 
the teaching staff together; ask them to outline what they are doing, 
consider why they are doing it, throw overboard whatever they find 
which is not vital, and present the whole thing to the staff. In meet- 
ing after meeting the instructors should discuss among themselves 
what they are doing and why; they should justify their work to them- 
selves, to their colleagues, and to fair-minded laymen, or change it 
until they can defend it. 

I am always suspicious of the person who says, “ I am not a teacher 
of mathematics (or history, or language, or what not). I am just a 
teacher of youth.” A person who does not believe in his subject would 
have no place in the school of my ideals. A person should be teach- 
ing a subject because he believes it has something of great value for 
those whom he teaches. The great teachers of music are men and 
women who believe in the power of music in the world. The great 
teachers of physical science are those who hold science in reverence. 
The great teachers in the realm of political science are those who 
believe in the possibilities of better government and join with their 
fellow men in striving for it. The great teachers of language are 
those who feel that it is a great and fine thing to learn to know a 
people through the language they have developed. 

The first thing, then, for those who wish to organize a school which 
will offer real guidance for life is to get teachers who know the 
value of their subject in life and who will explain that value and 
impress it upon their pupils. To work with teachers like this, who 
are leading a purposeful existence themselves, gives young people 
a strong incentive to prepare to do likewise. 

With teachers like this it is not difficult to secure the second and 
third items in the guidance program. The second is that every sub- 
ject should be so taught as to show its particular value in all the 
occupations the teacher and the class can recall. This means that 
every teacher must have a wide knowledge of occupations as well as 
of his subject. 

The third item is, to my mind, the most important in the whole 
guidance program. It is simply that every subject should be so 
taught as to show the existence of the problems still to be solved 
in connection with it. 











272 ELEMENTARY Scuoo. PRINCIPALS 





We are likely in these days of careful measuring, to forget that 
ability to perform a task is not fixed but variable, and that one of 
the great causes of variability is the presence or absence of motive 
or inspiration. There are fairly capable people who will do as they 
are told but who never see what to do next. Life for them is empty. 
They hang around listlessly complaining of nothing to do. 

There are others who, with apparently little if any more ability, 
are always happily buried in work. They can see things to do faster 
than they can possibly do them. They are never listless or lonely 
or longing for something to do. Everything they look at offers chal- 
lenging problems. No life could be long enough to do all they see 
to do. Contact with others like themselves sometimes inspires them 
to accomplishments which seem humanly impossible. All of us have 
done, on sudden inspiration, in an emergency or desperate need or 
strong emotion, things which we could not do ordinarily. We do not 
get the power to do by sitting down with a little card which asks for 
the qualities needed for certain occupations and searching our souls 
to see if we possess them. We get it by being thrown into a situation 
where we are called upon to use every capacity we have and some 
which we did not dream we possessed. 

In every occupation we find a few men and women who are awake 
and active and many more who are asleep. In the medical profes- 
sion, for example, we find a few great physicians who think and work 
day and night on the terrible problems which beg constantly for solu- 
tion. They see people die every day for lack of a little knowledge. 
They search day by day for the key to Nature’s closed doors. 

There are a few such physicians and scientists. Because of them 
and their work, life is steadily lengthening; and suffering from cer- 
tain causes is disappearing. But for every one of these wide-awake 
physicians there are many torpid ones. There are hundreds of good 
decent fellows who take what was given them at school and live off 
it for the rest of their lives, never contributing anything to the science 
they profess. They do as they were told to do, but they never see any- 
thing to do unless it is pointed out to them. 

The same thing is to be seen among lawyers. A few have vision 
and ingenuity and work for the improvement of legal practices. The 
others mark time as long as they live. So with men in business. There 
are always the two classes. They are in all the professions, in com- 
mercial life, in the trades, and among the unskilled day laborers. 
Everywhere there are a few people who see problems sticking up 
everywhere and who long for the time and strength to solve them. 














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Tue Erenrn YEARBOOK 273 





Everywhere, too, there are those who see no problems of any kind 
before them and whose lives are drab and uninspired. 

Take, for example, the average young girl sitting before a knitting 
machine with 14,000 needles. To her the machine, if she thinks 
about it at all, is a complicated finished affair. She knows nothing 
about it except how to run it. She does not realize that it is not per- 
fect, that it will never be perfect, that some day some one with open 
eyes will see what needs to be done to make it better, and get credit 
and money for doing it. 

No doubt some people have the gift of seeing the problems in 
front of them to a much greater extent than others. But the school 
can do much to cultivate this gift in both the more gifted and less 
gifted. If pupils are challenged every day, in every subject, to look 
for the unsolved problems connected with it, they will gradually de- 
velop the habit of looking for the next step. Over a school period of 
many years, they cannot help finding many problems of permanent 
interest to them. 

Sometimes it looks as if, in our enthusiasm over developing the 
individual along the lines of his natural tendencies, we are likely 
to make him too self-conscious. We keep worrying him about his 
abilities just as an injudicious mother worries her child about the 
food he eats. We direct his attention too much toward himself, too 
little toward an interesting world in which he might forget himself. 

This leads us to the fourth item: the definite study of occupations, 
which should begin very early—probably in the first or second grade. 
Even very young children can be encouraged to look around them 
and to inquire about and tell about the occupations of their parents, 
relatives, and neighbors: the nature of the work, the conditions, the 
hours, the time the father or mother goes to work and comes home, 
the wages, and some of its pleasant and unpleasant characteristics. 
Discussion with their parents and with the class will be excellent 
training in English as well as in investigation. Many new words 
will be learned. Every new word may be put on the board, pro- 
nounced, written by the pupils, spelled, and discussed until everyone 
has mastered it. It is this sort of incidental practice which will help 
to solve the problem of reading, writing, and spelling, and to make 
unnecessary a period of drill on arbitrarily selected material. 

Following a year or two of this rather unsystematic, random study 
of familiar occupations, the class may pass to a more intensive study 
of the various occupations, classed perhaps as agricultural, manu- 
facturing, commercial, professional, or perhaps as rural and urban. 
At least a year should be devoted to the rural occupations and a year 
to the occupations of the city. 


10 














274 ELEMENTARY ScHOoOL PRINCIPALS 





In studying carefully the different problems involved in agricul- 
ture, the class would discuss the different types of farming, such as 
market gardening, stock raising, milk production, grain growing, 
horticulture, melon raising, the characteristics and training needed 
for each kind of work; the working conditions, the work of women 
on the farm, hours, wages, and profits prevailing in each; the prob- 
lems of marketing, of land owenrship, tenancy, farm credit and farm 
labor, and the possibilities of each. The housing, the social life, the 
school, the library, church, and all cultural facilities should all be 
considered. The laws affecting farm life, encouraging or aiding the 
settler, the school laws, the restrictive laws, should all be studied in 
connection with agriculture. The experiences of the children who 
go to the farm in the summer, their summer gardening work, will all 
come in for discussion here. Above everything these rural oceupa- 
tions should be studied as changing activities with emphasis on the 
problems calling for solution. 

In dealing with manufacturing the pupils could take up all the 
kinds of manufacturing which are of any importance in the locality 
and which might become of importance in the state. In studying 
these, consideration should be given to the different types of occupa- 
tions found in industry, the trades, the administrative and the tech- 
nical scientific work involved; the lines of promotion in each; the 
training and preparation needed for each, the laws regulating the 
industry or touching any of its occupations; the conditions of the 
work, its advantages and disadvantages; and the problems now press- 
ing for attention. 

The same method should be followed in dealing with other ocen- 
pations. One period a day for four or five years devoted to an intel- 
ligent discussion of occupations will result in bringing the child, by 
the time the law will permit him to leave school, to a point where 
he will be able to go into the part-time continuation school or the 
fulltime high school and understand why he is urged to study this 
and that which he might otherwise consider distasteful. 

In the last year or two of the required all-day school the period 
previously devoted to occupations should be devoted to a different 
form of guidance. Guidance here is chiefly needed for two prob- 
lems: first, a study of the opportunities for continued education and 
training of all sorts; and second, the planning by each pupil of one 
or several possible programs for future training and development. 

In the matter of education and training facilities, generalities will 
not serve. Announcements and catalogs of all the possible schools 
in the state and outside should be collected, examined, compared, 














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Tue Eiagutu YEARBOOK 275 





and discussed. These would include local high schools, trade schools 
and part-time schools, colleges and universities offering general and 
special teaching. The training programs of various well-known in- 
dustries, such as the apprentice schools of Brown and Sharpe, R. R. 
Donnelley and Sons, the Ford Motor Company, the General Elec- 
tric Company, R. Hoe & Company, the Westinghouse Electric, Yale 
and Towne, and many others should be obtained and studied, as well 
as other industrial courses offered by fulltime trade schools, part- 
time schools, evening schools, and public or private correspondence 
schools. 

On the basis of these catalogs, pupils should make out programs 
of training leading to various occupations. Finally, each pupil should 
make a plan representing the program he wants to follow, or alter- 
nate plans based on various types of work in which he is interested. 

Of course, no eighth grade pupil can be sure that he will always 
want to stick to the program he has outlined. He ought not to be 
given the impression that there is anything final about it. The person 
who plans does not always reach the place he plans to reach. But he 
gets somewhere. He goes farther than the person who never plans 
at all. If he begins to plan his program with a purpose before he 
leaves the elementary school, he will, if he is given an opportunity, 
continue to do it in the secondary and higher schools. 

The supplying of opportunity and encouragement for careful plan- 
ning is one of the important items in the guidance program of every 
school. The individual conference is often given as an important 
item in guidance. It is important only if it arises out of a desire for 
advice on some definite problem. I question the value of a few 
minutes of arranged conference between a pupil and a strange ad- 
viser; but the instructor of a course in occupations will probably 
have an opportunity for many valuable and spontaneous conferences 
with all his pupils. The discussion of such questions as the selection 
of the course in that school will surely lead to individual conferences 
where plenty of time can be given to each pupil. 

The secondary school which the pupil chooses may be a fulltime 
or a part-time one. Before the opening of each school term, the ele- 
mentary school should give to each secondary school a list of those 
pupils who plan to attend it the next year. The secondary school 
should send a friendly letter to each of its prospective pupils an- 
nouncing the opening of school. 

When the pupil arrives, he should be sent, with other entering 
pupils, to the person in charge of guidance. The latter should talk 
with the freshmen, telling them as much as possible about the school 











276 ELEMENTARY ScHooL PRINCIPALS 





and its work, and giving them an opportunity to ask questions and 
make comments. Pupils may be conducted through the school. 

The study of occupations should be continued here in the form 
of a try-out course in the various types of training which the school 
offers. Our part-time schools in Wisconsin give a try-out course of 
from one to two years. In some of the schools, pupils spend 10 weeks 
in each of six or seven shops and in the commercial department. 
The shop teacher is instructed to give in that 10 weeks as good a view 
as possible of the occupation, to provide as many varieties of experi- 
ence within the occupation as possible; and to discuss fully the oceu- 
pation and its possibilities. Such a course needs to be worked out 
earefully to insure that instructors stick to the main objective of 
giving a view of the occupation as a whole and do not start in to 
teach it as they would to some one who knows this is what he wants. 

When the pupil has gone through the try-out course, he should be 
ready to select some line of training around which to organize his 
program for the remainder of his time in this school. 

Somewhere in the life of every young person there ought to be a 
combination of work and school. When young people first go to work, 
they should not be cut off from school. They should be coming back 
continually to school in order that the school may show them how 
to make the most of their work. The guidance instructor in the school 
needs to have young workers for an hour or so a week in order to 
show them how to look for the interesting things in their job and the 
work with which it is connected; for the problems to be solved; for 
the possibilities in it. 

Before young people leave the secondary school, they should again 
have formed their plans for continued future training. The person 
or persons engaged in guidance should hold group meetings at which 
the catalogs and announcements of a variety of colleges, technical 
schools, evening courses, and correspondence courses are discussed. 
For those who are going on to college on a fulltime basis, the planning 
of the program is fairly easy. For those who must work, it is harder. 
There are, of course, many young people who now work their way 
through college. There are some colleges like Antioch and the Col- 
leges of Engineering of the University of Cincinnati, Harvard, and 
Marquette which not only permit part-time employment but make 
it the basis of their program, but these are comparatively few. There 
are some universities in the larger cities which offer evening courses 
for teachers and professional people, and others who work during 
the day, but except in these large cities, the community evening col- 
lege is still a beautiful dream of the future. Until we realize this 











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Tur Eiagutu YEARBOOK 277 





dream, our guidance program falls down for lack of a place toward 
which to guide. It leaves many of us “All dressed up with no place 
to go.” 

Objective tests of intelligence, aptitude, ability, performance, and 
information have some place in a guidance program as well as in an 
English, a science, or a language program, and probably will not do 
much damage if the tester has a sense of humor and does not regard 
the test as an infallible sacred object. Most of the tests purporting 
to measure intelligence and aptitude remind me of the professor’s 
remark when a young women described a lobster as a “ red fish that 
moves backwards.” He said, “ Young lady, you are absolutely cor- 
rect, except that it isn’t a fish, it isn’t red, and it doesn’t move back- 
wards.” Most of the “ objective tests”? which I have seen are not 
objective at all but subjective; and most of the intelligence tests do 
not measure intelligence but information, background, and environ- 
ment. 

However, the fact that most of the “ objective tests ” are not objec- 
tive and that most of the “ intelligence tests ” are not tests of intelli- 
gence does not mean that such tests cannot be made. I believe that 
the guidance instructors in the elementary, secondary, and higher 
schools, codperating with teachers of other subjects may, by keeping 
records of all pupils as they pass from school to school, by using some 
of the best tests which they or the psychologists can prepare, by fol- 
lowing up their pupils to observe their careers after they leave school, 
in time help the psychologists to determine some reliable principles 
of measurement, and thus help the school authorities to some relia- 
ble principles of grouping and of instruction. So far, the most satis- 
factory aptitude tests I have seen are those which involve a sampling 
of the activities in connection with which the individual is being 
tested. They are, in other words, little try-out courses. 


SuMMARY 


No matter how skilful we may become in determining individual 
aptitudes, the test from without will probably continue to be as now, 
a matter of secondary importance. For more important in our gui- 
dance program are: the constant and conscious winnowing and sifting 
of the materials of instruction to eliminate useless effort; the pur- 
poseful study of occupations and of the possibilities of training for 
these occupations; the continuous planning of the next step in train- 
ing and in work; the effective motivation of school work and of life 
by calling attention to the unsolved and interesting problems in every 
line of activity. 











CHAPTER XV 


A STUDY OF CHARACTER EDUCATION IN 
WISCONSIN SCHOOLS 


P. M. VINcentT 


Superintendent of Schools, Stevens Point, Wisconsin 


STUDY was made in April, 1928, to determine the status of 
A character education in the Wisconsin schools. No attempt was 
made to make a complete survey of the state, but rather to get 
a sample of typical practices. The survey was made by means of a 
questionnaire which is printed at the end of this article. Question- 
naires were sent to nine training schools of the state teachers col- 
leges, and to thirty representative schools in communities ranging 
from small villages to cities of forty thousand population. 
The replies were such that a detailed presentation of data was 
impractical. A summarized statement of results is as follows: 
(1) Do you have a separate course in character education? Yes—3 No—26 


(2) Do you teach conduct, ideals, and manners as character education, though not 
organized as a separate course? 


Definitely organize work...............eee0. 13 
As part of weekday religious education...... 2 
Not teaching anything definite.............. 1 
In connection with other work.............. 1 


(3) In connection with what subjects do you give character instruction? 

Nearly all subjects, particularly English, citizenship, and civics. 

(4) How much time do you allot to character instruction? 

Replies varied from incidental teaching in all subjects to regular period 
of 40 minutes per week. 

(5) What objectives do you set up? 

Answers include: to keep character building before the child at all times, 
civic virtues, honesty, square dealing, fair play, courtesy, kindness, neatness, 
adaptability, perseverence, poise, initiative, efficiency, and sportsmanship. 

(6) What special work do you give? 

Conservation, safety education, and thrift. 

(7) Do you think character instruction should be a scheduled schoo! subject? 


Definite time should be set aside............ 3 
In connection with other school subjects.... 23 


(8) Further remarks: 
We need to be doing something in this field. 
It should not be isolated. Character is an integral part of the childs 
being. 


[ 278 ] 














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Tue Eieuru YEARBOOK 279 





The child has to build his own character. We place the best kind of 
influences around him in the school, the community, and the home, and he 
will have to make his response to these influences. To teach character 
direct is to make it academic instead of emotional. It is of the heart and 
not of the brain. 

We are planning a course for next year in which it will be taught in 
connection with other work the same as now, but with more distinct 
objectives. 

Teach it without labeling it, if possible. Our big job is to find teachers— 
the right kind can teach it anywhere—the wrong kind cannot get away 
with any procedure. I always give special emphasis upon this question 
when I employ teachers, at teachers’ meetings, at assemblies, in the classes, 
especially citizenship, and at other times. Character training is one of the 
biggest reasons for my staying in this work. I am positive that much can 
be done, if the big leaders would stress it more at the expense of perhaps 
100 per cent efficiency of mind. 

Our whole school programs should tend toward character education as 
an objective. 

Prefer that every teacher take every opportunity to stress character 
building in connection with her own subject. 


A questionnaire was submitted to the presidents of the nine teach- 
ers colleges to determine what the training colleges of Wisconsin 
are doing to train teachers for the work in character education. Nine 
replies were received. Of the nine, four offer a definite course in 
this work and five do not. Of the four schools offering courses, two 
are required. In the two schools where this work is elective, one offers 
a semester course of two hours per week and the other offers a two- 
point course for one semester. One of the schools which requires a 
course also offers an additional course in educational and vocational 
guidance and counseling. 

The comments of the presidents are rather enlightening. They 
said : 


We are giving it this year for the first time. We think it is going to be very 
valuable. 

Much needed, but hardly enough time given to it. However, all possible with 
crowded program. 

My own opinion is that courses of this sort are of very little value. 

Character is a thing that has to be caught and cannot be taught. In my mind, 
character education is a thing that has to be an outgrowth, or what would be 
more accurate to say, the resultant by-product of all school activities. Neither 
honesty nor patriotism can be taught; they must be an outgrowth of situations in 
which patriotism and honesty are involved. 

I question very much the value of courses in character building as such. I 
cannot picture a student or pupil selecting a course or subject to strengthen his 
character. Character isn’t built in that way. Personally, I should resent a direct 
attempt on the part of a teacher to build my character and I should not care to 
say to a child: “ This subject is to be taken to help you build your character.” 
Our business as teachers is to conduct ourselves and our work so as to develop 
character in our boys and girls. 











280 ELEMENTARY ScHOOL PRINCIPALS 





We do not offer any course under the designation “Character Education.” I 
trust that this does not imply, however, that we are not giving attention to this 
important matter. I am of the opinion that practically all courses in a school 
of this kind should result in character education. Very frequently, in my opinion, 
formalized instruction in the field of morals and ethics yields very little. 

Such a course depends for its value upon the worth of the subject matter and 
the effectiveness of the instructor. 

Conclusions—Only a few conclusions are warranted by this brief 
survey. Very little formal work in character education is being done 
in Wisconsin publie schools and very little formal work is being done 
to train teachers to carry out character teaching. The majority of 
the schools are against formal work in character education. There is 
almost unanimous agreement that this work is highly important. It 
is agreed that the schools and teachers should strengthen the child’s 
character through example, precept, and routine work. 

In the writer’s opinion, formal work should be given teachers in 
the teacher-training institutions. There should be conscious, directed 
effort to give character instruction to those who have the responsi- 
bility for guiding the youth in the schools. There should be little 
formal teaching to children, except in the field of manners and 
conduct where situations ean be dev eloped to give practice and partic- 
ipation. The tendency in Wisconsin schools is in the direction of 
greater emphasis in building character rather than merely teaching 
subjects. 

The questionnaire—Character education in the questionnaire was 
defined as “ any organized attempt to teach ideals, manners, conduct, 
and so forth.” The questionnaire is given below. 


1. Do you have a separate course for this work? Yes............ | eee 
a. If so, herd —_ time do you allot per day or week for this work in elemen- 


b. If so, pooac the larger objectives that you have set up in this 
werk pada cen ake RAR EY MAMA GME NS RMR Ae x AMA 6 RK OKS a med aES 


b. If 80, pcb wo how much time do you give per day or week in 
elementary schools?..............e00. me Tee BOOST... ccc cccccsccess 
c. If so, enumerate the larger objectives that you have set up in this work.... 
3. If you answer “no” to the above, will you list below any special work that 
you have in such activities as Safety Education, Manners and Conduct, 
NEE MINN 5.3: siacaih aden eee WARS Re OER NERC MAELO keweser 
4. If work of this nature is given, how do you think it should be offered? 
a. As separate course with a definite time in the program................+++ 
b. In connection with other work................20+ 
c. Incidentally without special emphasis.................... 
DE SL ctavicecasasbecsacsdadebabisdhetebenidetenas sanndnssonexadeswast 
6. Will you kindly enclose any outlines or materie] that you have for distribution 
in connection with this work? 














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CHAPTER XVI 
MORALLY HANDICAPPED CHILDREN 


CHRISTINE SCHLENKER 
Principal, P. 8. 61 (Probationary), Brooklyn, New York 


HE SUBJECT of morally handicapped children is so broad 

that it would be impossible to consider it from all angles and in 

all its phases in a paper of this length. I shall, therefore, en- 
deavor to limit my discussion to the following headings: (1) The 
meaning of the term, “ morally handicapped,” (2) types, (3) causes, 
and (4) suggested remedies. 

The meaning of the term, “ morally handicapped ’’—The word 
moral in a broad, general sense means the practices, conduct, and 
spirit of men toward God, themselves, and their fellow men with ref- 
erence to right and wrong and to their obligation to duty. 

The word handicapped carries with it the meaning of having 
any disadvantage or hindrance which makes success in an under- 
taking more difficult. 

Combining our definitions we get the following meaning for our 
term, “morally handicapped”: having any disadvantage or hin- 
drance making more difficult success in the practices, conduct, and 
spirit of men toward God, themselves, and their fellow men in 
reference to right and wrong and to their obligation to duty. 

Types—As soon as we are aware of the fact that there are different 
causes for a certain condition we invariably expect to find various 
types of that condition. The inclusion of the words, “any dis- 
advantage or hindrance ” in our definition immediately suggests the 
fact that there is more than one type of morally handicapped child. 

We find two big divisions, which we may term the “ amoral ” 
and the “immoral.” In the class of the “ amoral” are included all 
those who are devoid of any sense of right and wrong. The second 
class includes all those whose standards of right and wrong do not 
conform to the standards set by society at large. It can readily be 
seen that this classification has been made on a basis of the degree 
to which the individual possesses a moral sense. Each class may be 
further subdivided on the basis of the special line of handicap that 
the individual follows—the pyromaniac, the sex pervert, the drug 
addict, the thief, the burglar, the forger, the murderer, and so forth. 


{ 281 ] 











282 ELEMENTARY ScHooLt PRINCIPALS 





The first general group is composed largely of the mental defec- 
tive, including the moron. Lack of mental ability makes him a 
menace to the community. 

The second class is by far the larger and more dangerous to 
society, for these individuals possess a sense of right and wrong but 
their standards are either so low or so distorted that they do not 
conform to the standards of society. The hope of improving the 
second group rests largely with society itself. Helping the first is 
still in the experimental stage. 

Any public school will furnish numerous examples of the various 
types of the morally handicapped, e. g., the boy who suffers from 
“ wanderlust ” ; the thief whose parents do not detect his dishonesty 
or who approve his acts; the one who is thoroughly imbued with 
the “ gangster ” spirit; the one who may come from a broken home 
where drinking, stealing, and gambling prevail; and those who have 
become addicted to the use of drugs. Among the girls we find 
practically the same types but in addition thereto we will have the 
girl who is encouraged by her parents, because of the financial return, 
to indulge in immoral practices. Also, the girl who because of ex- 
cessive sex development and improper training has become a sex 
pervert. With the girls, of course, the sex problem is more difficult 
to solve. 

Causes—Upon investigation we find that the two factors—heredity 
and environment—which play so large a part in all phases of life, 
have a great influence here, too. 

In the so-called “ amoral ” class we find the individuals never ques- 
tioning the right or wrong of an act, and often unable to control or 
inhibit any impulse, emotion, or act. They have no standards of 
right or wrong to which an appeal can be made. It is sometimes 
utterly impossible to make such persons realize that their acts are 
wrong, unjust, or unfair. 

In the “ immoral ” class we find quite a different situation. The 
individual may inherit tendencies which develop into a very low 
level of moral sense. He, however, knows the social standards, but 
through environmental influences or lack of training prefers to 
ignore them. 

As we turn back the pages of history we find that nations at 
different stages of their civilization have had varying standards of 
right and wrong. What was considered conventional and right at 
one time, at another time was considered unconventional and wrong. 




















—_—_—\ 





Tue Eiguru YEARBOOK 283 





Again that which is considered right in one nation may be considered 
as a crime in another nation. The study of the origin of the laws 
of a nation reveals the fact that the laws at one time were merely 


‘mores which later developed into conventions and finally into codes. 


In the more civilized nations the rights of the individual are re- 
spected to a greater degree than in the less civilized countries. In 
many respects the life of an individual closely follows the develop- 
ment of a race or nation. The attitudes of the members of a family 
develop into a code of morals for that family. The same act will 
merit praise in one family and censure in another. It is only in 
comparatively recent times that we have realized that child training 
should begin in the preschool period. 

The degree of intelligence of a person is measured largely by his 
ability not only to meet the various situations with the proper re- 
sponses, but also to adjust himself to the conflicts which confront 
him. The morally handicapped individual finds it utterly impossible 
properly to adjust himself to the various experiences he meets. If 
we start early enough in life we may be able to help morally handi- 
capped persons to form correct attitudes and habituate the proper 
reaction to certain stimuli. 

Suggested remedies—-The great problem that confronts society 
today is how these morally handicapped children can be helped. The 
safest and sanest method to pursue in suggesting remedies is to 
diagnose the causes. We immediately find that in many cases the 
home is at fault. The standards of the home can be raised by im- 
proving labor conditions, teaching the proper use of leisure time, 
and extending and intensifying educational facilities. In this way 
we will raise the general moral tone of the home. Education must 
be recognized as extending from the cradle to the grave. Training 
must be begun before the child enters school. Various agencies 
must codperate. Society must not place the entire burden on the 
schools. The parent as well as the child must be educated. Parents 
must be taught to recognize the responsibilities that rest upon their 
shoulders. It is their duty to train their children from early infancy 
to recognize right and wrong. It is the duty of society to furnish 
them with assistance if they lack the ability properly to train the child. 
If these things are done in the home not only during the preschool 
period but as long as help is needed much more can be accomplished 
than at present. Under such conditions we will not have to tear down 
and then rebuild to the extent that is now necessary. 











284 ELEMENTARY ScHooL PRINCIPALS 





The school should furnish ample opportunities to the child to 
respond in a desirable way to concrete life situations. It should 
place upon him social responsibilities similar to those he must 
eventually assume. He must, however, be assisted in meeting these 
situations. 

We cannot expect to discover a panacea for eliminating all moral 
handicaps but if the various social agencies and the school work 
together earnestly, much will be accomplished in removing the 
moral handicaps which many children now possess.’ 


*TIn connection with this chapter the reader’s attention is called to the discussion 
and extensive bibliography on character education in “The Principal and Pro- 
gressive Movements in Education,” Research Bulletin 7: 75-82; March, 1929. 
National Education Association —Editor. 





E MUST JUSTIFY our democracy by demonstrating 

that, even with the handicaps of our mobile masses, 
and the diverse standards of conduct represented by our con- 
glomerate population and our tradition of lawlessness, and 
with an educational system that keeps its doors open to all 
throughout all of its levels, we can make this educational 
system an effective source of mental and moral discipline 
for all; that, even under these handicaps and with this con- 
dition, we can make public education the steadying and sta- 
bilizing force that it must be if our dreams of a triumphant 
democracy are to come true.—William C. Bagley, Official 
Report, Department of Superintendence, 1929, p. 144. 




















to 
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st 


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- 








CHAPTER XVII 
AN EXPERIENCE IN CONSOLIDATION 


Nar G. BARNHART 
Principal, Meadowview Public School, Meadowview, Virginia 


HE MEADOWVIEW PUBLIC SCHOOL provides for 350 
jp and 13 teachers. It is a fourteen-room, brick, steam- 

heated building of a modern type. This fine building resulted 
from the consolidation of five rural schools which were closed in 
June, 1924. Before consolidation the attendance for these scattered 
schools was 85.4 percent of the enrolment. Beginning in 1924-25 
the attendance has averaged approximately 90 percent. 


Scuoot Progress or Pupits 


A retardation problem—The term reports for the five separate 
schools showed much retardation. Now the data for the isolated and 
consolidated schools show that retardation has been reduced. That 
is, under better school conditions it is easier for the children to make 
normal progress. The new school with its nine months of work offers 
greater possibilities to the pupils than the five schools with an aver- 
age term of eight months. 

In the ease of the isolated schools, 4.4 percent of the enrolment was 
accelerated, 35.69 percent was normal, 27 percert was retarded one 
and two years, while 32.91 percent was retarded from three to eight 
years. A total of 59.91 percent were retarded. 

Figure 1 shows the promotional results before and after consolida- 
tion. No count has been made of the pupils who, failing of promo- 
tion, did not attend school in the fall of 1924. May the question be 
asked: “‘ How many of those who were branded as ‘ failures’ would 
rather leave school than be classed as ‘ repeaters’? ” 

The 1924 bar in Figure 1 shows that in the five isolated schools 
pupil progress was as follows: 35.69 percent making normal progress, 
59.91 percent retarded, and 4.4 percent accelerated. In the case of 
the consolidated school an improved situation was apparent at the 
end of the first school year. In 1925, of the enrolment, 6.49 percent 
was accelerated, 50.7 percent was normal, and 42.81 percent was 
retarded. Only one child was retarded six years, while in 1924 there 
was one case of eight years retardation. 


[ 285 ] 











286 ELEMENTARY ScHooL PRINCIPALS 





FIGURE 1.—PromorionaL Resutts BerorE AND AFTER THE CONSOLIDATION OF 
ScHOOLs 


1924 a 5. AA 


1925 AZ Oi \\\I50-TA\\\] | 649 


192, MST NEAT] 55 


Cubberley AAA 44 
BM Retarded Normal C Thccelerated 


Explanation: In 1924, before consolidation, 59.91 percent of the pupils were retarded; 35.69 
percent at grade; and 4.4 percent accelerated. 

The 1925 and 1926 bars show the improvement after consolidation. 

Cubberley calls the last bar an “ average’ condition when the course of study is adjusted 
to the pupils. See Cubberley, E. P. Public School Administration, Houghton Mifflin, 1916, p. 295. 




























































The average attendance increased 5.4 percent, bringing it up to 
90.8 percent. The average percent of attendance for all the schools 
in Virginia for the same year was 76 percent, or 14.8 percent less 
than the Meadowview School for its first year. 

The over-ageness produced by the isolated rural schools brought to 
the new institution many pupils who were repeaters. It cost $3,759.47 
to re-teach those children who had not been promoted the previous 
year. Approximately one-third of the pupils were repeating a grade. 
The above cost represents 35.7 percent of the tot:i cost of the new 
school. 

The over-ageness in 1925-26 of the new school cost only 26.5 
percent of the total cost of the school for the year. This percentage is 
9.2 percent less than the cost for repeaters before consolidation. This 
represents a saving for the taxpayer. 

As shown in Figure 1, the end of the second school year, June, 
1926, revealed a different condition. Of the enrolment, 5.5 percent 
was accelerated, 45.66 percent was normal, and 48.84 percent was 
retarded. The greatest over-ageness was six years. 

A bird’s-eye view of the promotional results is set forth in Table 1. 
Cubberley’s text * has been used as standard in comparing our schools 
before and after consolidation. 

*Cubberley, E. P. Public School Administrat‘on. Houghton Mifflin Company, 
1916, p. 295. 














Tue EigutuH YEARBOOK 287 





Why is the normal percentage for 1925-26 in Table 1 less than the 
preceding year? In 1925 another one-room school was closed, and 
all of its pupils came to our school. From this one-room school 14 per- 
cent of the enrolment was accelerated, 24 percent was normal, and 
62 percent was retarded. The greatest over-ageness was six years. 
This 62 percent retardation made it impossible for us to hold up the 
percentage of our gain. Probably by the end of a five-year period at 
least part of this “ice ” will be melted. 
TABLE 1.—Scuoort Procress Berore AND AFTER CONSOLIDATION * 


Status of Pupils 
A. 





“Percent Percent Percent | 
Data From Retarded Normal Accelerated 
RENE ais la Ses cia casi ene Sree een 152 70.4 14.4 
SE et fat a aM ak rea n ae aenae eumnaaras 59.91 35.69 44 
MES Di Saice sei cut ose rbealneeeeeees 42.81 50.7 6.49 
I os, 202'0: oa nik a Sa aioe e Waka erasth dats alae 48.84 45.66 5.5 
EEE caves atlewaiekensadecany..awecnte nas 40.46 53.00 6.54 
RUIN reich ecatareryconiens ead Waar Kejecn pak eek SO 43.65 52.22 4.13 


1 Consolidation program since June, 1924. 


A better promotion record—The actual number of children pro- 
moted shows a striking contrast for the five year period. Figures 2 
and 3 give the percent of the enrolment promoted for the school as 
a unit and for the school by grades. . 

In general, Figures 2 and 3 do not need to be explained. Some- 


thing needs to be said about the decrease in the promotions in the 


FIGURE 2—PercentT or ProMoTIONS AND NON-PROMOTIONS FROM 
1923-24 to 1927-28 


1923-1924 48.8 
1924-1925 bb.6 
1925-1926 83.9 
1926-1927 90.2 


1927-1923 $6.13 
° 25 50 100 


MM Failed C—I Promoted 


Explanation: In 1923-24, before consolidation, 51.2 percent of the pupils failed of promotion. 
Since consolidation, the percent of promotions has steadily increased. The setback in 1927- 
1928 was due to further consolidations as explained in the text. 











288 ELEMENTARY ScHoot PRINCIPALS 





FIGURE 3.—Promorions sy GRADES FROM 1924 To 1928 

































































vo 
f \ 
t \ 
h ‘ \ / Tune 1927 
] ‘ 
! q w 
90 1 ‘ 
‘ \Y _c7[dune 1928 
2 
Xx 
\ / 
\ / 
\ / 
80 * Tune 192 | 
1 y! 
! Va | 
' 
! 
= 
10 .N 
June 1925 
™ IN 
\Y 
Tune 1924 
50 
49 ———— 
i es i 
Grades 1 z 3s <= c 2 

















Tue E1tecutnu YEARBOOK 289 





sixth grade in 1926 and the fifth grade in 1928 as shown in Figure 3. 
In the fall of 1925-26 the sixth and seventh grades enrolled 47 pupils 
in each room. An additional teacher was employed to relieve this 
overcrowding. 

The new room was organized with pupils from the sixth and the 
seventh grades. The class was handicapped by starting over a month 
late and by entering work under a new teacher. The seventh grade 
pupils seemed to be able to overcome these difficulties better than 
the younger pupils had been able to do. 

The depression of the 1925 line in Figure 3 for the fourth grade 
was due to a modification of the regular program. This particular 
group contained many children who were doing unsatisfactory work. 
The scientific data already available, the judgment of the teachers, 
and the pupils’ records showed that it would be best to permit this 
group to cover the requirements at a slower rate of speed. By the end 
of 1927-28 every pupil in this slow group had completed more than 
the minimum requirements for the fifth grade, but it had taken them 
longer to do it. This method is highly recommended, for it helped 
to hold these children in school. Yet it did show in the normal per- 
centages of the age-grade distribution chart. 

In Figure 3 the 1928 line drops to a low point for the fifth grade. 
There is also some loss in the sixth and seventh grades as compared 
with the 1927 line. Both of these conditions were influenced by a 
radical modification of the plans. It was the plan of the administra- 
tion to join together two slow groups in such a way that normal 
promotions would be given. 

However, late in the session of 1927-28, the principal was informed 
by the school board that one teacher would be cut off at the end of 
the year because of a shortage of money. The principal was in- 
structed to made adjustments so as to carry the program out in the 
best way possible. Only one thing was left to do: that was to leave 
this slower group in the fifth grade for another full year. 

The pupils, teachers, and principal cannot be held responsible for 
such non-promotions when the school board fails to provide means 
for the proper operation of the school system. 


Better Tratnep TEACHERS 


Consolidation has meant teachers with better training. In Table 2 
the school year 1923-24 was prior to the consolidation program. 


11 











290 ELEMENTARY ScHoot PRINCIPALS 





The year before consolidation there were two teachers with Nor- 
mal Professional Certificates, three with First Grade Certificates, 
two with Provisional Firsts, and three with Specials. The first year, 
1924-25, found one teacher had a Normal Professional Certificate, 
three held the Collegiate Certificate, one held Elementary, and four 
held First Grade Certificates. The second year three held the Nor- 
mal Professional; two had the Collegiate; three the Elementary; 
and three the First Grade Certificates. 


TABLE 2.—Cenrtiricates HELD BY THE TEACHERS BEForE AND AFTER CONSOLIDATION 
Name of Certificate 





‘Provisional Normal —_ 
First First Profes- 
Year Grade Grade Elementary sional Special Collegiate 
1923-24 ......... 2 3 as 2 3 
re 4 1 1 - 3 
i 3 3 3 - 2 


1 First year of consolidation was 1924-25. 


At the present time five of the twelve teachers hold a college degree 
or its equivalent. This is a standard of training above that possible 
in the average rural school of Virginia. 


Tur MrasturEMENT ProGrRAM 


Achievement testing—lIn the first year only a meager start was 
made on the measurement of instruction and pupil progress by stand- 
ard tests. The Ayres Spelling Seale was used in grades two to 
seven inclusive. Tests were given three times during the year, in 
October, January, and March. The Gettysburg Handwriting Scale 
was used in grades five and seven in October and March. The Cour- 
tis Research Tests in arithmetic were used in grades six and seven. 

These objective data suggested the use of remedial instruction and 
practice drills wherever there seemed to be the greatest need. Of 
course, a great deal of help could not be given because of the other 
demands upon the time of the teachers and the principal. The chil- 
dren were greatly interested in the testing program, especially in 
the spelling. They were always eager to see the graph which showed 
their standing with other grades. This enthusiasm served as a fine 
way to motivate the work in the regular spelling, for each pupil 
wanted to pull his own class score up as high as possible. 

The Ayres Spelling Scale is taking the same place in the school 
it held the first year. Measurement in handwriting was extended to 
all of the four higher grades the second year. Standardization and 
informal tests were used in grammar in grades six and seven. 











iate 


ree 


ble 


ne 








Tue Erautu YEARBOOK 291 





Intelligence testing—In the second year the testing program re- 
ceived more attention. It meant more to the school. It was a means 
in determining grade standing for comparative and diagnostic pur- 
poses. The first step was to determine the intelligence and mental 
age ratings of the pupils for comparisons with the chronological ages. 

The Otis Group Intelligence Tests were used in grades two to 
seven inclusive. This test was given to 288 children in September, 
1925. The tests showed that the median mental age for the school was 
3.2 years lower than the median chronological age. 

Figure 4 shows the mental age curve with its median at 8.3 years, 
drawn over the chronological age with its median at 11.5 years. 


FIGURE 4.—Comparison oF MENTAL AND CHRONOLOGICAL AGES IN THE 
MEADOWVIEW SCHOOL 





—____ Chroneolagical e 
--- otal Ne 


















4 
4 
é 
4 
’ 
¢ 
’ 
] 
) ~- 
z tee teil, 
p tT ¥ - 73 T a) T Tt —__ 
5 6 17 & S$ © HR 2 8 ww 1 we WM wD 


Explanation: The solid line shows the distribution of the chronological ages. The youngest 
and oldest children were six and seventeen years respectively. 

The broken line shows the distribution of the mental ages. The lowest and highest mental 
ages were five and eighteen years respectively. 


In the third year of consolidation the Otis Group Intelligence 
Tests were given to the new second grade and all of the new pupils 
who came to the school. The testing program was extended to take in 
the first grade also. In it the Detroit First Grade Intelligence Test 
was used with wonderful results. 

The data from these tests were used for classification purposes 
from time to time, and it was found that it was easier to place chil- 
dren in homogeneous working groups when due respect was given 
to the findings of the intelligence tests. To be sure, the common- 
sense judgment of the teachers was not disregarded even when the 
scientific data were available. One set of information was a great 
aid to the other. 











292 ELEMENTARY Scuoout PRINCIPALS 





Each test is analyzed for its diagnostic value and records are kept 
of both pupil and class performance. A class record sheet is used 
by the principal in making report to the room teachers. This sheet 
calls attention to the class standing in relation to the norm, and 
makes suggestions as to remedial instruction or special drill work 
that may be needed. All test scores, except those of intelligence, are 
shown to the pupils. In this way the testing program has helped to 
motivate the regular work in the classrooms and this influence is well 
liked by the teachers. 


Work Nn Sitent Reapina 


The informal silent reading tests, used chiefly in the upper grades, 
have created the most interest in the school. These are tests for 
speed and comprehension. They were given at regular intervals, 
bi-monthly. Selections previously studied from the grade readers 
were used at first. The true-false examination is used for a com- 
prehension test. 

Seven tests were given 15 days apart in the seventh grade, and 
the most striking results were exhibited. The first four tests included 
old prose, the fifth was old poetry, and the last two new prose selec- 
tions. The average class scores are given in Table 3. 

Figure 5 is read as follows: For the test given in October, 1925, 
the second grade average rate of silent reading was 84 words per 
minute; the third grade rate was 136 words; the fourth, 130 words, 
and so on for each grade. The tests were not given in the first grade. 
The requirement or standard rate for silent reading for these grades 
was 95 words, 125 words, and 160 words per minute, respectively. 
These were standards for the end of the grade. 

The average of all of the rate tests given during the year is shown 
by the line of dashes in Figure 5. For the second grade it is 95 
words, third grade 126 words, fourth grade 146 words per minute, 
respectively. It may seem that the average rate for the fifth grade 
is too high. Yet on any type of test, oral, informal, or standardized, 
this group of children would excel the requirement in the rate of 
reading. When it came to the comprehension test this fifth grade 
made a high average every time. As pointed out in another connec- 
tion the slower pupils had been left behind in the fourth grade the 
year before. 








et 


Ture Erautu YEARBOOK 


293 





FIGURE 5—Rarte Scores 1N SILENT READING IN 1925-26 













































































Percent 
2.60 
! 
A 
240 Ly 
220 
200 
1280 
160 
140 
420 
7 
‘ Score October, 
f 4925. 
i BE EE car. State standard 
— —wver rate 
400 for es26. 
20 = ' 
“Feades 2 3 an Ss bo 7 











294 ELEMENTARY ScHoot PRINCIPALS 





TABLE 3.—Averace Crass Scores IN Reapina Tests 


Test 1 Test 2 Test 3 Test 4 Test 5 Test 6 Test 7 
Pree 163 226 244 269 247 269 209 
Comprehension ... 5 8.2 9.5 10.5 5.6 9 2 11.6 


The average speed for the class for all seven tests was above 232 
words per minute. The Virginia course of study sets the speed norm 
for silent reading at 250 words per minute. On this basis the seventh 
grade had a rating of 92.8 percent at the end of the first semester in 
February, 1926. 

For the comprehension score the state norm is 9.7 points. The 
composite class mean is 8.5, which is a rating of 87.6 percent. This 
is a gain of 36.1 percent over the first comprehension test score. 

Table 4 summarizes many of the advantages of consolidation. 


TABLE 4.—Scuoot IMprROvVEMENTS DurING THE YEARS AFTER CONSOLIDATION 





Years? 

Improvement rc . ieee 

1923-24 1924-25 1925-26 1926-27 

1. Better attendance (percent)......... 85.4 90.8 89.3 93.2? 

2. More promotions (percent)......... 48.8 66.6 83.9 90.2 

Not promoted (percent).......... 512 33.4 16.1 98 

3. Cost on repeaters (percent)......... sana 35.7 26.5 10.45 

4. Fewer pupils per teacher (average)... 479 37.6 31.8 30.0 
5. Teachers with more years of experi- 

GOO (SVEEREO) oc cccnccccccscocse 3.9 5.7 8.09 7.09 

6. Better monthly salaries for teachers. $70.00 $92.77 $94.54 $96.81 

7. Number of pupils transported....... None 190 201 212 


1 The first year of consolidation was in 1924-25. 
2 First half year average. 


The cost of transporting 190 pupils was $1,710 for the school year 
1924-25. The cost for 1925-26 amounted to $2,433 for hauling over 
two hundred children. For 1926-27 it was $1,760.87 for hauling 
two hundred and twelve pupils. The increase of the second year was 
caused by extending the bus routes over greater distances. 

The other outstanding advantages of consolidation are the fol- 
lowing: 


. Better building and equipment 

. An increase in the school term from 8.1 months to 9 months. The average for 
Virginia was 8.05 months last year 

3. The pupils receive more individual instruction, for teachers have fewer grades 
and children per room 

. It brought into the school more scientific supervision 

. It has made supervised study in the classroom possible 

. It has made measurement of pupil progress and instruction a reality for com- 
parative and diagnostic purposes 

7. It makes playground supervision possible, and trains children in better 

discipline. 


Noe 


ee 








a) 


ie 


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CHAPTER XVIII 


A STUDY ON THE SEATING OF THE KINDERGARTEN 
AND THE PRIMARY GRADES 


L. D. LunbsBera 


Director, Department of Research and Statistics, Flint Public Schools, 
Flint, Michigan 

HE PROPER SEATING of school children of the primary 
pee is a problem which has been the basis of some study, 

much conjecture, and no little confusion of opinion. Especially 
is this true of the upper primary grades. This diversity of opinion 
is perhaps due to the lack of agreement in the various standards set 
forth, to which good seating should conform. In the past the factors 
determining proper seating were considered in the light of cost, econ- 
omy, depreciation, posture, and sanitation. These are very impor- 
tant criteria, to be sure, but there are also necessary and important 
educational and instructional conveniences and features which should 
certainly be included with these standards to make for the best seat- 
ing obtainable. Our advance in teaching technic is being reflected 
in the type of furniture required for various grades and educational 
purposes. Heretofore standards referred to individual seats rather 
than types of seating. 

To evaluate a type of seating, then, requires a set of criteria as a 
test for any type of seat or seating proposed. The following discusses 
some of the more important of these standards as applied to the 
primary grade classrooms. 


STANDARDS OF SEATING PRIMARY GRADES 


I. Educational and instructional factors involved in the seating of primary 
children: 

1. Adaptability of the seating to informal and socialized work; work carried 
on more or less independently of other groups and individuals in the 
class, and work requiring group codperation and a unitary focus of the 
class. 

2. Adaptability to group instruction—i. e., several kinds of work carried on 
at the same time with frequent shifting of teacher supervision and 
control. 

3. Adaptability to activities of a constructive and manipulative nature, 
such as painting, pasting, cutting, where ample desk room is necessary. 

4. Availability of free floor space for dramatic, project, and play activities 
found in the primary school—Mobility. 


[ 295 ] 











296 ELEMENTARY ScHoot PRINCIPALS 





5. Adaptability to the satisfactory use of modern materials such as large 
paper for poster work, large sets for silent reading, large booklets 
for instruction in primary reading, writing, and arithmetic. 

6. Adaptability to the young child’s need for freedom of movement in 
the seat. 

7. Possibility of making the room serve multiple purposes such as library, 
gymnasium, music room. 

8. Possibility of making the room beautiful and more homelike. 

9. Provision for the storing of materials. 

II. Factors involving hygiene, sanitation, and safety: 

1. Necessity of individual seating to lessen spread of contagion, colds, 
that come from seating pupils too close together or facing one another. 

2. Adjustability of the seating to the constantly shifting lights. 

3. Adjustability to correct posture of each child with little or no constant 
change. 

4. The ease and thoroughness with which the floors can be cleaned (absence 
of dust and dirt accumulation on floors or in seat crevices). 

5. The lack of noise and disturbance in getting in and out of seat or in 
shifting the pupil’s position. (Stability of the seat also involved.) 

6. The absence of interference of seats during fire or panic scares (chairs 
not easily tipped over, etc.) 

III. Factors involving cost, depreciation, and administrative use: 

1. Low initial cost. 

2. Slow depreciation of seats. 

3. Seating in relation to destruction to floors. (Screw holes, scratching, 
gouging caused by sliding furniture.) 

4, Adaptability of the type of seating to crowded room conditions within the 
building (exchange of seats from room to room or from one school to 
another). 

5. Adaptability to community use of the rooms for auditorium purposes. 

6. Avoidance of carrying emergency stocks of idle seating equipment to 
avoid removing unused seats in other rooms. 

7. Cost of installation of furniture in the room. 


There are doubtless other standards which should not be omitted 
in considering the best type of seats and seating in these grades, such 
as finish, construction, and ink wells, which factors are more or less 
readily included in the above. There exists overlapping among these 
various factors and other methods of classifying them which may not 
be germane to the problem. Again some standards may be constant 
for any particular grade, whereas others may depend upon the dif- 
ferent lines of work offered in the separate grades, or be peculiar to 
a certain grade. These factors vary considerably in relative impor- 
tance depending upon one’s viewpoint. The answer to many such 
questions is dependent upon experimental basis rather than upon 
solution by opinion. 


TABULATION oF RESULTS 


Our data were taken from the individual and consolidated opinion 
of various school superintendents, assistant superintendents, building 








ge 
ts 


Y; 


rr. 


at 





Tue E1agutH YEARBOOK 297 





superintendents, primary supervisors, primary classroom teachers, 
and elementary school principals, tabulated from a questionnaire 
itemizing these standards, so that each standard would be considered 
apart from the rest and in each primary grade separately. Even 
such universal opinion cannot yield the final word to the solution of 
a problem of this nature but can surely furnish material, valid as 
well as interesting, to school executives. 

Replies to the questionnaire brought out various limitations which 
were partly due to the gathering of information in this way and 
partly to faults in the questionnaire itself—its necessary length and 
lack of clearness of directions for answering. In the course of tabula- 
tion it was found that, to some, a certain type of seating was pref- 
erable in regard to every single standard for one grade, but not so 
on these same standards for another grade, showing that when general 
preference for a particular type of seating was made, these standards 
were not applied to that type of seating, free from the bias of other 
standards. For instance, tables and chairs were preferred to chair- 
desks in the second grade from the standpoint of adaptability to 
community uses of the room, while in the third grade chair-desks 
were preferred on the same account. Inconsistencies of this type were 
not frequent. 

Three types of seating were considered, the adjustable fixed seats, 
the movable chair-desks, and tables and chairs (two pupils to a table). 
A comparison of these types was confined to the best type of each ; 
not a comparison of the fixed seat ordinarily found in the classroom 
with the best kind of movable chair-desk or table. By movable chair- 
desk is meant that type of seat which has an adjustable desk top 
(not armchair top) adjustable for height and slant, of construction 
and manufacture as rugged as possible—conforming to the latest 
demands of hygiene, posture, and mobility. 

These three types of seating were scored with reference to each 
standard for each grade. If fixed seats were preferred in the third 
grade over movable chair-desks or tables and chairs on the basis of 
“slow depreciation,” then it was scored “1” in the appropriate 
column, the next best type “2,” and the type least valued on this 
basis “ 3.” The total value of each standard for each type of seating 
was found by grades. (See Table 1.) The type having the lowest 
score in each standard was the one preferred for that grade. (See 
figures which are starred. ) 

For convenience these scores could be made more easily compara- 
ble by dividing the scores of second and third preferences in any 
one grade by the score on the first preference. This is not given here. 








298 ELEMENTARY ScHuoot PRINCIPALS 


pa er a 





On tabulating results sent in by (1) classroom teachers of primary 
grades, (2) principals, and (3) other school executives separately, 
fairly complete agreement between these groups was found with re- 
spect to general preferences. 

Supervisors and administrative officers favor tables and chairs in 
the kindergarten, first, and second grades, with movable chair-desks 
optional in the second grade. In the third grade the choice is mova- 
ble chair-desks with tables and chairs almost equally adaptable. 


TABLE 1—Torat Scores rroM TABULATION OF QUESTIONNAIRES * 





Fixed Seats Movable Chair-Desks Tables and Chairs 
Educational Grades Grades Grades 
an cr o ‘ | x ~ a | 
Instructional Kdg. 1 2 3 Kdg. 1 2 3 Kdg. 1 2 3 
I. Factors Involved in Seat- 
ing Primary Children. 
1. Adaptability to in- 
— or socialized 
MOE. neceddadcaceces 18 180 185 177 180 134 116 = 102 64* 67* 78* 9g7* 
2. Adaptability to group 
instruction ......... 182 177 1738 168 128 132 110 93* 67* §80* 89* 107 ‘ 
8. Adaptability to con- f 


struction and manip- 

ulation activities ... 178 180 176 166 127 126 119 111 65* 69* §82* 93° 
4. Free floor space for 

dramatic, project and 





play activities ...... 182 179 181 182 127 104 = 108 93* 66* 76" 85*  93* 

5. Adaptability to use of 
modern materials ... 180 173 172 163 128 120 118 112 65* 75° 86* 101° 

6. Adaptability to child’s 

need for freedom in 
BORE ncccccccccccccece 180 175 170 163 133 127 #130 = 158 62* 68* §82* 94* 

7. Possibility for making 
room beautiful ..... 183 177 176 168 134 9 117 115 66* 65* 75* 8s7* 

8. Making room serve as 

library, gym., labora- 
Ss GR evecccucees 184 186 188 182 129 120 112 = 108 63* 66° 75° &3* 
Total cocccececes+. 1454 1424 1421 13869 1036 982 930 891 518* 566* 652* 755* 

Il. = y, Hygiene and Phys- 

ctors. 


1. with reference to hy- 
giene and sanitation. 164 159 161 153 105 103 99 re TT a SS 


2. Efficient cleaning of 
SN. dncdcnsuenerane 172 169 174 #171—+=«#2116 99 106 101 es* 72° 7 8° 
8. Adjustability to lights. 176 175 180 181 107 94 89* 83* 68* 82* 91 101 
4. Adjustability to coed 
ture ..... - 189 144 153 147 = 104 94* 90* 84* 84* 104 109 121 
5. Lack of noise. - 94" 85* 8s0* 79* 128 122 125 122 124 #4183 146 149 
6. Absence of interfer- 
ence during panic.. 80* 79* 78* 76* 126 124 134 126 130 147 148 += 159 
eee 825 811 810 807 681 636 643* 608" 535* 615* 653 702 
III. lesen and Administra- 
tive Factors. 
1. Initial cost ............ = “e «s aid oo re i ‘ ia a ee er 
2. Slow depreciation ..... 53 42* 44" 46* 60 60 655 54 51* 61 56 8660 
3. —, S destruction 
© floors ............ 69 68 65 64 68 51 61 48 42* 39* 3o* 43° f 
4. Adaptability to 
crowded room condi- 
BE Nadicasensenasae 7 71 72 67 £462" 61* 49* 46* 57 6 4¢«C«aetitié 
5. Avoidance of idle 
GUNEEE  cccccdcccceas 80 87 86 &8 46 48 43* 41* 43* 47* 47 47 


6. Adaptability to com- 
munity uses of room. 84 86 = 89 86 49 49 46 45* 39* 42* 45* 45* 


Total ........--.+.++--. 363 354 356 346 270 259% 244* 234* 232* 285 255 263 


* Low scores indicate preferences. 











wl 








Tue EieutH YEARBOOK 299 





Principals of elementary schools showed decided preference for 
tables and chairs in the kindergarten and first grade with the same 
preference in the second grade and were evenly divided between 
tables and chairs and movable chair-desks in the third grade. 

Primary classroom teachers favor tables and chairs in the kinder- 
garten and grades one and two, and movable chair-desks in the third 
grade with tables and chairs a close second. These decisions did not 
include the significance of the third group of factors, those relating 
to economy and administrative uses of furniture. 

On the basis of the first 14 factors (educational and safety and hy- 
giene) the principals’ choice is tables and chairs in all four rooms, 
with chair-desks a close second in the third grade. The teachers 
choose tables and chairs in kindergarten and grades 1 and 2, with 
movable chair-desks in the third grade. Superintendents and other 
school executives choose tables and chairs in all grades with movable 
chair-desks equally as good in the third grade. 


Discussion AND ANALYSIS OF THE CHOICE OF SEATING ON EacH 
Sranparp As Given By THE QUESTIONNAIRE 


I. EDUCATIONAL AND INSTRUCTIONAL FACTORS 


Adaptability to informal and socialized work and group instruc- 
tion—For these purposes the choice of tables and chairs was made 
for the kindergarten and grades 1, 2, and 3, except that, for group 
work in the third grade, movable chair-desks were favored. Fixed 
seats received the poorest score indicating little relative adaptability 
to these factors in the opinion of those returning the questionnaire. 

To this choice one may agree with the following observations taken 
from H. E. Bennett’s discussions.’ He indicates that where large 
tables are used, and pupils are facing in various directions, or work- 
ing in groups unrelated to pedagogical requirements, the practicable 
ideals of informal socialized instruction are often defeated, while they 
are also unfavorable to individual concentration. 

As for group instruction, seating must be adaptable to groups of 
varying sizes, from two pupils to a large fraction of the whole class, 
without interfering with individual concentration or study. For this 
latter reason double seating was abandoned years ago. Small groups 
are determined by the necessities of instruction and not the furni- 
ture. “ Group instruction is sound pedagogy but only if the grouping 


*Bennett, H. E. References 4 and 5 at the end of this chapter. 











300 ELEMENTARY Scuoot PRINCIPALS 





is flexible.” Individual movable seating is capable of any combina- 
tions for group teaching, whereas fixed seats are inflexible and tables 
and chairs, unless individual, have certain handicaps. Movable fur- 
niture arranged for group teaching must be arranged with due regard 
for individual light conditions. 

For socialized recitation purposes a unitary arrangement of indi- 
vidual seats, as proposed by Bennett,’ furnishes a unitary focus for 
the pupils, a clear view of all the pupils by the teacher, and an un- 
obstructed view for the pupils of the blackboard and activity center 
of the room. Here, proper conditions of lighting, egress from the 
room and many other conveniences are offered to individual pupils 
as well as to the class as a whole. 

These factors mentioned above have greater relevancy in the higher 
grades, second and third, than for the kindergarten, first and second 
B grades, due to curriculum and activity differences between these 
grades. 

Adaptability to construction and manipulation activities—Tables 
and chairs are again favored for all primary grades. This choice 
seems perfectly logical especially as these activities require more 
table or desk room than is offered by the average fixed seat or mova- 
ble chair-desk. Such project work requires the codperation of several 
students; tables and chairs may be indispensable. Our own recom- 
mendation is that two or three tables with chairs be provided in each 
room as extra equipment regardless of the type of seating for class 
purposes. 

Free floor space for activittes—In the kindergarten and grades one 
and two, tables and chairs are preferred, with movable chair-desks 
equally good in the third grade. 

It is not clear why a purely physical situation, like available floor 
space, determined by the size of the room and the square feet occu- 
pied by any type of seating, should vary from the second to the third 
grade with any one kind of seating. A table with two chairs really 
requires from 10 percent to 20 percent more floor area than two fixed 
seats or two chair-desks, all designed for the same size pupils. Unless 
estimates are made with the chairs placed on top of the table or 
underneath, in which position the area per pupil is about the same 
for any type of seating. 

Adaptability to the use of modern materials for instruction—In 
all these grades, tables and chairs are better adapted to this require- 
ment than chair-desks or fixed seats by virtue of their larger desk 


* Bennett, H. E. “Seating Arrangements in the Classroom.” American School 
Board Journal 73: 45-6; July, 1926. 





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Tue E1iantH YEARBOOK 301 





surface. This factor should perhaps be placed with the discussion 
under adaptability to construction activities. 

Adaptability to the child’s need for freedom in the seat—Tables 
and chairs were chosen in all grades—as they offer a greater variety 
of possible positions than either the fixed seat or movable chair-desk 
to a small child who quickly tires in any one position. This freedom 
may be perfectly legitimate in so far as it does not interfere with 
the formation of the proper posture habits so important to the grow- 
ing child. It perhaps does not do so in the kindergarten and first 
grade where the child is seated in his chair at a table only for very 
short intervals, the rest of the time being occupied in the various 
activities of these grades which do not require sitting. However, in 
the second and, more particularly, in the third grades where there is 
usually more seat work, a type of seating is made necessary which 
will correct as well as maintain as far as possible good posture. (See 
Standard II-4.) Freedom of movement should not interfere with the 
study of others seated at the same table—especially in writing periods. 
This will obtain in the second and also the third grade. Individual 
seating is a necessity in this type of work. 

Making the room beautiful and homelike—Tables and chairs are 
considered more fitted to do this than the other types of seating. If 
the “informality ” of the seating arrangement does not interfere 
with the individual lighting and hygienic requirements, or if care is 
taken not to injure table tops by placing chairs on them, we have 
no objection to this argument or choice. 

Possibility of making the rooms serve as library and so forth— 
Tables and chairs were given the best rating in all these grades—to 
which may be added: tables and chairs when the room is used for 
library and laboratory work, but chair-desks where gymnasium play- 
room, or music purposes are to be served. 

Provision for storing materials was not placed in the list of stand- 
ards in the questionnaire. In tables furnished with drawers the only 
objection is the necessity of moving the chair in pulling out the 
drawer with its attendant noise and necessary readjustment for cor- 
rect posture. In the movable chair-desk the pupil’s weight serves to 
keep the chair from moving when he opens the drawer, which is 
under the seat. In some of the later types of chair-desks this book com- 
partment is placed on the side of the desk part, the cover being 
integral with the desk top when closed. 

Totaling the scores of all these instructional factors for each grade, 
indicates that tables and chairs are preferred for the kindergarten 
and first three grades. 











302 ELEMENTARY ScHoo.t PRINCIPALS 





It would seem that better all-round adaptability could be at- 
tained by the use of tables and chairs in the kindergarten and first 
grade, with movable chair-desks and a few tables and chairs in the 
second and third grades. 


II. PHYSICAL SAFETY AND HYGIENIC FACTORS 


Hygienic and sanitary factors—Scores show preference for tables 
and chairs in kindergarten, first, and second grades, with movable 
chair-desks equally good in the third grade. To the extent that such 
factors depend upon how much longer pupils are seated in one grade 
than in another, this preference is logical, though on the basis of 
this standard alone we would expect the scorers to prefer one type 
throughout these grades. 

Generally speaking, individualized seating is always preferable 
from a hygienic standpoint. Coughing in one another’s faces, increas- 
ing chances of contagion, may be considerably minimized by indi- 
vidual seating. This objection directed against tables and chairs 
does not hold where pupils are placed on one side of the table only. 

Ease and thoroughness with which the floors can be cleaned— 
The choice of school men and teachers is tables and chairs. The superi- 
ority in these respects of movable furniture over fixed needs no ex- 
planation. It should be added that many janitors object to the lift- 
ing of chairs (practice of placing chairs on tables when sweeping) on 
the basis of time necessary to prepare the room for sweeping. How- 
ever valid this objection may be, it points to very little choice between 
tables and chairs and movable chair-desks when considering ease and 
thoroughness of sweeping. The practice of placing chairs on table 
tops for any purposes is destructive to the tops and perhaps is 
unsanitary. 

Adjustability to constantly shifting lights—In the kindergarten 
and first grade the preference is for tables and chairs and for mova- 
ble chair-desks in the second and third grades. This physical rela- 
tionship is not dependent upon the grade in which the furniture is 
used, all-round preference of tables and chairs in the kindergarten 
and first grade influencing the scoring on this standard. 

Proper lighting for each pupil depends upon the pupil’s position 
with respect to the window. The usual position of seats in a class- 
room furnishes a good optical average for the class but about half 
of its members are bothered by the glare which comes from the win- 
dows on the left. The intensity of the light from the windows is 
greater than that coming from the blackboard. The only correct solu- 
tion is the adjustment of the individual pupil’s position to the best 





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Tue Eieutu YEARBOOK 303 





angle of light incidence. This requires individual seating. Fixed 
seats may be made a little more adaptable to this requirement of 
lighting, if they are of the swivel type, but this does not better con- 
ditions greatly. The placing of each fixed seat in the position of 
proper light incident (see Bennett’s “ Quadrant Plan”) for each 
individual works considerably better but does not provide for the 
shifting of the light angle. Of course, artificial lighting of the best 
type may avoid some of the obstacles to good natural lighting. 

With tables and chairs greater flexibility toward adjustment to 
light conditions may be had—but the flexibility is limited by the prox- 
imity of the two pupils sitting at the same table. The use of larger 
tables seating 8 or 12 pupils, with some facing each other, provides 
the poorest lighting conditions of any type of seating and should not 
be considered. Movable chair-desks are the most completely adjust- 
able to proper lighting of any type. 

The above discussion has greater import in the second and third 
grades than in the kindergarten or first grades because of the rela- 
tively short time spent in seats in these latter grades. 

Adjustability to correct posture—The questionnaire findings show 
a choice of movable chair-desks in first, second, and third grades, and 
of tables and chairs in the kindergarten. It is our opinion that the 
improved types of fixed seats and movable chair-desks are both supe- 
rior to tables and chairs; the fixed seat, by its adjustable seat and 
desk heights and desk slope; the chair-desk, by its correct adustment 
between desk height and seat height. Just as important is the rela- 
tive position between the knee-edge of the seat and the inside edge 
of the desk. A proper plus distance * is essential for correct posture, 
and with proper desk and seat height, desk slope, and plus distance, 
correct posture is induced with very little attention on the part of 
the pupil and a minimum of insistence on the part of the teacher. 
Attention to the posture habits of pupils in the second and third 
grades, where a large part of the time is spent in seats, is one of 
the important tasks of the teacher, and has received less recognition, 
perhaps, than some other things of less importance to the health of 
the growing child. Table and chairs may serve with little objection 
in the modern kindergarten and first grade in this respect, though, 
for the second and third grades, the time and and trouble necessary 
to keep the tables and chairs in the proper relative positions militate 
against their use in these grades. 


* How to find the plus distance: drop a vertical line from inside edge of the 
desk and another vertical line from the knee-edge of the seat. Measure the 
distance between these lines. 











304 ELemMentAarY Scuoot PrIncipats 





Lack of notse—The choice falls upon fixed seat for all the grades. 
Even in the customary fixed seat the noise of getting in and out is 
less than with tables and chairs, unless the latter are rubber-tipped. 

Absence of interference during panic and fire scares—Fixed seats 
again chosen, with chair-desk second, and tables and chairs last, due, 
no doubt, to the multiplication of pieces of furniture and instability 
in the latter two. 

A consideration of all the standards in II shows a preference for 
tables and chairs in the kindergarten and first grade, with movable 
chair-desks in the second and third grades. 


Ill. ECONOMY AND ADMINISTRATIVE FACTORS 


Low initial cost—This item could not be answered by the scorers 
with the definiteness with which it could be determined from other 
sources. 

Good tables and chairs for these grades (two pupils to a table) 
cost about $7 per pupil; movable chair-desks with drawers from 
$6.15 to $9.75; and fixed desks from $4.50 to $5.50, depending upon 
type of each kind. In Flint we pay $14 for a table and two kinder- 
garten chairs, $6.15 for one type of movable chair-desk with drawer, 
$9.75 for another type, and $4.45 for the present type of traditional 
fixed seat. 

Educational service is more important, however, than initial cost, 
though large differences in cost and depreciation will often decide 
the type of seating to be purchased. From all indications the movable 
chair-desk would seem to meet all the ideals of economy and educa- 
tional service better than the other types of seating for classroom 
purposes above the second grade. 

Slow depreciation—Table and chairs for the kindergarten and 
fixed seats for grades 1, 2, 3 were the preferences in the replies. This 
factor, in view of the usual guarantee by seating companies, leaves 
little choice. The temptation of placing chairs on table tops may 
cause more or less rapid deterioration of its surface—but matters of 
slow depreciation should be determined on an experimental basis. 

Absence of destruction to floors—Here tables and chairs are pre- 
ferred in all primary grades. It is easily granted that fixed furniture 
causes more destruction to the floors, in the event of changing the 
seating arrangement through the many necessary screw holes. Mova- 
ble furniture may also injure good flooring unless suitable provision 
is made for easy sliding. Metal gliders allow easy sliding back and 
forth, but our floors show the lines and dents to some extent. This 
is minimized by the use of rubber tips made of old tire casings, but 
in that case the furniture must be lifted to move it properly. 








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Tue Eientn YEARBOOK 305 





Adaptability to crowded conditions of rooms—In rapidly growing 
schools and school systems where large classes are often necessary, 
the use of movable individual seating is more adaptable than the 
other types. This is the decision of those answering the questionnaire. 

The avoidance of large stocks of idle or emergency seats—Equip- 
ment for the above purposes favors the use of movable seating. From 
the returns, tables and chairs in the kindergarten and first grade, 
and movable chair-desks in the second and third grades are favored. 

The very important point of cost of installation and moving was 
not brought out. This would favor movable furniture in avoiding the 
cost of screwing down and removing the seats from the floor. 

Adaptability to community uses of the room and building—Tables 
and chairs were given first choice in the kindergarten and the first 
two grades with equal adaptability of chair-desks in the third grade. 
This standard resembles that under I-7, “Use of the room as 
library, gymnasium, laboratory, music room, and club room.” It 
seems that for some purposes the chairs alone would serve better in 
this capacity than the chair-desks. 

Combining the factors under economy and administrative uses, 
tables and chairs are favored for the kindergarten, and movable chair- 
desks for the first, second, and third grades. 


CoNCLUSIONS 


Taking all these standards into consideration, there is a marked 
preference for the use of tables and chairs in the kindergarten and 
first grade, but this preference is a little less decided in the second 
grade and not a few would choose movable chair-desks for the third 
grade. Several large cities have already established a policy of using 
tables and chairs for the kindergarten and first grade, and movable 
chair-desks for the second and third grades. 

The results taken from individual questionnaires suggest that 
teachers and principals judge these types of seating from one or 
two educational or instructional factors, rather than from a consider- 
ation of all these factors and the extent to which any type of seat- 
ing does embody the largest number of them. It should also be men- 
tioned that some school systems favor tables and chairs for all ordi- 
nary classroom purposes, from the kindergarten through the high 
school. This seems to be the choice of many professors of education, 
who have had to do with all types. 

In view of all the factors and opinions mentioned, it seems advisa- 
ble to use tables and chairs in the kindergarten and first grade, where 
the predominant activities of the children are of a constructive and 

12 











306 ELEMENTARY Scuoou Principats 





manipulative type, and to use movable chair-desks for all other ordi- 
nary classroom purposes, where posture habits are being rapidly 
formed and individual concentration is important to the formation 
of right study habits, and matters of lighting, hygiene, sanitation, 
and multiple use of school furniture are to be taken into consider- 
ation. 


wr 


on Oo OO 


SOURCES OF INFORMATION 


. Abbot, Julia Wade. Housing and Equipment of Kindergartens. Bureau of 


Education Bulletin, 1921, No. 13. U. S. Government Printing Office, Wash- 
ington, D. C. 


. Bennett, Henry Eastman. School Efficiency. Ginn and Co., New York, 1917. 
. Bennett, Henry Eastman. “Seating Arrangements in the Classroom.’ 


’ 


Ameri- 
can School Board Journal 73: 45-6; July, 1926. 


. Bennett, Henry Eastman. Uses and Limitations of Movable School Seating. 


Research Department, American Seating Co., Chicago. (no date) 


. Bennett, Henry Eastman. “ Why Tables and Chairs in the Classroom.” Ameri- 


can School Board Journal 74: 53-4; May, 1927. 


. Burgess, Williams, and Wood. Healthful Schools. Houghton Mifflin Co.. 


Boston, 1918. 


. Moore, Annie E. The Primary School. Houghton Mifflin Co., Boston, 1925. 
. Shaw, Edward R. School Hygiene. Macmillan Co., New York. (no date) 








T IS A FAR CRY from the log of Mark Hopkins to a 

modern school building, and yet universal education today 
is much more cheaply provided than it could be provided 
under the old log plan with one teacher for one pupil. Democ- 
racy’s demand for universal education has been met through 
developing a school plant where both quality and quantity 
in education are possible. Education costs more today than 
it used to cost because we have more of it, much more of it. | 
Economy in future school building programs is to be served 
through providing buildings, grounds, and equipment adapted 
to the needs of a modern program of education.—Joseph 
Marr Gwinn, Official Report, Department of Superinten- 
dence, 1929, p. 32. 














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CHAPTER XIX 


A COMPREHENSIVE PLAN FOR MAKING A STATE 
CENSUS OF SCHOOL CHILDREN * 


Nora STerry 
President, Elementary School Principals’ Club, Los Angeles, California 


VERY TEN YEARS the federal government takes a complete 
E census of the population of the United States. This census not 

only enumerates every man, woman, and child, but collects 
voluminous economic and social data regarding age, nationality, em- 
ployment, schooling, and similar items. Any additional registration 
through a school census is justifiable only for the purpose of collect- 
ing very definite information needed by and used directly in the 
public schools of the state. The purpose of the California school 
census is to enable the school authorities to place suitably and keep 
in school all children of school age, thus securing to them their right- 
ful educational opportunities. 

Briefly, the provisions and procedures under the present California 
Registration of Minors Act are as follows: 

Registration of every child from one day to 18 years of age must 
be taken regularly every three years except in such districts as main- 
tain a yearly or a continuous census. Responsibility is placed on the 
governing board of each elementary school district, to appoint and 
pay a registrar and his assistants according to provisions of the act. 
The state superintendent of public instruction provides suitable 
blanks for recording the information deemed necessary in securing 
proper educational advantages for the children of the state. Parents 
and guardians are instructed by the law to furnish the required in- 
formation, but there are no specific penalties for failure to do so. 
The district reports are filed with the county superintendent of each 
county, who furnishes a summary to the state superintendent. 





*The plan discussed in this article has been approved by the Los Angeles 
Elementary School Principals’ Club and the legislative committee of the Cali- 
fornia Elementary Principals’ Association. The proposed California plan has 
points which will be helpful to principals faced with school census problems in 
other states.—Editor. 


[ 307 ] 











308 ELEMENTARY Scuoot PRINCIPALS 





The law has three serious defects which tend to nullify its effee- 
tiveness: 

(1) It fails to provide a complete, uniform method of adminis- 
tration—Since this act became a law in 1927, the census information 
has been compiled in a variety of ways throughout the state. Some 
school districts have paid special agents so much for each name noted. 
These districts secured a registration of practically every child, but 
were not always able to get full and accurate information. Some 
districts employed agents by the day. Such agents apparently failed 
to record as many names or secure as complete data as those who 
were paid on a per capita basis. Other districts attempted to get their 
information without the expenditure of additional money for regis- 
trars. In such districts, the census was taken by having the school 
children carry home the registration blanks, by questioning the chil- 
dren at school, or by asking parents to come to the schoolhouse. It 
is obvious that parents who are deliberately keeping their children 
out of school will not furnish the required information voluntarily, 
and that this method can never be relied on to secure complete regis- 
tration. Thus, inadequate methods of administration have defeated 
the purpose of the law. 

(2) The extent and kind of information to be collected is not pre- 
scribed—The law does not specify the kind of facts that may be 
called for, nor the number of questions that may be asked in any one 
ease. Hence, a complicated record was adopted which made the regis- 
tration in the state excessively difficult and the tabulation unavoid- 
ably inaccurate and misleading. The present blank calls for data on 
40 items for each child. Few of these items were selected for their 
practical use to the schools attended by the children. Nor are they 
reliable in the aggregate for use by state and county administrative 
units. For example, the state report shows exactly twice as many 
fathers and twice as many mothers as there are children in the state. 
A family registering six children would count as 36 in the total swin 
of the final compilation. 

(3) The law assures the availability of census information to cen- 
tral administrative offices, but does not provide for its record in each 
school unit—Every elementary school could use the school census 
data in diagnosing individual needs, classifying pupil and similar 
work. Under the existing law the volume of work in duplicating 
these records is so great that few schools retained this information 
for their own use. 

The situation in Los Angeles City illustrates this point. In 1927, 
our system attempted to comply with the requirements of the state 





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Tuer Etautn YEARBOOK 309 





office as indicated on the new census blank. Our aim was to make 
a complete registration throughout the city school district. No special 
agents were engaged to compile the data, but the principal of each 
school, elementary or secondary, was made responsible for obtain- 
ing the information regarding his own pupils and such others not in 
school as he might hear about. This resulted in considerable dupli- 
cation of the records. The bulk of the work fell on the classroom 
teachers. As all information had to be collected within a given week, 
it was necessary for teachers to use school time as well as out of 
school hours. In 252 elementary schools reporting to the Principals’ 
Club on this point, 16,244 hours of teacher time were thus consumed 
during that week, and 3,171 hours of principal and vice-principal 
time, an average expenditure per day of 3,883 hours, by far the 
greater part of which should have been devoted to instructional 
purposes. 

Carrying through this extra burden while maintaining school was 
so arduous that few were able to duplicate the clerical work required 
to transcribe the data on school files. Although 189 out of 252 prin- 
cipals expressed a desire to have this record permanently in their 
respective offices, only three of them had been able to secure it. 

The elementary school principals of Los Angeles recognized clearly 
these inherent weaknesses of the law. They were dissatisfied with 
its administration, and with the results as manifested throughout 
the schools. Much time had been lost, teachers had been overworked, 
and the gain to the individual school was negligible. 

One hundred and five principals stated that they had acquired from 
the school census a better understanding of their districts. One hun- 
dred and ten principals felt that their teachers had evidenced a bet- 
ter understanding of the community’s educational problems. Both of 
these groups were balanced by approximately an equal number of 
principals who recognized no such gain. The disorganization of 
school work through the deflection of teachers from classroom work 
was evident for a much longer period than the one week designated 
for census taking. 

The most serious dissatisfaction of the principals lay in their 
desire for an accurate, complete, continuing census, and their belief 
that existing conditions prevented them from fulfilling a personal 
obligation to maintain the census. 

Early in November the principals, through their club organization, 
decided to study the matter of school census in the United States. 
It was hoped that greater efficiency of administration could be de- 











310 ELEMENTARY Scuoort Princrpats 





vised and, if necessary, that certain changes might be found advisa- 
ble in existing legislation. The latter possibility was a significant 
factor in placing the problem in the hands of the legislative committee. 

The committee prepared four questionnaires: One to departments 
of education in every state of the union; one to city superintendents 
in cities of 25,000 population or over, outside of California; one to 
rural school principals in 11 counties of California selected as hav- 
ing difficult attendance problems caused by a transient population; 
and one to every elementary principal in the Los Angeles city school 
system. These questionnaires sought information on such subjects 
as: The school census laws in other states; the administrative 
methods employed in enforcing these laws; the educational gain or 
loss due to information collected in the school census; suggestions as 
to the practical use of census facts; and any constructive criticism 
or ideas applicable to our California situation. 

Responses were obtained from 33 states, 165 city superintendents, 
324 country school principals, and 252 Los Angeles principals. The 
majority of these reports were carefully and completely filled out. 
Twenty-five of the 30 states reporting a school census law sent copies 
of the requirements and the state report blank. Samples of census 
ecards, transfer blanks, and other child accounting forms were received 
from 124 cities. A number of city superintendents expressed their 
interest and offered to give further help. Many principals were gen- 
erous of time and thought in sending the committee criticisms and 
constructive suggestions. 

In addition to sending out the questionnaires, the committee ar- 
ranged for discussions by a group of local school officials. Orginally, 
the group included only five persons, but was expanded to include 
25 principals chosen for their standing and experience. To this group 
were added county and city supervisors of attendance. 

The study of the questionnaires and subsequent discussion by 
many administrators resulted in the formation of certain basic 
principles: 

1. A school census is necessary if compulsory school attendance is 
to be enforced. 

2. The school census must be so authorized by law and so admin- 
istered in practice as to be complete, accurate, and always up-to-date 
during the school year. 

8. A school census is not adequate when taken at the schoolhouse 
from children who come there to enroll. Nor is it good practice to 
rely exclusively on information furnished by or through children. 
The only adequate method is a house-to-house canvass, made at regu- 





int 


ol 








Tue E1ientu YEARBOOK 311 





lar and frequent intervals. The frequency of taking the census will 
vary with the district, but it must be often enough to register the 
transient population. 

4, The school census should not be imposed upon the busy class- 
room teacher. It should be cared for by competent agents who are 
paid for their time. 

5. The whole state must be continuously covered by the school 
census. Duplication of effort should be eliminated as far as possible 
through a system of state transfers. 

6. The information asked for by school census forms should be 
definite, and designed to meet specific educational and administrative 
purposes. 

7. Since the information gathered by the census is of primary im- 
portance to many school workers, it should be tabulated so as to be 
readily accessible, and a copy filed in each school. 

8. Record forms should be as simple and practical as possible. 
Provision should be made for the necessary clerical work. 

With these principles in mind, a comprehensive plan was drawn 
up to include certain important features: (a) a scheme for taking, 
recording, and filing the census information for practical use; (b) a 
combination and simplification of all child accounting forms used in 
the elementary schools; and (c) a system of state transfers. 

School administration is facilitated by noting the census facts 
about the children in one family on a single family card. Not only 
are such family cards of more value to the office of the school, but 
they increase the ease and speed of taking the census. In the elemen- 
tary schools these family cards give clues to the educational and 
social needs of the child, which are influenced in part by the home 
environment. 

Certain data, pertinent to the educational needs of the individual 
child, should be matters of permanent record, which accompany the 
child from teacher to teacher. Such cards help the new teacher to 
diagnose the child’s specific needs and to place the child accordingly. 
These needs can be met by a personnel ecard for each child, which 
may be made out in part from census information on the family card 
and in part from other cumulative schools records. 

A transfer card, in the ordinary acceptance of the term, is unneces- 
sary. The attendance teacher should discover promptly a child mov- 
ing into any locality in the state. The child will be placed in school, 
the necessary social information recorded on the family card, and 
school administration facilitated, if the child carries a statement as 


























































































































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ELEMENTARY Scuoort PrRINcIPALS 





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Tue Eiguru YrarsBooxk 315 











to his grade and the address of the school last attended. The new 
school may use the address by sending a request for his personnel 
records. 

A family record, an individual record, a simple identification card, 
and a transcript request form are sufficient for the school census 
plan and the state transfer system among elementary school pupils. 

Forms 1 and 2 illustrate respectively the front and the reverse of 
the family record card in the proposed plan. The individual record 
is shown by Forms 3 and 4. The identification card is shown by 
Form 5, and the transcript request card by Form 6. The provisions 

































































FORM 4 
* * If physical handicap 
o. a % affected regular progress 
& “5 give conditions using 
ta nAlek a os DATE JA forSIGHT DEFECT 
<ial> i ee Sa |> CLASS |B for HEARING DEFECT 
2i/o |<e|<c/a2<iz C for SPEECH DEFECT 
oO] < (Aaja<|/Rejam) ENTRY |) ¢: HEALTH DEFECT 
Name: 


(Reverse of Form 3) 








316 Erementary Scuoot Princrpars 





FORM 5 





Uror1a Ciry ScHoois 
IDENTIFICATION CARD FOR PUPILS 
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FORM 6 





REQUEST FOR TRANSCRIPT 


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| 
ED: « sc avicuneaies simak eioaaibgdtese aiinnnialsidecneesee% 


was admitted to our school on...............ccccecccccccecccees |. 


_ A “a last attendance in your school. Will you kindly 


send the permanent record card? 
RESP eRe ce EE = UR ener vee tie heer SNe re 


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of the proposed plan, together with directions for using the record 
forms are as follows: 


1. The census shall be taken at the opening of school and be kept up-to-date 
thereafter under the immediate direction of the public elementary school prin- 
cipal who shall be responsible for having on file in his office throughout the 
entire school term the required data for the district definitely assigned to his 
supervision. 

2. The actual work shall be done by an attendance teacher, or teachers, assigned 
to the elementary school as a regular part of its faculty for full time, part-time, 
or continuation time, as the needs of the district warrant. 











Tue Eiautu YEARBOOK 317 





3. The duties of this attendance teacher shall be divided between office work 
and field work. The office work shall include the keeping of the census file and 
the making of required statistical reports. The field work shall include home 
visitation for the taking of the census and for other attendance problems. 

4. In any large administrative unit, a central attendance office may be estab- 
lished for general supervision in attendance matters after the manner of the 
supervisory departments, such as music and drawing. If necessary, duplicate 
records may be kept at this central office. 

5. Each family, or part of a family, living for a period of a week or longer in 
any public elementary school district and including a minor or minors under 
eighteen years of age shall be enrolled by the attendance teacher for that district 
on the form prescribed by the state, and this form shall then be filed permanently 
in the office of that school. 

6. Every school principal in the state shall have on file in his office an indi- 
vidual card, using the form prescribed by the state for every pupil enrolled in his 
school. This individual card is to be kept in the school office during the time 
that the child is a member of the school. Each private school principal shall be 
responsible for this to the public city or county superintendent in whose district 
said private school is located and the file of individual cards shall at all times 
be open to the inspection of said superintendent of that district. 

7. A pupil who leaves a given school shall take with him an identification 
transfer card stating the name of the school he has been attending. In the case 
of an entering pupil who has attended previously another school in California, 
his individual card shall be requested from and sent by the school last attended. 
Where the form cannot be secured thus, it may be requested from and shall be 
filled out and sent by the public elementary school principal in whose district the 
pupil is living at that time. 

The California legislature meets in the spring of 1929, but we are 
taking no active steps to prepare our plan for consideration at this 
session. We believe that a law that is not understood and not ac- 
cepted willingly has little chance of success. Our plan is not gener- 
ally understood, because it is a radical change from present methods. 
We hope during the next two years to make its underlying principles 
understood throughout the state. Then, if the plan becomes a law, 
it will enlist the intelligent support of school administrators, to the 
end that an accurate, complete, continuous school census in California 
may become a reality.’ 


‘In connection with this topic attention is called to “School Records and 
Reports,” Research Bulletin, Vol. 5, No. 5, National Education Association, 
pp. 262-66 —Editor. 











CHAPTER XX 
CLERICAL SERVICE IN CITY SCHOOL SYSTEMS 


Louise H. HENDERSON 
President, Clerical Assistants’ Association, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania 


OMEONE has said: “ Education today involves statistics more 
S and more, and those serried columns of figures that characterize 
the papers of educational experts are based on the humble labors 

of school clerks.” 

Each group in the school system is directly dependent on every 
other group. It is hardly possible to compare the groups as to their 
relative value in the system. Each plays an important part and must 
be specially trained for its type of work. The salary must be 
sufficient to attract persons with the necessary training and best 
personal qualifications. We must bear in mind that the persons in 
school work are a constant example to the children with whom they 
come in contact. 

This article reports the qualifications and remunerations of school 
clerks in certain large cities of the United States. The author col- 
lected part of these data in 1928 by means of a questionnaire sent 
to the superintendent of schools in 82 cities. Answers were received 
from 38 cities. This information was supplemented by a compilation 
done under the direction of the Minneapolis Public Schools dealing 
with elementary school clerks in various cities.” Altogether the writer 
is able to report on conditions in 59 cities in 29 states. 

Are clerks provided?—From the combined Philadelphia and Min- 
neapolis returns it is obvious that many schools do not have clerical 
assistants. The types of schools in which clerks are placed are shown 


in Table 1. 


TABLE 1—Are Scuooits Provivep witH CLERICAL ASSISTANTS? 


Number of cities 


Type of school answering “‘ yes’ 
I a oa aa led Sig ai cla wow MMaUCe Nea 38 
a I 2. 5 acyisl a es mipiddioia ad ess pine aw ora asd neck a eesvelansets 33 
i nT oe eee bea aanditaemkeh 36 


* Goodrich, Genevieve W. Summary of Questionnaires Regarding Elementary 
School Clerks. (Mimeographed.) January 10, 1929. Minneapolis Public Schools. 


{ 318 ] 








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7“ 








Tue Eigutrn YEArBooK 319 





Albany has no organization of clerical assistants. Assistants there 
are employed on the basis of substitute work at a per diem rate. 
Buffalo has no clerical assistants. Classroom teachers in high schools 
and grade teachers in elementary schools when assigned as office 
assistants receive the same salary as when in charge of a class. 


TABLE 2.—Wuat Qua.irFicaTIons ARE Requirep ror CLERICAL Positions? 


Training Cities Percent 

NS CRONIN ois 4: acne sie ease xib urs Baba epee ahs 19 42.2 
High-school training plus outside experience..............22000: 1 22 
High-school training plus examination...............00eeceeeee 1 26.7 
High-school training plus examination plus outside experience... 3 6.7 
High-school training plus college training for some positions..... 1 2.2 
Examination—civil service or prescribed by school board....... 2 44 
I NID ain 5 ink c. oie enw bod ei ncadisny buses bane 2 4.4 
Teaching experience plus examination..............0eeeeeeeees 1 2.2 
Some normal—some high-school training...............0e0eeee5 2 4.4 
ING GURRGCET TOUUITOINOIE 66.6. 0.o:6. 6.6 osicreccadcnadiesdeanessainewer 2 44 

45 99.8 


Table 2 shows the training required of school clerks. When we 
compare the percents in Table 2 we are impressed by the fact that 
17 cities or 37.7 percent are realizing the advisability of having 
persons specially trained for secretarial work. Of this number 26.7 
percent are required to pass an examination covering the scope of 
secretarial requirements. It is self-evident that more efficient work 
can be done by the individual with a natural adaptability and training 
for that work. 

One city stated that since they had more eligible teachers than 
were required to fill vacancies, the board had adopted the policy of 
appointing graduates near the bottom of the list, who would have 
little chance of appointment to a teaching position, to positions as 
secretaries. While I have no knowledge of how this plan works, 
it seems unlikely that persons receiving a low rating as desirable 
teachers could step into a secretarial position and be of real value 
to the system. 

The qualifications for school clerks in Philadelphia are worth 
stating at this point. The following list of elements and their 
values was prepared for use in estimating the efficiency of clerical 
service. It will give some idea of what is expected of a school clerk 
in Philadelphia. 








320 ELEMENTARY Scuoot PrINcIPALs 





OvuTLINE or Ratina PLAN For CLERICAL ASSISTANTS IN PHILADELPHIA e} 


A. Office practice (50 percent) a 
Use of telephone 
Penmanship 
Stenography L 
Typewriting 
Use of duplicating devices 
Indexing and filing 
Reports and records 
a. Routine reports and records 
1. Book and stock records 
2. Inventories 
3. Pupil records 
4. Teacher records 
5. Daily and monthly reports 
b. Special reports and records 
1. Within school 
2. For district and central office 
8. Care of office supplies and equipment 
9. Care of mail 
B. Secretarial capacity (30 percent) 
1. Dealing with children and adults 
a. Tact 
b. Courtesy 
c. Judgment and discretion 
2. Dependability 
a. Readiness for service 
b. Promptness 
ce. Accuracy 
d. Following directions 
3. Knowledge of school system 
4. Command of English 
C. Coédperation (20 percent) 
1. With principal ‘ 
2. With teachers 
3. With visiting or supervisory officials 
D. Personality 
This factor is to be considered in giving the ratings under the 
headings listed above, but not to be given separate weight. 
General bearing 
Voice 
Personal qualities 
a. Sympathy 
b. Enthusiasm 
c. Culture 
d. Reliability 
e. Intelligence 
4. Health 


NO OR Co 


all soll 


Unfortunately many cities set their qualifications high but are | 
unable to realize them because the salaries are insufficient (see 
Figures 1 and 2) to attract capable individuals from the business 
world. In New York City high salaries prove attractive. Here, the 

















Tue E1eutH YEARBOOK 321 





examinations given about every three years add more applicants to 
a list which is never previously exhausted. 
In New York there are the following conditions of eligibility: 


License as teacher clerk in elementary schools (salary $1400-$2300; annual incre- 
ment $100) 
a. Graduation from high school and either 
1. Two years’ experience in office work or 
2. Two years’ experience in teaching, together with satisfactory training in 
office work or 
b. Graduation from a recognized college 
License as clerical assistant in high schools (salary $1500-$3000; annual increment 
$150) 
a. Graduation from high school and either 
1. Two years’ additional satisfactory training in academic or secretarial 
work and two years’ office experience or 
2. Four years’ office experience or 
b. Graduation from a recognized college 


FIGURE 1.—RaAnce or M1InIMUM SALARIES OF SCHOOL CLERKS 


Salary Number of cities 
$400- 499 X X X 
500- 599 X X X 
600- 699 X X X 
700- 799 X X X X X 
800- 899 X X X X 
900-999 XXX XXXXXX 
1000-1099 X X X 
1100-1199 X 
1200-1299 X X 
1300-1399 X 
1400-1499 X X X 
1500-1599 X X 


Read table thus: Three cities had minimum salaries between $400 and $499. Each X represents 
a city. 


FIGURE 2.—Rance or Maximum Sataries oF ScuHoot Cierks * 


Salary Number of cities 
$1200-1499 X X X 
1500-1799 X X X X 
1800-2099 X X X X X 
2100-2399 X X X X X X 
2400-2699 X X X X X 
2700-2999 X X 
3000-3289 X 
3300-3599 X 
3600-3899 
3900-4199 
4200-4499 
4500-4799 
4800-5099 X 


Read table thus: Three cities had maximum salaries between $1200 and $1499. Each X represents 
a city. 


*Recent and reliable tabulations of 1928-29 salaries of school clerks will be 
found in the Research Bulletin, National Education Association, May, 1929.— 
Editor. 


13 











322 ELEMENTARY ScHoo. PRINCIPALS 





Apportionment of clerical help—The basis of apportioning help 
to individual schools is a problem upon which there is not much 
agreement.’ The replies of 41 cities on this point are given in Table 3. 


TABLE 3.——How Is Ciericau Herp ApportioNepD? 


Numbet of citie 


Basis replying 
NE GN So cc dake kc Sod de Wass anxacedesdideseeaneane 6 
I ee CN a 5 od uae kaw an webioademuedendins 4 
EARS en PONE eo ae ean ae oe ee 17 
| _RGEES RERE Sa EI PROR eee-USS SPR ee MP eee ee 14 

41 


TABLE 4.—Is Tuere a Loss or SaLary ror ABSENCE? 


Number of cities 


Answer replying 

PONE 3c. ozenuayacac uankeer sake aed dems eniecbe Neer nace 10 
40 days allowed without salary loss..............0ceeeeeeeeeeeeee 1 
One month allowed without salary loss..................00eeeees 5 
Two weeks to a month, without salary loss...................205. 4 
One week to two weeks, without salary loss..................25- 1 
Five or six days, without salary loss...............0eeeeeeeeeeeee 4 
SR BREE) EEE Ee aA Mr te Pere 5 
CD edie nc eens casi naneebetdeeheddbbadenseowns 1 
ee WP Ge WN SII ois onc haces cccanncsin cas dtneaccecers 1 

32 


Salary losses for absence—Table 4 shows a tendency to be liberal 
in regard to salary losses after illnesses. Twenty-five cities allow some 
absence due to personal illness without loss of salary. Ten of that 
number or 31 percent of the cities make no deduction for absence due 
to personal illness. The Rochester regulations governing the loss of 
salary of employees engaged in clerical and secretarial service seem 
very fair. The rules are as follows: 

1. No salary shall be allowed for absence in excess of one week except upon the 
certificate of a duly qualified physician, in which the physician shall certify 
not only as to the necessity of absence, but also as to the exact nature of 
the illness requiring such absence. 

2. This certificate shall be subject to approval by a physician selected by the 
board. 

3. Amount of absence permitted: 

a. For the first year of service or any part thereof, four weeks. 

b. An additional week shall be allowed for each additional year of service, pro- 
vided the allowance shall in no case exceed thirteen except by special 
action of the Board of Education. 

What are the duties of the clerical assistants?—lIt is difficult to 

put the answers to this question in tabular form, but the general 


*See page 262 of the Seventh Yearbook of the Department of Elementary 
School Principals —Editor. 





re 
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Tue E1igutn YEARBOOK 323 





reply is that the clerical assistant must perform all the duties of a 
secretary, exercising inifiative, tact, and judgment at all times, 
besides being able to perform all the statistical work, filing, and 
correspondence with accuracy.’ 

Supervision of the clerks—Twenty-eight cities reported that the 
clerical service was under general supervision of some school au- 
thority. One city reported no such direction. In 20 cities the super- 
vision was given by the school principal and the heads of departments, 
in six cities by a head clerk, and in two cities by department heads in 
codperation with the business manager. 

What are the hours of service?—It was very difficult to compile 
the answers to this question. Many did not specify whether the 
hours applied to administrative offices or schools. However, the 
general conclusion is that the clerk in the school observes the same 
hours as the teachers. Clerks in the administrative offices begin work 
later and finish later. Most administrative offices are opened on 
Saturdays from nine in the morning until noon. 

Advancement and title—Clerks are advanced automatically in 25 
cities and only after examination in five cities. In regard to the 
official title given school helpers, 30 cities gave the answers shown 


in Table 5. 


TABLE 5—Wuart Is tue OrrictAL TITLE GIVEN THE CLERICAL ASSISTANT? 
Number of cities 


Answer replying 
i TES EE NL ae LL Le MOP ER TET RRR ERT TO Co o> 15 
NE es cane bihibah hb ekets Cen kRSemdde eke ane 2 
Ce OP REE BRIG 6 oie oni sie sie vid kwacccnucdsudeaaaenebuees 13 

30 
SuMMARY 


This paper has presented an analysis of qualifications and re- 
munerations of school clerks in 59 cities of the United States. The 
data on 38 of these were obtained from replies to a questionnaire 
sent out by the author June 5, 1928. The rest of the data has come 
from a compilation in 1928 by the Minneapolis Public Schools. All 
the information thus obtained has been, so far as possible, put into 
tabular form in Table 6. 

Forty-five cities have clerical service in one or more of the fol- 
lowing classes of schools—elementary, junior high, and senior high. 
Thirty-seven percent or 45 cities require in addition to graduation 
from a high school, specific training for secretarial work. The com- 


*See the Seventh Yearbook, p. 260.—Editor. 








324 ELEMENTARY Scuoo.t PRINCIPALS 





plexity of the service required is illustrated by the ‘ Outline of 
Rating Plan for Clerical Assistants ” in foree in Philadelphia. 
Twenty-four cities allow some absence due to personal illness with- 
out loss of salary. The Rochester, N. Y., plan seems particularly 
satisfactory. 
TABLE 6—Summary or Data ON CLERICAL Service! 








Data on Salaries 





1920 Required Amount Time Allowed 











ses on Training Increment — 
Mini- Maxi- 
mum mum 
Atlanta Ga. 200,616} High school 750 | 2100 | 100 and 150 1 month 
per year 
*Baltimore Md. | 733,826) High school 900 999 
*Birmingham —|Ala. 178,806; High school 400 
Bridgeton N. J. High school 600 | 1200 | 50 per year | No deduction 
*Chicago Ill. |2,701,705) Normal school | 1500 1599 
Cleveland Ohio | 796,841; Examination 960 | 2280 | 60-100-150 15 days 
per year 
*Dallas Texas| 158.976} High school 450 
Dayton? Ohio | 152,559) High school and | 1020 | 2200 60-120 Subject to civil 
examination per year service rules 
Denver * Colo. | 256,491} High school, 550 | 2000 5 days 
some college 
Detroit Mich. |} 993,678} High school 900 | Over 1/30 deduction 
1800 
Duluth Minn.| 98,917} High school and| No |schedule} 5.00 per 40 days 
examination month 
Erie Pa. 93,372} High school 650 | 1380 5.00 per 50% deduction 
month 
*Fort Worth Texas} 110,820) High school Less 999 
than 
600 


Grand Rapids |Mich.| 137,634} No standard No |schedule | $1-3 per week| 
Indianapolis (Ind. | 314,194) High schoo! | 1000 | 2100 | 100peryear| 3 weeks 
Jersey City |N.J. | 298,103) Normal school | 1400 | 3200 | 100 per year 
and examination 


Kansas City |Mo. | 324,410! High school 850 | 1500 5 days 
examination and 
experience 
*Louisville Ky. | 242,068) Highschool | Less | 799 
than 
600 
Lynn Mass.| 99,148] Highschool and| 504 | 1664 1.50-2.00 2 weeks 
examination per week 


Milwaukee‘ |Wis. | 457,147| High school and| 460 | 2020 | 120 per year | No deduction 
examination 
Minneapolis |Minn.| 380,582] High school and} 600 | 1300 | 5 per month 12 days 
examination 
*Newark N. J. | 414,524) Normal school | 1400 | 1800 





























' Cities marked with an asterisk (*) are taken from the Minneapolis study which included only 
elementary school clerks. 

? Monthly salaries reported on questionnaire have been multiplied by twelve. 

3In Denver high schools annual increases of $120 a year to $1200 than $100 a year to $1700 or to 
$2000 are given. 

‘Clerical assistants in elementary schools are paid at the rate of 50c an hour for actual service. 








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325 





TABLE 6 





—SUMMARY OF DaTA ON CLERICAL SERVICE—Continued 











Data on Salaries 











City State Fd Required — pong hooey 
lation Training mire Increment Illness 
Mini- Maxi- 
mum] mum 
New Haven! |Conn.| 162,537) High school 504 | 1600 | 100 per year Complete 
deduction 
New Orleans? |La. 387,219} High school 840 | 3400 | Noschedule | No deduction 
New York® __|N. Y. |5,620,048} High school, 1400 | 5000 100-150 1/25 deduction 
examination and| per year 
experience 
*Norfolk Va. 115,777| High school 700 799 
Oakland Calif. | 216,261] High school and} 1020 | 2220 60-120 No deduction 
examination per year 
Oklahoma City |Okla. 91,295] High school and} 1200 | 2700 5 days 
examination 
Paterson N. J. | 135,875) High school and} 1100 | 2400 | 100 per year | No deduction 
examination 
Philadelphia [Pa. {1,823,779} High school and| 800 | 2100 | 60 per year | 1/40 deduction 
examination 
Pittsburgh |Pa. 588,343} High school 850 | 1440 | 50 per year | 1/50 deduction 
Providence* |R.I. | 237,595) High school 2500 | 100 per year | No deduction 
Reading |Pa. 107,784; High school 720 120 per year 1 month 
*Richmond Va. 171,717| Some normal | Less 1299 
Some high school} than 
600 
Rochester N. Y.| 295,750) High school and| 900 | 2400 |0-150 per year 1 month 
examination 
Saint Louis |Mo. | 772,897| High school and 30 days 
examination 
Salt Lake City |Utah | 118110) High school 700 | 2640 No deduction 
San Francisco |Calif.| 506,676) Normal school | 1560 | 2280 6 days 
or examination 
Scranton Pa. 137,783 900 | 2100 | 100 per year | No deduction 
*Seattle Wash.| 315,312) High school 700 799 
*Springfield Mass.| 129,614) High school 1200 1699 
Syracuse N. Y.| 171,717| High school and | 1000 No deduction 
examination 
Toledo Ohio | 243,164 960 | 1800 80-100 2 weeks 
per year 
Trenton * N. J. | 119,289} High school 960 | 2700 | 120 per year | No deduction 
and outside 
experience 
Washington |D.C.| 437,571) High school and} 1320 | 2400 60-200 30 days 
examination per year 
Wilmington  [Del. 110,168} Nostandard | Less | 1700 
| than 
| 600 
Worcester Mass.| 179,754] Highschool | 900 | 2200 | 75 per year 
examination and| 
experience 





























' Clerical help i in elementary schools are paid 25 cents per hour. 


? Annual salary of $1000 is given in the elementary schools. 

’ The minimum salary of minor positions in the administrative offices is $702. Salaries above $3528 

are fixed by special action of Board of Education. 
‘No set minimum salary. 

5 No maximum salary stated. 

6 Where considered necessary to assign a teacher clerk $200 additional is paid to the teacher clerk 











326 ELEMENTARY Scuoot PrIncIPaLs 





ConcLusIoNn 


Clerical assistants have proved themselves a valuable and im- 
portant part of the public school system of the large cities of this 
country. The duties are most varied, requiring tact, intelligence, and 
dependability for satisfactory performance. To qualify calls for the 
completion of a high-school course and specific training for secretarial 
work. An adequate supply of desirable applicants can be secured 
if salaries (see Figures 1 and 2) approximately equal those given 
for equivalent work in the business world. The initial salary is not 
as important as the possibility of advancement for efficiency and 
faithfulness. 

The question of the apportionment of clerical help seems to deserve 
further study. Although the number of pupils would: appear to be 
the most important single factor, the other factors which appear in 
the replies to the questionnaire are of sufficient importance to warrant 
consideration in all cases. 





UPERINTENDENTS often find it convenient to adopt 
arbitrary schedules in assigning clerks to schools. This 
may not always prove to be a wise procedure. A clerk should 
not be assigned to a school because of the enrolment so much 
as the promise that the assistance will improve the principal’s 
work. The important steps in the development of a program 
of clerical assistance are: the principal must show a need for 
help, the superintendent must assist the principal in capitaliz- 
ing upon the new arrangement, and the principal should be 
able to show the superintendent tangible evidence of im- 
proved work.—The Seventh Yearbook, 1928, pp. 265-266. 














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CHAPTER XXI 


UNIFORM FILES FOR ELEMENTARY SCHOOL 
PRINCIPALS AND TEACHERS 


HerMan F. Smitu (Chairman) 
Principal, Adams School, Seattle, Washington 


HIS REPORT has been prepared by the committee on office 

routine of the Principals’ Research Club of Seattle, Washing- 

ton. The committee consisted of the following persons: K. J. 
Knutson, M. E. Durham, J. U. Cassel, and Herman F. Smith, 
Chairman. 

It is our purpose here (1) to outline briefly the need of filing 
systems in schoolrooms and offices of elementary schools; (2) to pre- 
sent the importance of having these files uniform throughout the 
school system; and (3) to set forth outlines of the uniform filing 
systems now in use in the Seattle public schools. 

We would call attention to the fact that this committee has no 
thought that filing systems have been developed to the “ Nth ” degree, 
or that “ Utopia” in this field of educational supervision has been 
reached. So far as we have been able to determine, little attention 
has been paid by educational writers or by instructors in school super- 
vision to this important item of office routine. In fact so little atten- 
tion has been paid to it that it is the exceptional school administrator 
who has given it a moment’s thought or study before entering a 
school which demands some skill in this phase of office organization. 
Therefore, he soon finds himself confronted with the necessity of 
systematic organization to avoid shipwreck amid a mass of important 
but unorganized records. 

Inadequate and poorly-kept records are very often found in village and rural 
school systems. The reason for this condition is that principals have not realized 
the importance of school data. Employers are coming to insist on having the whole 
school record of a boy before giving him a position. In passing to higher schools 
the facts pertaining to earlier school life are desirable. A scientific guidance plan— 
educational and vocational—is impossible without them. The forms used, the 
type of data collected, and the way in which the data are kept are also a good 
index to the business ability of the head of the school. It is plainly evident that 


recording practices and lack of practices now go on in schools which would not be 
tolerated for an instant in any up-to-date business establishment, 


* Almack, John C., and Bursch, James F. The Administration of Consolidated 
and Village Schools. Houghton Mifflin Co., 1925, p. 67. 


{ 327 ] 











328 ELEMENTARY Scuoo.t PRINCIPALS 





Cubberley says in The Principal and His School that: 

In the great majority of schools and school systems the principal must work 
without the assistance of an office clerk. If he then is to secure adequate time for 
the real purpose of his presence—that of high-grade professional supervision and 
school leadership—he must find ways of cutting through the administrative routine 
and getting done the many little time-consuming but after all mediocre tasks that 
come up for handling in every school. The introduction of system will do much 
to help find time for the more important duties.’ 

Cubberley points out that much will depend upon the principal 
himself, his habits of work, his ability as an organizer and systema- 
tizer, his mastery of the details of his work, and, let us add, his de- 
termination to follow a well-organized system when it has been made 
available to him. 

Much that has been said regarding the school principal may be 
said to apply to the teacher in these days of many added require- 
ments, such as variety in method, the use of tests and measurements, 
and the recognition and proper treatment of individual differences. 
All of these entail the reception, organization, and use of much 
printed and mimeographed material sent out by the superintendent’s 
office, by department heads, and by the principal of the building. 

Superintendents, supervisors, and principals alike will recognize 
the importance and value of uniformity in equipment and filing 
methods. In event of transfer of principal or teacher from one schooi 
to another the importance of finding essential materials in the new 
school situation is extremely vital, particularly when these records 
are organized in the same manner as they were in the first school. 
A well-planned and uniform system of files should be of much value 
to supervisors as they move from room to room within a building or 
within a school system. The principal saves much time and energy 
when his office files and those of the teachers in the building are so 
organized that they automatically eliminate obsolete materials or 
items which have served their usefulness. Any system of filing should 
reduce to a minimum the time required for proper organization of 
printed matter in order that all such materials may be located at once 
when needed by the principal, a supervisor, a substitute, the teacher 
in his room, or any other school official. We can expect the elimina- 
tion of waste in time and materials to increase teaching efficiency. 

A uniform filing system can be so elaborate that it will become 
a cumbersome burden rather than an assistance to the one for whom 
it is designed as a help. We, therefore, offer this word of caution 
against unnecessary uniformity in non-essentials. Cubberley tells us 
that: 


*Cubberley, E. P. The Principal and His School. Houghton Mifflin Co., 1923, 
p. 186. 





Tr (2 ee ee oF 








Tur EtautuH YEARBOOK 329 





Uniformity in means and ends makes administration more machine-like and 
hence, to the ordinary executive easier to handle. Uniformity, too, appeals strongly 
to certain types of minds, and is often pushed into non-essentials and to a degree 
that is both irritating and unnecessary. It should be remembered that too great 
a uniformity is always most cramping and deadening on the school system most 
capable of making substantial educational progress. 


Teacuer’s Buitietin Five 
We offer an outline of the Seattle filing system in the hope that it 
may be of assistance to the profession at large. In presenting this 
outline, we include Superintendent Cole’s letter of introduction, 
which accompanies each file. 


To Principals and Teachers: 

The teacher’s bulletin file has been prepared in response to a need expressed by 
the Teachers’ Advisory Committee for a means of filing bulletins and other 
materials which the teacher needs to have constantly at hand. 

Its production has been a codperative effort involving principals, teachers, and 
pupils. The plan of the file is the result of considerable study and experimentation 
by a group of principals and teachers, and the file itself has been made in the 
manual arts classes of the elementary schools. It is believed that its use in 
accordance with the instructions prepared by the committee will greatly facilitate 
our teaching. 

The file itself is not original with the committee except in the 
method of construction, selection, and use of durable materials, special 
hinge, and the adaptation of the file to our use. It is an ordinary 
work-organizer which may be purchased at any office supply house. 
It was found that files costing about three or four dollars on the 
open market could be made up as a school project by art and in- 
dustrial classes at a cost not to exceed fifty cents. 

Clara P. Reynolds and Elizabeth Poor of the art department of 
the Seattle school system are responsible for the following outlines 
for the construction which brought to a successful completion the 
production of about 1275 files. These files were constructed in the 
sixth, seventh, and eighth grades of twelve or fifteen of the Seattle 
Schools. 


CoNSTRUCTION OF TEACHER’S WorkK ORGANIZER 
MATERIALS USED IN FILES 


Quantity Materials Size in Inches Purpose 
10 book cloth 3 x10} sewed hinge 
9 book cloth 2 x104 binding edges 
1 book cloth 44x12 back 
1 book cloth 34x10 reinforcing inside 
1 cover paper 124 x 194 back cover 
1 cover paper 124 x 133 front cover 
1 chipboard 103 x 184 back 
1 red press board (heavy) 103 x 123 front 
9 red press board 104 x 123 
2 gray drawing paper 104 x 124 











330 ELEMENTARY Scuoo.t PRINCIPALS 





CONSTRUCTION OF FILE 

1. Making covers: 

Place chipboard on cover paper with top edges even and one-inch margin on 
the remaining three sides. Crease paper over chipboard and mitre corners. Paste, 
using a cooked flour paste. Press. 

2. On book cloth strip, 44 x 12 inches, lay off one inch upper long edge, leaving 
an inch and a half in center with two inches on opposite edge. Paste back and 
front covers to bookbinding cloth with two inches extending over back cover and 
one inch over front cover. 

3. Paste book cloth strip 34x10 inches inside to strengthen hinge. 

4. Place points on inside of covers as guides in placing hinges. 

5. Paste in lining papers. 

6. Measure and place points for sewing hinge. 

7. Paste hinge in place. 

8. Paste binding cloth on bottom of leaves. (This work may be done at any 
time.) 

9. Paste leaves in place, last one first—truing it by cover—and true the remain- 
ing leaves by the first one pasted in. 


HOW ONE BUILDING HANDLED THE PROBLEM 


We worked mostly with a 6B class and feel that the best results will be obtained 
from older pupils. The better workers were selected and grouped according to 
ability. Each group was assigned a certain type of work which it carried on from 
day to day until that particular part was finished. 

Flour paste was used for the large surfaces. Library paste, with glue added, was 
used in pasting the binding cloth. 

Boxes of rocks, molding boards (from the cooking room), and chipboards were 
used in pressing. It is quite necessary to have a great deal of table space for work- 
ing, pressing, stacking material, and a supply of clean newspapers. 


DIRECTIONS FOR MAKING SEWED HINGE 


1. Cut nine strips of bookbinding cloth, 3 x 104 inches. Lay off line three-fourths 
inch from each long edge. Divide remaining space into half inches. 

2. Fold over ruler on ruled lines. 

3. Stitch pieces together being careful to keep sides even. 

A sewing project among a group of the more capable girls will probably produce 
better hinges than a general class problem. 


The committee, after consideration of the requirements of the 
Seattle teachers, decided that a file containing ten compartments 
would meet their needs. The compartments bear the following labels 
together with the accompanying Roman numeral: 


I. Classroom organization 
II. Method and activities 
III. Social subjects 
IV. Elementary science and visual education 
V. Reading and literature 
VI. Arithmetic, language, spelling 
VII. Fine and industrial arts 
VIII. Physical education 
IX. Handwriting and music 
X. Miscellaneous 








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Tue Eigutu YEARBOOK 331 





The completed files were sent to the schools with a set of the follow- 
ing instructions which the art teacher in each building pasted on the 
inside of the front covers. 


INSTRUCTIONS FOR THE TEACHER’S BULLETIN FILE 


1. Paste these instructions inside of front cover of bulletin file. 

2. Each compartment is labeled with a Roman numeral and a heading indicat- 
ing what bulletins are to be placed in it; as, “ III Social Subjects.” 

3. In sending out bulletins the superintendent’s office will indicate by Roman 
numeral in the lower righthand corner of the first page the compartment in 
which each bulletin should be filed; as, “ File in No. II.” 

4. Miscellaneous bulletins may be organized in such a manner as is most con- 


venient for the teacher. 
5. Bulletins should be properly filed as received, and kept until the teacher is 


otherwise instructed. 
6. Toward the close of each school year, the superintendent’s office will send 


out a circular indicating which of the bulletins shall remain in the files and which 
shall be removed. Bulletins removed become the property of the teacher, and 
may be preserved or destroyed as she desires. 

7. In platoon schools, teachers may use the compartments not essential to 
their respective departments in such manner as the principal may direct. 

8. Compartment I—-Classroom Organization, should be reserved for the daily 
program, seating plan, instructions to substitutes, principal’s bulletins, and other 
materials as directed by the principal. 

Five or six schools have been supplied with these files for nearly 
three years. The teachers in these buildings have found the file a 
source of help and satisfaction. The success of the system is contin- 
gent upon the strict codperation of teachers, principals, and the 


Superintendent’s office force.’ 


ELEMENTARY ScHoout OFFicr FILE 


In the organization of the Seattle Principal’s Self-Keyed Office 
File, the committee gave much time to the listing of all items which 
should be recorded in the Seattle elemeatary school office, and to the 
organization of these records in such manner that important data 
could be properly preserved and readily available. The system makes 
provision for the automatic elimination of various items when they 
have served their usefulness.’ 

It will be noticed that the system (given at the end of this chapter) 
is alphabetically organized, that all bulletins sent from the superin- 
tendent’s office are placed in one major section, that correspondence 





* Credit for the above filing system is due to: Worth McClure, Bertha F. Bartel, 
Chas. Fagan, O. M. Hanson, L. Nettleton, Annie L. Gifford, J. U. Cassel, and 
Herman F. Smith. 

* The system is revised and improved each year by a standing committee con- 
sisting of five principals and two representatives of the central office. 











332 ELEMENTARY Scnoot PRINCIPALS 





occupies a major section, and that records are given two major sec- 
tions. Notice that the first of these two sections is devoted to ad- 
ministrative records, or such as bear a direct relation to the system 
as a whole, while the second section is devoted to local records, or 
those that relate to the local building affairs only. The fifth major 
section is devoted to that mass of miscellaneous printed matter which 
every principal wishes to preserve but has seldom filed in an organ- 
ized manner. The file has not made provision for an organization 
of this fifth major section, but we will offer an unofficial suggestion 
for its organization. 

Attention should be called to the usefulness of the section marked 
“ Principal’s Desk Organizer Section” in which we find three 
folders labeled as follows: Unfinished Work I (Immediate), Un- 
finished Work II (Deferred), and Finished Work III (To be filed). 
If properly used this section of the file will give the principal much 
relief from unorganized material on his desk. 

The use of such a system as this requires, first, the presence in the 
office of a modern three or four drawer vertical filing case which 
may be made in an adequately equipped school shop. Second, a de- 
termination on the part of the principal to follow the plan rigidly. 

Superintendent Cole sent the following letter to each principal. 
This statement was accompanied by a set of instructions for setting 
up the file and three sets of the filing list, one of which was double- 
spaced for use as labels. 


To the Principal: 

We are furnishing you herewith the report of the committee on a standardized 
filing plan. The necessary guides and other materials will be provided within 
the near future. 

Temporary Organization—As suggested at the principals’ meeting on Monday, 
April 16, however, bogus paper and the folders which you already have will enable 
you to organize your files at once without awaiting the special materials. 

Special Filing Problems—In the interests of further uniformity and also in 
order to assist you with any special problems which may arise in organizing your 
files or in applying the instructions to your individual situation, your school has 
been assigned by the committee to one of its members. If you will telephone, he 
will be glad to confer with you regarding any questions that may arise. You will 
find that one of the attached sheets gives these assignments. 

It is hoped that the contribution of this committee to the simplification of 
routine in your office will be of material assistance to you in the professional 
leadership of your building. 


A copy of the instruction sheet is here printed, followed by a copy 
of the file outline and a copy of the unofficial organization of the 
fifth major section of the file. 














Tue EigutuH YEARBOOK 333 





SEATTLE Princrpa.s’ SeLF-Keyep OFrrice FILE 
INSTRUCTIONS FOR SETTING UP 


The materials for setting up will be supplied by the district. They consist of 
sixteen (16) metal tab guides and about one hundred (100) individual folders. 
You will use the folders you now have as far as possible. Also, we are supplying, 
herewith, three copies of the filing list, one of which is double-spaced and 
capitalized. 

In setting up the file you will use the five metal tab guides having the tabs 
to the left for the major divisions. Index them with the blue as follows: 


BULLETINS (Official) 

CORRESPONDENCE (General) 

RECORDS (Administrative) 

RECORDS (Local) 

CATALOGS AND MISCELLANEOUS PAMPHLETS 


Use the remaining eleven (11) metal tab guides for the minor divisions. Use 
capital letters on all index work. Index them with the pink as follows: 


Reports (duplicates) Professional 

Invoices Programs and schedules 
Requisitions (duplicates) Pupil records (individual) 
Annual inventories and requisitions School activities 


Warehouse sheets Principal’s personal file 
Community affairs 


Place these guides in their proper order according to the filing list aeccompany- 
ing this letter. Following each, place the number of folders necessary to give each 
item on the list an individual folder. Provide a folder for each item regardless 
of whether you have material for it or not. Now from the double-space filing list 
cut the individual folder titles as under BULLETINS (Official); you will cut 
ARITHMETIC, ACTIVITIES, ARTS (Fine and industrial) and all of the others 
into individual labels; cut all index slips exactly the same size, pasting them on 
the folder indicators, in their proper order as alphabetically arranged. Follow this 
procedure until all folders have been properly indexed. 

Now, from one of the inclosed single-spaced filing lists you will cut each major 
section complete, pasting each on its respective major guide. From the other 
inclosed single-spaced list cut minor sections pasting each of these upon its 
respective minor guide. 

In order that the principal’s desk may be kept free from unorganized and 
unfinished work the committee has provided three individual folders, marked as 
follows: 

(1) Unfinished Work I (Immediate) 
(2) Unfinished Work II (Deferred) 
(3) Finished Work III (To be filed) 


These folders are to be kept at the front of the first major guide except when 
in use by the principal. 
THE FILING LIST 


At the righthand side of this list has been indicated the period of time which 
the committee has decided the various items should be kept on file. 


PRINCIPAL’S DESK ORGANIZER SECTION (THREE FOLDERS) 


Unfinished Work I (Immediate) 
Unfinished Work II (Deferred) 
Finished Work III (To be filed) 








334 





ELEMENTARY Scuoot PriIncIpALs 





BULLETINS (Official) 
Activities 
Arithmetic 
Arts (fine and industrial) 
Athletics 
Attendance 
Budget account 
Cadet 
Census 
Clerk 
Filing 
Geography 
Handwriting 
Health 
High-school material 
History and civics 
Intermediate schools 
Language 
Library 
Lunchroom 


CORRESPONDENCE (General) 
Alphabetized—Use four folders as fol- 
lows: 
(A-B-C-D-E-F) 
(G-H-I-J-K-L-Mc-M) 
(N-O-P-Q-R-S) 
(T-U-V-W-X-Y-Z) 


RECORDS (Administrative) 
Reports (duplicates of all) 

Annual 
Age—grade 
Classification 
High school and 8A or 6A 
Lunchroom 
Monthly 
Payroll 
Nurse and medical 
Programs (classroom) 
Promotion summary 
Pupils attending other schools 
Special (as called for) 
Teacher ratings 
Tests (city-wide) 
Tuition 


Invoices 
Custodian’s supplies 
Domestic arts and science 
General supplies 
Lunchroom 
Manual arts 
Miscellaneous 


File as directed by central office 


Medical (nurse) 
Method 

Miscellaneous 

Music 

Physical education 
Programs and schedules 
Reading and literature 
Retirement fund 

Safety 

Salary 

Science and visual education 
Special schools (all types) 
Spelling 

Superintendent 

Tests (standardized) 
Tests (informal) 

Visual education 


File correspondence pertaining to in- 
dividuals under pupil record. 


File for current year only, unless item 
is still pending. 


Keep records for 1927-28 and last 
year, from then on for current year 
and preceding year. 


Principals wishing to keep these 
records longer will file them in the 
principal’s personal section. 


File for current fiscal year and until 
September Ist and following invoice 
has been entered in stock record of 
succeeding school year. 








— 








Tue EiegutuH YEARBOOK 335 





Requisition duplicates 
Incomplete (current) 


Annual inventories and requisitions 
Arts (fine and industrial) 
Books 
Building repairs 
General 
Home economics 
Lunchroom 
Manual training 


Warehouse sheets 
Arts (fine and industrial) 
Athletics 
300ks 
Home economics 
Janitor 
Lunchroom 
Manual training 
Supplies (general) 


RECORDS (Local) 

Community affairs 
Boy Scouts 
Camp Fire and Girl Scouts 
Community fund 
Father—Son and Mother—Daugh- 

ter 

Public library 
Red Cross 
Service clubs 


Professional 

Committee work and assignments 

Department of Elementary School 
Principals 

National Education Association 

Parent-Teachers’ Association 

Principals’ Association 

Retirement fund 

Seattle Teachers’ Association 

Study clubs 

Supervision 

Teachers’ Meetings 

Washington Education Association 


Programs and schedules 
Auditorium 
Building 
Closing 
Library 
Opening 
Parent-Teachers’ Association 
Special 


Hold until checked with warehouse 
sheets or canceled by office. 


File to agree as to date included in 
annual inventory. 


According to judgment of local prin- 
cipal. 


According to judgment of local prin- 
cipal. 


According to judgment of local prin- 
cipal. 








336 





ELEMENTARY Scuoont Principats 





Pupil record (individual) 
Attendance department reports 
Child-study laboratory reports 
Extension services 
Home correspondence 
Individual test records 
Problem children 


School activities 
Athletics 
Banking 
Boys’ and girls’ clubs 
Extracurriculum activities 
Glee clubs 
Rules and regulations 


Principal’s personal file 
This section is to include any mat- 
ter which the principal wishes to 
retain that is not included or 
that has been eliminated from 
the regular file. 


Retain until pupil is known to have 
definitely removed from district or is 
beyond school age. Extension services 
meaning: part-time, opportunity, sight- 
saving. 

Speech and all other special schools. 


As desired by principal. 


As desired by principal. 


CATALOGS AND MISCELLANEOUS PAMPHLETS 


This includes all printed matter 
not listed above and may be 
filed as individual principal de- 
sires. 


REFERENCE MATERIAL (Unofficial) 


Annuals 

Arithmetic 

Athletics 

Books 

Bulletins 

Citizenship 

Community fund 

Covers (leather) 

English 

Father and Son League 

Gardening 

Geography and civics 

Health education 

Information on telephone, typing, 
and mimeographing 


Investments 

Junior Red Cross 
Miscellaneous 

Motion pictures 

Music 

News 

Organizations 

Pictures 

Reports 

Seattle Audubon Society 
Seattle Grade Club 

Seattle Principals’ Association 
Seattle School District No. 1 
Science projects 


es 














ve 


eS 
1t- 


~~ 





CHAPTER XXII 
PROVISIONS IN LARGE CITIES FOR THE 
ACCELERATION OF PUPILS 


ArtHur W. Kattom 
First Assistant Director, Department of Educational Investigation and 
Measurement, Boston Public Schools 


NE OF THE IMPORTANT QUESTIONS facing the public 
is the support of its schools. Not only is the great expenditure 
larger than formerly, but we are told by school administrators 

that it is to be still larger. Meanwhile, the problem of children repeat- 
ing grades is disturbing our school administrators. This non-promo- 
tion amounts to approximately 16 percent in the first year and dwin- 
dles to approximately four percent in the eighth year, rising to about 
12 percent in the ninth year in schools having annual promotions.’ 
In schools having semi-annual promotions the percent of non-promo- 
tion is much higher, although the ratio between the accelerated pupils 
and non-promoted pupils is much lower than that under annual pro- 
motions. The implication of these data, however, is to be interpreted 
only as an evidence of the superior “ flexibility ” of the semester 
promotion plan.” 

The causes of this retardation are numerous, but probably the 
greatest cause is the mental inability of the individual to grasp the 
work as laid out in our courses of study. Another cause which is not 
so easy to prove, but which nevertheless exists, is the failure of the 
teacher to adapt his teaching to the individual pupil thus causing 
certain antagonisms between the teacher and the pupil. Many 
schemes have been put forth to remedy these situations. A study of 
age-grade tables of any school or city, however, will show conclusively 
that unless a personal interest is taken by the administrator, little 
or no change is made in the ratio between the retarded and accelerated 
group. The large percent of retarded pupils in this country should be 
a challenge to our elementary principals, for if the problem is to be 
solved it is this body of men and women who are to solve it.’ 





* Boston Public Schools. Report on Age and Progress of Pupils in Public Schools. 
School Document No. 12, 1925. 

*Greene, Harry A. “ The Effect of Annual and Semi-Annual Promotion as Re- 
vealed by Pupil Progress.” Paper read before American Educational Research 
Association, Cleveland, February, 1929. (Unpublished.) 

* Cubberley, E. P. The Principal and His School. Houghton Mifflin Co., 1923, 
p. 344 ff. 


14 [ 337 ] 








338 ELEMENTARY Scuoout PRINCIPALS 





Furthermore, it is interesting to note that the retarded pupils are 
not all of low mental ability. In fact, in the Boston schools we find 
pupils of all mental levels included in this group. It is also inter- 
esting to note that these pupils of relatively high mental ability are 
generally in this group for one of two reasons—either they are re- 
peaters because the general class method used by the teacher has not 
recognized their brightness or, having recognized their brightness, 
has not been able to bring the pupils out of their lethargy. The pupil 
takes the attitude that “I need only get a passing mark. Why get 
more ¢”’ 

One method of dealing with this situation is the acceleration of the 
bright pupils, thus compensating somewhat for the loss brought about 
by the retardation. In discovering the general practices of large 
school systems a questionnaire was sent to 58 superintendents. The 
returns were then analyzed and interpreted as the basis of this report. 
The questions asked are given at the end of this article. 


TABLE 1—Cittes ReEceivinc QuESTION NAIRE 


Akron, Ohio Nashville, Tennessee 





Atlanta, Georgia 
Baltimore, Maryland 
Birmingham, Alabama 
Boston, Massachusetts 
Buffalo, New York 
Bridgeport, Connecticut 
Camden, New Jersey 
Chicago, Illinois 
Cincinnati, Ohio 
Cleveland, Ohio 
Columbus, Ohio 

Dallas, Texas 

Dayton, Ohio 

Denver, Colorado 

Des Moines, Iowa 
Detroit, Michigan 

Fall River, Massachusetts 
Fort Worth, Texas 
Grand Rapids, Michigan 
Houston, Texas 
Indianapolis, Indiana 
Jersey City, New Jersey 
Kansas City, Missouri 
Los Angeles, California 
Louisville, Kentucky 
Lowell, Massachusetts 
Milwaukee, Wisconsin 
Minneapolis, Minnesota 


Newark, New Jersey 
New Haven, Connecticut 
New Orleans, Louisiana 
New York City, New York 
Norfolk, Virginia 
Oakland, California 
Omaha, Nebraska 
Philadelphia, Pennsylvania 
Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania 
Portland, Oregon 
Providence, Rhode Island 
Reading, Pennsylvania 
Richmond, Virginia 
Rochester, New York 
Salt Lake City, Utah 

San Francisco, California 
Scranton, Pennsylvania 
Seattle, Washington 
Springfield, Massachusetts 
St. Louis, Missouri 

St. Paul, Minnesota 
Syracuse, New York 
Toledo, Ohio 

Trenton, New Jersey 
Washington, D. C. 
Wilmington, Delaware 
Worcester, Massachusetts 
Yonkers, New York 











Tue E1ieutuH YEARBOOK 339 





The cities included in the original broadcast of questionnaires are 
given in Table 1. Of this group, 39 returned sufficient data for in- 
clusion in the final tabulations. These 39 cities constitute 69 per cent 
of the original broadcast, and over 58 percent of the cities over 
100,000 in population. 


GENERAL PRACTICES IN THE Rapip ADVANCEMENT OF PuPILs 


Table 2 shows the practices in the 39 cities replying to the ques- 
tionnaire. Obviously, these cities believe to a greater or less extent in 
the principle of acceleration. Various comments were made which 
do not appear in the table. For example, one superintendent says 
that acceleration in his city is one percent but this, he believes, is 
not large enough. Another says that the percent of acceleration 
varies greatly in different schools. 

The data in Table 2 are not complete in many cases, particularly 
with reference to the percent of acceleration. Apparently this im- 
portant information is unknown. Another general comment was that 
there does not exist a standard system of procedure. One city re- 
ported that attention to acceleration was largely sporadic. 

Some detailed comments on Table 2 are as follows: 

1. With the exception of two cities the practice is to encourage 
the rapid advancement of elementary school pupils. 

2. In 25 cities acceleration occurs in all grades. The remaining 
11 cities vary in the grades where it is encouraged. 

3. In making a choice of grades where acceleration may be car- 
ried out there is a great divergence of opinion. In general the returns 
show that more acceleration is found in the primary and intermediate 
grades. There are 20 systems which encourage acceleration in grades 
I to III, 15 encourage it in grades IV to VI, and 11 encourage it in 
grades VII to IX. Three cities encourage it in grades VII to [X 
only. 

4, It is rather interesting to note that most cities having so-called 
XYZ classes still allow chances of acceleration. 

5. The percents of acceleration reported in Column 5 of Table 2 
are very small. Only in a few cities does it go above two percent. 
This is probably due to two causes: (1) the existence of classes too 
large already to admit accelerated pupils, and (2) a lack of well- 
thought-out and definite procedures for caring for the bright child. 

6. The means of making the promotion is shown in Column 6 of 
Table 2. Skipping a part of the work is far the most common and 











340 ELementary Scuoot Princrpats 
TABLE 2.—Provisions ror THE Rapip ADVANCEMENT OF PUPILS 
In In what Used Percent Method How many 
=. grades with skipped of rapid years have a. 
most YZ in advance- used rapid 
on permitted? —o groups? 1927-28? ment? efvanenun? 
(3 (4) (5) (6) (7) 
1 an Primary Yes... sida 8 
2 All Grammar Yes 3 Skip ied 
3 1-5 2-4 .. —l Skip ae 
4 All 1, 2, 6, 7, 8 Yes 1+ Skip and 8 
14 years 
in 1 year 
5 All Above 3d ae Skip and  Sporad- 
2 years ically 
in 1 
6 38 3, 4, 5 Yes... Skip 12 
7 1-5 24 .-- Very small 2 years 20 
in 1 
8 48 4-8 eee Ga Skip are 
9 All 2B, 4B, 5B, 6B ihe ae Skip. 2 Many 
years 
in 1. Op- 
portunity 
rooms 
10 1-7 ou us Skip. 2 2 
terms 
in 1 
11 All Primary Yes 15 Skip 5 
12 Not general ... a wee Skip and 2 ‘ 
years 
in 1 
13 All 1-6 esha 2 years 15 
in 1 
14 All Primary Yes 5 Skip. 2 20 
years in 
1. Op- 
portunity 
classes 
15 All —_— oon wae 2 years in 
1 
16 All 1-5 ose 8 Skip. 
Summer 5 
school 
17 5-9 5-9 a acai ai 10 
18 All 1-3 Yes 14 Skip. Sac 
Ability 
grouping 
19 All 2-8 Yes... 3 termsin 25 
2 terms. 
££ es 
Skip 
20 All Below 5 coe «(8 Skip. 2 
years in 
1. Sum- 
mer 
school 











Tir ErentnH YEARBOOK 


341 








TABLE 2.—Provisions FoR THE Rapi ADVANCEMENT oF Pupits—Continued 


In In what Used Percent 
what grades with skipped 
grades most YZ in 

City permitted? advantageous ? groups? 1927-28? 

qd) (2) (3) (4) (5) 

21 All 14 Yes 5 

22 1-6 1-6 1 

Not enough 

23 ~«CAil 

24 All Upper grades Yes —1l 

25 «(All Primary Yes 

26 2-5 2 and 3 Yes 2.7 

27 «Ald 5 and 6 Yes —1 

28 All . Elementary Yes 

29 All 2 

30. «(All All 2 

31 24 Lower coe a 

32. «(All a ; eer 

33 1-6 1-5 Yes 18,in certain 

schools 

34 «All 7-9 Yes 15 

35 «(All 2-8 Yes 

3% «Ail site Yes 

37. «All Lower primary. 

Upper grammar 
38 1-7 46 Yes 1 
39 1-8 3-5 we: an 


Method How many 
of rapid years have you 
advance- used rapid 
ment? advancement ? 
(6) (7) 
Skip Many 
Skip. 3 13 
years 
in 2 
Skip. Many 
Summer 
school. 
2 half 
years 
in 1 


3 terms in Many 
2. Sum- 
mer 
school 
Skip. 3 Many 
years in 
x 
Skip. 3 6 
terms 
in 2 
Skip 3 
Skip. 2 8 
years 
in 1 


Skip. 2 ian 
years in 
1. Op- 
portunity 
classes 
Skip. 2 5-10 
terms in 
1 
Skip. 2 
terms in 
1 
Skip id 
Skip. 3 2 
years 
in 2 





342 Exvementary Scuoou PrIncipatrs 





has been the common method of acceleration for years. During the 
past few years tentative plans have been made to take care of the 
loss through summer school, opportunity classes, four-term schools, 


TABLE 3.—Factors CoNSIDERED IN THE Rapin ADVANCEMENT OF PuPILs' 


Physi- Chron- 
Intelligence Achieve- Previous cal olog- 
tests, ment Teacher’s school exami- ical Other 
City Individual Group tests judgment record nation age factors 
q) (2) (3) (4) (5) (8) (7) (8) (9) 
1 xX xX a xX x ae xX 
2 os x x x x si ba 
3 xX xX Reading xX x x - 4 
Language 
Arithmetic 
4 xX x es xX x xX 5 
5 X xX Reading xX xX xX X Social ad- 
Arithmetic justment 
Spelling 
6 xX x é xX x xX 
7 xX xX xX xX a = 
8 xX ~ xX xX x xX Xx Social atti- 
tude 
9 xX xX Reading xX xX X xX 
Language 
Arithmetic 
10 és - Stanford xX x x XxX Principal’s 
judgment 
11 xX x Reading X x 
Arithmetic 
English 
History 
Geography 
12 ‘ - ai aa ia Pe 
13 “ss xX 3 X xX - 
14 xX “f Varies X ss “id X 
15 xX xX Reading X X xX X 
Arithmetic 
16 x xX xX X X x x 
17 as xX xX xX xX ae xX 
18 x x Reading X xX xX xX 
Language 
Arithmetic 
Geography 
History 
19 xX xX re xX xX xX x Summer 
school 
20 x xX st xX xX x xX 
21 xX xX Reading X xX xX xX 
Arithmetic 
Language 
Geography 
History 


1An “X” in the table means an affirmative reply with no details as to practices. 








he 


1e 








Tue E1entu YEARBOOK 


343 





TABLE 3.—Facrors CoNSDERED IN THE Rapm ADVANCEMENT OF Pupits *—Cont’d 


City 
q) 


22 
23 


25 


26 


27 


28 


B & 


Intelligence 


tests, 
Individual Group 
(2) (3) 
xX 
x 
xX x 
x x 
x x 
x xX 
x xX 
xX 
xX 
x oe 
xX X 
x Bt 
x x 
x xX 
xX 
x 
“s xX 
x x 


Achieve- 


ment Teacher’s Previous 
tests judgment school 
(6) 


(4) 


Stanford 


Reading 
Arithmetic 
History 
Geography 


Reading 
Arithmetic 
Reading 
Arithmetic 
Reading 
Arithmetic 
Regular city 
tests 
Reading 
Arithmetic 
History 
Geography 


Reading 
Arithmetic 
English 


xX 
English 
Arithmetic 
English 
Arithmetic 
Reading 
History 
Arithmetic 
Geography 
English 


Arithmetic 
Reading 


(5) 


x 
Xx 


a 


vas 


< 


4 ~ 


mr 


w 


4 


x 
xX 


Xx 
x 


* 


h 
‘ 


mw 


Ps ana 


sc Pee | 


ala 


Physi- 
cal 
exami- 
nation 
(7) 


- 


vata 


Chron- 
olog- 


ical 
age 
(8) 


xX 
xX 


= 


Other 
factors 
(9) 


Social de- 
velopment 
and atti- 
tude of 
parents 


Home envi- 


ronment 
Social de- 
velopment 


Social ma- 
turity 


Social ma- 
turity 


Social ma- 
turity 


1An “ X” in the table means an affirmative reply with no details as to practices. 


and similar arrangements. In most cases it depends on the willing- 
ness of the teacher to keep a check on the work. 

In other instances there is a definite plan of doing two years’ (or 
semesters’) work in one year (or semester). In rare cases three 








344 ELEMENTARY ScHoot PRINCIPALS 





years’ (or semesters’) work in two years (or semesters) is permitted.’ 
Under such an arrangement the time is saved by giving much less 
drill. This undoubtedly accounts for the acceleration taking place 
for the most part in the primary and intermediate grades. 

7. Most cities have always made it possible for a bright pupil to 
skip grades. There are indications that during the last few years the 
cities which believe in acceleration have undertaken to organize the 
work so that it might be less “ hit and miss” and more definite. 


Factors CoNnsIDERED IN THE Rapip ADVANCEMENT OF PUPILS 


Table 3 shows the tabulation of the answers to the question: “ What 
factors are considered in your plan of rapid advancement?” The table 
indicates that the old method of selecting children for acceleration by 
“ trial and error” is passing away. In nearly every city the problem 
is being handled on a much more scientific basis. No longer is the 
teacher’s judgment the sole criterion for deciding whether a child 
shall or shall not be promoted. Tests, intelligence and achievement, 
as well as other factors are being taken into consideration. It is a 
very hopeful sign. 


ADVANTAGES AND LIMITATIONS OF Raprip ADVANCEMENT 


Question 8 asked the superintendents to give the advantages and 
limitations of rapid advancement. Below is given a digest of the re- 
plies in each case. Twenty-nine cities responded to this question. The 
most important items are followed by a number which shows how 
many replies gave this particular advantage or limitation. 


ADVANTAGES 


. Provide for individual differences (18) 

. Economy of time and effort (14) 

Lessens laziness (4) 

. Economy of administration (2) 

. Better classification (2) 

. Makes school more interesting (2) 

. Homogeneous groupings (2) 

. Ninety percent successful 

. Enrich child’s life by outside work 

10. Encourages good work in both pupils and teachers 
11. Task of instruction simplified 

12. Advanced pupil feels that he is advancing 
13. Meets general approval 

14. Prevents delinquency 


OWNMAP wre 


*Kallom, A. W. “Why Acceleration in our Schools?” University of Pitts- 
burgh School of Education Journal, Vol. IV, No. 2, 1928. 











Tue EieutuH YEARBOOK 345 





Rapid advancement has certain very important advantages as 
shown in these data: 

1. It is an attempt to make provision for individual differences 
and to make it possible to give the brighter pupil enough to do to keep 
him busy. 

2. Time is saved not only for the pupil but for the principal and 
teacher. Better work is accomplished because the work is more inter- 
esting, satisfaction accompanies the effort, and it meets the general 
approval of parents. 

3. Where groups may be advanced homogeneous groupings may be 
formed and better classifications can be made. 

4, It tends to prevent the forming of habits of laziness. 


LIMITATIONS 


. Social maladjustment (8) 

. Reach advanced work at immature age (5) 

. Lack of physical development (3) 

. Advanced to satisfy desire of over-ambitious parents (2) 
. Need for adjustment teachers 

. Teacher codperation 

. Drill work curtailed 

. Administrative problem 

. Omits enrichment features 

10. Overburdens pupils with work 

11. Finish high school too early 

12. Invidious comparisons 

13. Temptation to push up to relieve crowded conditions 
14. Adaptation of curriculum 

15. Tends to load down teacher of Z group 


COnoOoorwnd 


There are some very important limitations given although many 
of those mentioned can be guarded against before the pupil is ad- 
vanced. 

1. Care should be taken so that the pupil is not advanced solely 
through the efforts of over-ambitious parents. 

2. Interest and enthusiasm may cause a pupil to undertake more 
work than is wise. 

3. The possibility of invidious comparisons being made between 
the advanced pupil and others may produce personality complications 
which will be far worse than losing a double promotion. ° 

4, Social maladjustment, teacher .codperation, physical condition, 
adaptation of curriculum, and other important factors should be con- 
sidered before the acceleration takes place. 

It is evident that the advantages as reported in these data far out- 
weigh the limitations. There are indications also that it is felt that 











346 ELEMENTARY Scuoot PRINCIPALS 





there should be some limit on the number of “ skips ”’ which an indi- 
vidual pupil should make. The author happens to know that in some 
cities not more than two years may be gained in the eight years, 
while in other cases not more than one year may be gained. If care 
in this respect is taken, many of the limitations given above will not 


apply. 
SELECTION oF TEACHERS FOR ACCELERATED GROUPS 


The question was asked: “ How do you select teachers for rapid 
advancement groups?” It was intended that this question should 
apply to such cities as had classes designed to save time for pupils 
in their school life. It was not realized that comparatively few places 
would have such classes. 

The replies indicate that the different superintendents considered 
the question in two ways: (1) by whom was the selection made, and 
(2) the characteristics of a teacher for accelerated children. In the 
first case (the appointment) there is the widest possible range. In 
the second case there is entire agreement. 

The question was answered by only 23 cities. It is clear from these 
answers that the teacher of accelerated groups is one chosen for 
superior ability in his teaching, sympathy, interest in this type of 
work, and adaptability. 


Tue Purpose or Rapip ADVANCEMENT OF PUPILS 


Superintendents were asked to state the purposes of rapid advance- 
ment. Many omitted to answer this question because they interpreted 
it as identical with the advantages of rapid advancement. Those 
who did reply gave an answer similar to that given under advantages. 
Thus the replies added very little to the rest of the report, but some 
of the purposes given are as follows: 


. Avoids waste of time 

. Individual differences 
Lessens laziness 

. Economy of time 

. Class adjustments 

. Make up loss of time 

. Lessen school costs 

. Homogeneous groups 

. Save one year only 

10. Economy of money 

11. Economy of administration 
12. Adjustment of problem cases 


CONOR WH | 








id 
ls 
2g 





Tue E1igutnH YEARBOOK 347 





SuMMARY 


The extent of the broadcast and other factors make it unwise to 
draw too extensive conclusions from this present study. However, 
an analysis of the replies of city superintendents in many of our 
large American cities leads to certain comments: 

1, Superintendents have given little attention to the development 
of systematic schemes for accelerating the bright child. 

2. The rapid advancement of pupils is a problem left largely to 
the principals in the individual schools. 

3. The percent of pupils accelerated is so small in many cities that 
special classes are not provided. 

4, There is rarely a specific plan of acceleration and, therefore, 
extra promotions are rare and may occur at any place in the child’s 
educational life. In general, however, the choice comes in grades 
IT to VI. 

5. In most cities skipping is still the most common form of ac- 
celeration. There are indications, however, that more systematic 
plans are being sought. The most common are (1) to do two years’ 
work in one, (2) to do three years’ work in two, (3) opportunity 
classes, (4) four-term schools, and (5) summer schools. 

6. There is every indication that standard tests, intelligence and 
achievement, are contributing their share in determining what chil- 
dren shall be granted permission to be advanced a grade. 

7. The advantages of acceleration far outweigh the disadvantages. 

8. The choice of a teacher for an accelerated class is most impor- 
tant. He should be a superior teacher,’ interested, sympathetic, and 
very adaptable. 


THE QUESTIONNAIRE 


The questions sent to the superintendents were the following: 


1. In which grades do you permit rapid advancement of pupils? 

2. In which grades can the rapid advancement of pupils be used most ad- 
vantageously ? 

3. If you use the XYZ plan, do you permit rapid advancement of pupils? 

4. What percent of your elementary school pupils received extra promotion 
during the year 1927-28? 

5. What method do you use to accelerate pupils? 

6. How many years have you used your system of rapid advancement? 

7. Check the factors which are considered in your plan of rapid advancement. 

8. Results of your experiment in the rapid advancement of pupils. 

9. How do you select teachers for rapid advancement groups? 

10. State briefly the purpose of rapid advancement of pupils in your system.