VOL. Il, NO. 4 BULLETIN OF THE Department of Elementary School Principals THE SECOND YEARBOOK The Problem of the Elementary School Principal in the Light of The Testing Movement PUBLISHED QUARTERLY BY THE DEPARTMENT OF ELEMENTARY SCHOOL PRINCIPALS of the National Education Association of the United States 1201 SIXTEENTH STREET NORTHWEST, WASHINGTON, D. C. Entered as second-class matter November 20, 1922, at the postoffice at Washington, D. C., under act of August 24, 1912. Acceptance for mailing at special rate of postage provided for in Section 1103, Act of October 3, 1917, authorized December 18, 1922. BULLETIN of the DEPARTMENT OF ELEMENTARY SCHOOL PRINCIPALS Published quarterly in October, January, April, and July by the Department of Elementary School Principals of the National Education Association of the United States. W. T. Longshore, Editor. The payment of $2.00 active membership dues entitles a member to attend all meetings of the Department, to hold office, and to receive the Bulletin quarterly. One dollar of each membership fee is for a year’s subscription to the Bulletin. Subscription to non-members is $2.00 per year; single copies, 50 cents; Year- book, $1.50. Members are requested to report at once any change of address, giving old as well as new address. Entered as second-class matter November 20, 1922, at the postoffice at Washington, D. C., under act of August 24, 1912. Acceptance for mailing at special rate of postage provided for in Section 1103, Act of October 3, 1917, authorized December 18, 1922. = woe and Editorial Offices, 1201 Sixteenth Street Northwest, Washington, OFFICERS OF THE DEPARTMENT OF ELEMENTARY SCHOOL PRINCIPALS OF THE NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION 1922-1923 President, WortH McCLURE Gatewood School, Seattle, Washington First Vice-President, ANNA LAURA Force Lincoln School, Denver, Colorado Second Vice-President, THoMAS AGNEW Horace Mann School, Bayonne, New Jersey Third Vice-President, ELIZABETH ARLETT Alexander Hamilton Junior High School, Oakland, California Secretary, W. T. LONGSHORE Greenwood School, Kansas City, Missouri Recording Secretary, JESSIE M. FINK Palmer School, Grand Rapids, Michigan Treasurer, COURTLAND V. DAVIS J. E. B. Stuart School, Norfolk, Virginia Executive Committee OLIVE M. JONES P. S. 120, New York, New York—term expires in 1923 J. W. ANTHONY Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania—term expires in 1924 Mary McSKIMMON Pierce School, Brookline, Massachusetts—term expires in 1925 LEONARD POWER Franklin School, Port Arthur, Texas—term expires in 1926 Foreword Members of the Department of Elementary School Principals de- cided during the Boston meeting that their Second Yearbook should be devoted to the use which is being made of intelligence and achieve- ment tests throughout the country. Their idea was that a con- siderable part of the book should deal with the influence of testing in the revision and in the application of courses of study in the elementary school. This volume, accordingly, takes up the matter of testing rather briefly and is composed principally of material dealing with the organization of schools, with the revision of courses of study, and with the instruction of pupils in the light of the testing movement. Since it was advised that the material dealing with courses of study and instruction should be limited to two or three lines at most, the book deals only with reading, language, and arithmetic. In arranging for material the editor has been in touch with many educational people throughout the country, and he has benefited greatly from the advice and assistance which they have freely offered. Throughout his work on this volume the editor has kept closely in touch with the President of the Department and has drawn largely on his successful experience in compiling the first volume of this series. The progress of the work has been presented to the members of the Department through the pages of the Quarterly Bulletin and the response from many is gratefully acknowledged. It has been kept continually in mind that this volume should be representative of the work of elementary school principals and that the material chosen for publication should be of the type for which there is a general demand. Early in the preparation of this volume it became evident that the formulation of a program and the development of the various phases of the subject would require all of the seven months’ time in which the work was to be done. While the editorial work may have suffered under time pressure, it is possible that the wider range of topics presented by the various writers compensates by adding a definite element of strength to the volume. As a result of this year’s experience, the Department recognizes the necessity of an early selec- tion of the theme for the Third Yearbook. It will deal with the functions of the elementary-school principal. The members of the Department owe a debt of gratitude to the people who have offered their time and labor for the making of the Second Yearbook. The cordiality with which the editor’s request for contributions has invariably been met, and the painstaking labors [{ 147 ] of our contributors have transferred the credit for this book to the people whose names appear in its table of contents. The National Education Association, under whose general super- vision this book has been prepared, has liberally subsidized the undertaking. Officers of the Association have been helpful through- out. Copies of this Yearbook are being distributed to all members of the Department and additional copies may be purchased from the Washington office of the National Education Association at the price indicated on the cover. JoHn L. BRACKEN Editor of the Second Yearbook U. S. Grant School, Duluth, Minnesota Contents Foreword CHAPTER I—THE CONTRIBUTIONS OF MEASUREMENT TO TEACHING THE CONTRIBUTIONS OF MEASUREMENT TO TEACHING S. A. Courtis, Director of Instruction, Teacher Training and Research, Detroit, Michigan CHAPTER II—ACHIEVEMENT TESTING IN THE ELEMEN- TARY SCHOOL ACHIEVEMENT TESTING IN THE ELEMENTARY SCHOOL Aymer J. Hamilton, Principal of the Washington Elementary School, Berkeley, California CHAPTER III—CLASSIFICATIONS AND REORGANIZATIONS INVOLVING TEST RESULTS THE CLASSIFICATION OF CHILDREN IN THE LINCOLN SCHOOL, OAKLAND, CALIFORNIA W. M. Greenwell, Principal of the Lincoln School, Oakland, Cali- fornia CLASSIFICATION ACCORDING TO THE PROMOTION AGE Mary C. Flynn, Principal of the Micheltorena Street School, Los Angeles, California CLASSIFICATION BY INTELLIGENCE TESTS IN THE SMALLER I 2 aig b-nieidb 4:8 8 eh aa ee Helen Davis, Director of Measurements and Special Education, Jackson, Michigan An EXPERIMENTAL USE OF INTELLIGENCE TESTS IN CLASSIFI- CATION F. T. Hardwick, Principal of the Central School, Everett, Wash- ington Sprep GROUPING IN THE PRIMARY GRADES OF RockKForD, ILLINOIS Vera G. Sheldon, Elementary Supervisor, Rockford, Illinois THe RkE-CLASSIFICATION OF PupiIts IN ONE ELEMENTARY Warren K. Layton, Assistant Supervisor, Department of Special Education, Detroit, Michigan [ 149 ] 169 189 CHAPTER IV—THE EFFECTS OF CLASSIFICATIONS INVOLVING TEST RESULTS Tue Errects or Groupinc ACCORDING TO INTELLIGENCE IN THE FRANKLIN ScHOOL, Port ARTHUR, TEXAS Leonard Power, Principal of the Franklin School, Port Arthur, Texas Tue NEED AND Use oF TESTING IN THE ELEMENTARY SCHOOL. . Lawrence S. Chase, Principal of the Glenfield School, Montclair, New Jersey RESULTS OF CLASSIFICATION OF Pupits BASED ON ABILITY AS SHown By INTELLIGENCE Tests, Tests oF ACHIEVEMENT, AND TEACHERS’ MARKS...........cecceeee A. M. Santee, Principal of the Washington Junior High School, Duluth, Minnesota CHAPTER V—THE TEACHING OF READING Tue OBJECTIVES IN READING AS A GUIDE TO REMEDIAL AND PROPHYLACTIC WoRK.. Ernest Horn, Peatecser of Education ond ‘Director of the Uni- versity Elementary School, State University of Iowa, Iowa City, Iowa A MAstTery VOCABULARY IN PRIMARY READING M. Ethel Brown, Supervisor of Primary Grades, Springfield, Illinois INCREASING SPEED AND COMPREHENSION OF SILENT READING. . Charles Potter, Principal of the Rainier Elementary School, Seattle, Washington READING AND LANGUAGE IN THE WINNETKA PuBLic SCHOOLS. Marion Carswell, Principal of the Hubbard Woods School Willard W. Beatty, Principal of the Skokie School, Winnetka, Illinois CHAPTER VI—REMEDIAL WORK IN READING REMEDIAL WorRK FoR NON-READERS Helen Bass Keller, Supervisor of Adjustment Work Grace M. Fernald, Associate Professor of Psychology, University of California, Southern Branch, Los Angeles, California Tue DiIscovERY AND CORRECTION OF READING DIFFICULTIES. . Elda L. Merton, Assistant Superintendent of Schools, Waukesha, Wisconsin CHAPTER VII—THE TEACHING OF LANGUAGE TEACHING LANGUAGE UNDER THE INDIVIDUAL METHOD Margaret H. Smith, Principal of the 61st Street School, Los Angeles, California [ 150 ] 249 267 CHAPTER vili—Continued. AFTER-TEST VALUE OF LANGUAGE ERROR TESTS............ S71 G. M. Wilson, Professor of Education, Boston University, Boston, Massachusetts THE EVALUATION OF LANGUAGE ERRORS Clyde A. Brown, Principal of the Corkery School, Chiesen, Illinois CHART OF LANGUAGE AIMS WITH SUGGESTIONS AND ACTIVITIES FOR REALIZING THEM Clifford Woody, Director, Bureau of Mental Tests and Measure- ments, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Michigan CHAPTER VIII—REMEDIAL WORK IN ARITHMETIC REMEDIAL WorK IN ARITHMETIC Elda L. Merton, Assistant Superintendent of Schools G. O. Banting, Superintendent of Schools and Associate Professor of Education, Carroll College, Waukesha, Wisconsin A Dracnosis SHEET IN ARITHMETIC Leo J. Brueckner, Director of Tests and Measurements, Minne- apolis, Minnesota Amy Souba, Student, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, Minnesota CHAPTER IX—AN EVALUATION OF AFTER-TESTING WORK An EvaLuaTION OF AFTER-TESTING WORK, WITH BIBLIOG- RAPHY G. A. Yoakam, Director of Teacher Training, Nebraska State Teachers College, Kearney, Nebraska CHAPTER X—THE PLATOON SCHOOL EpUCATION IN A PLATOON SCHOOL Arthur S. Gist, Principal of the B. F. Day School, Seattle, Washington AUDITORIUM STUDIES R. D. Chadwick, Principal of the Morgan Park School, Duluth, Minnesota Proposep ScALE FOR RATING SCHOOL PRINCIPALS AND ASSIST- ANT PRINCIPALS, Pr ere e W. P. Burris, University of Cincinnati, Cincinnati, Ohio Drrectory oF LocaL PRINCIPALS’ ORGANIZATIONS DIRECTORY OF THE DEPARTMENT OF ELEMENTARY SCHOOL PRINCIPALS CHAPTER I The Contributions of Measurement to Teaching S. A. Courtis CHAPTER I The Contributions of Measurement to Teaching S. A. Courtis Director of Instruction, Teacher Training and Research Detroit, Michigan HE AVERAGE MAN, caught in the maelstrom of current events, is swung now this way, now that, by the fads and movements of the day. He is like a weathercock, whose posi- tion reveals to the observer the direction in which the wind is blowing at the moment, but which itself neither controls the blowing nor senses the meaning of the constant change in direction. Many teachers and principals serve in similar humble capacity, and the best of us does so at times. The wise man, however, stops now and then to bring before him in orderly array the events of the past, and in the light of such a survey attempts to plan intelligently for the future. Only by so doing is it possible to build and maintain a proper perspective. The beginnings of the testing movement lie far back in the dim and distant past. More than once it has happened that the teacher, the mathematician, and the scientist have been combined in the same person. Suggestions for objective tests and measurements have been made by many an unsung pioneer, whose contributions died in the borning. Of these, we may take but small account. How far they paved the way, we cannot tell, for recorded history in educa- tional measurement begins with the twentieth century. For instance, it will come as a surprise to many that the first educa- tional survey in America was a carefully conducted measurement of the Boston schools in 1845.1. Horace Mann, commenting on the report of the committee, predicted that the use of written tests scien- tifically constructed, given, scored, and tabulated would bring about a new era in education. He was right in his conclusion, but wrong as to when the new era was to begin. The thoughtful reader will not fail to ask himself why half a cen- tury had to pass before the educational world grudgingly accepted that which in 1845 was self-evident to the genius of Horace Mann. The answer is, of course, that the movement for the scientific study of education is not an isolated social phenomenon. It is an integral part of the general social evolution and could not be widely adopted until the way had been prepared by appropriate social developmens 1 Caldwell & Courtis, “Then and Now in Education.” World Book Compaity. [ 155 J 156 ELEMENTARY SCHOOL PRINCIPALS along related lines. The moral is that even today it is useless to expect teachers, principals, superintendents, or the public generally, to adopt enthusiastically and to support any more of a measurement program than their own scientific development will enable them to ‘understand and appreciate. A period of education and growth is as essential for each individual as it was for society and for the profes- sion generally. There is neither space nor time to trace here the many influences which have codperated to make the movement for the use of measure- ment in education a success in the twentieth century when it had failed of adoption in previous years. The reader will recall, how- ever, the wonderful advances of science in the nineteenth century and the resulting industrial revolution. It was inevitable that re- search methods should spread to social and civic activities. The time came at last when man turned upon himself those methods of discovery and investigation which had proved so effective in other fields. Sir Francis Galton merits special mention. He has been called the father of educational psychology because he was one of the first men to apply scientific methods to the study of human behavior. Nearly all work in eugenics, all the attention paid to the determina- tion of the original nature of man and of the relative effects of nature and nurture, as well as many of our effective statistical and graphic methods of handling data involving variation and relationship, may be traced to origins in Galton’s contributions. After Galton, the center of activity shifted to the experimental study of the behavior of men and animals. The old psychology was completely transformed ; testing for reaction time, sensory dis- crimination, fatigue, and the like developed a technique and a point of view which ultimately led to the study of the learning process and to the discovery of its fundamental laws. At the close of the century, when comparison of school systems by uniform examinations was undertaken by Rice (1897) there were many, both in education and out of it, who could appreciate the meaning of the results secured. For a few years a battle raged as to whether or not educational products were measurable, but by this time a majority, even of schoolmen, had been influenced enough by the general scientific thought of the day to line up on the side of progress. The victory assured measurement a place in education. The next step was the development of an adequate technique both foi the construction of educational tests and scales and for practical =a fe ight tate FR teat Goh @__. heed Of a ii te a i i i 3 to lly, ent 1 to 3 as fes- \ces 1re- rad OW- “he of her led rst or. 1a- ire 1l¢ ay tal nt nd by he 118 dy of al Tue SECOND YEARBOOK 157 methods of giving, scoring, tabulating, and interpreting them. Here need be mentioned the names of Stone, Ayres, Starch, Kelly, Judd, and a host of others, but preéminent among them all stands the name of Thorndike, the master genius of the testing movement. Either directly, or indirectly through the pupils whom he has in- spired, Thorndike has contributed not only important measuring instruments and procedures, but most of the fundamental principles, theories, and ideals of the movement. To him, more than to any other one man, the success of the movement is due. Almost as rapidly as practical testing instruments were available the use of tests by schoolmen became general, mainly it must be admitted from the point of view of “try anything once.” The sale of the more popular tests quickly rose to millions of copies a year and still continues. This activity, in spite of its superficial nature, was not without its value. It really served to initiate the profession into at least the beginnings of scientific thinking and into the mys- teries of statistical and graphic methods. To this day, there is no more effective way of convincing doubting Thomases than by getting them involved in an actual use of testing material. The development of tests paved the way for a new type of educa- tional survey. To Professor Hanus, of Harvard, the director of the survey conducted by the Committee on School Inquiry of New York City (1912), belongs the credit for the first use of tests for survey purposes. The new school survey popularized not only tests but the application of scientific methods to all phases of educational work. Studies of promotion, elimination, relation of age to grade, costs, and the like became more and more exact, more and more scientific. The information secured by all these activities was of value both as an aid to administration and supervision of schools and as material for annual reports and publicity campaigns. To make such surveys continuous, bureaus of research began to be established. Thus meas- urement and scientific experimentation gradually passed from the spectacular, faddish phase, which it had first assumed, to an estab- lished position of functional worth. Paralleling the development of educational tests, individual tests for mental capacity had been slowly evolving. The original studies in the measurement of intelligence were made by Binet and Simon (1908), but the work of Terman, Yerkes, Whipple, Otis, Haggerty, and many others made mental measurements possible for teachers. The selection and segregation of atypical children and the develop- ment of specialized methods of educating such children was a notable forward step. Then came the war with its development of group tests and their application to more than a million men. The army 158 ELEMENTARY SCHOOL PRINCIPALS popularized the concept of intelligence testing as survey use had popularized the educational test. Sectioning on the basis of intel- ligence scores became the fad of the hour. Today we are in the throes of the selective struggle of sifting the wheat from the chaff in this field also. Important as has been the influence of the measurement move- ment upon curriculum making and teaching, there have been other and powerful influences which need to be considered. Social de- velopment has been along not only scientific lines but political lines as well. Throughout the world since Rousseau, democratic ideals have been slowly making their way, and from many points of view, the World War was merely the inevitable outward expression of the conflict of the old and the new philosophies. This phase of the social development has stimulated close analysis of the function of the school in society and has led to a changed concept of what educa- tion is for and how it operates. In this field the name of Dewey symbolizes the whole movement for the socialization of school work and the democratization of school procedure. The shift of emphasis from “acquisition” to “purposing,” from “preparation for life’ to “life itself” is a transition as profound and as meaningful as the development of scientific method in educational procedure. It is the crowning glory of our day and generation that in the changes in curriculum and methods of teaching now taking place, these two mighty currents have fused. Science without philosophy is mate- rialism without a soul, and philosophy without science is as in- effective as sounding brass and tinkling cymbals. Let us shift our point of view and study the effects these great movements have produced. The most general, the most persistent and the most disturbing contribution of the measurement movement has been the objective revelation and proof of the inefficiency of teaching. In survey after survey, it has been shown that our present educational procedure affects a very small percentage of the children at any one time; that the variation within any one grade for any one ability is enormous; that the overlapping from grade to grade is staggering. No criticism ever formulated by the public has equaled in validity and forcefulness the revelations of survey measurements. The one crumb of comfort in the situation has been that such com- parative measurements as could be made with the work of the schools of the past have uniformly shown that, ineffective as our schools are at present, they at least are more effective than formerly and serve a larger number of children. But when all has been said and done, the most ardent enthusiasts must admit that the efficiency of present-day educational procedure is exceedingly low. THE SECOND YEARBOOK 159 When the first storms of rage and disbelief at the revelations from measurement had begun to lose their force, thoughtful investiga- tion and experimental variation of teaching methods began. These have resulted in the discovery of several important lines of advance leading to better conditions. The three outstanding contributions to teaching may be summarized as objective definition of goals, the vitalization of the curriculum through evaluation of subject matter, and the individualization of instruction. Each merits discussion. Before the advent of measurement, objective definition of aim was not possible. Standards were subjective and varied from teacher to teacher just as they do to this day in most phases of educational work. Whenever a test or scale has been constructed to measure a specific product, however, objective definition has followed. In handwriting, for instance, compare the aim of developing “rapid legible writing” with that of stimulating children to attain in a standard writing test “a rate of 85 letters per minute with a quality of 60 Ayres.” Objective definition enables a teacher to measure her pupils at the beginning of the teaching period to see at what stage of development the children are in relation to the standard, and at the end of the period to determine the effect of her teaching. Intelligent planning of teaching procedure is made possible by initial tests and the selection of best methods by final tests. Such measure- ments also point out the children who are not benefiting by their work and lead the teacher to study the child to discover the cause of failure. Educational diagnosis has thus developed as a new form of teaching activity. Diagnostic tests serve the teacher as a ther- mometer serves the physician. The teacher, confronted with proof of inefficiency and the preblem of producing standard degrees of knowledge and skill in every child, reacted vigorously by criticizing courses of study. Thorndike was the first to suggest the principle of “limitation of training”; that a child who attained a legibility of 12 or 13 on the handwriting scale has probably achieved optimum development and that further train- ing is waste. This has since been applied to many skills, and although few school people accept the full implications of the prin- ciple, it has done much to lighten the childen’s burden by tending to abolish useless drill. Selection of subject matter on the basis of maximum social value is another principle which is greatly modifying curriculum making and which is a direct outcome of the measurement movement. Coff- man and Jessup evaluated the contents of arithmetic in terms of frequency of social use, and found much obsolete and useless mate- rial which superintendents and teachers were quick to eliminate 160 ELEMENTARY SCHOOL PRINCIPALS from the course of study, once the facts to warrant such action were available. Ayres’ investigations in spelling cut the course of study from 30,000 to approximately 3,000 words: 1,000 essential words and 2,000 additional desirable words. Bagley, Charters, Bonser, Rugg, Bobbitt, and many others have made important contributions which have materially changed the popular concept of what the schools should teach. Fundamental revisions of curricula are even now being made in every field of educational activity from kinder- garten through college. The concept of selection of subject matter on the basis of its meas- ured social value, and the formulation of objective standards of mini- mum essentials seem destined to have far-reaching consequences. Questions of outcome raise philosophic questions of aim and purpose. During the last decade the basis of organization of curricula has shown a strong tendency to change from conventional academic ideals of scholarship and culture to that of virile personal and social efficiency. The force of this movement has only just begun to make itself felt. To measurement is due credit for the larger part of the data upon which such changes are based as well as for the technique by which it will ultimately be decided whether or not the changes are for the better. By far the most important contribution of measurement has been the discovery and emphasis of individual differences in children. From Galton’s original investigation of twins down to the most recent survey, or the results of the last experiment, variation in original nature,,and in reaction to nurture, has been the constant and most evident generalization from measurement studies. Teacher after teacher, untouched by statements in textbooks or by the em- phatic words of her instructors has nevertheless made for herself from her own test data the generalization that children differ. Re- discovery of essential truths has tremendous stimulating power. Teacher after teacher, finding her discovery confirmed by standard texts in psychology and education, has been moved to do something about it; has been made sensitive to any device or method which promises adequate aid in the handling of individual children. This explains in part the ready acceptance of group intelligence testing by the educational public. To those who are groping for methods which would enable them to deal adequately with the prob- lem of individual differences, sectioning on the basis of intelligence seems to afford the desired solution. The wide-spread publicity given the use of group tests in the army, and the ready adoption of the same by prominent schoolmen, led great numbers of others to follow in their footsteps. It is difficult at this time to appraise were tudy yords nser tions - the even 1der- neas- nini- nces. Dose. has 2mic ocial nake the ique nges ren. nost 1 in tant cher self wer. lard ling rich once for rob- nce city 1 of s to aise THE SECOND YEARBOOK 161 correctly the contribution made by mental testing, but to the writer it would seem to be chiefly the increase in the attention paid to individuals. Particularly is this true in the junior and senior high schools in which educational testing had not made much head- way. Many teachers, through the giving of intelligence tests, and the sectioning of classes on the basis of intelligence, have been led to discover individuals, and to revise their whole scheme of educa- tional thinking and teaching accordingly. Even in college instruc- tion, signs are not wanting, here and there, that the old broadside treatment of individuals in mass formation may yet be displaced by a procedure more in accord with the facts of individual variation and the psychological laws involved. Sectioning on the basis of intelligence is a device for securing homogeneous groups: yet measurement of the achievements and growths of individuals in sections of supposedly equal intelligence proves that not all the bright children succeed and that not all the dull children fail. There is both success and failure in each group to such an extent that in the highest and lowest fifth of 4,000 first- grade children the number of individuals having identically the same scores in a reading test at the end of the semester were recently found to be one half the total number. Further, there are some data which suggest that for any large group of children the total dis- tribution and the median scores are the same whether the indi- viduals are taught in undifferentiated sections or in classes carefully sectioned on the basis of intelligence. Many teachers are finding similar discrepancies between their expected and their actual results. The conclusions being drawn from these data are two: first, that intelligence is but one of many factors affecting a child’s success, and second, that individual differences are so great that no method of work can be made effective which does not provide for the complete adjustment of assigned tasks to the nature and powers of each child each day. Sectioning on the basis of intelligence scores is apparently proving to be a temporary expedient, a more refined method of grading, but not an ultimate solution. The first of these conclusions has led to the clear formulation by Baldwin and others of the types of factors which need to be con- sidered in planning work for any individual. They may be roughly grouped in five classes: (1) Physical, (2) mental, (3) emotional, (4) social, and (5) educational. What the specific elements of these factors are, how each may be measured, and how the results of measurements may be used to advantage by those responsible for curriculum building and by 162 ELEMENTARY SCHOOL PRINCIPALS 7 teachers are questions to which answers are now being found ex- perimentally. On the other hand, the real solution of all the problems raised by individual differences, and of many problems of method raised by psychology and philosophy, can already be sketched in major out- line. The public schools must deal with large numbers; children must be taught in large groups. Yet each child is so specialized by heredity and by training that he must be given an individual pro- gram of work and progress. This seeming deadlock of opposing “musts” is easily broken by taking the children into partnership and giving them a larger share in directing their own educational activities. Burke, of the San Francisco State Normal, many years ago secured individualization of instruction by means of a series of lesson sheets. These were unstandardized and constructed on a subjective basis. As early as 1912, the author of this article, independently hit upon Burke’s plan and constructed a series of timed test lesson sheets in the four operations of arithmetic, into the making of which went all the knowledge of standards, difficulties, and methods gained from experimental studies. Such practice lessons constitute a course of study in the development of the four fundamental skills in arith- metic, and enable a teacher to handle a mass of forty or fifty chil- dren of every level of ability and yet give to each child the lesson which is for him the best next task to be attempted. Moreover each child can progress at his own rate and study in his own way without destroying the mass formation. Much of the valueless routine of conventional teaching is taken care of by the mechanics of the system, and the teacher is set free for individual diagnosis and assistance. Similar practice tests are now available in algebra, handwriting, and reading. Washburn at Winnetka, and Sutherland at Los Angeles are both developing similar curricular material. The prin- ciples involved seem capable of very general application and are sure to come into extensive use as soon as the rank and file of the teaching force become convinced that individualization of mass instruction is an adequate solution of the problem of individual! differences. As the complexity of the educational process is continuously revealed by experimental study, as problems and difficulties multiply, the general value of the practice test procedure becomes more evident. For the development in the individual of knowledge, skill, and habits, practice tests seem destined to win a supreme place. Cur- riculum building for all fields capable of expression in exact objective standards seems likely to resolve itself into a technique of practice Tue SeconpD YEARBOOK 163 test construction. For the factor of individual differences, both in original nature and in the effects of training, is the supreme factor in education. Before the advent of measurement, the deliberations of schoolmen dealt with but two factors—subject matter and mode of presentation. Today the informed teacher knows that the changes produced by teaching effort cannot be predicted with certainty from either sub- ject matter or mode of presentation, either considered separately or together; that the most vital factor is the selective and organizing power of the original nature and acquired development of the indi- vidual being taught. In a general way it can be said that subject matter determines within limits the kind of knowledge, or the degree of skill acquired; that the mode of presentation affects the attitudes and purposes of the individual trained, but precisely which items of knowledge, skill, attitudes, or ideals will result from the presentation of a given unit of subject matter in a given manner cannot be accu- rately predicted except in terms of the nature of the individual taught. One of the early contributions of measurement to education was the objective proof of the inadequacy of the formal discipline ideal as a basis for curriculum building. It was comparatively easy to prove that the habits built up by a study of Latin and other subjects as taught in our high schools were specific and of so little value in other fields of activity as to make their inclusion in the curriculum for their disciplinary value alone indefensible. But the early experimenters proved too much. They stimulated scientific inquiry on a fact basis, and today schoolmen everywhere are putting to the acid test of measurement and scientific validation every phase of school procedure. How do you know, these scien- tists ask, that the effects of the experiences in school called “learning to spell” are those which produce actual spelling ability under life conditions? What is the evidence that the procedures emphasized in school under the name of the “teaching of reading” develop those abilities which in life are commonly called ability to read? Is it right to say that a boy has ability in reading if he makes a high score in both rate and comprehension in a reading test, but does not like to read and is unable to benefit in any practical way from his supposed ability? For such questions there are no satisfactory answers at present. Two things only are certain: first, that the traditional forms of teaching procedure are ineffective, wasteful, foolish; second, that the real goals of educational endeavor promise to be something totally different from the false gods of the past. Many a teacher and super- 164 ELEMENTARY SCHOOL PRINCIPALS visor today stands aghast at the situation her own investigations have led her to comprehend. She looks into the future and sees the con- ventional foundations crumbling to ruins. Situations more complex, problems more serious, labors more arduous than she suspected existed, loom large on the horizon. There is no possibility of return to the false security of the past; only problems and difficulties can be seen in the future. To what the trail leads is not comprehended. To those without vision the present seems dark indeed. To those with vision, however, the first faint streamers of the dawn of a new day are discernible. We are in a transition age; we are pioneers blazing a trail. Help is at hand and from an unexpected quarter. The movement for the socialization of school work has emphasized interest, motivation. Out of motivation has emerged the goals of purposing, control, personality. The emphasis in edu- cation is shifting. Experience not instruction, interpretation not acquisition, a unified and integrated personality, not results in terms of knowledge and skill, are to be the objectives of the new education, an education for power. Topical organizations, project teaching, activity curricula all tell the story of a new concept of education, of the rise of method and the passing of the day of subject matter. The curriculum of the future will rest upon a solid foundation of threefold measurement. Every element in it will have been selected only after full knowledge of its social usefulness, its suitability to the stage of development of the child that uses it, and its probable effectiveness in use. Further, these elements will not be subject matter units put up in sealed cartons with subject matter labels, but units of purposeful activity chosen for their relation to the life of the child and used to increase the child’s power to respond to stimulating situations by masterly achievement. Education will be defined as the process of helping the child help himself—ever to form more worthy purposes and ever to achieve them more efficiently. In the school of the future, the child will be the center of organiza- tion. Masses of children will codperate in social groups in the achievement of social ends. Acquisition of knowledge will occur only as a by-product precisely as in life. Where special develop- ment of skill is needed, it will be secured by the use by the child under his own direction of organized drill practice lessons, scien- tifically constructed. Children will be handled in masses, but there will be individual planning, individual progress, and individual assistance. More children than at present will acquire standard con- trol over essential knowledges and skills, while the results on the side of power and character development will be extraordinary in com- parison with those of the present day. Tue SeconD YEARBOOK 165 It is safe to make such predictions for two reasons. The first is that the general tendencies of the present are clearly indicated, and here and there under favorable conditions almost incredible results have already been obtained for this, that, and the other single phase of the educational process. When the time comes that all these sepa- rate successes are brought under a rational and unified control, the effects of teaching may be reasonably expected to far excel the average result secured at present. The second is that we have today rational control, a steadily in- creasing control, over the inductive method applied to education. Day by day we are arriving at truth with greater certainty. When the time comes that before attempting to teach, we (1) measure the child completely: body, mind, and spirit, past achievement, and present tendencies; (2) select the subject matter appropriate to his development on the basis of measured individual and social needs; (3) plan the teaching procedure on the basis of methods proved by scientific experimentation to be the most suitable for the total situa- tion; and (4) take the child into partnership so that he himself has a share in deciding what work he shall do and how he shall do it; then the school will become a democratic Utopian community of children, dominated by high social ideals and codperating in the achievement of optimum growth and happiness. In that day, the school will exert upon civilization that directing and progressive in- fluence of which we stand in dire need. Between actual conditions, however, and such potentialities lies a great gulf of ignorance which can be bridged only by the codperative measurements and investigations of an army of workers. To join this army, to do one’s bit in bringing about the better day, and to become thoroughly scientific in thought and practice are the duties and the opportunities which lie before each member of the teaching profession. Great as have been the past contributions of measure- ment to teaching, they dwindle into insignificance in comparison with those which will be made in the future. For the most impor- tant contribution of the movement for the use of measurement is the development of the technique for arriving at truth in education, and of that spirit which is satisfied only with the truth. Where truth reigns progress is certain and lasting. CHAPTER II Achievement Testing in the Elementary School AYMER JAY HAMILTON mé ob Va. do ar ul ce th ar CHAPTER II Achievement Testing in the Elementary School AYMER JAY HAMILTON Principal of the Washington Elementary School Berkeley, California ESTING both intelligence and product is no longer in the purely experimental stage, notwithstanding some prominently expressed opinions to the contrary. Even the average school- man and many laymen recognize the importance of determining objectively a quantitative measure of mentality and of skill in the various school abilities. The important question in the present stage is not, Shall it be done? but rather, What are the best tools to use in doing it and what are the best uses to make of the results? Some of the poor results obtained through testing were due to the use of tests put upon the market by over-anxious publicity agents, and perhaps equally due to users of tests untrained in their use. What we want are tests of specific abilities constructed upon scientific bases with trained psychologists to interpret the results. CRITERIA FOR THE SELECTION OF TESTS There is not the time or space here to develop all the principles underlying the construction of tests but there should be mentioned certain fundamental principles or criteria, the data for which should be in evidence for all tests before public money should be spent upon them or diagnoses or predictions made upon their results. These are : 1. Validity. Is the test valid? That is, does it test what it pur- ports to test? Does it measure the trait or skill that you want meas- ured? “Will the pupil who deals with the test difficulty with a given degree of excellence, deal with the apparently same difficulty when embedded in a real practical life situation with an equal de- gree of excellence?” If not, then certainly the test is not worth giving. If it does, the test is good and one is safe in basing diag- noses or predictions upon its results. However, before its validity can be assumed there is needed more evidence than the publisher’s advertising circular. Moreover, the statement of the author that it correlates highly and positively with a previously used test of his own or some one’s else construction is of course not evidence that it is going to be the test by which a specifically desired trait or skill [ 169 ] mi ob do are us an ba uD Ce) th ar ur gi wl er gr no ca ad co ov CHAPTER II Achievement Testing in the Elementary School AYMER JAY HAMILTON Principal of the Washington Elementary School Berkeley, California ESTING both intelligence and product is no longer in the purely experimental stage, notwithstanding some prominently expressed opinions to the contrary. Even the average school- man and many laymen recognize the importance of determining objectively a quantitative measure of mentality and of skill in the various school abilities. The important question in the present stage is not, Shall it be done? but rather, What are the best tools to use in doing it and what are the best uses to make of the results? Some of the poor results obtained through testing were due to the use of tests put upon the market by over-anxious publicity agents, and perhaps equally due to users of tests untrained in their use. What we want are tests of specific abilities constructed upon scientific bases with trained psychologists to interpret the results. CRITERIA FOR THE SELECTION OF TESTS There is not the time or space here to develop all the principles underlying the construction of tests but there should be mentioned certain fundamental principles or criteria, the data for which should be in evidence for all tests before public money should be spent upon them or diagnoses or predictions made upon their results. These are : 1. Validity. Is the test valid? That is, does it test what it pur- ports to test? Does it measure the trait or skill that you want meas- ured? “Will the pupil who deals with the test difficulty with a given degree of excellence, deal with the apparently same difficulty when embedded in a real practical life situation with an equal de- gree of excellence?” If not, then certainly the test is not worth giving. If it does, the test is good and one is safe in basing diag- noses or predictions upon its results. However, before its validity can be assumed there is needed more evidence than the publisher’s advertising circular. Moreover, the statement of the author that it correlates highly and positively with a previously used test of his own or some one’s else construction is of course not evidence that it is going to be the test by which a specifically desired trait or skill [ 169 } 170 ELEMENTARY SCHOOL PRINCIPALS can be measured, for, until you have first proved the validity of the criteria against which it was checked, such a statement could mean nothing. It is a difficult matter to determine just what are the most satis- factory elements in life success against which to check our so-called intelligence tests, yet, notwithstanding some criticism of these tests by individuals who probably know much more about theoretical method than they do of the difference between diagnosis and pre- diction, all must admit that it is quite within the range of possibili- ties to select certain elements in school success against which a test ean be checked that will, to a fairly high degree of certainty, pre- dict reaction to school procedure. Call such a test an “intelligence test” or what you will, it becomes, when validated properly, a most worth-while test to the school principal. Neither is it an easy task to build tests that will measure a specific habit, skill, ability, or attitude as it exists among the most desirable school outcomes so that the test will not be, at the same time, measur- ing some other habit, skill, ability, or attitude. But to the extent to which we know which are the desirable ones upon which to base the pupils’ activities, just to that extent are we able to measure them, or at least should be able to measure them. The difficulty, of course, comes in being able to parcel them out. Care should therefore be taken by the builders and users of all product tests to state exactly the product which is measured. That is, that it is seven-digit column addition or bridging the tens or some other of the many habits that go to make up the first of the four fundamental arithmetical pro- cesses rather than call the test an “Addition” test. For if two or more of the habits are involved in the test without distinction and the child fails to live up to a set norm what value is there in the result? The failure may be due to not having fixed the one habit or it may be the other. 2. Reliability. Is the test reliable? That is, can you count on the test if given a thousand times to the same individual under exactly the same conditions producing the same results? Or if other forms of the same test are given to the same individual under exactly the same conditions will they produce the same results? That is, can you depend upon the test behaving in exactly the same way at all times when subjected to the same conditions? 3. Objectivity. Is the test objective? That is, will it give the same result if administered by Miss A. in San Diego as it does when administered by the author or by Miss B. in Poughkeepsie? Are the instructions for scoring such that no matter who follows them —_—____. f the nean satis- alled tests tical pre- ibili- . test pre- ence most cific rable usur- nt to » the n, or urse, e be actly imn that pro- oO or and the abit t on ader ther tly t is, y at the hen Are 1em THE SECOND YEARBOOK 171 the interpretation will be the same? Objectivity is of very great importance in the testing movement since it is diametrically the opposite to subjectivity which was so common in all former methods of measuring educational product and which was the quality that caused so much dissatisfaction. The personal equation must not enter into a quantitative measure of a quality. 4. Scaling.’ Is the test properly scaled? Is every point on the scale equally distant from the one above and the one below it? Does zero mean “just not any” of the ability? This of course was one of the main difficulties of all attempts at measuring antedating the introduction of standardized tests. Even in so apparently a simple ability as addition of integers it was hard to determine whether the difficulty of one problem was less, equal to, or greater than the diffi- culty of each of the others; or, if it was apparent, just what the exact measure of the difficulty was. 5. Standards. Has the author sufficient data upon which to estab- lish the norms? Have they been established through the right statis- tical procedure? Are there norms for each chronological year as well as for grade? It is more important that we locate Johnnie or Mary with reference to the central tendency in his chronological group than that we locate him with reference to any position in his grade. This will be developed more completely in another part of the discussion. There are many other qualities or virtues in tests such as interest, applicability, time required for giving, and cost that should receive careful consideration before selection is made, but none are as im- portant as those mentioned above. It probably would be as difficult to determine just which one is of most importance as it is to say which is of most importance in the construction of a house; the framework or the foundation, since neither is of any use without the other. Cost has, very often, determined the test to be used when in fact it should be the last item considered. The cheapest test may be the most expensive, for if the selection is to be made between two tests one of which is valid, reliable, objective, scaled, with reliable stand- ards, and the other lacking any one of these then the latter is ex- pensive at any price. Of course, other things being equal the cheaper the test the better. But if you cannot buy the best don’t test, for if you do you will waste your time and your money. *McCall, W. A., Measurement in Education. Macmillan Co. March, 1922. 172 ELEMENTARY SCHOOL PRINCIPALS Tests Founp USEFUL A complete testing program for an elementary school will include an intelligence test of each child, and the measurement of the skill of each child in the various school abilities for which there are satisfactory tests. The following tests have been found useful in the experience of the writer and they are all valid, reliable, objective, and properly scaled. They also have very good tentative norms which are being constantly improved. There are perhaps others equally as good but in the experience of the writer these have, among the many tests used, given the best results. 1. Product. Reading—Thorndike—McCall. Thorndike—Alpha 2. Vocabulary—Thorndike. Arithmetic— Woody. Mixed Fundamentals—W oody—McCall. Spelling—A yres-—Buckingham. Penmanship—T horndike. Ayres— (Gettysburg). Composition—Hillegas. 2. Intelligence. As far as the writer has been able to determine there are no group tests for each year that will measure successfully “adaptation to new situations” or “reaction to new material” or “intelligence” or ‘‘men- tality” or whatever that inherent capacity is that we all have but in varying quantities. It is poor economy to admit to the first grade, or receiving class, all children who have reached the chronological age of five or six or seven years just because they have lived that long—just as foolish as it is to admit a child 17 years old to the senior class of the high school because he is 17 years old. Some test of “first-grade readiness” should be the basis for such admission. First Grade. Kindergarten Test for First Grade Readiness—Park- Franzen. Detroit First Grade Intelligence Test. Such a test of “readiness” is all the more important in schools large enough to maintain two or more divisions of the entering class. It is very essential that children of at least approximately equal men- talities be grouped together at the beginning; otherwise the superior clude skill 2 are ul in tive, orms thers nong roup new nen- it in ade, rical that nior t of ark- ools ‘ass. 1en- rior THE SECOND YEARBOOK 173 children will develop habits of slipshod, superficial work. The oft- repeated theory that the keen child will set the pace for the class is decidedly not true, as any live first-grade teacher will bear witness. It’s the dull child that sets the pace, and it is he who is subsidized throughout the entire school organization at the expense of the bright one—that is, the keen child from whom society expects and from whom it gets the greatest returns, but seldom ever to the full measure of his capacity. Second Grade. Kingsbury. Haggerty—Delta I. Third Grade. Thorndike Vocabulary. While this test was not designed for an intelligence or mentality test, yet the correlations with the Stanford Revision of the Binet- Simon have shown it to be a good group measure of capacity to learn. Fourth Grade. National Intelligence Test, Scale A. Fifth Grade. National Intelligence Test, Scale A. Sixth Grade. National Intelligence Test, Scale A. Terman Group may be used successfully in the upper di- vision of the grade and is a good basis for classification when entering Junior High School. Uses or MEASUREMENT" It may not be out of place at this point briefly to recount some of the more important uses of testing data. Testing as a pastime for the school principal is rather a poor use of public money and a very non-economical disposition of pupil and teacher energy. The care with which data have been gathered, embalmed, and cautiously deposited in pedagogical tombs would lead one to think that it is a strong indictment against, at least, the past administrations if not the present. There is no justification for the cost in money and time consumed in testing unless every possible use is made of the data. Briefly stated the following may serve as a guide to the uses of testing data as already found helpful in some school systems: Haggerty, M. E., Specific Uses of Measurement in the Solution of School Problems. Seventeenth Year Book, National Society for the Study of Educa- tion, 1918. ELEMENTARY SCHOOL PRINCIPALS . Classification upon the basis of a. Potential ability. b. Acquired ability. . Experimentation through a. Laboratory method. b. Statistical method. . Diagnosis . Prognosis . Definitive outline of goals. . Comparison of a. City with city. b. School with city. e. School with school. d. Grade with grade. e. Individual with grade. f. Individual with individual. g. Individual achievement with optimum achievement. 7. Basis for report to parents. Classification upon the basis of potential ability as measured by the Stanford Revision of the Binet-Simon test is clearly the most nearly ideal organization in all districts where population is suffi- ciently dense to make possible a large school. Since this test is an individual one, requiring about an hour for each pupil with specially trained persons to administer it, it is not the most economical. How- ever group tests may be substituted and the Stanford Revision used to check up the outstanding cases at either end of the distribution. Schools large enough for this organization—that is, large enough to support at least two groups in each half year grade—preferably three groups—should maintain three parallel courses of study. There should be activities through which the less gifted group of children could pass to the high school or out into the world’s work; activities through which the normal group could pass to the high school; and activities through which the more gifted children could pass to college with an increasingly enriched content, thus making it possible to care for such children without accelerating them to the extent of being among children whose social activities are funda- mentally different. Such classification is, however, only one step in advance of the usually classified school on the basis of chronological age. If the best work is to be done, does it not follow that within each group classification should be made upon the basis of all such school abili- ties as correlate highly and positively with potential ability—that - es MD fe oso = 4 r= > © 1 @D@ &, TD tm es ~s — TS oe THE SECOND YEARBOOK is, ability to learn? However, since classification is fully developed elsewhere in this book this brief statement for purposes of allocating it in a testing program will suffice. Of the many uses of measurement through comparison, all of which are valuable, the most important is individual achievement in comparison to potential ability. We are not concerned about how far above or below a given grade norm our child is in an intelligence group test since grades overlap in chronological age to a marked degree. In such a test his position with reference to the central tendency within a normal distribution of his own chronological age is of much greater value since such position is a determinant of his stupidity or his keenness—that is, his inherent capacity to learn. Moreover, it is likewise important to know his position in a product test with reference to the central tendency within the same normal distribution of chronological age, since that is a fair measure of his success within a group where age is constant. Now, therefore, since we are able to get his position in a test measuring capacity to learn and also in a test of a specific school ability that correlates highly and positively with ability to learn would it not be fair to expect, because of this correlation, the positions to coincide? If they do not coincide, is it not fair to ask the school why? Of course the reason may be poor home conditions, or adenoids, or tonsils, or doughnuts and coffee for breakfast, but it also may be poor school conditions, such as untrained teachers, lack of proper supplies, poor methods, poor organization, poor textbooks, poor everything that ought to be good. The question is, what is the real cause? Is it home, or health, or school? And is it not the school’s province to find out and remedy the cause no matter what it is? One thing is certain and that is the outcome is not caused by stupidity unless it be the stupidity of the school or the home. Many attempts have been made to find a satisfactory method of ‘Franzen, Raymond, Accomplishment Rates—Columbia University Contribu- tion to Education, No. 125. Monroe, W. S., and Buckingham, B. R., A Testing Program for Elementary Schools. Jr. Ed. R. September, 1920, pp. 521-532. Pintner, R., Marshall, H., A Combined Mental-Educational Survey. Jr. Ed. Psy. January, 1921, pp. 32-43. McCall, W. A., How to Measure in Education. November, 1922. Thorndike, E. L., Finding Equivalent Scores in Tests of Intelligence. Jr. App. Psy. March, 1922, pp. 29-33. Buckingham, B. R., A Human Ladder. Jr. Ed. R. September, 1921, pp. 148- 146. Will, H. S., A Method of Commensurating Mental Measurements. Jr. Ed. R. February, 1922, pp. 139-153. Chapman, J. C., Convenience and Uniformity in Reporting Test Norms for School Tests. Jr. Ed. R. May, 1922, pp. 406-420. The weak points of the above methods have been well discussed by William Ray MacNair in an unpublished Master’s thesis, University of California, 1922. 176 ELEMENTARY SCHOOL PRINCIPALS determining whether or not a child’s position with reference to the central tendency in a product test coincides with his position in an intelligence test or to what extent it does not coincide. These at- tempts have all been worth while in pointing the way to a better method. The method induced by Dr. Franzen and used by Mr. MacNair and the writer, which gives, by far, the most satisfactory results, is a method of commensuration of tests through Sigma Indices. In the application of this method sigma position can be used but since o is the measure of spread above and below the mean its use becomes too complicated for ordinary school purpose because it in- volves minus quantities. “In order to get rid of minus quantities and decimals we may call the means of every test 100 in the appro- priate age levels. We may call each sigma 20. Then the zero is always located 50 below the mean. Since individuals varying 5¢ from the mean are extremely rare, these zeros are not violent deviations from the truth. A score of 80 on any test for any one age represents a sigma deviation of —1.00 in that age level. A score of 120 represents a sigma deviation of + 1.00 in that age level. A score of 90 represents a sigma deviation of —0.50. A score of 115 represents a sigma deviation of + 0.75, ete. In every test for every age each Sigma Index unit stands for 1/20 of a Sigma and the origin is 5¢ below the mean.” Sigma Indices? for every test for every age in which the test is applicable are very important, and no test should be considered complete until there has been gathered sufficient data upon which to build this table, and the table should accompany other data sent out with the tests. The process of building such a table is simple after the data have been gathered, as all that is needed are the M’s and o’s for a normal distribution (1000 or more) of each age. Such a table, in fact, should be the sixth absolutely essential criteria for the selection of a test. The formula for the transmutation of any test scale into Sigma Indices on a 10¢ base with 100 at the mean is -M Transmuted score = 100+ ( *)20 1 Franzen, Raymond, Functions of Research in a Public School System. Chapter V—Commensuration of Tests. World Book Company. (In press, to appear about May, 1923.) ? Sigma Index Tables in a usable form and their application, for many of the tests mentioned in this article, are in preparation and will be available soon. ) the n an e at- etter Nair isa | but 3 use t in- ities )pro- ro is r 5o ylent one age very gma st is ered hich sent ple and ch a ‘ the gma stem. is, to iy of lable Tue SECOND YEARBOOK 177 When X =the crude score M =the mean of the crude score And o x=the A. D. of the X’s. Sigma Index tables have been built by the writer for ages 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 18, 14, and 15 for the Thorndike-McCall Reading Test, and for the Woody-McCall Mixed Fundamentals; and for ages 8, 9, TABLE 1—Sigma Indices for National Intelligence Test—10 Year 1— 29.73 2— 30.53 3— 31.34 4— 32.14 5— 32.94 6— 33.75 7— 34.55 8— 35.35 9— 36.16 10— 36.96 11— 37.76 12— 38.57 13— 39.37 14— 40.17 15— 40.97 16— 41.78 17— 42.58 18— 43.38 19— 44.19 20— 44.99 21— 45.79 22— 46.60 23— 47.40 24—- 48.20 25— 49.01 26— 49.81 27— 50.61 28— 51.42 29— 52.22 30— 53.02 31— 53.83 32— 54.73 33— 55.43 34— 56.24 50— 69.09 51— 69.89 52— 70.69 53— 71.50 69— 84.35 70— 85.15 71— 85.95 72— 86.76 73— 87.56 74— 88.36 75— 89.17 76— 89.97 77— 90.77 78— 91.58 79— 92.38 80— 93.18 81— 93.99 82— 94.79 83— 95.59 84— 96.40 85— 97.20 86— 98.00 87— 98.81 88— 99.61 89—100.41 90—101.21 91—102 .02 92—102 .82 93—103 .72 94—104 .43 95—105 .23 96—106 .03 97—106 .84 98—107 .64 99—108 .44 100—109 . 25 101—110.05 102—110.85 103—111.66 104—112. 46 105—113 .26 106—114 .07 107—114 .87 108—115 .67 109—116.48 110—117 .28 111—118.08 112—118.89 113—119.69 114—120 .49 115—121.29 116—122.10 117—122.90 118—123.70 119—124.51 120—125.31 121—126.11 122—126 .92 123—127 .72 124—128 .52 125—129 .33 126—130.13 127—130 .93 128—131.74 129—132.54 130—133 . 34 131—134.15 132—134 .95 133—135.75 134—136 . 56 135—137 .36 136—138 . 16 137—138 . 97 138—139 .77 139—140. 57 140—141 .37 141—142.18 142—142 .98 143—143 .78 144—144.59 145—145 .39 146—146 .19 147—147 .00 148—147 .80 149—148 .60 150—149.41 151—150.21 152—151.01 153—151 .82 154—152 .62 155—153 .42 156—154 .23 157—155 .03 158—155 .83 159—156 .64 160—157 .44 161—158 .24 162—159 .05 163—159 .85 164—160.65 165—161 .45 166—162 .26 167—163 .06 168—163 .86 169—164 .67 170—165 .47 171—166 .27 172—167 .08 173—167 .88 174—168 .68 175—169 .49 176—170.29 177—171.09 178—171.90 179—172 .70 180—173 .50 181—174.31 182—175.11 183—175.91 184—176 .72 185—177 .52 186—178 .32 187—179 .13 188—179 .93 189—180 .73 190—181 .53 191—182 .34 192—183 .14 193—183 .94 194—184.75 195—185 . 55 196—186 .35 178 ELEMENTARY SCHOOL PRINCIPALS 10, 11, 12, and 13 for the National Intelligence Test; and for ages 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, and 15 for the Terman Group Intelligence Test. The preceding 10-year-old Sigma Index Tables of the National Intelligence Test, the Terman Group Intelligence Test, the Thorn- TABLE 2—Sigma Indices for Terman Group Intelligence Test—10 Year 10— 39.96 63— 81.41 116—122 .86 169—164 31 11— 40.74 64— 82.19 117—123 .64 170—165 .09 12— 41.52 65— 82.97 118—124 42 171—165.87 13— 42.30 66— 83.75 119—125 .20 172—166 .66 14— 43.08 67— 84.54 120—125 .99 173—167 44 15— 43.87 68— 85.32 121—126 .77 174—168 22 16— 44.65 69— 86.10 122—127 55 175—126 .00 17— 45.43 70— 86.88 123—128 33 176—169 78 18— 46.21 71— 87.66 124—129 12 177—170 .57 19— 46.99 72— 88.45 125—129 .90 178—171 35 47.78 73— 89.23 126—130 .68 179—172.13 21— 48.56 74— 90.01 127—131 .46 180—172 91 22— 49.34 75— 90.79 128—132 24 181—173 .70 23— 50.12 76— 91.57 129—133 .03 182—174 48 24— 50.91 77— 92.36 130—133.81 183—175 26 25— 51.69 78— 93.14 131—134.59 184—176 04 26— 52.47 79— 93.92 132—135 .37 185—176 82 27— 53.25 80— 94.70 133—136 . 15 186—177 61 28— 54.03 81— 95.49 134—136 94 187—178 39 29— 54.82 82— 96.27 135—137 .72 188—179 17 30— 55.60 83— 97.05 136—138 .50 189—179 95 31— 56.38 84— 97.83 137—139 28 190—180.73 32— 57.16 85— 98.61 138—140 06 191—181 52 33— 57.94 86— 99.40 139—140 85 192—182 30 34— 58.73 87—100. 18 140—141 63 193—183 .08 35— 59.51 88—100.96 141—142 41 194—183 86 36— 60.29 89—101.74 142—143.19 195—184 64 37— 61.07 90—102.52 143—143 98 196—185 43 38— 61.85 91—103 .31 144—144 76 197—186 21 39— 62.64 92—104.09 145—145 54 198—186 99 63.42 93—104 87 146—146 32 199—187.77 41— 64.20 94—105 .65 147—147 10 200—188 .55 42— 64.98 95—106 .43 148—147 89 201—189 34 43— 65.77 96—106 . 22 149—148 67 202—290 . 12 44— 66.55 97—108 .00 150—149 45 203—190 90 45— 67.33 98—108 .78 151—150 . 23 204—191 .68 46— 68.11 99—109 56 152—151.01 205—192 .47 47— 68.89 100—110.34 153—151 .80 206—193 . 25 48— 69.68 101—111.13 154—152.58 207—194 .03 49— 70.46 102—111.91 155—153 36 208—194.81 50— 71.24 103—112.69 156—154. 14 209—195 .59 51— 72.02 104—113.47 157—154 .92 210—196 38 52— 72.80 105—114 .26 158—155.71 211—197. 16 53— 73.59 106—115 .04 159—156 .49 212—197 94 54— 74.37 107—115.82 160—157 .27 213—198.72 55— 75.15 108—116 .60 161—158 05 214—199 50 56— 75.93 109—117.38 162—158 .05 215—200.29 57— 76.71 110—118.17 163—159 .62 216—201 .07 58— 77.50 111—118 .95 164—160 .40 217—201 .85 59— 78.28 112—119.73 165—161 . 18 218—202 63 60— 79.06 113—120.51 166—161 .96 219—203.41 61— 79.84 114—121 .29 167—162.75 220—204 . 20 62— 80.63 115—122 .08 ae ee eee THe SECOND YEARBOOK 179 dike-McCall Reading Test and the Woody-McCall Mixed Funda- mentals are here printed in order to illustrate some of the values of such indices. TABLE 3—Sigma Indices for Woody-McCall Mixed Fundamentals—10 Year 1— 40.67 Pcs 3 Bune 10— 71.18 11— 74.57 12— 77.96 13— 81.35 14— 84.74 15— 88.13 16— 91.52 17— 94.91 18— 98.30 19—101.69 20—105 .08 21—108 .47 22—111.86 23—115.25 24—118 .64 25—122 .03 26—125 .42 27—128.81 28—132 .20 29—135 .59 30—138 .98 31—142 .37 32—145 .76 33—149.15 34—152 .54 35—155 . 93 TABLE 4—Sigma Indices for the ‘“‘T” Scores of the Thorndike-McCall Reading Test—10 Year 27— 53. 28— 55. 29— 58. 30— 61. 47—105 .33 48—107 .93 49—110.52 50—113.12 51—115.72 52—118 .32 53—120.91 54—123.51 55—126.11 56—128 .71 57—131.30 58—133 .90 59—136 .50 60—139 .10 61—141.69 62—144 .29 63—146 .89 64—149 .49 65—152 .08 66—154 .68 67—157 .28 68—159 . 88 69—162 .47 70—165 .07 71—167 .67 72—170 .27 73—172 .87 74—175 .46 75—178 .06 76—180 . 66 77—183 . 26 78—186 . 86 79—188 .45 80—191.05 81—193 .65 82—196 .25 83-—198 . 84 84—201 .44 Some Uses or Siama INDICES Since the Sigma Indices in the above tests are transmuted scores with 100 at the mean in each test, therefore, any pupil’s index in the Thorndike-McCall Reading Test should be the same as his index in the National Intelligence Test or in the Terman Group Intelli- gence Test—that is, within the limits of probable error’ since there isa high and positive correlation between these tests. For example, suppose Johnnie’s class has been given the National Intelligence Test, the Thorndike-McCall Reading, and the Woody-McCall Mixed *For a discussion of the P. E. of Sigma Indices, see Franzen, Raymond, Functions of Research in a Public-school System. World Book Company. 180 ELEMENTARY SCHOOL PRINCIPALS Fundamentals, and suppose Johnnie is 10 years old. We find John- nie’s score on the National is 110, on the Thorndike-McCall Reading it is a “T” score of 52, and on the Woody-McCall, 15. If we arrange the record of the class as follows: Pupil Johnnie ..| 10 52 Then we can readily look up on the Sigma Index Tables the indices of the scores. That is, by referring to Table 1, we will find a score of 110 on the National Test to be equal to an index of 117.28. On Table 3 we will find a score of 15 on the Woody-McCall Mixed Fundamentals to be equal to an index of 88.13, and on Table 4 we will find a “T” score of 54 on the Thorndike-McCall Reading Test to be equal to an index of 118.32. Now, since these indices are comparable measures, then a ratio of accomplishment may be found by simply writing the Subject Index over the Intelligence 88.13 Index as, and we get .75 as our Accomplishment Ratio in the 117.28 118.32 Woody-McCall Mixed Fundamentals; or, as and we get 117.28 1.00 as our Accomplishment Ratio in the Thorndike-McCall Read- ing. Does this not mean to us that we have been able to get from Johnnie in our Arithmetic teaching only 75 per cent of what he is capable of doing? While in our teaching of Reading we have been able to get 100 per cent. (Again, of course, within the limits of probable error.) Then if we fill in our form as begun above we have the following: =) x fQ 2 & co Qa Z © oO Q RM = aa et et et et et et et et bl vet et et et et et ret et et et et 26 26° 801 ve TOL 8L 46 Gh SI ST Tit ¢9°0€ ST Il 06° LOT TS 621 €T 88 PL P8 oP IP LP sol g¢ 89 6€ SL 16 ¥6 €0°9L Lo tL 4Z ZIT 69° TOT PL 8 PL F8 cs 16 16 $6 €1 88 98 IIT 68 SIT PAN OD i) Or OOD “Jy ‘20Y xepuy BUSI ‘OOM 91099 ‘DPN M xopuy BULBIG ein : Zz261 ‘Arenuvep—ssv[Qy WI YSIH—C ATAVL 182 ELEMENTARY SCHOOL PRINCIPALS or such a table when completed for the class as is found in Table 5, All complicated statistical procedure has been eliminated for the teacher as she has nothing to do but refer to simple tables and divide one number by another. Accomplishment ratios between Intelligence and the Thorndike- McCall Reading Test or Intelligence and the Woody-McCall Mixed Fundamentals would be 1.00 if there were no errors in the tests, and reading ability and ability to use the fundamental operations in Arithmetic were pushed to the maximum. They are not, of course, in any of our schools—hence the value of achievement testing in units of measure that are comparable. The great difficulty with tests is not so much one of getting a measure of accomplishment in the various school abilities as it is to know when we get it whether it is as high as it ought to be. Whether Johnnie’s score is as high in arithmetic in comparison to his score in reading, or his score in spelling, or to his score in language, or to his score in penmanship as it should be and whether each or all of these scores are as high as they should be in comparison to his poten- tial ability. If not, we have not delivered all that we should for the public money that we have spent. And the school that does not know this relationship does not know whether it is 100 per cent or 50 per cent efficient or less. It may know in terms of grade norms, that it is as high as the published norm or as high as 50 important cities or as high as its neighboring city, but it does not know what type of mentality has gone into the determination of these norms, nor does it know which of its children are among those who brought its score down but who should have helped raise it. Hence the school must still teach by the “shot-gun” method, putting in as big a load as the barrel will permit, closing its eyes and firing, hoping to get the fellow who needs it today; if not today, then tomorrow. The result has been that the ones who need it most are continually escaping. Reference to Table 5 will reveal the needs' of that High Fifth Class. Cases 1, 3, 6, 9, 13, 15, and 21 needed special attention in arithmetic, while cases 1, 8, 14, and 25 need some effective motiva- tion in reading, particularly case 1, as case 1 has a Sigma Index in the National Intelligence Test of 118.89 which becomes the child’s I. Q. We have not remeasured this class, but when we do in May, 1923, this child will deviate very markedly from our past experi- 1It may be of interest here to state that when our school began the use of the accomplishment ratio as a diagnostic measure in 1920 there were a great many more accomplishment ratios proportionately in each class falling below 100 than occur in this class. able 5. or the divide ndike- Mixed ts, and ons in course, ing in ting a it is to hether 3 score , or to all of poten- ld for eS not t or 50 s, that t cities it type is, nor ght its school a load to get The nually Fifth ion in notiva- dex in child’s . May, >xperl- use of a great r below THE SECOND YEARBOOK 183 ences if his index on the Reading Scale is not up to that of his Intelligence Index. While this article is concerned only with achievement testing and not with method, yet it may not be out of place to state briefly how we have treated classes whose accomplishment ratios were markedly below 100, 100 being, of course, the lowest ratio considered satis- factory. As has already been stated, if all school abilities had been pushed to their maximum in all pupils whose scores were used to build the Sigma Index Tables, then the ratios would all be very much nearer 100, deviating from it only to the extent of error in intelligence tests, but since this was not true some ratios as high as 130 or 135 will be a natural consequence. However, they are usually lowered by an analysis of the intelligence testing. For example, case 20 in Table 5 instead of having a Sigma Index of 92.06 when tested by the Stanford Revision has an I. Q. of 110, thus reducing her accomplishment ratio in reading from 135 to 122. It should be noted here that the application of the Sigma Index method of achievement measuring never works a hardship on any child. Its application is always constructive since all children, no matter what their ratios, continue to receive as much instruction as they are capable of absorbing while those whose ratios are low are given increased. attention. A concrete example of our treatment of classes when ratios were low will make clearer our case than theory. The following example is taken from our earlier experiences when our Indices Tables were built upon cases of varying ages making them less authentic than our present ones, but it will serve to illustrate our treatment. During September, 1920, the Woody-McCall Mixed Fundamen- tals, Thorndike Alpha 2, and the National Intelligence Test, Scale A, was given to 200 children in grades L4 to H6 inclusive. Sigma Indices were built in each test upon this distribution, and accom- plishment ratios were computed for all the pupils taking the tests. The National scores were distributed on the accomplishment ratios as a base with all pupils receiving Acc. R’s of 75 at the lower point on the base and all pupils receiving Acc. R’s of 120 at the upper end of the base. The average National Score was computed for each column at each point on the base line, giving us the following: TABLE 6—Woody-McCall Mixed Fundamentals 1. Number of cases........| 5] 16 | 28| 33/29] 34] 20/ 21] 8| 6 2. Accomplishment ratio. ..| 75 | 80 | 85 | 90 | 95 | 100 |} 105 | 110 | 115 | 120 3. Average National Test. 7 96 | 86 | 82 | 92 | 84] 84] 75| 74] 89! 71 ELEMENTARY SCHOOL PRINCIPALS A glance at Table 6 reveals the fact that as accomplishment ratios decrease the intelligence of the children receiving those ratios in- creases—that is, children with the lowest Acc. R. (75 per cent) have an average score on the N. I. T. of 96 while the children who have ratios of 120 have an average score on the N. I. T. of 71. And when the Pearson r is computed for row 2 (Acc. R.) with row 3 (Av. N. I. T. Score) we find it to be — .44. Is not this evidence that as schools are organized and conducted (at least as our school is organ- ized and conducted) that the children of less ability are getting more from the school in proportion to that ability than are the gifted children in proportion to their ability? I ask again, Is this fair? Is it democratic? Again, when the distributions are made for the Thorndike Reading, Alpha 2 as explained above for the Woody- McCall Mixed Fundamentals and the Pearson r computed for the corresponding records, it is found to be —.527. Believing that our gifted pupils were getting less from school than they had ability to get, we called a meeting of the teachers for the purpose of finding a remedy. We analysed the arithmetic test to find the specific habits included in its composition and labeled them, and then each teacher took her own class and carefully studied each pupil’s test paper to find which of these specific habits had not been fixed. This was the basis for further drill attacking each child as his weakness appeared from this analysis. For reading, we first decided upon fourteen specific outcomes that in our opinion seemed desirable, then analysed the reading test of each child to find where his weakness was upon this basis. All formal reading work was done with the objective in mind of clearing up weakness in each pupil as revealed by this study. The accom- plishment ratios two months later, of which Table 5 is typical, show considerable gain and to us the worthwhileness of our attack. As further evidence, a short intensive experiment by one of our teachers of an H 4 class in Arithmetic will be of interest. The fol- lowing table with a brief note of explanation will serve to make it clear: TABLE 7—Woody-McCall, Arithmetic Form I Form II Given March 1920 | Given ——lingaaaaa 10.8 14.6 THE SECOND YEARBOOK 185 Number of pupils taking tests, 33; number of pupils making no gain, 5; accomplishment ratios of these 5 pupils, .97, .97, 1.03, 1.05, 1.30; accomplishment ratios of 6 pupils making a gain of 7 or more points, 79, 74, 83, 89, 89, 84. The 5 pupils with accomplishment ratios near 100 or above were all in the lower 25 per cent of the class’ distribution of intelligence as measured by the N. I. T., while the 6 pupils with low accomplish- ment ratios were in the upper 25 per cent of the same intelligence distribution, thus giving further evidence that only those lying above the mean were able to make any gain when the class was pushed to its maximum. BIBLIOGRAPHY Buckingham, B. R. A Human Ladder, Journal of Educational Research, September, 1921, p. 143. Buckingham, B. R., and Monroe, W. S. A Testing Program for Elementary Schools, Journal of Educational Research, September, 1920, p. 521. Chapman, J. C. Convenience and Uniformity in Reporting Test Norms for School Tests, Journal of Educational Research, May, 1922, p. 406. Franzen, Raymond. Accomplishment Ratio, Columbia University Contribu- tions to Education, No. 125. —. Functions of Research in Public School Systems, World Book Company. (To appear about May, 1923.) Franzen, Raymond, and Knight, F. B. Criteria to Employ in the Choice of Tests, Journal of Educational Psychology, October, 1921, p. 408. Jordon, R. H. Variations in Marking Systems as Diagnosed by Objective Tests, Journal of Educational Research, October, 1923, p. 173. Kelley, T. L. Comparable Measures, Journal of Educational Research, De- cember, 1914. —. Transmutation of Values on the Thorndike and Ayres Handwriting Scales: A Correction, Journal of Educational Psychology, May, 1921, p. 288. McCall, W. A. How to Measure in Education. Macmillan Company, 1922. Murdock, Katherine. The Accomplishment Quotient—Finding and Using It, Teachers College Record, 1922, p. 229. National Society for the Study of Education. Seventeenth Yearbook, 1918, Public School Pub. Co. Pintner, R., and Marshall, Helen. A Combined Mental-educational Survey, Journal of Educational Psychology, January, 1921, p. 32. Terman, L. M. The Use of Intelligence Tests in Grading School Children, Journal of Educational Research, January, 1920, p. 20. Terman, L. M. The Intelligence of School Children, Houghton Mifflin Co., 1919. Terman, Dickson, Sutherland, Franzen, Tupper, and Fernald, Intelligence Tests and School Reorganization, Chapter IV, World Book Company, 1922. Thorndike, E, L. Finding Equivalent Scores in Tests of Intelligence, Journal of Applied Psychology, March, 1922, p. 29. Thorndike, E. L. Mental and Social Measurements, Teachers College, Colum- bia University. Will, H. S. A Method of Commensurating Mental Measurements, Journal of Educational Research, February, 1922, p. 139. CHAPTER III Classifications and Reorganizations Involving Test Results W. M. GREENWELL Mary C. Fiynn HELEN Davis F. T. Harpwick VerA G. SHELDON WaRREN K. Layton ———- SS ome one a oa a a ee a oo ee ae ee aa Oe Se eee CHAPTER III The Classification of Children in the Lincoln School, Oakland, California W. M. GREENWELL, Principal of the Lincoln School, Oakland, California ROBABLY the most significant advance that has been made P: recent years in educational practice as it effects the classroom teacher is the application of standard tests in the study of in- dividual differences in children and in the analysis of results of instruction. That differences existed among children has of course always been known, and wise teachers have always made allowance for these variations in actual teaching. They could not do otherwise in view of the facts. A mistaken notion, however, of what constituted equality, and an ignorance of the nature and extent of these dif- ferences, prevented any thorough-going attempt at a solution of the problem. Even when the really vast extent of these differences was demonstrated by Francis Galton and others, the teaching world con- tinued to treat all individuals alike, group them together, exact of certain of them impossible tasks, while others were allowed to drift along in semi-idleness. On the one hand, there was discourage- ment, more or less hopeless, depending upon the range of deficiency ; on the other, a vast waste of power because the tasks set were too easy to create sufficient mental tension. In the former case, there was the common tendency to “let George do it,” and when that grew too unbearably monotonous, to drop out of school; in the latter, a really serious retardation of from one to three years. Who among us is not familiar with that dull, lifeless, hopeless expression on the faces of children who have over a series of years been attempting to do the impossible, whose efforts to produce have been continually thwarted by the brilliant child whose keener mind enabled him to reach the result before his slower classmate could get his mental machinery in motion, for it appears that the amount of time required for a child of a given age to do a certain piece of work is inversely proportional to his I. Q. It was a long familiarity with conditions such as these, and the advent of mental tests that induced the writer and his faculty to try to find a better way, a fairer way to all concerned to classify and to teach our children. Our school is situated in the heart of the busi- ness section of our city. The average enrolment is about 1100, with [189] 190 ELEMENTARY ScHooL PRINCIPALS a faculty of 31 members. Its patrons live in hotels and apartment and rooming houses; few if any, own their own homes. Naturally, our patronage is largely transient, which adds greatly to the com- plexity of the problem. A recent study has shown that over 60 per cent' of our transients are undergraded both as to mental and chronological age. We therefore, have not alone the problem of in- dividual differences to consider. This exists at all times, in all places. We have the additional factor of a constantly changing patronage. We decided, after testing several of our primary classes, to try the effect of segregation and adaptation of instructional material to the needs and abilities of the children. Pupils whose I. Q’s. ranged below 90 and whose grade work was unsatisfactory were grouped in special classes, limited to twenty-five or thirty children. These classes were put in charge of skilful and sympathetic teachers. An interesting thing happened. For about a month, there was not much doing; everybody sat still, waiting for someone else to do something, but nobody did. After several days of this sort of lethargy, the children began to look around to see what was the matter. In the course of a few days more they discovered that if anything was to be done, they would have to do it themselves. Then a transformation took place. The children began to work, slowly and timidly but with gradually increasing confidence as they found they could really do something if they were given sufficient time and assistance. What appears more significant, they lost the dull, hopeless, bored expression and became happy cheerful children. One little girl said to her teacher, “You know I like school now. I don’t cry any more at night.” I think we teachers are not always conscious of the blind tragedies often enacted in the lives of the lower quartile of our children. The success of these trial classes caused us to expand the work, until at present we have seven of them extending from the kinder- garten through the eighth grade. Some of our children continue through school in these classes, and enter the high school without ever having been in a regular class. *A mental test (either individual or group) is given to each transferred child at the time or soon after he enters our school. While nearly 100 per cent of these are over age chronologically for the grade, we have found the more startling fact that 60 per cent of more than 300 children thus studied have revealed a mental age above that which is normal to the grade to which the credential each carried entitled him to enter. Most of these children quickly make up their work in a special class and enter the class where they really belong. The common practice of demoting children who move about from school to school is a serious menace to the educational welfare of many a child. Set 80 Wi th us lent lly, om- per ing Tue Seconp YEARBOOK 191 There were of course, questions to answer and difficulties to face. Fortunately many of the things we expected to happen didn’t. In over four years we have only had two cases of objection on the part of parents. These were due to a misunderstanding—one became satisfied ; the other removed her child from the school. If the prin- cipal had been wiser, these need not have occurred. We have avoided objections by talking the case over frankly with parents and by making no outward distinction between these and other classes. There is such a thing as social classification which takes into consideration the social age of children. A _ thirteen- year-old child, who is mentally ten, usually wants to associate with his chronological equals. If graded with small children, he loses his self-respect, becomes unhappy and dissatisfied and wants to quit school. Hence the high percentage of elimination that has formerly prevailed in our sixth grades. Therefore, we have placed these classes alongside of regular classes of the same chronological de- velopment. It is a well-known fact that children measure their progress as much by movement within a building as they do by their grading. Moreover, these classes give special opportunity for work, and it is held a privilege to get into them. At first it was thought best to write a separate course of study for the special classes. A more mature consideration convinced us that a course should be the same for all, and it was agreed that in the special classes the subject or topic should be present in a simpler form. With the scope of the work narrowed, with fewer children to work with, it was possible to spend more time with each child. The larger factor of time tended to balance the smaller factor of ability so that the child when transferred to other schools, even to regular classes, was much better fitted to hold his own than he would have been under the unsegregated class plan. The course of study in the special classes is therefore based upon material similar to and parallel with that found in the regular classes, the problems and projects being simplified in such a manner as to meet the level of capacity of the children. A few topics or subjects are omitted entirely. Reading as taught in the primary grades may serve as an illustra- tion of this adaption of the material used in the regular course of study. While phonics is introduced to the normal child in the second or third month of school life, the limited child must have so much more preliminary drill that phonics cannot be introduced with profit till, possibly, his second or even third term. During this preparatory time, he must become familiar with books and their use, he must be stimulated by the constant hearing of stories read 192 ELEMENTARY SCHOOL PRINCIPALS by the teacher, and he must be learning a vocabulary of words and associating them with the object or idea. While the normal child can struggle with an unfamiliar word and attempt to get the thought of the sentence at the same time, the limited child must absolutely know every word in the sentence if he is to get the thought. For this reason much time must be spent in word recognition during the first two years. The emphasis must be on impression rather than expression. A primer in each child’s hands, with the teacher reading and the pupils following with their markers is of great value, and has an immense fascination at this time. Many of the limited first-grade children spent a lot of time learning to hold the primers right side up, and the idea of getting a story from a printed page is new to many of them. Although the limited first grade is much slower in starting to read than the regular class, when they have reached the third grade they compare quite favorably with regular classes. By this time they have a large enough reading vocabulary to enable them to read with pleasure and profit. It is probably always advisable to hold all class reading material well within the range of the child’s experience, the texts whenever possible being free from grade designation. The chances are, he will never find it necessary to read books on abstract subjects, but it will always be a distinct advantage to him to be able to follow printed directions—make a cake from a cook-book recipe, or interpret directions for installing a radio set. However, the simplification of the subject matter for limited classes should not deprive the child of his right to the best of child- hood’s literature. No children in our school appreciate a good story more than these children. Through hearing their teachers read again and again the stories which appeal to all children, many a slow child has been stimulated to make the tremendous effort neces- sary to learn to read himself. The reading material should be such as to give the child both intellectual and emotional training. Our present practice may be said to prepare the child fairly well to meet the demands of his working hours; but the future will require that greater attention be given to that type of training that shall prepare for a wiser use of leisure. There must be increasing emphasis on the education of the emotions. Children must be trained to read for inspiration as well as for information. What of the expense of running special classes? Considered from an immediate standpoint, they cost more. This extra cost is over- come in a large degree in two ways. The removal of the special cases makes it possible to increase the size of the regular classes. In the second place, many of the special class pupils would have failed THe SECOND YEARBOOK 193 if they had been left in the regular classes. Leaving out of account the spiritual gain, there is a distinct, though variable, saving in preventing the non-promotion, of so considerable a number of chil- dren. Our records show that the per cent of failure in our special classes is somewhat less than that in the regular ones. What is even’ more significant, the holding power of these classes is greater by 2.2 per cent than that of the regular classes of the city. The reasonable success that we have been able to achieve with the special class plan has caused other schools to adopt a similar one. At present between 1500 and 2000 children are enrolled in these classes in this city. The following rules have been adopted by the Superintendent’s Council relative to the formation of Special Limited Classes. A. Special classes may be authorized in any school whenever there are sufficient pupils and teachers to make it possible to reorganize the classification so that the regular classes from which the limited pupils are removed may be increased in enrolment sufficiently to partially or wholly balance the decrease in enrolment necessary for limited classes. Such limited classes should enroll a minimum of 25 pupils and, except in emergencies, should not exceed thirty. B. No limited class shall be planned until properly authorized by the Assistant Superintendent in charge. C. No limited class shall be formed until careful investigation and examination have been made, not only by the principal and teachers of the school, but by the supervisor of special classes. What do teachers think of special classes? My faculty are prac- tically unanimous in their approval of what these classes are ac- complishing; but teachers are human. ‘They naturally prefer to work with superior children. I think all would prefer a class of fifty normal children to one of twenty-five specials. Personally, I think it unwise for a teacher to stay too long in special class work. There is a tendency to lose perspective, to become mechanical and narrow. Probably a plan whereby teachers rotate regularly will ultimately be found best. From another point of view however, it would be better to have the same teachers remain in these grades for the work is highly specialized and requires special training on the part of the teacher if best results are to be achieved. ELEMENTARY SCHOOL PRINCIPALS Classification According to the Promotion Age Mary C. Fitynn Principal of the Micheltorena Street School Los Angeles, California E HAVE long been cognizant of the fact that many of our children had superior ability and that as a school we were failing in our responsibility to these bright pupils by allow- ing them in no way to live up to the full limit of their capacity. It is true that we afforded them many opportunities to take part in different types of activities such as orchestra, glee clubs, dramatic clubs, school paper, clerical work in the principal’s office, social clubs, student-body government and athletics, which amounted to practi- cally the same as a maximum course of study. Nevertheless, the treatment was much the same for the dull and the bright, in fact any discrimination was in favor of the dull child, and we were neglecting the big opportunity which was ours—that of training for leadership. So we became interested in developing a more flexible system of gradation, one which would take into consideration the needs of the individual rather than of the average child. A brief history of our attempts to adjust the school program to meet the needs of the individual, together with an understanding of the type of school, may lead to a more intelligent interpretation of results of tests and adjustments made this year. The school is situated in East Hollywood and the district spreads over a large area, with better class of homes on the hills and poorer ones in the valleys. A recent survey of the occupations of the fathers shows one hundred and seventy-two different occupations distributed as follows: Big business, 9 per cent; professions, 15 per cent ; little business, 36 per cent; skilled labor, 37 per cent; unskilled labor, 3 per cent (classified according to Taussig). The median years schooling of the fathers is 11.8; of the mothers, 10.8. We have on one hand the parents with two and three univer- sity degrees and on the other hand those with only five or six years’ schooling to their credit. Seventy-seven per cent of our families subscribe for two or more magazines, with the Saturday Evening Post, the Literary Digest, and the National Geographic heading the list. Our children are practically all American, no colored; with five Japanese in the kindergarten and the first grade. It is interesting to note that 34 per cent of our children come from one-child fami- lies, giving us the problem of the over-mothered, irresponsible child. our yere Ow- It t in atic ubs, acti- the any ting hip. 1 of the n to g of n of eads orer the ions per illed 1e7s, iver- ears’ ilies ning - the five iting ami- hild. Tue SeconD YEARBOOK 195 We represent, therefore, a community with a range, geographi- cally, financially, and socially wide, having little or no cohesion and with but one common interest—the child at school. We find, how- ever, a parent much interested in whatever concerns the child at school, an intelligent parent, codperating and helpful. Group Puan No. 1 Our first attempt at grouping according to like ability was made in September, 1918, and we still follow the general plan then put into effect. The teacher’s judgment was the basis of classification at that time. The work of the school as a whole was divided in two divi- sions, primary and departmental: Primary division—Grades 1-4 inclusive—There are three groups to a classroom, Group 1 being most advanced. If there are mixed grades in a room (A1-B2), children are grouped according to ability, regardless of regular grading. Each group progresses at its own rate of speed and individuals are advanced from a group to the next higher whenever ready. The high group of the B1-Al and B2 have in practically every case accomplished the work of three terms in two. Departmental division—Grades 5-8 inclusive—In this division groups are designated by letters, H being the lowest and A being the highest or graduate groups. Groups correspond to the regular grades on account of transfers in the city system. The program is built around three activities: study, recitation, and play. A physical activity teacher in charge of the yard makes possible a system of group recesses. A credit card system was originated and adopted— credit being given at any time when the pupil accomplished given work of group in any subject. This made subject-promotion possible and did much to reduce the number of repeaters. Figure 1 on page 196 shows a sample card; the teacher’s initial and date indicate the completion of group work at the time specified. These cards are on file in the principal’s office. This boy started in the E group and was retarded educationally. He was finally sent to the Opportunity Room where he did two terms’ work in one and from this room he was graduated to the ninth grade. Group PLAN No. 2 In February, 1921, our enrolment had increased to 400, or 33 per cent, and we found it necessary to reorganize our groups. A survey and reclassification was accordingly made with the help of the Re- search Department of the city schools. The following tests were 196 ELEMENTARY SCHOOL PRINCIPALS Form 0—i0—5.2.2! Pupies CrREprr CARD _ Name-Halt, Fussell . Foam Reaoing ENGLISH |AmiTHMETIC SPELLING | Gaeoeearny History Music Oaawing Siovo BMS. |77.0.5.| B.S. |GL£P LEQ. |ML.d. |CEP |B7.B 4 2. Ve2z/ro Sazf2o|/f?/2/ elas bLerfrolys/20 facto V2 ft/ Yofer Bms (Ges icc P\l\e@bRhda lis. CLP Ems | | Yair \ofirfa1\efrfar| Yaufat| Yarfal. byosfrenl/es/is\ifar/ei| e B..S. | Wv.S. NaF CEP ™.™ | Cx, CEP (Lm.B ams. 1% £97. e/a. 77 firfat\h7 [21 6aeferhe| Ai7/2 1 bLirfas Vf sefebeb fry fer \ofir/ 21 17/2 /nfat O.Pp-Cr. Vr mB pre toad pee viz.m Bi... rs, “7+? b/toft 2.\/3¢/28 \dohea birgler of ay/a2 24/2 2/ 2/3/22) yar B.4 B.\7. mB la bm aqme lz 4m no Si "Yea ale/sofaa “__Waefa rife fon Remarks: D \O.pp pore! 8 arn Parle Le Fic. 1. Pupil’s Credit Card given: Grades 4-8—National Intelligence, Courtis Arithmetic, and Monroe Comprehension ; Grades 2-3—Haggerty Intelligence ; Grades B1-A1—Holley Completion. A summary of the tests showed: (1) The school as a whole, while ranking above the standard in reading, was far below in arithmetic; (2) a large per cent of superior children; and (3) twenty-five per cent of chronologically retarded pupils. It was obvious that there was need for more drill in arithmetic and we decided to stress this drill during the coming year. We in- vested in some arithmetic equipment—that is, self-corrective and speed test material—such as arithmetic games, Ingersoll watches— and adopted a new method of procedure which we still follow. Daily work is motivated by the use of individual charts kept by each pupil and class charts kept by the teacher. The individual charts have space for all the semester assignments and for all the grades received. This tangible evidence of progress served as an incentive to many of the children. THE SECOND YEARBOOK For the teacher the class chart with the record of tests serves as a convenient index of ability and application. (Page 198). All work in arithmetic is based on Thorndike’s Arithmetic which is our State textbook. In the Departmental Division we assign a month’s work in advance, listing the work for each grade on the blackboards. A certain exercise is required each day as a class stand- ard and when finished by all is checked off. The teacher is kept informed as to individual progress by weekly tests on knowledge of arithmetical processes and their application. Many phases of the work are dramatized as insurance, banking, and commission. All games suggested in the textbook are used and they do much to vitalize the work. It is possible for the superior child to finish the work of the group before the end of the term, and in such case one of three courses is opened—(1) the child advances to the next group; (2) he remains in his own group as a teacher’s assistant, helping with tests and charts, correcting papers, or assisting pupils; and (3) he elects different work during the arithmetic period such as clerical work in principal’s office, bookkeeping in connection with student funds, school paper, operation of projector, or helping with arith- metic records in the lower grades. Children are also allowed to pro- gress at their own rate of speed in penmanship and spelling. Problem number two was solved to a certain extent by regrouping with the teacher’s judgment plus test results as a basis. No attempt was made to work out scientifically an educational or a promotion age as tests were standardized only in terms of grade performance— an unsatisfactory and unreasonable basis for judging ability. Two special rooms were opened to care for chronologically retarded pupils. One was known as the Primary Adjustment and the other as the Op- portunity Room. Primary adjustment—Grades B1-B4 inclusive—There are twenty pupils to a teacher and only those with I. Q.’s above 75 per cent are admitted. The purpose of the room is to enable pupils chrono- logically and educationally retarded to catch up with their grades by means of individual training. These pupils learn self-confidence and responsibility by directing their own daily program and cor- recting their own practice sheets. This teaches them to analyze and to remove causes of their errors. A list of retarded pupils is on file in the principal’s office and the adjustment teacher, in conference with the principal, passes on the applicant. Especially devised material, concentrating on minimum essentials is given to pupils for a limited period. This room is under the direct supervision of the Research Department of the city schools. In thirty-six weeks’ time sixty-two pupils were handled in our Adjustment Room and as a ELEMENTARY SCHOOL PRINCIPALS 198 } Se ee lel il (it xe SoWBH BAB SHAE = eee OE ee fa~} ID =e ay py ee peg ae |. TIM, WEY 9°11] GE \F OI) IF FSI) ez |" weqoy \6'6 OTT | | 8°3l \, | v Fr iat ee l l a cd 26 lozt |g-tt le t1\z-68 | uonoulolg 38[qnogd | X |X | CY 96 IZI IZ &l PLOLIT ZI S| Z 92126 | OZ F FT| SF FSI es | A NEM 8°OT EzT | } | e OIPIPISIZIP IEE! EIZEUEUSISIFIFIEIE] 2 & [else eT Py Pe ele eee) vei eyeleeig| Be ey ye hut ee 5 ‘dW Ag £261 ‘€ “9A ‘9% bV BusIOysyayL [ooyas JOOYIY 1004G DUILOZAYNTT ‘1DYQ 88D)) 89YoDaAT, “E “DIA 06 08 O8 ¢8 09 06 V V GL 09 O8 OOT OOT 06 06 O08 GL OOT OO OOT f WoL % 08 06 06 SPF 06 O08 GL O09 001 96 06 8 I8 O8 OL 09 oe eee: N Ugoe *T LIT OIL GIT PIT SIL ZIT LOL POT SOI OO! 96 G6 FO 6 O8}OIOXG p> £& @ iT | en | GZ 82 4h OL OL GL TL @ 8 OW 8 2 19 1 “°°” o3eg AdB’INIIV JO 8}say 8380, poodg sv '‘'D shog JO0YIG 49044G DUaLOYaAYR 4ADYQ péooay yoNpKpuyl “Z ‘SLA GL 0L 06 $8 %28°""'e8B12Ay OOT OL 86 001 G8 OO 2 GL G8 G8 OL 9BOOT OL open p €& @ «OT LIT OTT SIL FIT EIT ZIT LOT HOT SOL OOT 96 96 FE 6 asto10xy 8789, 62 82 42 92 OL SL IL 69 89 99 £9 @ 19 19 “°° Teeter ess oavd OUI 48] 6 “WY sv ‘dD ‘f per 5 97 |B x | Double Promotion 89.2) | 39 {11 611 1) 4 | 7| 12.8 | |10.4) | 41 | 23 12.4 | 120) 11.5 11.8 116, 9.9) Robert C...| 2% wee; wT Sa mea _— ~— THe SECOND YEARBOOK 199 result most of the retardation in the primary grades (chronological) was eliminated in a year’s time. Opportunity Room—Departmental Division—This room is so named because it offers the opportunity for misfits to find their level or in some way to become adjusted to the regular work of the school. The educationally and the mentally retarded, as well as the child who fails to adjust to the Departmental System and needs the mother- ing care of one teacher, are assigned to this room. Applications for admittance come from the class teacher and are passed upon by the principal and by the opportunity teacher. There are twenty pupils under the care of an expert teacher whose business it is to diagnose and analyze the individual and to fit the treatment to the case. There is no regular or prescribed method of procedure as is the case in the Adjustment Room. Children are returned to grade work whenever ready in the judgment of the teacher. Group PLAN No. 3 By September our enrolment was 775, an increase of 100 per cent in two years’ time. Four hundred and thirty new pupils entered the school this term representing 77 cities, 14 states, and 3 countries (United States, Canada, and Australia). As a result there were large classes (40 and over per teacher), heterogeneous groups with a wide range of abilities. Uniform achievement was impossible, there was lack of cohesion and the discipline problem increased. A com- plete reorganization was the only solution of our problem and this time our procedure has been along more scientific lines. Tue Testing PRoGRAM—ANALYSIS OF THE PROBLEM A school counselor was appointed, whose business it was to conduct a survey giving the tests and tabulating results. Our Primary Ad- justment teacher was assigned to this task. Certain requirements are demanded by the Research Department as a preparation for work of a school counselor: (a) Successful teaching experience in regular upper and lower grades; (b) knowledge of methods of handling special cases, so as to insure intelligent placement and treatment of pupils; (c) best available training and experience in giving: (1) Group Educational Tests, (2) Group Intelligence Tests, (3) Binet Tests, (4) Performance Tests, and (5) other tests; (d) best avail- able training in the statistical method of handling data and ability to interpret results; and (e) temperament, judgment, educational in- sight, such as to inspire confidence in her ability to give counsel in the conduct of a progressive school. 200 ELEMENTARY SCHOOL PRINCIPALS We decided to regroup according to the Promotion Age as worked out by McCall. Because of McCall’s use of the three types of meas- urements in computing the Promotion Age, we determined it the fairest and most satisfactory basis for classification. By making use of the mental, the educational, and the pedagogical ranking, we are taking into consideration many factors which affect the work of the child at school—that is, native ability, actual accomplishment (industry), and character traits (habits, attitudes) and so attain a fair perspective on the individual case. In finding the Mental Age the following tests were used: National Intelligence for grades 4-8; Haggerty Intelligence for grades 2-3; and Detroit Intelligence for the first grade. Binet Tests were given to exceptionally superior or inferior pupils and to delinquent pupils. For computing the Educational Age the following tests were given: Thorndike-McCall Reading for grades 4-8; Los Angeles Reading for grades 2-3; Woody-McCall Arithmetic for grades 3-8; and Ayres Revised Spelling List for grades 3-8. Reading, arith- metic, and spelling ages were determined according to the tentative norms for classification of pupils on the basis of thirteen months for each grade as suggested by McCall and compiled by our Research Department. Woody- Ayres Thorndike National McCall 60-word McCall Intelligence | Age Grade Arith. Spell. Reading Test in Score re T Score | Seale A Scale B Months | 6.5 23 a Ene ee, 99 97 | 148 OR Bee ie, SRS: 100 98 | 149 =) RE yee es, 50 101 99 | 150 i = eer ee. Wave cumanseaey 102 100 151 | Se Merino re 51 103 101 | 152 6.8 24 | EPA Se. Meer ee Csr ee 104 102 | 153 6.9 25 Re ere eee 105 103 | 154 | | | Believing reading comprehension to be of greater importance than the others and “because it is prerequisite to more of total work of the school than other subjects” we weighted reading doubly. Our AA +2 RA-+SA. 4 The pedagogical age was determined by a diagnosis of the indi- vidual case. Certain intangible qualities—that is, intellectual, social, physical, emotional, and cultural, are considered in relation formula was then: ndi- ual, tion Tue SECOND YEARBOOK 201 to the extent to which they are improvable by school instruction. Each child was ranked in order under each of these heads: 1. Intellectual (1) Rank in order according to achievement 2. Social (1) Attitude (2) Codperation (3) Leadership (4) Initiative (5) Habit formation (6) Control (7) Adjustability 3. Physical (1) Sight (2) Hearing (3) Tonsils—Adenoids (4) Posture (5) Nutrition (6) Teeth (7) Skin (8) Muscular Codrdination 4. Emotional (1) Nervous (2) Temperament (3) Stability (4) Responsibility (5) Trustworthiness (6) Honesty (7) Criminal Tendencies 5. Cultural (1) Cultural background (2) Speech in home (3) Cleanliness in home (4) Magazines taken. A composite score was computed by averaging the ranks on these five items. Pedagogical age was obtained by assigning the highest educational age of the class to the pupil averaging highest by the teacher’s ranks and so on until the pupil averaging lowest received the lowest ability age. Teacher’s judgment or pedagogical age in the departmental division was found by having each teacher rank each child according to his standing in the subject taught and under the five items noted above and these marks were averaged. It is } 202 ELEMENTARY SCHOOL PRINCIPALS interesting to note the close correlation between teacher’s judgment and the educational age—due, no doubt, to the fact that these teachers have had years of training in test procedure. The class- room teacher corrected the tests (the new teacher being carefully instructed in their correction). A system of re-checks was employed and the National Intelligence Tests were checked three times. The willing codperation of the teachers, their interest, and eagerness to be of help made possible the accomplishment of the big task of test- ing and ranking 775 pupils in six weeks’ time. In determining the educational and the pedagogical age, we worked out our own formula which is somewhat different from that used by our Department of Research. The promotion age was computed by giving the mental, the educa- tional, and the pedagogical age equal weight. Lists were made of each class. The child was ranked under these several heads. See Classification Record Sheet, Fig. 4, page 198. The following Statistical Card was prepared to be kept on file in the principal’s office as a permanent record. On back of this card the pupil’s rating is shown in a graph. Name__Walter B. Date_1- 24-23 A _ = Date of Birth_4-5-'12 Uiocheltorena Grade A4 ARITHMETIC READING Date Test Raw Score; Ar. Age Date [ Test Raw Score | Re. Age 1-9-23 Woody | 23 12.4 12-6-24 Thorn.| 58 14.4 McCall McCall SPELLING OTHER TESTS Date | Test Raw Score; Sp. Age Date Test Raw Score | Ed. Age _—T Ayres; 20 9.2 12.6 Mental Test Results: ie Date | Test | C. A. | Raw Score | M. A. | 1. Q. 12-7-23 Nat. 10.8 107.4 13 123 STATISTICAL RECORD CARD—Form 1 Fig. 5. Statistical Card, Form 1, Micheltorena Street School Tue SECOND YEARBOOK 203 nent — , y hese Pez22321383 eee eS lane. 18-6 (186) ully 15-0 (180) 14-6 (174) yyed Avil 14-0 (168) The | 8 vill 13-6 (162) ste Avil 13-0 (156) red 8 vil 12-6 (150) ‘the A vi 12-0 (144) aula sw “som t of A Vv 11-0 (132) BV 10-6 (126) uca- A tv 10-0 (120) e of B IW 96 (114) See aw $0 (108) 8 i 8-6 (102) e in AN 8-0 ( 96) pard BW 7-6 ( 90) e * 7-0 ( 84) 8 66 ( 78) Kg 6-0 ( 72) 5&6 ( 66) ‘Sait 5-0 ¢ 60) aaa Ped. Age- 12.1) ce Legend: Pro F Age- le . 9 ¢ Remarks: a Double Promotion to AS Adj. in Spelling. 7 Fic. 6. Back of Statistical Card, Form 1 The 1922-23 survey confirmed our judgment by showing: (a) In all classes a distribution over a large number of years, chronologi- cally, mentally, and educationally; (5) 58.3 per cent superior children (above 110 National Intelligence Tests) ; (c) The A. Q. rose higher in proportion as the I. Q. fell lower; and (d) A decided rise in Arithmetic level as compared with survey of 1920-21. 204 ELEMENTARY SCHOOL PRINCIPALS Summary of Ages—Grade 3-8 (Showing wide range) 11.10—16.7 10. 9—18.9 ll. 4—17.3 11.10—15.6 1l. 5—18.5 10. 4—15.1 10. 7—15.4 11. 7—17.5 11. 6—16.7 10. 3—13.10 11. 6—18.2 10. 7—15.5 9.10—13.10 . O—-18.1 . 2—15.5 9. 0—13.6 . 1—18.3 . &—15.5 . 1—13.4 .10—16.6 1—15.9 . 2—11.11 .11—14.8 5—12.10 7—12.1 3—13.6 1—11.7 . 2—11.10 . 0-11.10 . 11.0 B8 | Range A7 | Range B7 | Range A6 | Range B6 | Range A4 | Range A3 | Range ME OME OMZOMZOMZOMZOMZOMZONZONZO ee ee i — So Division according to Intelligence Quotient was as follows: errr are 58.3% a eer = =—«_— OU ae OUD UD NS OD De AD HA tt Ht ¢II- II — 8 @ PF ABASOOMAMOMN ANION Be II-#01 = _ SQ HE MAM POAGN ONS —— $0I- O1 nN - AEGON ANAATOAOMNOEOS 4 OI-#6 _ DON HON HS OF my HI DO Ca #6 - 6 aa NN NMA oMa roams 6 -#8 ~ mot mat tt SHAD es GN 00 69 fg -8 mm OOM Oinocw 8 -f2 - NACI %-£ mt L -#9 Ne #9 - 9 “ - 9 -#¢ - #$ -¢ dtdddgddgededddddgdddddgdddyddddy SPI lob-Islob-llob-ilob-ilob-1lob-1lob1 etl lop-iatop- is * 2 8 2 8 2 8 = & B@ B Summary of Ages, Micheltorena Street School Fia. 8. of adj the: the per ind her Fie. 8. Summary of Ages, Micheltorena Street School Tue SECOND YEARBOOK : 207 Section 2 is composed of pupils at standard or below standard. There is always the possibility of promotion or demotion between sections, and children understand and profit by the fact. Our former policy of individual progress in arithmetic, spelling, and penmanship is continued, also our credit card system. am Caml nin ain mer ain oie e8@sa2n8 S88 82893 3 292 m 7T y 7 Bt sw et ee Se Sata exeexXe Fg es A8 24 4@8 8 © @ 2 1 B8 2 28 €© HH Ba A7 § 3 § 10 4 4 B7 iste t= Fe Fs & F A6 2 @ £86 HM & 2 Ss 1 B6 SS §&@ 2@ St 2 1 1 A5 : i & 8S BB 5 4 1 1 Section II Section I—Children above standard Fic.9. Promotion Age Range after Reorganization, Micheltorena Street School Table Narrowing in Age Range After Reorganizaiion Grade | Promotion Age As | Al—14. 6—17.0 | A2—12.11—14 6 Bs | BI—14. 1—15.6 B2—12. 8—14.1 AT C1l—13. 6—15.6 C2—12 3—13.6 B7 DI—13. 1—15.5 D2—11. 7—13.1 A6 El—12. 6—15.2 E2—10. 6—12.6 B6 FlI—12. 1—15.1 F2—10. 0—12.1 A5 Gl—11. 7—13.8 G2— 9. 8~11.7 Some readjustment was necessary on account of a large number of children receiving double promotions and we have scheduled adjustment periods. At least one period a day is devoted to giving these children individual help in minimum essentials, thus bridging the gap between groups. The number and the duration of these periods are dependent upon the need. In the Primary Division the individual teacher decides upon the period which is best suited to her program. In Departmental Division the English and arith- 208 ELEMENTARY SCHOOL PRINCIPALS metic teachers use part of each period for adjustment. Definite assignments of the work to be covered together with the lists of refer- ences are posted on the board. Individual record books are kept in some groups and work checked off as accomplished. We have ob- served that in the majority of cases children find little difficulty in making the adjustment, while still maintaining a high standard in the work of the group to which they have been advanced. These periods are in line with our general policy of allowing time for indi- vidual instruction with a view to giving the teacher an opportunity for diagnosis of the individual case and so preventing the child from losing his place or marking time on account of some minor difficulty. This term for the first time, we are planning to enlarge the social viewpoint of the child, by a closer correlation of the basic facts of the story of mankind. To this end we are combining our history and geography and listing them on our program as Social Studies. This work is vitalized to a great extent by the use of our visual edu- cation equipment, the ballopticon, the stereopticon, and the projector. Departmental pupils with an I. Q. below 90 were sent to the Op- portunity Room. Because of limited ability the individual in this group needs special analysis in order that he may receive such an education as will fit him for useful citizenship. By grouping these children, it is possible to study each individual carefully in order that the teacher may learn and develop the particular ability in each pupil, checking dominant qualities and encouraging latent ones. A record of the achievements of each child is kept, as well as the records of his school history and any physical or temperamental difficulties. Pupils return to regular classes for penmanship, drawing, sloyd, and some economics and so feel themselves a part of the whole. One period a day is given to social studies and one to literature in which much emphasis is given to the dramatic element. Failures are never discussed, only achievements. Work is accepted as the child’s own rate of speed and according to the amount of effort put into the preparation of the lesson. The responsibility is that of each child, and he soon learns his speed is dependent upon his own interest. Graduate children of this room are given a certificate of promotion from the Psychology Department which takes the place of a regular eighth-grade diploma and entitles them to a special vocational course at one of the junior high schools. We decided not to open a special room for super-brights since the use of the maximum course keeps these children working at full capacity while preventing a too-rapid advancement which is apt to result in social misfits. Courses in Algebra in the eighth grade, Fr M: gi m els qt Tue SEcOND YEARBOOK 209 French in the seventh, and Spanish in the sixth grade are offered. Many opportunities for participation in extra-curricular activities are given. Pupils entering our school are given preliminary placement by means of tests. A month later their promotion age is determined by the addition of the pedagogical age. Our plan calls for a re- classification at the beginning of each term, based on the promotion quotient. The pupil’s pedagogical age will differ possibly, but his promotion age can be computed by regular formula. SUMMARY In attempting to meet the needs of the individual we have devel- oped a more flexible system of gradation by providing for a plan of homogeneous grouping, a maximum-minimum course of study, subject promotion, adjustment periods, and progress at individual rate of speed. As a result we have succeeded in reducing the num- ber of repeaters to the minimum; in eliminating need for special types of rooms except for pupils with low I. Q.; in allowing the ac- celerated children to finish the 8-year course in less time (7 or 6 years). We have, moreover, succeeded in equalizing the oppor- tunity by making it possible for both the bright and the dull child to attain a 100 per cent A. Q. After four years’ trial we are con- firmed in our belief, that a type of organization such as we have inaugurated is not only possible, but both practical and economical. Classification by Intelligence Tests in the Smaller Schools HELEN Davis Director of Measurements and Special Education Jackson, Michigan UPERINTENDENTS and principals of small schools have been somewhat reluctant to adopt a testing program in their schools because they feel that classification is practicable only in the larger school systems. To a certain extent their hesitancy is justi- fied, for it is apparent that the greater the number of children in a grade, the greater the possibilities of grouping them according to abilities. It is true that the smaller school is handicapped by the relatively small number of pupils in each grade, by lack of extra classrooms, by fewer teachers, and usually, by absence of any gen- eral organization of special classes to which at least the most needy in the building can be sent. There are, however, certain simple administrative devices for making use of the results of standardized tests which can be put into operation in any small school, or some- times even in a single room. Five of these have been selected as especially worthy of consideration when classification is undertaken in a small school. ADMINISTRATIVE DEVICES FOR IMPROVING CLASSIFICATION 1. Double promotions—The use of intelligence tests in any school reveals at once the pupils of superior ability. If a child makes a poor score there may be some mistake—broken pencil, language handicap, a headache—which will account for his poor performance, but if a pupil makes a high score he must have ability, barring, of course, the possibilities of copying or coaching. Not infrequently a pupil whose scholarship rating is only average, surprises his teacher by making one of the highest scores in the room. Bright pupils whose ability is not recognized nor given opportunity for expression often grow indifferent in their attitude toward school work, ‘lose ambition, and drop to the level of mediocrity in their scholarship. One of the chief merits of intelligence testing is that it so easily locates pupils of this type and shows the need of special attention to them. If a pupil excels in an intelligence test and in one or more achievement tests he should be permitted to skip a grade even though the teacher’s estimate may not accord with this indication. This practice should obtain especially above the third grade. It is obvious that in the first three grades a pupil with superior intelligence cannot [210] be toc of int wa shi in’ pe pr tic of ch se} in gi th th Tue SECOND YEARBOOK 211 be expected to undertake advanced work if he hasn’t acquired the tools of an education. To cite an extreme case, no pupil regardless of his I. Q. and mental age could go directly from kindergarten into the second grade, or even the last half of the first, unless he was able to read as well as the children in those grades. But it should be remembered in this connection that pupils of superior intelligence rather frequently are able to read when they enter the first grade, and for them double promotion at this time is not only permissible but distinctly desirable. Above the third grade, double promotions should be given more freely than is generally the prac- tice in many schools. 2. Sectioning within a room by subjects—Another effective way of classifying pupils, which involves only slight administrative changes, is to section pupils within a room for given subjects. For segregation of this sort only achievement tests are essential, although intelligence tests are most helpful in ascertaining some of the under- lying causes of difficulties. On the basis of their test scores in a given subject, the pupils in a room may be divided into three groups, the average, those whose performance approximates the median for the room; the superior, whose performance is distinctly above the average; and the low, or ‘hospital’ group who are in need of special help and remedial work. Pupils in the average, or middle group may progress at the regular pace specified by the course of study; those in the superior group may often be excused from regular recitations and devote their time to supplementary assignments and special reports, while those in the low group should be given in- dividual help with a view to advancing them into the average group as quickly as their performance warrants. Pupils should under- stand from the outset why the groups have been formed and that the length of their stay in any one group will be determined by their willingness to work and to show improvement. There should be no set time for advancing from one group to another. The standards for each group should be definitely in the minds of the pupils—so many words read or problems worked in a given time— and each pupil should be provided with an individual graph sheet for keeping a record of his own progress. While much is to be gained from group competition, the greatest gain will come when each pupil is striving to beat his own record. Occasional tests should be given to those in the upper group, as well as the others, to make certain that lack of drill or an hypertrophied sense of importance hasn’t tended to lower their performance. 212 ELEMENTARY SCHOOL PRINCIPALS A teacher would, no doubt, find it difficult to section all her classes in this manner, but if only two subjects, reading and arithmetic for example, are conducted in this way the results will be well worth the effort. In buildings where there is more than one group of the same grade or half grade this manner of sectioning is simplified, because it is pos- sible then to assign all the pupils of a given ability to a given teacher. 3. The special-help teacher—If funds permit, one effective method of bringing pupils up to grade and of making a room more uniform in achievement is to hire a special-help teacher. This teacher may be a part-time or a full-time instructor whose sole duty is to bring retarded children up to grade. Pupils who are below grade in achievement should leave their rooms and report to her for a given period each day. During that period they should be drilled only in those subjects or phases of subjects in which they are deficient. The teacher assigned to this work must be one well-versed in methods and temperamentally suited to deal with children who are somewhat backward. While pupils should in no sense feel that it is a disgrace to be put in the special-help group, they should understand that they are expected to work up to the regular grade standard as quickly as possible. Frequent tests and individual graph sheets will be found useful again in this connection. This method of handling children who are not up to grade is excellent for those pupils who have some special disability, or who are behind in their work for some accidental cause. However, it does not properly provide for the feeble-minded. They will derive some benefit from the extra drill, but they cannot hope to gain the most from their school work until they are put in a room by themselves. 4. Controlling entrance to first grade—One step toward classifica- tion that can be taken without encountering serious administrative difficulties, is to control the admission of pupils to the first grade. The kindergarten or first-grade teacher in the building should learn the procedure for giving the Binet-Simon test, and only those pupils should be admitted to the first grade who reach a certain mental age on the test (ordinarily 5 years and 10 months or 6 years), or those whose chronological age is so advanced that they must be admitted regardless of their mental age. Just what this chronological age limit should be will, of course, depend upon the community and the prevailing practice. Although this manner of utilizing the results of intelligence tests is comparatively simple to put into operation, it has heretofore been given insufficient attention. Wherever it has been tried, the results —__.. > for orth rade pos- ‘her. thod orm may ring » in iven ynily ent. 10ds hat race that ‘kly be 2 is vho it “ive the by ca- THE SECOND YEARBOOK 213 have shown clearly that a large percentage of those pupils who fail in the first grade are children who were permitted to enter the grade before their mental ages were up to the level known to assure reason- able success.” 5. The special room—Better results can be accomplished with pupils of any given type if they are instructed as a separate group apart from other pupils. If space permits and the number of pupils warrants it, this is the type of organization toward which every superintendent should strive. If only one room is available, it should be given over to the feeble-minded because they can get the least out of the regular course, and there is the smallest chance of caring for them otherwise, since the gifted may be brought nearer to grade by double promotion, but the feeble-minded cannot be de- moted. However, in most small schools, a special room with a special teacher is an administrative impossibility. But there may be occasionally a certain grouping of pupils or combination of grades which, with only slight re-organization, will permit the establish- ment of a special class without employing an additional teacher or furnishing an extra room. An experiment in this type of re- organization was undertaken recently in a seven-room school en- rolling between 200 and 300 pupils. In this school there were seven teachers, teaching grades from the kindergarten through the high 6th. The number enrolled in each room ranged from 24 to 42. The school was situated in a very poor section of the city; most of the pupils came from families where the home environment was very bad, and the general level of intelligence in the school was recognized as dull-normal with a more than ordinary number of inferior and feeble-minded. The percentage of retardation in the school was very high, and had gone so long unrelieved that in every room above the first grade, the range in the chronological ages of the pupils was from 3 to 6 years. The superintendent was willing that some sort of re-organization should be effected, but he felt that the small num- ber of children enrolled in the school would not justify the addition of another room and teacher. With these limitations in mind, those in charge undertook to plan some sort of adjustment that might bring about a more homogeneous grouping of the pupils. Accord- ingly, all the pupils in the school were given two intelligence tests, 1 Dickson, Virgil E. What First-grade Children Can Do. Journal of Edu- cational Research, 2: June, 1920, pp. 475-480. Also, Davis, Helen, The Use of Intelligence Tests, The Twenty-first Yearbook of The National Society for the Study of Education, Part II, pp. 140, 141. Also, Dawson, Charles D., Classifi- cation of Kindergarten Children for First Grade, Journal of Educational Research, December, 1922, pp. 412-22. 214 ELEMENTARY SCHOOL PRINCIPALS and those above the first grade were given standardized tests in read- ing and arithmetic. Before the tests were given, the teachers were asked to rate their pupils in intelligence on a scale of five, to give their scholarship records for the semester, and to state the half grade in which they believed each pupil should be placed if only his achievement was considered, regardless of his present grade status, parents’ objections, and the like. With all these data assembled, plans for re-organization were considered. The 4B and 5B sections with 11 pupils each were the smallest in the school. If adjustments were to be made, they might most easily be begun in these grades. All pupils in these two grades whose ratings on two or more of the tests were above the median for the next grade, were considered for double promotion. There were four of these in one class and five in the other. Of the thirteen children who remained, one had a percentile rank in the tests of 30, the next highest was 28, and all the others were below, running as low as 7. In achievement tests, these thirteen were either very low in both, or else their performance was very uneven. In almost every case their performance scores were equal to those of a half to two whole grades below their then grade location. In every case their scholarship ratings were from C to failure, with eight conditions among the thirteen. It appeared, then, that all the pupils in grades 4B and 5B were either capable of double promotions or seriously in need of special help. If the _ superior pupils in these grades were given a double promotion and the slow pupils were taken out and put into a special room, grades 4A and 5A would be eliminated for the following semester, and the teacher and room thus saved could be given over to the proposed special room. This group of thirteen slow pupils, accordingly, was taken as the nucleus of a special or auxiliary room to which were added the thirteen most needy cases from the other grades above 3B and under 5A. The group as thus re-organized ranged in chronological age from ten to fourteen years and in achievement from 2A to 5A, but no pupil was at grade in the intelligence tests nor in more than one of the achievement tests. The teacher put in charge was instructed to group her children by subjects according to achievement, without regard to previous grade level. It was explained to pupils and par- ents that the purpose of the room was to provide extra time and facilities for those who were in need of special help, and to restore as many as were capable to the regular grades at the close of the semester. The teachers were particularly careful to state that no pupil had been demoted or failed, and that no pupil would be mark- ing time. sp ror by M pr at ar in pe a th al re ———_.. read- were give rade his atus, led, ions ents des. the for five da all Sts, nce ores en an C ed, ble the nd les he ed as he er THE SECOND YEARBOOK 215 As a result of this re-organization the range of abilities in the special room was, to be sure, as great as it had been in the regular rooms before the change was made, but each of these regular rooms by being relieved of its laggards was made more homogeneous. Moreover, those who were transferred to the special room now stood a better chance of having their needs met. That the pupils ap- preciated their opportunity is apparent from the fact that their attitude was favorable from the first, and they showed good interest and a willingness to work. The chief administrative difficulty of this organization is presented in the matter of transfers from outside the building. There is the possibility that pupils will be transferred in who properly belong in a 4A or 5A grade. This experiment is still in progress and to date this difficulty has not arisen. If it should develop, the teachers are planning to meet it by fitting the newcomer into whichever grade best suits his needs, whether it be the special room or the regular grades. This experiment has been described at some length because it presents a form of adjustment which is not ordinarily used. To discontinue, even temporarily, two half grades in a seven-room elementary school of 250 pupils would seem to most administrators quite impossible. As a matter of fact the distinction between one half grade and the next is much less clean-cut than most persons think it is. Thus in the adjustment just described, no pupil is checked, let alone set back in his school progress by the discontinu- ance of these two half grades. ADMINISTRATION OF THE TEsTs! If classification or re-organization is undertaken in any of the ways suggested above, a definite program of testing is involved. In every case but that of controlling the entrance to the first grade, both in- telligence and achievement tests should be given. It is advisable to give two different intelligence tests, and there ote certain important advantages in having the same person ad- minister both. If there is a wide discrepancy between a given pupil’s scores on the two tests, the case should be followed up carefully. If the difference cannot be explained as arising from some accidental cause such as uncut pages, broken pencil, headache, copying, and the like, the pupil should be re-examined with an individual test. 1The writer has given a more detailed account of some of the problems arising in the administration of tests in The Journal of Educational Research for January, 1922, pp. 1-21. ELEMENTARY SCHOOL PRINCIPALS 216 The teachers can very well give the achievement tests in their own rooms, provided, of course, that they have been instructed previously in the rules for administering, and have been made to understand the importance of uniform procedure and accurate tim- ing. Achievment tests in at least two subjects should be given— reading and arithmetic. If time permits, tests in spelling and other content subjects may be given to advantage. Both intelligence and achievements tests may be scored by the teachers if they are furnished with keys. It is advisable to check the first few papers that each teacher scores in order to be certain that she has understood directions, and is scoring correctly and accurately. Teachers’ estimates of intelligence and scholarship are a valuable aid in planning re-adjustments. These estimates should be secured before any testing is done, or at least before the teachers have seen the pupils’ scores. When teachers are asked to rate intelligence, they should be warned particularly to take the pupils’ chronological ages into account. There are certain to be cases in every room where the teacher’s estimate and the test score for a given pupil vary widely. in discrepancies of this sort, if the test rating is high and the teach- er’s rating average, the test rating should be accepted and the pupil given the benefit of the doubt. If the test rating is low and the teacher’s rating high, experience has shown that almost always the test rating is the more accurate because teachers too often do not make the proper allowance for differences in chronological age among their pupils, and too often are unconsciously influenced by a pupil’s personality, industry, or maturity. One of the most effective ways of demonstrating to teachers how very significant chronological age may be in the estimate of intel- ligence is to convert all scores into age percentiles... The use of percentiles makes it possible to locate a pupil with respect to his intelligence among 100 pupils of his own age, or in other words, to indicate his relative intelligence. Thus, for example, to be abo the 90th percentile (in the top 10 per cent) is analogous to sa that a pupil has a high intelligence quotient (I. Q.)* The age percentiles frequently reveals the real capacity of a brig! pupil whose intelligence has been underestimated by ‘! who has compared him with pupils in the same schoo year or more older than he. 1 For the method of computing percentile rank see ™:: saleu- lation and Interpretation of Percentile Ranks, Journ! « ral Re- search, October, 1922, pp. 225-236. 2 For a statement of the analogy between percei ran . see Ter- man, The Measurement of Intelligence, p. 78. ti Ca of aj SU p tl p sk Ww li hi he re m la their icted le to tim- en— other - the heck rtain and iable ured seen nce, pical here lely. ach- yupil the » the not age by a how ntel- e of | his yrds, bo alcu- Re- Ter- THE SECOND YEARBOOK 217 One item of prime importance in making adjustments is the rela- tion of the pupil’s score to the standard for his grade. A pupil’s I. Q. is very significant as an index of his native capacity, but it cannot be used as a basis for classification except as an indication of the rate at which a child is likely to progress. But whether he will sueceed in a given grade depends upon how closely his score approximates the median score for the grade in question. For ex- ample, a pupil in 5B makes a score of 85. He is eight and a half years old, and is in the upper five percent of his age group, or his I. Q. is 122 or above. However, the median score for 5B is 87.5. The standard for 5A is 97. This pupil is then mentally at grade, and although his I. Q. is quite high he has already been advanced to the point where his mental age indicates that he belongs, and he is not ready to skip a grade. The opposite situation must also be considered. There is always a group of over-age children whose mental ages are nevertheless sufficiently adjusted to the grade level that they can make ordinary progress in the grade despite the fact that their I. Q.’s are somewhat below the normal. For example, a twelve-year-old pupil with an. I. Q. as low as 85 may do average work in a given grade—other things being equal—if his mental age or intelligence score ap- proximates the standard for the grade in which he is found. It should not be argued from this, however, that over-age children are as well off in the regular grades as they would be if special provision were made for them to be instructed in a separate group. Similarly it follows that an over-age pupil with normal intel- ligence and an I. Q. of 100 can often be given an extra promotion if his mental age is equal to the mental age for the grade into which he is to be promoted. Many school administrators feel that one of the most important results of testing is the comparison found between the averages made by their schools and the norms published for the country at large. Comparisons of this sort will show significant differences in levels of ability and grade standards, but for purposes of classifica- tion within a given school system the local, and not published, standards should be consulted. If the pupils from more than one school are involved, the city standards should be used. If the pupils in only one school are concerned, and adjustments are to be made within that school, then the standards for that school should be used. The reason for this is obvious. Norms tend to vary widely for different communities and nationalities. A given grade in some sections of the country varies as much as a whole grade above or below the same grade in other sections. Hence, it is exceedingly 218 ELEMENTARY SCHOOL PRINCIPALS important to know how a pupil’s score compares with those of the group he is about to enter. In other words, for purposes of classifica- tion, the absolute value of his score is not so important as its rel- ative value. Records—A record should be kept for each pupil in which should appear his date of birth, nationality, address, the name and form of the tests given, the date of each test, the score, the grade in which it was given, the grade and age standards, percentile rank, a column for remarks and any other information of significance that has been gathered. Such data are best kept on cards, one for each child. Sizes 3x5 or 4x6 are usually found the most convenient for filing. Cards not only admit of alphabetical filing, but they allow for many possibilities in sorting, as for example, sorting for all pupils of a given grade, age, score, etc. These records should be kept in a central office where they will be accessible to teachers, but not to pupils. Securing Codperation—In pioneer intelligence testing there may be necessity for exercising a certain amount of caution. If, for example, many of the teaching force are skeptical, the first steps in establishing a testing program may well be limited to those rooms in which the teachers are known to be at least open-minded, if not sympathetic toward the movement.t These rooms may be desig- nated as experimental rooms in which a few tests are to be given or a few extra promotions made. It may be explained to the other teachers that they are not asked to assist or codperate, simply to ob- serve and later form their own conclusions. In general, of course, the best way to convince skeptical or critical administrators, teachers, or parents of the usefulness of intelligence tests is to produce evi- dence of satisfactory results obtained. In order to do this, one must from the beginning keep sufficiently detailed records. For con- clusive arguments it would be desirable to have memoranda not only of the type of adjustments made, but also of the pupils’ attitude toward school, their health, and their scholarship both before and after adjustments are made. When explaining the purpose of a testing program to parents and friends, it is well to stress the emphasis that is being placed upon the needs of the individual pupil, to explain the range and significance of individual differences, the importance of keeping the bright child at work and industrious, of giving the less gifted child an opportunity for individual help 1 For an account of one method of enlisting the coéperation of teachers see Brooks, S. S., Getting Teachers to Feel the Need for Standardized Tests, Journal of Educational Research, June, 1920, pp. 425-436, an ad an ref be! meé oc m de tel th ab OV ms - & & 1 f the sifica- Ss rel- 10uld form thich umn . has each lient they y for ould hers, may for $ In OMS not slg- iven ther ob- Irse, ers, evi- 1ust ‘on- nly ude ind fa the ual eS, us, elp THE SECOND YEARBOOK 219 and a chance to experience the thrill of achievement, to show the advantages of an objective method of grading which the tests afford, and to give accounts of striking cases in your own system (without reference to names, of course) that the tests have revealed and benefited. Of late, the testing movement has been the object of much com- ment and criticism, some of which may have been merited by the occasional misuse of tests in the hands of untrained examiners, but most of it is unmerited and particularly to be deplored, because it deters many school administrators from giving classification by in- telligence tests a fair trial. As a matter of fact, experience shows that a testing program carried forward intelligently and with reason- able precaution to ensure a sympathetic reception will establish its own case. , An Experimental Use of Intelligence Tests in | Classification F. T. Harpwick Principal of the Central School Everett, Washington and the results of experiments made in the use of Intelligence Tests for arranging pupils in groups, and also the use of stand- ardized tests in comparing the groups thus arranged. The school—These experiments were made in the Central School of Everett, Washington, a city whose commercial interests center about lumbering and allied industries, and which, situated on Puget Sound, with good shipping facilities by land and water, has rapidly increased in population to about 30,000 inhabitants. For ten years previous to 1919 the majority of the eighth grades of the city had been assembled, not for educational reasons but for administrative purposes, in the old High School building which was vacant at that time, by which means the pressure on certain of the grade schools in the city was relieved. This school differed from the conventional eighth-grade organiza- tion only in possessing a greater degree of departmentalization and some degree of sex segregation ; it did not differ in curricular offering. Here, however, was the nucleus of a Junior High, presenting many peculiar problems but offering a fine opportunity for investigation and experimentation in grouping according to ability. The present , SHE FOLLOWING article attempts to outline the procedure 220 ELEMENTARY ScHOOL PRINCIPALS principal, who took charge in 1919, at once proceeded to use Intel- ligence Tests and to cautiously experiment in homogeneous classifi- cation and the introduction of subjects usually taught only in the Senior High School. In the beginning the teachers were dubious about the project, especially about the grouping together of pupils who made low scores; but when teachers found by experience that pupils whose scores were low were benefited by being grouped together, there were no more objections on that point. All the eighth grades of the city are now assembled in the Central School and number between 450 and 500 pupils. Each regular teacher is responsible for two subjects, the favorite combinations being arithmetic and English, or history and reading. All other subjects are taught by special teachers. So two teachers take care of three classes each, for the four main subjects—reading, arithmetic, history, and grammar. In the morning an attempt is made to place each class for one hour with each regular teacher; one half hour for recitation, the last half hour for study. All other classes not engaged in any class room are placed in the Study Hall. The girls have physical training Mon- days, Wednesdays, and Fridays; the boys on Tuesdays and Thurs- days. On Wednesdays some classes have drawing. Half the boys have manual training every day for half the semester, when they are succeeded by the other half. Girls in their first half year have cook- ing for one hour twice a week, and during their last half year for one and one half hours twice a week. This makes a varied and complicated daily program. A sample program (Monday’s) is given in Table 1. In order to fit in all the subjects no two daily programs can be made alike. In reading this program, the classroom is denoted by a Roman numeral read hori- TABLE 1. Monday’s Program in Central School, Everett, Washington I II Il IV | Vv | VI VII Vir, IX x XI |D.S.|P.T. ‘M.T. Study Hall | | j 99.30.......... 1; 7/11] 10/8H}13| 4] 6 | 14] 3) 2 | o! s| s | 12,15 9.30-10........} 1| 5 | 11 |SHj 12) 13] 4] 6 | 7/3 2] 9| 15/ 8 | 14,10 10-10.30 | 5| 1| 15/14/10] 11| 8] 4 | 12 3| 9/13] 2 | 6,7 10.30-11....... | 1|SH.| 14/10} 11] 8] 4 | 13/9) 3] 5| 7| 2 | 6, 12,15 Ten | Minute Riec |ess | 11.10-11.40.....|_ 7 |8H| 13 | 12| 14/15] 2] 8 | 11/6) 3| 5| 1| 4 | 910 11.40-12....... iS.H.| 7|13|12] 14/15] 2] 8 1/6! 9] 5| 3] 4 | 10,11 | Noon | Inter) miss} io!n a ack coed 1} 5| 11] 10| 12| 13 4 7|3/S.H.|15| 9) 6 | & 14 acne ecuch 5| 7/13] 12] 14|8H| 4] 8 1| 9) 3 15 | 11| 6 3 10, : 2-2.30......... 7/ 1) 15) 14) 10/11 |SH) 6 3] 5) 9] 13 2, 12 2.30-3.. -| 7] 1) 15) 14) 10) 11] 8|SH.| 5/6) 2/13) | 3, 9, 12 zon scie ivel clas nur the of t 7 clas pos and tha ass 71 Tes as § the tior see] we fou of | ( tak tive este hay ner pay the pre log Te: the an of THE SECOND YEARBOOK 221 zontally to the right. The rooms at the extreme right are domestic science, physical training, manual training, and study hall, respect- ively. The time is given at the left side and is read downward. A class at any special time is found to the right under same Roman numeral marking the classroom. S. H. in a class space means that the teacher, usually in that room at that special time, is in charge of the Study Hall. The class is denoted by a class number, odd numbers representing classes composed of girls and even numbers representing classes com- posed of boys, so that classes 1 to 15, inclusive, are classes of girls and classes 2 to 14 are classes of boys. From this it will be evident that there are no mixed classes but, otherwise, boys and girls freely associate. Tests used—The first Intelligence Tests used were the Otis Group Tests, but these were exchanged for the National Intelligence Tests as soon as the latter were published. As the main object for using the tests was to group approximately according to ability, the Na- tional Tests, in that they required about half the time to administer, seemed very desirable, if only they would fulfill the object for which we were striving. The National Tests, then, were used, and were found suitable for our purpose as they provided us with the pupils of best ability in the group. Our early experience showed us that age as well as score had to be taken into account in getting the best working groups, so the tenta- tive standards given in the manual were taken and a rough I. Q. established. We recognized this only as an approximate I. Q. and have made some investigations into the I. Q. obtained in this man- ner, and the I. Q. obtained by the Binet-Simon method; but, as this paper is meant to be a practical rather than a theoretical discussion, the writer is laying that aspect aside. The grouping from the ap- proximate I. Q. leads to a more homogeneous grouping by chrono- logical age, the youngest pupils for the most part being the brightest. Table of 856 scores—Up to June, 1922, National Intelligence Tests had been given to 856 pupils who had entered the Central School from the other grade buildings. The results are shown in Table 2 where they are arranged to show age and the scores for each age. The age is read in the column on the left hand, while the frequencies of the score for that age are read horizontally to the right. It will be easily seen that 68.5 per cent of the pupils entered the eighth grade at 13 or younger; 37.2 per cent of these were 13 and 27.4 per cent were 12 years of age; 23.2 per cent were 14 years of age, very few older pupils being entered. n _ < py — Ss) Zz _ ie Ay 4 © °o ee} \) 9) ~ oo) = a vA <2] _ a ca) 4 ea = ee eet at eee £2 61 SI FI S$ | oe ae | | | | | | { . i | [879.1 OL S91 O9T SST OST SHI OFT SET OFT GcT OSI STI OLT GOT O01 96 06 £8 O08 } | | | | | | i | | | i | | 1 | | ee ae = uopuryse My ‘yjJ010Aq ‘JOOydg [vijUa,) ‘e#y 0} ZuIpsoooy potuvsuy ‘spidng Z1Z JO setodg -“E WIAVL oes : | SOI 82 68 € GZIl |; 82 | 29 8 Ff 8 SIT | Z°€ | 661 | } | GZ LI & bP SIT | 2 LE | 6IE Lb 9E 8E 9° FEI | F LZ | IZ 61 LI cel | 6 € 9 uer | yu9d | [830], OLT S9T 091 SST\OST orl ont GET OFT) “pa Jog | | | | | | | | UOPSUIYSE M “4JOIBAY ‘[OOYIG [BiyUaD Ul ‘OBYy 0} Zuipsioosy posuvisy ‘spidng g¢g Jo sa10dg $489], COUDBTTOY A] [VUOTENY °*Z 4 o 4 ee < g a i= vA >) oO Q o3) & x H Il @lorge 1 & j | | | | | ; | usr Usd S[ByOL loz SOT OOT SST OST SFI OFT SET el C21 OZI SIT OLT SOL “PP | 12d | | | | | | | | | Zoe | | Yt yf | | | 0016 06 ¢8 08 ‘G2 OL 29 09 | sfog xag pue ody Aq potuvuy ‘sjidng Z1Z JO sai09g- *F A TAVL 224 ELEMENTARY SCHOOL PRINCIPALS A comparison of the medians shows that the younger pupils had the higher average ability. The median of the 13-year-old pupils differed very little from the average of the whole group. Table 2 is used as a basis of comparison for the classes entering Central School in September, 1922. On page 222, in Table 3, we have tabulated the scores of the 212 pupils entering September, 1922, according to the age of the pupils who made them. A comparison of the two tables reveals whether the ability of the entering class is up to the average or not. There is a larger proportion than usual of pupils entering at 11 years of age, but a comparison of the two tables shows that the 11- year-olds entering are inferior, the median for the same age in the whole group being 135, and of the other group 128. The pupils 12 years of age have a median a little higher than the median of the average, but the reverse is the case with pupils who are 13, 14, and 15. In Table 4 we have the scores of the boys and girls distributed according to age for the purpose of comparison, by which we see the majority of the 11-year-old pupils were girls but distinctly below the average, and by comparing the medians it is evident that the ability of the girls is distinctly below the ability of the boys, whether viewed according to age or asa whole. A study of these tabulations gives us a survey of the mental ability of these 212 entering pupils, and one naturally concludes that the 212 pupils as judged by their scores were below the average as represented in Table 4 and that the girls in this group were inferior to the boys. Table 5 on the opposite page shows the grouping of the 212 pupils for working purposes. The scores are on the left hand side of the paper, and are read from top to bottom, while the classes are denoted by the Roman numerals running from VII to XIV. Odd numbers denote girls’ classes, and even numbers, boys’. Thus VII would be a class of girls and VIII a class of boys, and so on. From Table 5 it is evident that classes XIII and XIV are the ones with the greatest amount of ability. In these classes the lower scores, 120-130, are made by the younger pupils. One or two high scores are noticed in the classes with lower ability. In such cases the placing was done through former experience with the pupils or from knowledge gained of them in other ways. Why achievement tests—Intelligence Tests of late have come into almost general use, and there is great danger that they may be re- garded as a passing fad, for many educators look upon them in that light, being disappointed that they do not solve all their educational only use worl late met trib’ the T wor! The furr gTOl vari tion ther is h Tue SEcOND YEARBOOK 225 TABLE 5. Arrangement in Classes of 212 Pupils, Boys and Girls, Based on Intelligence Scores | Scores XIII | XIV mr DO TCO Or > Go = KOPN AT * The scores in this group range from 60 to 64.9. problems. They find little correlation between intelligence scores and scores in other tests and then conclude that the Intelligence Tests are useless and may be easily dispensed with, forgetting alto- gether that they may indicate defects in our methods, courses of study, and many other things. Far from giving a solution of our problems, they raise question after question which can be solved only by further investigation and experimentation. Their chief use is that they meet a need, not met hitherto in the educational world, a need of having some means of determining the comparative latent ability of pupils which we now discover by trial and error method, a method not very successful, as shown by age-grade dis- tributions, from which we might easily deduce the statement that the schools more easily discover dullness than ability. The Intelligence Tests give us an opportunity to test out the working capacity of the biological mechanism, that we call mind. They do not register the actual accomplishment of the pupils but furnish us with a statement of the comparative possibilities of a group of pupils. Their achievement may be and generally is as varied as their biological equipment and may not have any correla- tion with their intelligence. It is our duty, as teachers, to see that there is a correlation between intelligence and achievement, and this is hardly possible without a means of measuring both. 226 ELEMENTARY SCHOOL PRINCIPALS In our early experimental work we were grievously disappointed at both the attitude and accomplishment of the brightest pupils, finding them lacking in good working habits, inattentive and care- less. The result was that we found it necessary to ascertain at the start not only their possibilities but their equipment of knowledge and habits. Our first problem, then, was how to train working habits and produce results somewhat in comparison with the pupil’s ability. This generally takes five or six months. Our change in procedure this year, then, consists in the use of Intelligence Tests for the discovery of the working capacity and the use of standardized achievement tests for determining how far they fall short of approxi- mating their possibilities so that we may be guided in our methods of dealing with these pupils. Stone reasoning tests—In these tests the results obtained, not the number of attempts, are tabulated (Table 6), and the results are reduced to whole numbers by dropping decimals below .5 and in- creasing those above .5 to 1. The pupils are the same as the ones to whom the intelligence tests were given, with the exception of three. The classes are arranged in order, the Roman numeral on the left hand denoting the class. The scores of 371 pupils are given first, the median of which is 9.4. It will be seen that classes XIII and XIV fall below the general average, and are exceeded by IX, XI, and XII. The results of XIII and XIV seem disappointing in view of their ability, but an exami- nation of the papers showed that they failed in accuracy, not in reasoning. TABLE 6. Stone Reasoning Tests, Scores of 371 Pupils, Rights | } l l | Me- Classes 1 2 3 al 5 6|7|8| 9 |10 11{12 13| 14] 15) 16/17 No.| dian | 9 29 2 37 55 44 46| 37| 21 Scores of 209 Pupils by Classes EE CrorG = bo bo bd DPONAA PS CH WORDT COR OD 212 ' XII] XIV 212 | XI] XIV 212 | XII] XIV 212 | XII) XIV C lates 7). shov and Clas well K are Tab the the pre} Tue SEcoND YEARBOOK TABLE 7. Courtis Arithmetic Tests Median Rate of Working Median Accuracy Per Cent | Per Cent of (Pupils Having Accuracy Less Than Per Cent Pupils with 100 Per Cent Accuracy 50 Per Cent Addition 62 56 70 212 whole group).... XII Subtraction 75.8 71.6 11 83 Multiplication 68.75 65.4 66.6 10.07 10.5 10.1 Division 76.5 82 76.6 9.4 11 10.2 Courtis arithmetic tests—The Courtis Arithmetic Tests were tabu- lated for the whole group, and for classes XIII and XIV (see Table 7). A comparison of these results with the results of various cities shows that on the whole these figures are hardly up to the average and there are no outstanding features in the median scores of Classes XIII and XIV. Class XIII, in fact, does not show up as well as the average. Kelly silent reading tests—The results in the silent reading tests are tabulated for 200 pupils out of the 212 originally tested (see Table 8), and while the median of the whole group is a little below the average, the medians of classes XIII and XIV stand out, and the tables show few poor readers. These two classes were better prepared in reading than in any other elementary subject and had TABLE 8. Kelly Silent Reading Tests, Form I Scores of 200 Pupils, Classes XIII and XIV 30 | 35 | 40 | 45 seal iii: wai 25 29.9 15 19.9 20 24.9 10 14.9 9.9 36 | 11 12| 2 12; 8 35 1 45 2 1| 5 228 ELEMENTARY SCHOOL PRINCIPALS on hand ready to produce a vast amount of information that at times was really impressive. In this way we gained an insight into the equipment of the pupils in some of the fundamentals. We needed this more in classes XIII and XIV than in the others, for we knew by experience what they could possibly do, but this in- formation was essential in our brightest classes. We are making plans to make this procedure complete by giving similar achievement tests toward the end of the year, in order that we may be able to estimate our gains, and to determine as scientifi- cally as we can whether we can justify segregation by ability, even if for only one year. As for our own opinion, derived from contact with these pupils, we would not use any other method of class grouping. The sequences of intelligence tests—There are arguments and dis- agreements as to what is actually tested by Intelligence Tests. It is rather unfortunate that the term “intelligence” is tn use at all, as it often seems to arouse antagonism. We prefer to use the term “work- ing capacity” when parents are in consultation upon this problem. The writer will leave the disagreements to those who like to theorize and will emphasize the practical bearing that Intelligence Tests put at our disposal an instrument by which we may separate our pupils and place them in homogeneous working groups. The grouping brings the necessity, especially with the brightest and dullest groups, of adjustments in the curriculum. The brightest pupils present the most difficult problems, and require a teacher of wide and extensive preparation, but also possessed of the ability of taking advantage of any situation that may arise. Mediocre teach- ing and a mediocre teacher are fore-doomed to failure, but a well- prepared and resourceful teacher will have the delight and satisfae- tion of seeing the development of the pupils under her training. Curricular offering—We are making such adjustments in the cur- riculum as we are capable of doing at the present time. We would like to enrich the curriculum by the addition of Elementary Science, and by giving a wider choice for pupils; especially would we like to give them some short preparatory courses with the view of enabling them to make a better choice of subjects in high school. We have extended our History course by the use of projects, prob- lems, topics, and debates. Civics is combined with history; we have sent pupils to report on local happenings, and those in naturaliza- tion classes, to dramatize what they have seen. Reference books are used to a greater extent, and must be used if interest is to be maintained. G@ pupl but | sitio! writi In o char Lati work that thei lear} A plete subj meti alge tors, ter’s next Spe Tue SEconND YEARBOOK 229 Grammar—Technical grammar is not the bugbear to the brightest pupils that it is to classes composed of pupils of high and low ability, but becomes an exercise with pleasurable accompaniments. Compo- sition will be, in process of time, a delight, for they take pleasure in writing personal incidents, stories, parodies, and sometimes poems. In oral composition the difficulty is not in getting expression, but in repressing the exuberance of those who have much to tell. These pupils do the work in grammar and composition as outlined in the eighth grade, in a half year, and so we have devoted one half year to English work, and the other half to Latin. We have changed our aims from trying to do high-school Latin to teaching Latin for the sake of a vocabulary, which may function in English work, and in teaching the Latin grammar to teach it in such a way that it will emphasize English grammar. If pupils do not carry their work any further they gain an immediate benefit and have learned what it is to make an attack on a foreign language. Arithmetic—Our students in these special classes can also com- plete their arithmetic in half the time assigned for it, and in this subject we have worked out a course which leads directly from arith- metic into algebra and classes XIII and XIV have been doing algebra work in addition, subtraction, multiplication, division, fac- tors, and factoring. They will undoubtedly be able to do a semes- ter’s work in algebra, and take up the work of the second semester next September. Speed Grouping in Primary Grades of Rockford, Illinois VerRA G. SHELDON Elementary Supervisor, Rockford, Illinois cCALL maintains that mental age is superior to educa- M tional age for classifying pupils in the primary grades. He also advocates mental age for high school and college freshmen classification. We also believe that educational age is superior to mental age as a basis for classification of pupils in the intermediate grades because the educational age reveals the pupils of equal status educationally. A pupil’s educational status is a resultant not only of his mental age but also of his health, attendance, industry, and attitude toward his school work. 230 ELEMENTARY SCHOOL PRINCIPALS Grouping in the primary grades—In Rockford there is a grow- ing interest in classification of pupils in the primary grades accord- ing to mental age: not for purposes of segregation, but for greater teaching efficiency. There are twenty elementary schools in Rock- ford. Scientific classification has not been forced upon any primary teacher. The policy used in supervision was to fully acquaint and interest the teachers in group-intelligence tests and the advantages of grouping pupils who could progress at about the same rate. This was accomplished through conferences with teachers. Haggerty, Delta I, was given to all the children in the first three grades. This was done by the supervisor in the presence of teachers. Conclusions were discussed, and, as a result of this preliminary work, teachers in many schools expressed a desire to do some experimental grouping. In every growing system, modern methods should be studied and tried out. If found productive of good results, all teachers should benefit thereby. Such has been Rockford’s experi- ence in speed grouping in the primary grades. The judgments of the respective teachers was considered as well as the results of Haggerty, Delta I. The Pressey Primer Scale added data, and, in some instances, the Stanford Revision of Binet was used. Yerkes maintains that at least three group intelligence tests should be given in order to determine classification, and those falling very much above or below a certain standard should be given the Stanford Revision of Binet. Administration of speed groups in primary grades—The adminis- tration of speed groups in the primary grades has varied according to the enrolment and the building conditions. In general we have three types of administration: (1) The enrolment that is sufficient in size to permit one teacher to each half-year group. Thus, the teacher may have only a 1B group and classify these into superior, average, and slow groups according to the findings of the tests, plus the teacher judgment. In case of a building fortunate enough to have a remedial teacher, the remedial teacher may aid the regular teacher with the slow group. (2) Some buildings with very large primary enrolments have found it expedient to devote an entire room to one type of pupil, as, “slow first.” (3) Where teachers have both beginning and advanced classes in the room, the best teachers are securing results by re-classifying according to ability. What are the advantages of speed grouping in the primary grades?—May I list some of the advantages of speed grouping as revealed by actual practice and later submit concrete illustrations? for an on tul ins 2 te tt lUlUl ceeellUhlC RC TOW- cord- eater ock- nary and ages This hree ers. ork, ntal all eri- vell ded was asts ing the Lis- ng ive nt he or, us THE SECOND YEARBOOK 231 (1) An enlargement of opportunity and enrichment of curriculum for the superior children; (2) teachers realize the need for guid- ance goals and accomplishment quotients; (3) additional emphasis on minimum essentials for slow groups; (4) an enlarged oppor- tunity for the study of individual differences; and (5) speed group- ing is an actual money saver. 1. Enlargement of opportunity and enrichment of curriculum for the superior children. The bright children grouped together have an opportunity to work at their maximum, thus preventing habits of dawdling and idleness, so common when bright children are grouped with slow children. Reading reports submitted by teachers show marked differences in the number of books read by superior and slow groups. The following is taken from a report of the beginning first grade in the P. R. Walker School. These are group, not individual, reading reports. September, 1922, to February, 1923. Superior Group: Stories based on children’s experiences; Beacon Chart; New Beacon Primer to page 31; Free and Treadwell Primer; Story Hour Primer, Story Hour—Book One; Holton Primer—50 pages. Average Group: Stories based on children’s experiences; Beacon Chart; New Beacon Primer to page 31; Free and Treadwell Primer; Story Hour Primer. Slow Group: Stories based on children’s experiences; Beacon Chart; New Beacon Primer to page 26; Free and Treadwell Primer. Need for guidance goals and accomplishment quotients—One of the most encouraging results of speed grouping is that teachers are realizing the need for courses of study providing guidance goals and curriculum content to meet the needs of the different groups. With this end in view, Rockford teachers, on their own initiative, are working on such a course of study in English. The real need to know how to enrich the curriculum for the superior child is moti- vating this piece of constructive educational work. Testing at the beginning and again at the close of a semester for accomplishment is an important factor in speed grouping. ‘The fol- _lowing is an illustration of work done in a beginning fourth grade in the P. A. Peterson School during the last semester. By stand- ardized tests the pupils were grouped into three groups—good, medium, and poor. The poor group was coached daily for six weeks by the special help teacher, the other groups were taught by 232 ELEMENTARY SCHOOL PRINCIPALS the room teacher according to their greatest needs, some in oral reading, others in silent reading. Informal speed tests were given weekly. At the close of the semester, standardized tests were again given for accomplishment. A marked improvement in reading had been made as may be seen in Table 1. TABLE 1. Courtis Silent Reading Good Group Rate Index of Comp. Number Gray’s Standard 113 Standard 78 Library Standard Oral, books read 46 June, Sept., 1922 1922 |} June, 1922 | Jan., 1923 | June, 1922 | Jan., 1923 |to Feb., 1923 Harry....... 523 120 193 77 88 ig ]Peer 60 140 193 78 90 4 Evar........ 532 151 193 33 7 4 | ee 48? 111 171 85 72 28 Paul.........| 48% 126 156 50 89 5 Francis. ..... n. d.* 193 193 87 90 4 Kenneth. .... 50 117 181 90 95 0 Raymond....| 48} 130 n. d. 65 n. d. 3 Charlotte....| 55 101 145 86 93 8 Irene........ n. d. 193 193 54 70 19 Santo........ 523 193 134 80 96 5 Donald...... n. d. 188 193 88 90 6 Erma........ n. d. 173 193 85 95 22 Elvira....... n. d. 142 193 75 72 19 Anna........ n. d. 128 154 66 97 8 | 138 | *n. d. means no data. ** Harry read 3 books in 20 weeks; Erma read 22; etc. Average was 9 books. In January, 1923, nine out of the fifteen were up to standard or above in compre- hension fora 4A Grade. The 4A standard is 89. Methods used for the improvement of comprehension—The fol- lowing methods were successfully used with the slow group for the improvement of comprehension: (1) The informal ‘“Yes-No”’ test. This was first administered by the teacher who gave the questions to the group; the pupils were permitted to read or re-read the para- graphs assigned in order to secure the answers. Later, members of the group composed their own ‘“Yes-No” questions for others to answer. (2) Questions were asked by the teacher and the answers were read by the pupils using the exact words of the book. This method closely correlated comprehension with vocabulary which was very desirable as many of this group were slow oral readers. This exer- cise soon became socialized by members of the group asking the —_ ques on t The ansv wert q ues Flor Cly Da at Tue SEcoND YEARBOOK 233 questions. (3) Pupils were asked to write answers to questions put on the blackboard by the teacher after the lesson had been studied. Then the pupils were permitted to take books and to verify their answers or to exchange papers and to verify answers. were given a time limit to study a page. (4) Pupils Then each pupil wrote a question about what he read. The questions were collected in a box TABLE 2. Courtis Silent Reading—Medium Group Gray’s Rate Standard 113 Index of Comp. Standard 78 poem ibrary books read Standard 46 June, | Oral, | 1922 | June, 1922 | Jan., 1923 June, 1922 | Jan., 1923 Sept., 1922 to Feb., 1923 45 79 | 86 | 138 | 93 94 148 146 180 193 156 100 140 193 143 n. d. 193 152 102 ARB BoBoMBe pp 3! | | os — NOAOOMNSOAwdw & Cooono Average number of books read = 5. TABLE 3. Courtis Silent Reading—Slow Group | Gray’s Oral, Rate Standard 113 Index of Comp. Standard 78 Number Library books read | June, 1922 } June, 1922 | Jan., 1923 June, 1922 | Jan., 1923 Sept., 1922 Feb., 1923 67 47 79 64 66 93 74 51 n. d. 186 117 167 117 107 160 143 90 106 46 96 66 52 86 50 11 90 41 65 92 10 58 64 70 50 16 n. d. COOoOorFNNCOW eo J Average number of books read 4. 234 ELEMENTARY SCHOOL PRINCIPALS and then distributed. Each pupil read the question and gave the answer. If no one could answer a given question, all opened the books and read to find the answer. (5) Much benefit was derived from oral reproduction which involved words or phrases descriptive of a certain character. This also enlarged the vocabulary of the group. This experiment seemed to indicate the value of grouping. Such classification tends to make the children happier for every one has an equal chance to do all that he is capable of accomplishing. Speed grouping saves money—Some one has computed that forty millions are spent annually in re-teaching pupils. No one can esti- mate the loss to the retarded pupils. The following data, secured from Rockford schools where classification according to mental ability has been successfully tried is of interest. The primary grades in Church School during 1920 and 1921 cost Rockford an additional $281.82 on account of repeaters. During 1921 and 1922 the same school saved $172.12. P. R. Walker School made an unusual record, saving the city $2338.77 during 1921 and 1922. The same school has saved the city during the last semester $2275.11. The saving of Garrison School in June, 1922, was $602.42, for the last semester, $1204.47. Last June, Kishwaukee School showed a saving for the year of $387.27 against $35.23 for 1920 and 1921. Kent School, located in a southern European dis- trict, has done much in speed grouping. The last semester’s work shows a saving to the city of $133.83. The advanced third grade in the same school scored 45.1 against a standard of 46 in Gray’s Oral Reading test showing a good standard of work for Italian chil- dren. Brown School closed the semester with a saving of $356.88 and Highland School, $1070.64. The above figures are based on the fact that a year’s elementary instruction costs Rockford $85.05, each semester costing $42.53. Were the results in the educational work lowered because of this grouping? On the contrary these groups showed progress through measured results in reading, much in advance of other schools both in quality and amount read. A study of a first-grade group in Garrison School illustrates this. The first-grade children were tested in September with the Pressey Primer Scale before groupings were made. Ten of the September beginners covered a year’s work in five months with the following ———— e the d the Tived iptive f the Such > has forty esti- ured ental Tue SECOND YEARBOOK 235 scores in Gray’s Oral Reading test given January 22, 1923. Their scores are included with the 1A group submitted as they had been found so efficient that they had been grouped together. Gray’s Oral Reading—1A Standard, 31 Pupil Score Pupil Score Barbara Lois B. Anna Robert Kenneth Barbara B. Phyllis Minnie Richard Roger Victor The following is a report of the group readings in this first grade. This does not include books read by individual pupils. 1B Group 1. Beacon Chart; Studies in Reading Primer; Rhyme and Story Primer; Winston Primer; Free and Treadwell Primer; Beacon Primer; New Barnes Primer; Story Hour Primer. Group 2. Beacon Chart; Studies in Reading, p. 78; Rhyme and Story Primer; Winston Primer; New Barnes Primer. Group 3. Beacon Chart; Part of Studies in Reading. 1A Wide Awake Junior; Edson-Laing Introductory; Playtime Stories; Aldine—Book One; Elson—Book One; Studies in Read- ing—Book I; New Barnes—Book II; Circus Reader. Subjective measurement is liable to error. There is a tendency among teachers to confuse conduct with achievement. They some- times fail to take age and emotional differences into account. Teachers are not likely to rate dull pupils as average or superior, but they are likely to rate superior children as average. Speed grouping and its relation to remedial work—Speed group- ing is the corner-stone for remedial work. If we are to awaken within our teachers a desire for the greatest service to society, we must lead all teachers away from mass treatment toward a study of individual differences. As they do this they will capitalize the indi- vidual differences for the benefit of the group. The following study of a 2B room will show that even in a primary grade other factors, as well as mental age, need to be considered. This B second grade was grouped into three sections, the remedial teacher working with the slowest section. This grouping was based chiefly on ability to 236 ELEMENTARY SCHOOL PRINCIPALS read although each child had been given Stanford Revision of Binet as well as Haggerty, Delta I, and Pressey Primer Scale. Gray’s Oral Reading test had been administered. A Seating Plan for a II B Group Indicating I. Q.’s and Grouping Based on Reading Ability Good Division Slow Division | | F L | 94.2 | 83.1 | G | M R ve | AA 83.8 | 78.5 N Ww | BB 88.8 ; 90.5 | 78.8 85 O x* CC* 6 | 78.6 7 | 81.3 Y DD* 91.9 Q Z | EE 90.8 | 88.3 | 93.7 | P 97.6 89.1 | - | | 79.1 Names starred form the slowest group. They work with the remedial teacher. K is very deaf. R’s father died of tuberculosis before R was born. G is a sickly boy from an irresponsible home but he can read. V suffers from mal-nutrition. T neurotic background; mal-nutrition. EE good mentality—long absence because of illness. Above is a seating-plan which shows the I. Q.’s and the grouping according to ability to read. This study is plainly proving to the remedial teacher and other members of the faculty that other factors as well as innate mental ability must be considered in our grouping. Physical characteristics and defects, emotional tendencies, as well as environmental conditions, must have their place in diagnostic and remedial work. Every effort is being made to improve physical and environmental conditions through codperation with the parents. Just what measures is the remedial teacher using to improve the slowest group? All of the following are constantly used: ‘. A maximum of phonetic and oral-reading. Tue SEcoND YEARBOOK 2. A variety of plans for building up meaning concepts for the printed words, phrases, and sentences. Dramatization proved the most helpful medium for building these concepts. Re-telling in the pupil’s own words or relating the words of the book to his own previous experiences did much to reduce failure in the interpretation of thought. Many times failure was due to an insufficient background of experiences. 3. Emphasis on phrasing. 4. Use of flash-cards. 5. Very simple reading materials until the pupils have improved in fluency in oral reading and in grasp of content. As speed grouping leads to group remedial work so group remedial work may lead to the teacher realizing a need for individual remedial work. May I present two cases? Case 1. Eleanor. Eleanor was presented to the supervisor in December, 1920, for special study because of her inability to read. She made no score in Gray’s Oral Reading test and was unable to make any progress in her regular class work. She was presented to the school psychiatrist for the Binet examination. Her chrono- logical age was 7 years, 11 months; mental age, 8 years, I. Q. 100+. It was decided to give her special help in a phonetic class. This was done, and, in May, 1921, she was again tested with Gray’s Oral Reading test and scored 3834 against a standard of 43. Help given by her grade teacher and the remedial teacher brought her score up to 45 in January, 1922. In January, 1923, she scored 117 against a standard of 113 in the Courtis Silent Reading test and 96 against a standard of 78 in comprehension. She has just been pro- moted to 4A. What factors were important in saving Eleanor? (1) The teacher gained the child’s complete confidence. The element of fear attend- ant upon failure was entirely removed. Her successes were capital- ized and she was encouraged to take a library card and do home reading. (2) Her parents becamé active partners in the remedial campaign. (3) Intensive phonetic work reduced certain technical difficulties. Case 2. John. A boy in the P. R. Walker district was presented to the school psychiatrist, October 31, 1922. His teachers pro- nounced him hopeless in reading. His parents were Italian; one brother was both mentally and emotionally defective. This lad in advanced third grade had a chronological age of 8 years, 11 months, and a mental age of 10 years, 2 months, an I. Q. of 114. On learn- ing his I. Q. we determined to use every possible means for improv- ing his reading. November 3, 1922, he scored 15 on Gray’s Oral 238 ELEMENTARY SCHOOL PRINCIPALS Reading test against a standard of 36. Vocabulary and phrasing were hopeless, but it was discovered that he could secure thought from the printed page although unable to recognize words. The teacher gained the boy’s confidence and codperation and has done some excellent remedial work. January 9, 1923, he was again tested with Gray’s Oral Reading test and scored 35. He had gained twenty points since November 3. In Sigma I, Haggerty Silent Reading, he scored normally for his age and only three points below 3A standard. His arithmetic work previously was normal. John’s reading difficulties were due chiefly to non-recognition, gross and minor mispronunciation, the last being caused by wrong accent and inaccuracy in word elements. The boy used his finger in pointing and vocalization was very marked. What remedial measures were most successful? (1) His confi- dence was secured ; he was made to feel that we wanted to help him. (2) He was made conscious of finger pointing and lip movement and asked to help himself. Vocalization was decreased and finger point- ing entirely abandoned. The marker was used for a time to lessen this habit. (3) Intensive phonetic drills were given when needed. (4) Plenty of simple reading material within the experience of the boy. (5) Attention to words which caused confusion because of similarity in form; as, thought, though, and through. The words were sometimes used in sentences before they were presented in quick-perception drills. If unusual difficulties were encountered, words which were similar in form were presented together so that their differences could be studied. (6) Phrasing and flash-card drills played an important part. John is not yet cured of his reading difficulties but he is learning how to help himself. These two children were not only saved from retardation but given a new lease on school life; for real school joy came to them as they became conscious of the power of achievement. What has a more stimulating effect on a child than for him at last to realize that he can do it? Is there a danger in speed grouping—Grouping in the primary grades must provide for flexibility. There may be a danger here unless the teacher is conscious of the need for transferring a child to another group when he has reached the proper stage of devel- opment. Some say that the bright child is an inspiration to the slow child. This must be emphatically denied. When slow children are grouped together leaders develop among them—an opportunity for the de- the | tests of a abil 3. enri opp chil 4 the 0. Tue SECOND YEARBOOK 239 velopment of initiative that could never have been while they were members of a group containing children of superior ability. Summary—1. The fundamental purpose of speed grouping is the improvement of classroom instruction and the development of such educational procedure that the child may advance according to his mental and educational status. 2. Speed grouping should be scientifically administered by means of intelligence tests and standardized educational tests which supply the guidance tools in the determination of aims for curricula. These tests furnish the guidance goals in the working out of a sliding scale of accomplishment which will adjust the load to the capacities and abilities of the pupils. 3. Speed grouping offers an enlargement of opportunity and an enrichment of curriculum for the superior children as well as an opportunity for the development of initiative among the slower children. 4. Speed grouping develops a scientific attitude on the part of the teacher. 5. Grouping according to mental ability together with remedial measures prove an economic investment as well as a conservation of child resources. The Re-classification of Pupils in One Elementary School WarrEN K. Layton Detroit Public Schools, Detroit, Michigan HOUGH the Detroit public schools have adopted a plan of classification of all elementary-school pupils on the basis of intelligence tests‘ and are now engaged in trying out the scheme in actual practice, the classification is effective at this writ- ing only as far as the third grade (examining was started in Septem- ber, 1920). The discussion in this chapter has nothing to do with the “X-Y-Z” classification, but merely with the re-sectioning of one elementary school and with some of the results obtained.? h Berry, Charles S., Classification by Tests of Intelligence of Ten Thousand First-grade Pupils, Journal of Educational Research, October, 1922. *The writer is indebted to Mr. Guy Bates and Miss Evelyn Hubbard, prin- cipal and assistant principal, respectively, of the James Dwyer School, and to Mr. Russell Doney, of the Psychological Clinic staff for valued assistance in the assembling of the data for: this study. 240 ELEMENTARY SCHOOL PRINCIPALS The tests were conducted in October, 1921, by representatives of the Psychological Clinic of the Detroit public schools, in the James Dwyer School, a platoon elementary school of 36 divisions. The pupils examined numbered 1184, not including the first-grade pupils who had already been rated by the Detroit First Grade Intelligence Test. Tests used in the examining were the Detroit Primary Test “X” and the Detroit Army Test “E,” the former a non-verbal group test not unlike the “Beta” Test used in the United States Army, and the latter an adaptation of the Army Alpha Test, both standardized for Detroit children. The “X” Test was used in Grades 2 to 4, inclusive, and the Detroit Army “E” in Grades 5 to 8, inclusive. Letter ratings and group ratings were assigned on an age basis as shown in the following table. TABLE 1. Per Cent of Pupils Assigned the Various Ratings Per Cent | Rating | Group 8 12 18 24 Z 12 8 | | 4 Thus it will be seen that a “Y” pupil means one whose intel- ligence rating places him in the middle 60 per cent of the distribu- tion for his age, an “X” pupil is in the highest 20 per cent and a “Z”’ pupil in the lowest 20 per cent; this arrangement is consistent with the plan followed in the first-grade classification, referred to above. Before reorganizing the school at the beginning of the second semester, conferences were held with the authorities of the Dwyer School and the decision was reached to utilize both the intelligence ratings and the teachers’ marks in making the re-classification. By averaging these, a single index was obtained, and the new sections for the second semester were made up so far as possible of pupils who were alike according to the combined criterion. In a platoon elementary school in Detroit, the entire membership of the school is divided into two large groups, one of which is ac- THE SEcOND YEARBOOK 241 commodated in the home rooms where the three R’s are taught, while the other group is engaged in the special activities such as the auditorium, gymnasium, and instruction in art, literature, and other subjects on a departmentalized basis.1_ The two groups alter- nate in the home and special rooms, each group having one and one half hours continuously in the home rooms and also in the special activities, throughout the six-hour day. Thus, each teacher of home rooms has two divisions, usually of the same grade, though not always so; one of the divisions assigned to one teacher may be B4 and the other A4, for example. Where there are several divisions in any one grade, sectioning on some definite basis is not particularly difficult; it usually takes the form of arranging the pupils in an order of rank according to whatever criterion is selected and placing the highest pupils in the first section until that is filled, and so on. In the first-grade classification, for example, but few schools have sections consisting exclusively of X, Y, or Z pupils, but many schools have divisions that are X’s and high Y’s, low Y’s and Z’s, and many that are all Y’s, since the Y pupils constitute 60 per cent of the total. In the Dwyer School, an effort was made wherever possible to place together in divisions the pupils of like standing according to the test and the teacher, as explained above, though in some grades little change was made over the situation the previous semester. There were six double promotions made. In the following table are shown the results of the test in the Dwyer School, by intelligence groups, compared to the distribution of such groups in the city as a whole. TABLE 2 Per Cent in Per Cent Group Dwyer School | in City 10 20 59 60 31 20 The reason that the Dwyer School had an intelligence distribution so much lower than that of the city as a whole is almost certainly due to the fact that the school is largely foreign, only 13 per cent of the membership consisting of Americans and Canadians. That the distribution of nationalities in the Dwyer differs markedly from that in the city is shown clearly in Table 3. * Spain, Charles L., The Platoon School in Detroit, The Detroit Educational Bulletin, Research Bulletin No. 2, Detroit Board of Education. ELEMENTARY SCHOOL PRINCIPALS TABLE 3 Per Cent in Nationality Dwyer School 13 2 15 20 41 9 Racoon ss There seem to be marked differences in the performance in intel- ligence tests of the different nationality groups. Of course the lan- guage handicap tends to reduce the test scores to some extent in the case of all foreign-speaking pupils, this tendency to score lower vary- ing inversely with the time that has elapsed since the arrival of the children in this country, or, in the case of those born here, with the time required for them to learn ordinary conversational English. But there are still differences which seem to persist, and for which it is difficult to find an explanation. Some of these differences are revealed in Table 4. TABLE 4. Percentage of Foreign-Speaking Pupils in Groups X, Y, and Z Nationality x Z 4 26 6 44 8 38 13 24 The standing of the various nationalities as shown in Table 4 is about the same relatively as the standings determined for the same groups in Dr. Berry’s study of ten thousand first-grade children in Detroit, made in 1920-21, and referred to at the beginning of this article. The writer was interested in determining the extent to which the re-sectioning, though accomplished on a basis representing both test ratings and teacher’s marks, had actually tended to make more uni- form the intelligence levels in the different divisions. To this end tabulations of the ratings of the pupils according to the intelligence tests, by divisions, were made for the first and second semester, separately, of 1921-22, and the results of these tabulations are shown in Table 5. T the lra 16 sect: the redt red the defi: sche seco able the gray repo abil sem assis to te the chil has the | that war fluer the mad seme five | Tue SEcoND YEARBOOK TABLE 5. Ratings of Pupils by Divisions First Second Divisions Semester | Semester The following shows the distribution, by intelligence ratings, of the pupils who failed to be promoted at the end of the first semester: lrated X; 47 rated Y; and 66 rated Z. Of interest, also, is the failure situation before and after the re- sectioning of the pupils, revealed in Table 6. It is apparent from the information in Table 6 that the number of failing pupils was reduced considerably after the re-sectioning of the school. That the reduced number of failures is to be attributed mainly to the fact that the pupils were sectioned according to ability, cannot be shown definitely, of course. About 115 pupils were transferred to another school where an addition had been opened at the beginning of the second semester, and it was thought at first that perhaps a consider- able number of the failing pupils were in the transferred group, but the fact was disclosed that the reason for the transfers was a geo- graphical one and that the pupils going to the other school were reported by their new principal as being for the most part of average ability. It is probable that the sectioning of the pupils the second semester had some effect on the number of failures; the teachers had assisted in making the classification and were doubtless stimulated to take more interest in individual cases; at least it is the feeling in the Detroit schools that extensive examining of pupils causes more child study, so that the influence, if indirect, is very good. There has been an effort in Detroit, as elsewhere, in recent years to reduce the “flunkage,” so of course every one has in mind to some extent that everything possible should be done to enable pupils to pass reg- ularly from grade to grade. This factor of course has had its in- fluence on the situation. In the first three grades, in fact, where the X-Y-Z classification is in effect, there was a particular effort made to promote as many pupils as possible at the end of the first semester of 1921-22. This pressure was not exerted in the remaining five grades. 244 ELEMENTARY SCHOOL PRINCIPALS TABLE 6. Percentage of Failures giv rul February, June, the Grade | 1922 1922 me the Bl | 15.7 | 15.5 “s Al | 23 | 7.6 Is. | r B2 14.0 | 11.0 , A2 12.9 0.0 on Bs | 15.4 | 48 att A3 5.4 | 1.8 rels B4 16.9 4.9 A4 5.5 2.9 B5 11.9 2.2 A5 7.0 0.0 B6 5.8 1.6 A6 2.2 2.8 B7 3.6 0.0 A7 3.9 3.4 B8 0.0 0.0 A8& 5.0 0.0 Most investigators find that the coefficient of correlation between intelligence test scores and scholarship marks is about .4, which indi- cates presumably that the teachers’ marks reward attitude, industry, and the like as well as native ability—or perhaps instead of native ability in some instances. In Table 7 is shown the relation between the intelligence ratings of the Dwyer School pupils and the marks TABLE 7. Relation Between Intelligence Ratings and Teachers’ Marks in Dwyer School Intelligence Ratings Teachers’ Marks | | | Total BK D}|}C-|} C | C+j} Bi} A | 1 2 9 7 | 13 | 13 6 7 57 1.5 8 19 22 | 2@ | 14 ~ 8 105 2 31 61 62 | 99 | 71 37 24 385 2.5 35 51 56 | 9 | 54) 4] 8 308 3 49 72 82 68 | 36 17 | 4 | 328 3.5! 24 35 17 | 2 | 8 2 | | il 4 10 17 13 | 8 4 52 4.5 5 2 |} 2 | 9 173 | 268 | 261 | 331 | 200 | 84 | 51 | 1,368 | | | ween indi- istry, ative ween narks ; in THe SEcOND YEARBOOK 245 given them by their teachers. Detroit pupils are marked on a scale running from 1 to 5, 5 indicating failure. The median mark given the Dwyer pupils in the first semester of 1921-22 was 2.23, the median intelligence rating was C— (median for the city is C), and the coefficient of correlation between the test ratings and the marks is .39 (P. E. is .01). This study has provided, in addition to other information, data on language spoken at home and ratings of teachers on health and attitude toward school, which are shown in Tables 8, 9, and 10, in relation to the intelligence ratings of the pupils. TABLE 8 | | | Language Spoken | | at Home = | = £8 Total Ee ee eae | 42 165 | 73 280 RRR eS wy oe | 13 | 114] 103 230 See er ey | 11 | 89 | 96 196 ORS reece 1 11 | 8] 28 98 PE esta ncaanwsieed | 47 | 266/ 103 416 English and Polish...... = I 17 | 6 | 25 English and Italian... .. 10 | 3 13 English and Russian... . 1 3 | 4 English and Jew........| 5 28 | 4 37 Miscellaneous.......... | 9 54 | 24 87 141 | 796 | 449 | 1,386 TABLE 9 Health X | Y | Z | Total | | | Racca | 127| 688| 370| 1,185 I inte Rika nie eae | 26/ 108 | 54 | 188 cctin beige kccmnce nied 4/ 20) 6 | 30 | 157 | 816 | 430 | 1,403 | | TABLE 10 Attitude toward School; X y¥ ig | Total | ks Wikesne Mexicans 116 | 592 | 280 | 988 RE ae REIS | 7] 105| 127 239 i cintebbssccuieces | 3| 29) 20) 52 | 126 | 726 | 427 | 1,279 ELEMENTARY SCHOOL PRINCIPALS SUMMARY 1. An elementary school with a membership of approximately 1400 was re-sectioned in an effort to place together so far as possible those pupils in a given grade who were alike or nearly alike accord- ing to a combined criterion representing scores in an intelligence test and marks assigned by their teacher. 2. As a result of this re-alignment, the number of divisions con- taining pupils of the extremes of mental ability was materially re- duced, while several divisions consisting of pupils homogeneous as to mental ability within the limits of the group rating (X-Y-Z) were created, where none had been in existence before. 3. The per cent of failure was reduced considerably after the re- sectioning, probably due in part to the influence of the pupils being more homogeneously grouped. 4. The tendency of the teachers’ marks to agree with the ratings by the intelligence tests is represented by a correlation coefficient of .39. This is in harmony with results of other investigators. 5. The level of mental ability in the school is lower than the level of the city as a whole, the median for the city falling in the middle 24 per cent of the distribution while the median for the particular school is in the C— rating, comprising the 18 per cent just below the C rating. 6. The lower mental level of the school is probably accounted for by the large amount of foreign nationality found in its mem- bership. 7. Tabulations of the intelligence ratings with relation to nation- ality (which means in Detroit country of birth of the father) and also with respect to language spoken at home, indicate that there are probably fundamental differences of some kind which cause a wide variation in the scores of the different groups. 8. The results in general seem to indicate that a re-alignment of pupils such as was accomplished in the Dwyer School does not pre- sent unusual difficulties administratively and that it serves the pur- pose of interesting teachers in the study of individual children and may have other good effects.‘ ‘Another study, now being made by Mr. James H. Voorhees, is concerned with the actual improvement in instruction in the Dwyer School and another school in the same neighborhood which was not re-sectioned. This study is not complete, but the preliminary results indicate that the Dwyer showed as great gains in final over initial educational tests as did the other school and in many instances somewhat greater improvement, though the differences in the educational test scores are not large. ately ssible cord- e test con- y re- us as were ie Te- eing tings cient level iddle vular elow nted 1em- tion- and » are wide it of pre- pur- and CHAPTER IV The Effects of Classifications Involving Test Results LEONARD POWER LAWRENCE S. CHASE A. M. SANTEE CHAPTER IV The Effects of Grouping According to Intelligence in the Franklin School, Port Arthur, Texas LEONARD POWER Principal of the Franklin School, Port Arthur, Texas HIS ARTICLE is written primarily to tell the results as ex- pressed in a modified curriculum. It is fortunate that we can begin this paper after the tests had been given. If the author were to tell all of the handicaps one labors under when trying scien- tifically to test a whole school, most readers would not think the results justified the work necessary to obtain them. In just a sen- tence I would advise no one to undertake using either the Binet- Simon individual test or the Otis Group test (Form A) unless he knows not less than thirty minutes can be given to each child. It took two complete years to test the children of this school. The first year a tester gave her full time to the individual tests. The second year a full time group tester was added. The story of those two years is interesting locally, but for the Yearbook we can jump over it to what happened next. By the close of the term, 1921-1922, we had tested the children. The entire faculty had taken both of the intelligence tests and had read and studied and heard lectures on testing until we felt sure all knew the meaning of the mysterious I. Q. We felt that all was ready. “On the mark,” we were. “Get set,” yes. Then three months later, “Go.” It is just as impossible for a school to stay “set”’ for three months as it would be for a runner. When we could “GO” at the beginning of the next year, twenty-two new teachers were “On the mark,” six hundred new untested children were “On the mark,” and not any of them were set—not any of them knew the goal or the kind of race. To twelve of the teachers, I. Q.’s were words to con- jure with. Experience had taught us to expect many new children and several new teachers to be on the mark at the beginning of the new year. We made sure that those who had been with us and who would return would have a place to go. The school is large enough to have 200 or more children in each half grade. The children were ranked, in each half grade, according to their I. Q.’s. All classes are held to a maximum of forty. After the children were ranked in a long [ 249 ] 250 ELEMENTARY SCHOOL PRINCIPALS column, the column was divided into five as nearly equal parts as pos- sible—leaving less than forty in the lowest group. That is how we had all of the children who had been here “On the mark, ‘set,’ and ready to ‘Go.’”’ Each child was given the program of the class to which he was assigned. In the extremes, the highest and lowest I. Q. groups, we made no change when school opened. We did squeeze the three intermediate classes into two and created another class for the newcomers until they could be tested and properly placed. With the exceptions of children who were in the same family with different I. Q.’s, children who “had always been in the same class” with different I. Q.’s, and with the exception of a few children who were “such good neighbors and, Mr. Power, I just don’t think it would be right to separate them,” and with the exception of a few more we had all of the children grouped according to their I. Q.’s. We soon learned that we were not sorting inanimate objects. These objects were animate and magnetic. Their assortment at- tracted their friends and their parents. We were forced to make due allowances, and after these were made we found only a few actual changes in the extremes—the dull children generally had dull friends, dull brothers and sisters. The bright children came from bright families and had bright friends for neighbors. There was a marked difference in the economic status of most of the children at the extremes. We did not hold to the rule of homogeneous group- ing so strongly that it brought unhappiness to a single child or to his parents. After all of the adjustments were made—ten days after the opening of school—the children were ready to “Go.” The faculty is divided into academic and non-academic groups. This classification about evenly divides the faculty of 68 teachers. There are. five academic teachers to each grade. Through the fifth grade each teacher teaches all of the academic work of a low or beginning class and all of the work of a high or advanced class. The children come to her for four 45-minute periods daily for their reading, writing, spelling, numbers, language, and geography. They go to other teachers for their physical education, nature study, literature, music, handwork, and auditorium. For the first year of our experiment we decided to study the academic needs for adjust- ment. to the various groups. Above the fifth grade the academic work is departmentalized with five teachers for each grade. They teach arithmetic, language, geography, history, and science. Above the fifth grade writing is taught only to those who write below quality 50 on the “Gettysburg” scale. They have a special teacher. Above the fifth grade reading —— pos- V we and ss to west did ther erly with ” ‘ass who ould > We ects. at- lake tual dull rom aS a 1 at yup- r to fter Ips. ers. ifth or ass. \elr hy. dy, ear ist- ith ge, is rg” ng Tue SECOND YEARBOOK 251 changes to “Library” one period daily under a trained librarian and assistant in a large library. In the seventh grade (the last elemen- tary grade in Texas), geography changes to elementary science. It has been necessary to give a brief outline of the organization of the school in order that later statements may be understood. It will be necessary, later, to refer to the work of some of the special depart- ments as it refers to testing. We do not think of a school as a collec- tion of classrooms where each room is in charge of one teacher. To get the faculty ready to “Go,” it was necessary to reorganize it slightly at the opening of school. Three transfers were made in the academic group. We made sure that the slow groups were always taught by teachers who had been with us the year before. This was, of course, impossible in the upper grades which were departmental- ized. The middle groups were assigned to new teachers of greatest experience ; the bright groups, to our own teachers. By taking care of the extreme groups with our “old” teachers we felt that we were ready to “Go.” “Where were you going?” you may ask. We were going through the year with the children while holding as closely to the old course of study as we desired. We had hoped the course of study might be enriched for the bright children and we had hoped to find the mini- mum essentials for the dull children. The entire course of study was made by the teachers who revise it annually in the light of their experience. It was not therefore a fixed standard which must be attained. The lowest group was selected from the first four grades and put into an opportunity class in a near-by school which had been aban- doned when this one was built. This class of eighteen had been in school from 2 to 11 years. All were less than seven years old men- tally. This, however, was nothing new to the school system. While we were giving so many tests we were forced to take care of these children with the others. Their teacher was our most expert individual tester. Every two weeks, conferences of the teachers of the extreme groups were called. There was much general talk. We were all soon con- vinced that we had too many dull children. Teachers began to learn more than ever before about the other Q.’s of these children. If Q. is an abbreviation for a quotient which tells how the child relates to the normal in one or two aspects, let’s use it for as many other aspects as possible. The Physical Education Department (eight teachers) astonished us when they said perhaps the low I. Q. was caused by eight or ten quotients that could be figured in their de- partment. Just here let me say that this department does no t* ws VV 252 ELEMENTARY SCHOOL PRINCIPALS academic teaching but drills each child for two forty-five-minute periods daily. We asked them what quotients they would like to figure. They came back with several. The N. P. B. Q. (number of persons to each bed in the home quotient) : the N. P. R. Q. (number of persons to each room in the home quotient): the V. C. Q. (vital capacity quotient): the H. Q. and the W. Q. (height and weight quotients) : the ratio of the number of children living to the number of children dead: the D. Q. (diet quotient) and the medical history quotient. Their reports, now covering about one half of the dull children, lie before me. Without careful study, I agree with the physical director that forty per cent of the dull children are strug- gling against great handicaps in environment and heredity. We be- lieve we can raise about half of the dull children to a much higher level when dental and surgical needs are met; when correct health habits are formed; and when just half as much time is given to their bodies as is now given to their minds. Unseeing eyes are to be opened ; unhearing ears are to be unstopped; cramped lungs are to be expanded, and sources of poison (diseased adenoids and tonsils and decaying teeth) are to be removed. Already much has been done in this direction but a comprehensive statistical report will not be available for another year. The first result of grouping was to segregate our borderline cases. The second result was to make a careful study of the child’s environ- ment and physical condition. Neither of these was new. We had been examining children each year for six years. The grouping had only called the most urgent needs to our immediate attention. The third result came immediately at the time we were ready to say, “Go.” It came from all of the shops (twelve teachers). They had been asked, while our “Opportunity” teacher was giving full time to testing for a year and a half, to carry the very dull children for the greater part of their school day. Although rather resenting the idea that dull children could do better in the shops than else- where, they were willing to try out our theory that possibly these were motor-minded children. They told us forcibly, after a year and a half of trial, that the very dull children could not do shop work any better than they could do any other work and that they were not any happier in the shops than elsewhere. So we took those children out of the shops at once. They may become manual laborers but they can never become skilled manual laborers. They will operate automatic machines successfully but the machines of the school are not automatic. We therefore have opened special shops for them where they may make the same articles over and over at looms, with sloyd tools and with scissors, needle, and thread. Lute > to r of iber ‘ital ight iber jory dull the rug- - be- rher alth heir » be e to isils een not ASes, ron- had ying ‘ion. y to ‘hey full iren ting else- hese year shop they hose nual “hey 3 of ecial over ‘ead. THE SECOND YEARBOOK 253 The dull groups were kept together for their shop work just as they were kept together for their academic work. The shop instructors all agree that this is wise. They are not so sure that all of these dull children should take shop and so we have made the shop elective with less than two per cent of the boys withdrawing and less than one per cent of the girls withdrawing. In the departmental work of the sixth and seventh grades the ‘group plan failed, miserably and utterly. All of those dull fellows, those over-age fellows, those “lazy” fellows, those ‘‘bad” boys were grouped together. They would test the patience of a Job. One does not reasonably expect to find twelve Jobs even among twelve teachers, although teachers may claim that, taken as a class, they are all Jobs. The problems of discipline were most severe for the teachers; the principal was most worried over other matters. Here were the teachers each teaching four groups of children in the low half grade and four classes in the high half grade. The arithmetic teacher planned (theoretically) four lessons for the low classes and four lessons for the high classes. Each special subject teacher (theoreti- cally) did the same. The facts were different. One period, say the first period of the school day, the brightest group of a half grade recited to Miss A. The next period the dullest group came in. They were in the same half grade but were different in many ways. There should have been a separate lesson plan for each—a difference in content and attack. Those bright boys and girls have a hearty dislike for drill. They belong to the lazy group that is always inventing. They love to solve problems. They are inclined to leave accuracy to’ machines. They like to make investigations. Their naturally inquiring minds soon discover that the teacher is not the source of all knowledge. They make her dig for supplementary sources. They like type studies and projects. But how can one earry on projects with eight classes daily? What kind of a project can make much progress in forty-five minutes? What projects are confined to a single subject? Does not your departmental plan break down when it attempts to handle projects? These and other questions were raised at the teachers’ meetings. We decided to departmentalize only a part of the time. At first, we decided to have just one day a week of non-departmental work. The programs of the children were not affected. The programs of the teachers were changed so that each teacher met but one low class and one high class on that day. She met each of these classes for four 45-minute periods. She was encouraged to undertake projects. The arithmetic teacher’s projects naturally ran mostly to numbers; 254 ELEMENTARY SCHOOL PRINCIPALS the history teacher’s to history—each teacher to her favorite sub- ject. But on that day no attempt was made to teach any particular subject in the formal way. The teachers like this. The bright children like it. Each teacher mothers two groups; each group has a mother to whom all confessions can be made weekly at least. So- cialized recitations and projects are the rule on that day: commit- tees fairly buzz about from room to library and laboratory; but the needs of the dull children had not been met adequately. The dull children needed more mothering. So we gave one teacher in each of the upper grades the two dull groups. We selected the teacher who was most like Solomon and Job combined. Dis- cipline troubles disappeared. The other groups proved better than the year before. The teachers of the dull sections soon asked all other teachers to help them determine minimum essentials. They agreed that the dull children liked to do anything they knew per- fectly how to do. They liked repetition, drill. They disliked mak- ing applications of principles and solving problems. They liked the informal tests of fundamentals in arithmetic and grammar. They liked to think of themselves as doing the things they could do. Before they were segregated they were always competing with much brighter children. Then they were sure to be the ones who failed. They had almost acquired the habit of failing. Segregation was good for them. To determine the minimum essentials in grammar two studies of oral errors were made. Each study covered a three-day period. The results of the studies were almost identical and were very close to Charter’s study in Kansas City. We read bulletins and yearbooks and magazine articles on minimum essentials. Then we decided to embody these minimum essentials in informal tests which were to be given every six weeks. The dull groups were expected to make as great relative progress as the bright groups—all progress to be relative to the level of beginning. Naturally, the dull groups spent more time on practice tests much like the test for the entire school. All teachers agreed that the fundamental operations in arithmetic should be as nearly mastered as possible. Certain tests which we had been using were approved. These tests were given each six weeks. Each test was similar to the others but not identical in figures used. We also worked out a little device in addition and sub- traction and in multiplication. The dull groups like devices of all kinds. See pages 256 and 257, which show front and back of drill card. Each of the subjects of the curriculum is now being given careful study. Spelling has been more carefully worked out for us than any Tue SECOND YEARBOOK 255 other subject. We are using Tidyman’s list made from a study of the “Writing Vocabularies of Children.” In each grade careful tests are given weekly. Records of the progress of each child are kept. Records of the number of times each word was missed on the first and second spellings, on the review, and on the six weeks’ test are kept. Teachers of slow groups give more time to drill than teach- ers of rapid groups. The slow groups may need two spelling les- sons daily to cover the ground covered by the rapid groups. Twenty- four words a week is arbitrarily set as the pace of all above the second grade. We learned that we wanted a more detailed course of study. Each grade group set to work on its problems. The work of the first- and second-grade teachers will be briefly described. The first-grade teachers decided to determine a vocabulary of 200 words. Not any of the nineteen first-grade readers and primers had been carefully studied for vocabulary content. The teachers decided to use a list of their own until their study could be completed. Their choice was most largely influenced by the frequency of the words in the basal primer. Each child was tested on 100 words for his half grade each six weeks. A special form of card for testing was devised. Special test blanks were worked out. At the end of the year the teachers knew how to attack the words the next year. As an illustration of the amount of drudgery required for the scientific word study of nineteen books—a study in which each word was listed according to its frequency in each book—I wish to state that the study extended over eleven school months, took 80 hours for each of seven teachers, then the results took 35 hours each for two stenographers. The new list is much better than the old. It was worth the trouble. The teachers of the first two grades soon concluded that grouping on a basis of word recognition was more practical than grouping on intelligence. A combination was made whereby the former is the guide and we find that in about three months the sorting has been about right according to intelligence. To test the plan, the intelli- gence tests were not given to the beginners this year until they had been resorted at three six-weeks’ intervals. The tests then showed some variations for individuals but the rank of the class as a whole was not changed. Nine classes were tested. The problem of the second grade was to use the words of the first grade and to add 300 words to them. A study of “Measurement of Silent Reading,” by May Ayres Burgess, was made by all of these teachers. The Burgess test was in use in the third grade and above. These teachers devised their own test for the second grade. In the second grade the teachers were more anxious to hold to classification ELEMENTARY SCHOOL PRINCIPALS PORT ARTHUR. INDEPENDENT SCHOOL DISTRICT MULTIPLICATION TABLE DRILL CARD No. 1 Patent Applied For INSTRUCTIONS: 1. Be sure children have proper heading—Name, section and date on their papers. 2. . Lay this ee eo eee i To supply “Name of Table” blanks use numbers at head of columns on Allow one minute for the children to supply all p=dducts. eee cee eee eeleomce te tans product wriften. Tue SECOND YEARBOOK PORT ARTHUR INDEPENDENT SCHOOL DISTRICT DIVISION TABLE DRILL GARD No. 1 Patent Applied For INSTRUCTIONS: 1. Move card one-half inch to the right, thus covering what you have written. 2 Write quotients for one minute after your teacher says “Start” Underscore the last quotient you write. 3. Turn card over and check by comparison. 4 Encircle each wrong quotient. 5. Ask each child to score. Eleven is a perfect column score and 55 is a perfect test score. 6. . Each child write his total column scores and his total score. Public School Print Shop 258 ELEMENTARY SCHOOL PRINCIPALS based on reading ability than classification based on general intelli- gence tests. In both the first and second grades reclassifications are possible each six weeks. Each grade thus has six steps of accom- plishment instead of two (highs and lows) as formerly. The re- classifications each six weeks are based upon carefully obtained re- sults and there is much less shifting after the first time or two than one would imagine. As I stated when speaking of the first-grade tests, the bright children soon get together, the dull children soon get together, with this possible advantage; the dull child who is willing to work harder may be with the bright child who is lazy. Such carefully devised accomplishment tests have not been worked out for the other grades but all the teachers are more favorably in- clined to accomplishment tests as classifiers. The teachers consider their major problem is to determine what to teach. Another result which we regard as excellent is seen in the eagerness with which we are attacking specific difficulties. Method plans and devices are growing out of studies of Freeman’s “Experi- mental Education.” The number of demonstration lessons by teachers has increased. Our organization was flexible before we undertook special group- ing. Promotion by subjects begins in the fifth grade. We have always made it possible for the child to succeed in a few things and he always moves on in his successful studies. Retention, that ter- rible word, has been robbed of its terrors except in the specific study in which the child fails. There are 72 classes in the school. Should the school break the course of study into 72 parts and base the accomplishment record of each child entirely upon the mastery of these steps? This would allow the bright children to complete the course of study in less than seven years, which course, instead of enriching the curriculum, would reduce it to mechanical routine. Then each teacher would be like a factory operative, yet there are certain advantages of modern factory methods which the school needs. Products are standardized; production is greatly increased per workman-hour. The school wants standards in each of its subjects, for standards are absolutely necessary where there are measurable quantities. The ability of a child to add, subtract, multiply, divide, read, spell, write, or locate places can be measured. Without question standards may be ap- plied to these things. By applying these standards the units can be constantly reduced and more minutely defined. By offering special instruction, by a specialist, in each of these units, they can be mas- tered more quickly—more can be produced per teacher-hour. As one part is mastered, progress to the next may be made immediately; Tur SECOND YEARBOOK 259 there should be no long wait due to a breakdown in another part of the plant. We conclude that children should master these tools as rapidly as they can but this does not mean that they should be passing through school at the same rate. Between certain ages children should be in school, provided the school offers them an opportunity for complete development. The recent development in larger units of subject matter and in the socialized recitation will take care of classroom time that is not used in the factory method of mastering the tools of learning. The newer type of building, with its shops, its auditorium, its conserva- tories, its library, its gymnasiums and swimming pool and its musical organizations, trains the body and soul quite as consciously as it trains the mind. Of this we are sure; the old classification was but little better than no classification at all. The accomplishment tests found whole classes more advanced than classes a half grade or more above them. They found individuals in each class more advanced than individuals a year or more ahead of them in grade. Table Showing Rank of Seventh-grade Classes on One General Intelligence Test and Four Reading Tests Low VII Monroe Monroe Thorndike- Rank Int. | Comprehension Rate McCall Test | Boys | Girls | Boys | Girls Boys | Girls i The highest rank held in fifteen out of sixteen rankings. The lowest rank held in ten out of sixteen rankings. We are at least getting away from the old form of standardization which ran all the pupils through a mold of mediocrity. 260 ELEMENTARY SCHOOL PRINCIPALS SupPLEMENTARY TO RESULTS OF GROUPING An experiment—In order to determine how closely the intelli- gence tests correlated with other tests this experiment was given. All of the children in the seventh grade (five low classes and five high classes) were given three reading tests. The entire seventh- grade faculty helped score the papers in twelve two-hour meetings after school. The table on page 259 shows the comparative rank of each class on each of the tests. The best class ranks 1; the poorest class ranks 5. We can say, perhaps, that the reading tests are also good intelli- gence tests, or that the intelligence tests are good reading tests. Our classification held for the actually extreme individuals in 62 out of 70 cases. SAMPLES OF TESTS AND Devices USED IN THE FRANKLIN SCHOOL, Port ArtHuR, TExas; LEONARD Power, PRINCIPAL First-grade vocabulary test—The 200 words on which the first- grade pupils are tested are listed below. These words are printed in large type on heavy cardboard three by fourteen inches in dimension, three strips being required for the words used in each half-grade. Five columns appear after the words, the date of each test being entered at the top of the columns. Frequencies of non-recognition by all the pupils in the class are entered in the proper column after each test. Individual records are kept by clipping to the cards strips of paper bearing similar columns and spaces for the pupil’s name and the date of each test. Worps USED IN THE Low First GRADE a fly little she at girl mama their bird have no they eatch him ran us does is said who all for live sister baby give may there boy he not this chick his read want doll it saw will an four look some ball glad me them book hen out throw come horse ride we dog kitty say with ‘elli- ven. five nth- ings k of orest telli- Our it. of elng ition after trips » and Tuer SECOND YEARBOOK 261 and gave made that be go mother then can here play throw do I roll we father kite see with are get make the big has my these came her pretty up did in run what feed like shall you Worps USED IN THE HieH First GRADE again far Mr. soon because found night talk by grass one think cried heard over try each laugh same west always farmer Mrs. south before from nine teacher child green once though day just party two east lay should while asleep field much sure began game north ten children grow only time dress keep please under eight man sky woman beat find never table black goes now thank could head other took drink knew put until ever many sleep would been flower next take but gone off things count hear or today eat know ready very every more so yet A TEST IN THE ELEMENTS OF ENGLISH Results for section ........ DE: 6.6kcoci aes re eT rs To the pupil: This sheet is not to have any marks upon it that are made by you. Your teacher will need to put certain marks on one of these sheets to be returned to me for your section. You are about to check the results of your own work. Be fair to yourself by carefully and accurately checking your errors. This test will be given each six weeks. Your papers will be preserved and your score should get larger each time until you score 100. ELEMENTARY SCHOOL PRINCIPALS Question I Wrong Our possessive pronoun noble adjective soldiers common noun who relative pronoun fought verb so adverb bravely adverb in preposition France proper noun deserved verb much adjective praise noun for preposition their possessive pronoun great adjective courage noun under preposition the article enemy’s adjective fire noun Directions for scoring Question I: On your own paper, encircle each word which you did not correctly define. Let each correct word count one and write the total score in the left margin of your paper. Question II Wrong 4 Kind of sentence: complex 4 Grammatical predicate of independ- ent clause : deserved 4 Grammatical subject of dependent clause : who 4 Direct object of deserved: praise 4 One prepositional phrase: in France (Any one of three given here) | for their great courage under the encmy’s fire How to score Question II: Score 4 on your paper for each of these that is correct. Any one preposi- tional phrase, but not all, may count. Add your scrore and write the total in the left-hand margin of your paper. Question III 5 James is older than he. (He or him) 5 Have you and he (he or him) exchanged papers? 5 Was it he (him or he) whom you called? 5 He never did (done or did) the task as he was told. Directions for scoring Question IIT: Score 5 for each of these that is correct. Write the score in the left margin of your paper. Tue SEcoND YEARBOOK Question IV Number and Street Port Arthur, Texas November 28, 1922 SKIP A LINE Dear Mr. Power, I am writing Period Yours truly Name OUST OT OUCH OW OLR Instructions for giving and scoring Question IV: To give the question ask the children to write a very brief letter to me. There are eight things to score on this letter. On your paper write five for each of the above that you have correctly written and properly placed. Add your 5’s and write your score in the left-hand margin of your paper. To the Teacher: You will carefully go over every part of this test and ask the children to hold up hands when you record the number who missed each detailed part of each specific question in columns headed Wrong. Keep this on one sheet and send to the office after you have made a copy from which to teach. This is pri- marily a diagnostic test and is very carefully made. You will send the fol- lowing results for your class to the office: Number of children taking the test Number of perfect papers Total wrong on Question I Total wrong on Question IT Total wrong on Question IIT Total wrong on Question IV Rank your papers according to the scores of the pupils. Put the best on top. Send me the best, the median. and the poorest papers. Best paper, grade Written by Median paper, grade Written by loorest paper, grade Written by Write the test on the board exactly as the questions are arranged on this score sheet. Allow thirty minutes for giving the test and take fifteen minutes for scoring it. If the time for scoring is not long enough, carry it over into the work of the next day. Errors ty ORAL ENGLISH OBSERVED FROM NOVEMBER 27 To 29, 1922 For three days the entire faculty gave particular attention to the errors that were heard in the school. Each teacher turned in a list of all that she had recorded. In the upper grades the children them- selves turned in what errors they had recorded. Each error was then classified. The classification of all of the errors (950) follows: In all of our teaching of English we try to form correct speech habits. This study shows that we need only to concentrate our efforts upon a few errors. In May, 1923, a similar study will be made for a period of three days, and it is hoped that some of these errors will disappear entirely in the meantime. 264 ELEMENTARY SCHOOL PRINCIPALS Teachers will please take time to go over these results with the children. Give plenty of time to this study. Put some of the study results on the board and then tell the children to watch for them. Call them “Enemies.” A plan that may be followed advantageously is to write these errors on the board and erase them when they are not heard in a room for a week. A study of this kind is valuable to the extent that it is made clear to the children. Errors in the Use of Verbs Number of | Per Cent of | Per Cent of Verb Errors | Verb Errors | All Errors —— lard a dlond wwqQs] wneSrvanosenue tt et et et et BD DD DD CO GO Go OOOO WO tt et et et et et BD CO CO he I J S| CRNNNNNWWWWRAROSOSOOSOOOOOSO to to to to to to to to to to to to to to to to ANNANNSOSSCOSSOSSOSOSSOSOOSCOOOOOO RPNNNNN NW WWW RON =~100 _ Lad o ESSSSSSSSSS 3 B | vs Tue SECOND YEARBOOK Total Errors | Number Kind of Error | of Errors | Per Cent II Use of ain’t III Double negative V Wron VI Case forms VII Mispronunciations VIII Wrong comparison IX Prepositions —o ow wroSnes WADSOCOANS s Section Number taking test Number of examples missed ..... oe Average missed Number of perfect papers INSTRUCTIONS FOR GIVING TEST Allow twenty-five minutes after the children have their papers properly headed. Be sure the work is all put on one sheet of paper. Hand this sheet to the children at the close of the test period with instructions to the children as follows: Each child will check his own work. Draw a ring around each wrong answer. Count the number of right answers and write the score above your name. Turn your test paper over and copy the correct form for the example or examples you missed. Ask your teacher to help explain what you do not understand. 1, Add . Subtract 8. Add 457 48321 1/3 of 90=30 9211 Wrong 1/6 of 78=13 43 . Multiply 9. Add 497 7 1/4=7 8/12 x 6 Wrong 5 1/3=5 4/12 Wrong co ere 6. Divide 10. Subtract 6)2988 Wrong 8 2/2=8 8/12 6 3/4=6 9/12 Wrong 3 11/12 eeeeee 3. Subtract % of 80=—40 48321 ¥% of 36= 9 Wrong 29623 Wrong _ 18698 ...... 266 ELEMENTARY SCHOOL PRINCIPALS Teacher : Please write the number of wrong answers for each example just under the word wrong by that example. To get this number you ask the children how many missed each example and count hands. Keep a copy of this report and send one to the principal. Be sure to tell the children to put no marks on their copies of this sheet. Class per cent (Date) Accuracy TEST IN ARITHMETIC (Fifth, Sixth, and Seventh Grades) 1. Add 8756; 4567; 429; 7618; 8692. 2. From 387654 take 261489. 3. Multiply 2968 by 276. 4. Divide 37088 by 8 (using short division). 5. Divide 470592 by 86. 6. Add 14 2/5; 27 3/4; 8 5/8. 7. From 82 2/3 take 17 7/8. 8. Multiply 26 3/7 by 5 2/7. 9. Divide 5 2/3 by 5/6. . Divide 10 4/9 by 6 3/4. Report on Test Number i Examples Number of Correct Per Cent Tested Answers Correct | 10 Total Number of perfect papers ...... er the n how rt and Tue SEcoND YEARBOOK INSTRUCTIONS You will please write the above examples on the blackboard. Let your report come in on this tabulated form. Allow thirty minutes, then please tell the children to lay down their pencils and take up their pens. The teacher will then have the correct answer read out. Tell each child to encircle each incorrect answer. After this has been done for all ten of the examples, go back to the first example and ask each child who has this example right to hold up his hand. Count the number of hands and write it in the column headed “Number of Correct Answers.” Then pass to example No. 2 and repeat for each of the other examples. To get the “Per cent Correct,” divide the number taking the test into the number of correct answers. When the papers are sent to me let the papers be arranged according to the score of each child, putting the perfect papers on top. Each child will write his score in the middle at the top of the first page. I shall return the papers to you after I have examined them. If your class falls below 70 per cent on any one of these examples you will please take class time for teaching that particular process. If your class is above 70 per cent you will please have those who understand help others who do not. The Need and Use of Testing in the Elementary School LAWRENCE S. CHASE Principal of the Glenfield School, Montclair, New Jersey Hi GROUPING and rating of pupils in the past has largely depended on the personal standards of the individual teachers. The term “personal standards” is used advisedly as there can be no standard of achievement without a standard examination and scoring method. Asa result of the personal element in judging and the inability of the teachers to get at the real mental calibre of their pupils we have had pupils grouped in the same classes with very dif- ferent mental ability. It has been accepted in the past that if several teachers taught the same children different subjects they would, on the whole, rate the individual children about the same. For instance; if Miss Smith gave Tony a mark of 75 per cent in English, it was thought that Miss Jones’ mark of 75 per cent in arithmetic meant that Tony’s ability in English and arithmetic was about the same. Whatever variation there was in the marks would be due to the unequal ability of the child in the different subjects. As a matter of fact, recent studies with standard tests show that the interpretation of the school marking system varies more than the ability of the individual chil- dren in the different subjects. In order to convince the departmental teachers in the Glenfield School? that we needed the help of educational and mental tests in *The Glenfield ‘School, located in Montclair, New Jersey, has its enrolment divided about as follows: Italian, 50 per cent; Colored, 38 per cent; Swedish, 4 per cent; Jewish, 4 per cent; Irish, 2 per cent; others, 2 per cent. 268 ELEMENTARY SCHOOL PRINCIPALS properly grading and grouping, a study was made of the marks of these six teachers for the first three marking periods of the year for a group of fourth, fifth, and sixth grade pupils. The three special teachers (music and literature, industrial arts, and physical train- ing) had marked all the pupils while the home teachers (teachers of arithmetic, spelling, reading, etc.) had marked about one third each. The scale of marking was—A, excellent and E and F failure, ete. The curve made by combining the marks of all the six teachers was very satisfying. The A’s and failures balanced, the B’s and D’s balanced and the largest group was the C group which was as it should be. The total number of marks was 4965. Below are the graphs made in this study. Figure 1 is the com- posite graph of all the marks; figure 2 shows the marks of the indi- vidual teachers. Pa / 08 Fic. 1. Composite Graph of Sia Teachers’ Marks for Grades 4, 5, and 6 Through the First Three Marking Periods Not only do teachers find it difficult to agree about standards of marking but they find it equally hard to get at the real mental abil- ity of the pupils. That is, the thoughtful teacher finds this one of her gravest problems. True, some schoolmasters and teachers and | 2 T Y nn wns ae | Tue SECOND YEARBOOK Fic. 2. Marks of Siar 270 ELEMENTARY SCHOOL PRINCIPALS many laymen think that the average teacher can soon arrive at a fair estimate of the brain power of the thirty or forty individuals in the class, but my teachers had many cases on which they were glad to get help. For instance, one restless individual in the fourth grade was doing poor work and the teachers were not sure whether it was due to lack of ability or lack of properly directed effort. At the end of the year he had not come up to the standard so he was asked to repeat the grade. During the next year through intel- ligence tests we found that he scored highest in the class. With this “tip” his new home teacher and the special teachers demanded better work from him and they have received it ever since, though he has done it grudgingly. | It is true, of course, that those with the highest intelligence rating do not always do the best work because effort and other factors enter in but we need to know the possibilities of the child in terms of some standard of measurement. The intelligence test supplies this need, although not to the extent we might wish. After considerable experience in the Glenfield School with both standard educational and mental tests, the principal and teachers decided in the spring of 1921 to make use of these modern tools in order to produce more scientific grading and grouping. Intelligence tests were given to all grades from one through six by use of group tests and unusual cases were checked up by use of the Binet-Simon. The city psychologist helped with these tests. Achievement was investigated by tests as noted below. GRADE 1 GRADE 2 GRADE 3 Speed and compre- Speed and comprehen- Speed and comprehen- hension in reading sion in reading. sionin reading. Speed Speed in addition in addition and sub- combinations. traction. Sentence ability. GRADEs 4, 5 anD 6 Standard tests in arithmetic, reading, spelling Use of composition and writing scales When the educational and intelligence records were in, we agreed upon the following points as a basis for promotion and grading to be emphasized in this order: Promotion to next grade—1. Educational achievement; 2. Teach- ers’ estimate; 3. Intelligence and age. Grouping within the grade—1. Intelligence rating; 2. Teachers’ estimate; 3. Educational achievement. , —_—_ T mat; the that who clas give For was sho low rati in € hal: ] the can bee sen stal out pri ee at a Is in glad urth ther At was itel- Vith ded ugh ing iter yme ed, oth ers in Tuer SECOND YEARBOOK The practical working out of the scheme was as follows: in the matter of promotion children who showed that they had reached the standard agreed upon were promoted unless the teacher judged that they had not come up to the mark in subjects not tested. Pupils who had been two years in a grade were promoted or placed in special classes for sub-normal children. Pupils greatly over-age were also given a chance in the next grade if they were near the standard. For grouping in divisions within the grade, the intelligence rating was used unless the teacher’s judgment and the educational results showed the pupils’ achievement and effort were below pupils with lower intelligence in which case the pupil with the lower intelligence rating was placed in the higher group. As there were two divisions in each grade the median was found and those who fell in the upper half were placed in the A group and those below in the B group. It is interesting to note that in this changing about of pupils that there were few complaints from the parents and that those few who came to inquire were satisfied when they found that the tests had been carried on so impersonally and that the results seemed to repre- sent the ability of the child. The records are on file and are con- stantly referred to. Of course the intelligence ratings were not given out to either parents or pupils but were held in confidence by the principal and teachers. The results of the educational tests were used to inform both pupils and parents of progress and failure. In carrying on the regular work in the classrooms educators are coming more and more to see the value of the project or purposeful method. In directing the activities toward definite goals, however, definite standards of learning can well be used as they motivate the work. Is it unreasonable to demand from the school that it ad- minister the work so that the child will know from day to day the progress he is making in the learning process? Scales and standards, if put before the children of the grammar grades, at once change their attitude toward their work. The teacher ceases to be a driver but instead becomes an aid in reaching the goal. If the Ayres’ Writ- ing scale is placed in a room where the children have a chance to compare their writing with the printed sample, progress in writing will soon be noticed not only by the teacher but by the children them- selves, Some of the aids we have used are in Reading—Standards for speed and comprehension. Arithmetic—Standards for speed, accuracy, and problem solving. Spelling—Use of standard lists and scales. Writing—use of scale by pupils themselves. Composition—Use of Hillegas composition scale. Geography—Minimum of essential facts. 272 ELEMENTARY SCHOOL PRINCIPALS Scales, graphs, and charts containing pupil’s records are now be- coming as much a part of the classroom as the thermometer is, and the dunce cap and birch rod used to be. The necessary drill in the classroom largely becomes individual as each child has his own particular problem to solve. This avoids the waste of time and the evil effects which come from either expecting too much or too little from the child. The class time is thus divided between the general conference period and an individual working period. From the point of view of a supervisor testing with standards is of course, a more scientific way of investigating classroom progress than the examination made out by the teacher or principal. Such informal tests have teaching value, but they are not so accurate as standard tests in showing the increasing power of pupils or class. For instance, a child may do better on one arithmetic test than on a previous one but in the ordinary examination we have no standard showing improvement except the teachers’ mark which we know is not accurate measurement. It is also true that unstandardized tests do not give basis for comparing classes or schools although the mistake is common to use them as such. Below are some records similar to those found in many prin- cipal’s offices today: Record of Silent Reading progress in grade 4 from October, 1922, to March, 1923—tests made in March to help a substitute teacher gain an accurate knowledge of her problem. The scale used was the Ayres-Measurement of Silent Reading—P. S. 3. October median—40. March « —46. Most pupils showed progress during this period. Some, however, made a lower rating in March than in October. These few, there- fore, become a special problem for the new teacher, if an additional test or two prove the original diagnosis to be correct. She will form two or three reading groups in her reading periods and try to adapt the reading material and drill to the needs of each. Figure 3 illustrates what can be done by practice—The heavy black line shows medians for first test. The dash line is standard and the dot and dash line medians for second test—same words as in first test but given two weeks later. Figure 4 shows the correlation between reading and spelling, Ayres scales being used in each case. Some of the beneficial results we have observed from the use of standardized tests are: 1. Fitting the detail of class work such as drill, in with the gen- eral purposeful atmosphere of the classroom by use of definite and known goals. es w be- , and n the own d the little neral "ds is ZT ess Such te as class. n on dard Ww is tests the prin- 922, cher was Tue SECOND YEARBOOK 3B 3A 4B 4A | Medians (Sate tests9. 2 : lon latep * Medians AFirst Test 196 Fic. 3. Effect of Two Weeks’ Practice with Ayres’ Spelling Lists 2. The excellent effect upon the child’s learning. 3. The improved attitude of parents and pupils toward the teacher through the lessening use of the personal standard of the teacher in the matter of achievement and promotion. 4. Easily selecting the children of one grade who are educationally - equal to the average in the succeeding grade and giving such ones the needed promotion. 5. Accurate record of progress of pupils and efficiency of teach- ers, if the intelligence of the children is given correct consideration. 6. Diagnostic work in teaching. The value of standardization in education may be more commonly accepted than the every-day value of intelligence tests and records. To those who have used both educational tests and intelligence records, doubtless they are equally important. More and more the 274 ELEMENTARY ScHOOL PRINCIPALS data being published on intelligence tests show that such tests are invaluable. Recent reports from Brown University and Princeton concerning the use of intelligence tests show that such tests are better indices for selecting Freshmen than either college entrance exami- nation or high-school marks. Perhaps their importance was and is being exaggerated but at least the intelligence quotient tells us some- thing more than we have previously known. The average teacher JA 46 4A $8 SA ° Fia. 4. Correlation between Spelling and Reading. Ayres’ Spelling Scale and Silent Reading Scale wants such information as she feels her lack of knowledge of her pupils. Some results of intelligence tests my teachers would agree, are: 1. Better knowledge of the child—although it is conceded that intelligence tests do not accurately gage every child. 2. Glenfield teachers freely acknowledge that intelligence tests make more uniform grouping than either the teacher’s marks or her judgment. Tue SeconpD YEARBOOK 275 3. Approximate grouping of pupils of the same intelligence causes better teaching for both the dull and the more alert. Our teaching in the past has been entirely in the interest of the slow-minded. The slow go as fast as they can without so much scolding under the new grouping and the quicker minds are allowed to accomplish more. The records of the voluntary-after-school-reading group in the Glenfield School show that from two to three times as many A’s (upper I. Q.’s) report for this reading consistently than do the B.’s Pupils who can read well like to read, of course. The interest of both the slow and quick pupils would seem to show that the reading at least should be taught separately. Is it undemocratic to place pupils with the same or similar mental tastes in the same groups? Recently a teacher told me that it was an unwritten rule in the school in which she taught that the bright and dull children must be properly mixed so that the dull might receive the benefit of contact with the brighter minds. What ben- efits the brighter minds were to receive was not made clear. Yet in some schools the teachers are forbidden to have those of similar ability recite together. The effect of grouping by intelligence tests is excellent upon the teacher. The teacher of the slow groups is not expected to produce the same progress as the A class teacher. This relieves her of the strain of too high a standard for her class, so a wise teacher gives her energy to adapting the work to the needs of her class rather than worrying about the progress of the other divisions. At Glenfield we have found that both the bright and the slow profit by going at different paces. There is little or no tendency to allow the slow to go too slowly. A careful study of a group of defective boys showed that most of them had effort quotients above normal (effort quotient equals educational age divided by mental age). An investigation of pupils kept after school for extra help showed that they were largely from the slower groups. If we know pupils are working up to their ability, keeping them after school becomes a doubtful practice. Further discussion would probably not make clearer that a two years’ trial with intelligence tests has convinced me, and I believe my faculty as well, of their importance in the efficient administra- tion of a school. The technique will be improved for some time, but no educator can afford to wait longer before making a start. ELEMENTARY SCHOOL PRINCIPALS Results of Classification of Pupils Based on Ability as Shown by Intelligence Tests, Tests of Achieve- ment and Teachers’ Marks A. M. SANTEE Principal of the Washington Junior High School Duluth, Minnesota N FEBRUARY, 1919, an investigation was made of the number | of pupils failing to be promoted in the Junior High Schools of Duluth. This number was found to be very large, especially in the seventh grade where 40 per cent of certain classes had failed of promotion in the preceding semester. The Junior High School teachers were requested to study the problem and to report the causes of failure together with suggestions for their elimination. Among the causes reported were the unequal preparation of pupils entering the same grade and differences in ability of pupils placed in the same class. This disadvantage is recognized by every ex- perienced teacher. The pupil who is slow to comprehend sits and listens to meaningless explanations if the pace is not set for him. If the pace is set for this pupil, those who understand the subject must listen again and again to that which is well known and is be- coming tiresome. The first attempt at grouping pupils according to ability in Wash- ington Junior High School was made by placing in special classes the pupils whose work showed that they were failing in arithmetic. Three such classes were formed, the number in each being limited to eighteen. The work, elementary in character at first, was adapted to the ability of the group by determining the extent of knowledge cf each pupil and using this as a basis for instruction. It was soon evident that many of these pupils were failing, not because of mental incapacity, but through a lack of knowledge of the fundamental processes in arithmetic. When this was supplied, they were able to do fairly good work, if given sufficient time. At the close of the term about fifty per cent of the pupils of the three classes were able to take up the regular work of the next higher grade. This result was very satisfactory as only those who were failing had been placed in these groups. The removal of the failing pupils from the regular classes was immediately evident in the quantity and quality of work done by those remaining. All pupils were now able to profit by the instruc- tion given and the work of teaching the class by sections was 10 longer necessary. One teacher remarked, “That class acts like a — * >, fr = SS S&F LS O77 Tue SEcoND YEARBOOK BS Per Cent Feb 19 June '9 Feb20 June20 Feb2! June 2! Feh22 June22 Feb23 oa Failures in English eceeee Failures in Arithmetic sare Failures in Historyand Geography Fic. 1.—Per Cent of Failures at the Close of Each Semester, February 1, 1919, to February 1, 1923 different one entirely. The work goes ahead with a snap now as if a brake had been released.” It is probable that the greatest harm in teaching mixed groups comes to the pupil who, although he grasps an explanation readily and is able to do the required work in a few minutes, must wait until his slower classmates have accomplished the same task. He forms the habit of idling, of taking an hour to do what he could do in a few moments. This most pernicious habit has changed many a pupil of marked ability into a failure. 278 ELEMENTARY SCHOOL PRINCIPALS At the close of the term the failures in arithmetic dropped from thirty-one to twenty-two per cent while the per cent of failures in English and those in history and geography, which were taught together, were slightly increased during the same period. No at- tempt at grouping had been made in these subjects. The teachers agreed that classification was well worth a continued trial on a larger scale and the grouping was extended to include about one third of the school with special classes formed in all academic subjects. The results in English and in history and geography were about the same as those in arithmetic had been in the preceding semester. Failures in English dropped from 35 to 26 per cent, in history and geography from 24 to 20 per cent. Those in arithmetic fell from 22 to 18 per.cent. Classification into groups was continued and extended until the entire school, with the excep- tion of a few mixed classes, was included. ‘The results obtained each term may be seen in Figure 1, page 277. The plan of classification used at the present time is as follows: Pupils entering the school for the first time are classified on the basis of intelligence tests which are given in the sixth grade and of teachers’ marks when the two are available. Pupils enrolled the preceding semester are classified on the basis of teachers’ marks. These include achievement and other tests. These groups are as signed, according to the course elected, to session rooms which ac- commodate two classes. The session room groups are then divided into classes on the same basis used in the first classification. Each class is kept together in all subjects when possible. If a group has elected the prevocational course, the pupils take the academic sub- jects with their class, while the boys of the two classes unite in art and shopwork, the girls in art and home economics. The entire room must have the art and industrial work at the same periods to avoid conflicts in programs. There are many things that make the matter of classification difficult. Among them are differences in standards of teachers who mark the pupils, and differences in preparation of pupils entering the same grade. A pupil may have low marks owing to absence on account of sickness and, when health is regained, be able to do superior work again. Maturity often makes possible good work in some subjects. Pupils who are repeating a subject are sometimes able to make rapid progress the second time it is taken. These make adjustments necessary to correct mistakes in assignment. The plan provides that a pupil who shows superior or inferior ability in clas be reported by the classroom teacher who recommends his transfer to nm OO ss of Peed aan? 2) Tue SECOND YEARBOOK 279 another group in which he can work to better advantage. It is some- times impossible to place him in the proper class on account of his program. All changes are to be made within the first few days of the semester if possible. Pupils who do superior work in one subject are likely to do well in all others, and those who find the work of one subject difficult are quite sure to have difficulty in all. There are exceptions in both cases, possibly most frequently found in shop and home training work. In classification it seems probable that about 70 per cent of the pupils of the entire school could work without serious disadvantage if assigned to the same group. The Course of Study should be made to meet the needs of this group, but should be elastic enough to provide for classes at either extreme. In preparation for the work of the semester, the teachers of each subject meet in conference and select for each grade those topics outlined in the Duluth Course of Study, which are necessary to be taught as a basis for more advanced work in this subject. Teachers use tests at the first of the semester to determine what basal work is most needed by the groups assigned to them. Often these show that it is best to use integers, avoiding fractions and decimals until the necessary principles are established. All groups study those topics which have been selected by the teachers as basal, the difficulty of the problems in arithmetic, for example, being adapted to the ability of the class by increasing the number of prob- lems to be solved and the magnitude of the numbers involved. Only simple fractions such as 4%, 34, and % and decimals not to exceed three places are used in the slower groups until ability to work with these is developed. Pupils who show superior ability are often permitted to take five major subjects, thus completing the course in a shorter time, while those who are unable to carry four subjects sometimes do creditable work by giving full time to three. Uniform examinations based on the topics selected by the teachers are given to all groups of a grade. These count one third of the term grade. The teacher gives fre- quent tests on special and extra work and credit is allowed for this. A few classes showing special ability in certain subjects have com- pleted the work of two semesters in one. This was satisfactory in French, but in some other subjects the double work was difficult. It seems better to offer a wider range of topics within the term’s work, and to permit the more capable to elect an additional subject, than to condense the work of two terms into one. Tests show that the double work has been covered too quickly for the pupils to under- stand it thoroughly. 280 ELEMENTARY ScHooL PRINCIPALS Special groups are assigned to those teachers whose abilities and preparation have fitted them to teach successfully pupils of this type. A special group of twenty boys ranging from sixteen to twenty years of age was formed in the second semester of last year. Many of these boys had left school before completing the work of the eighth grade and had been working for a year or two in the shops. The program set for this class consisted of shop English, shop mathematics, mechanical drawing, and machine shop work. This program required eight forty-five minute periods each day, four of which were spent in the machine shop. The course offered in shop mathematics is similar to that recom- mended by the Mathematics Committee of the Department of Su- perintendence of the N. E. A. at the Chicago meeting and is as follows: OUTLINE OF SHOP MATHEMATICS Arithmetic Review of the fundamental operations of arithmetic. Tables of weights and measures in practical use. Emphasis on simple fractions: 1/2, 1/3, 2/3, 1/4, 3/4, 1/5, 1/6, ete.; others to have less attention. Simple short cuts in multiplication and division. Percentage. Finding any per cent of a number. What per cent one num- ber is of another. Finding a number with the per cent given. Simple applications of percentage. Arithmetic of every-day life. Personal accounts, thrift, insurance, taxes, banking, saving accounts, checking accounts. Arithmetic of investment, real estate, stocks, bonds, postal savings. Drill on fundamental operations. Shop problems. Intuitive Geometry The direct measures of distance and angles by linear scale and protractor. Areas of squares, rectangles, parallelograms, triangles, and trapezoids. Surfaces and volumes of solids. Construct perpendicular bisector, bisector of an angle, parallel lines, ete. Simple constructions only. Familiarity with such forms as the equilateral triangle, the 30° — 60° right triangle, and the isosceles right triangle. Use of these in con- struction. Use of the slide rule. Problems and constructions related to shopwork. Algebra The formula: its construction, meaning, and use As a concise language As a shorthand rule for computation As a general solution. Graphs and graphic representations in general—their construction and interpretation in— Representing facts (statistical, etc.) Representing dependence Solving problems of shopwork. Positive and negative numbers—their meaning and use. The equation—its use in solving problems— The linear and the “pure” quadratic equation in one unknown, their solutions and applications. Simple problems of proportion. Shop problems. THE SEcoND YEARBOOK Algebraic Technique The fundamental operations in algebra. Factoring, the only cases that need be considered are: Monomial factors. The difference of two squares. The square of a binomial. Simple algebraic fractions. Ex- ponents and radicals. The work done on exponents and radicals should be confined to the simplest material required for the treatment of formulas. The course in shop English consists of topics selected from the seventh, eighth, and ninth years of the Duluth Course of Study adapted to the needs and interests of the class. SHop ENGLISH Letters and Forms Applications for positions Friendly letters Orders for supplies Common business forms Courtesy in the business world and every-day life Punctuation Use of the periods comma semicolon colon Spelling and Punctuation Words most frequently used Business and shop terms Abbreviations Oral Composition Hunting, fishing, etc. Three-minute talks on: Current events, salesman ship, debate. Newspaper reports, magazine articles. Written Composition Theme work based on shopwork Development of steel industry Other shop themes Reports on outside reading Grammar Common uses of nouns, pronouns, and verbs Correct uses of words, phrases, and clauses Class Reading The worker and his work Captains of industry Short stories Character sketches Literature of industry Study of classics Memory Work My creed If Gettysburg address Memory gems Other selections chosen by pupils 282 ELEMENTARY SCHOOL PRINCIPALS The results obtained in this class were very satisfactory. The boys became interested in the work and about eighty per cent were pro- moted. Three pupils maintained a place on the honor roll through- out the term. About one half the class decided to continue school and were able to take up the regular work of the 9A grade in English and mathematics the following semester. A class was organized during the last semester with about the same results, and a large class is being taught at the present time. The demand for work of this type is so great that it will be necessary to form additional classes in September. ENGLISH Feb. 1919 33% Feb. 1923 12% ARITHMETIC Feb. 1919 Feb. 1923 15% History AND GEOGRAPHY Feb. 1919 22% Feb. 1923 10% Fic. 2—Comparative Failures Stated in Per Cents, of Terms Closing Feb- ruary, 1919, and February, 1923, of 1100 Pupils Enrolled in Washington Junior High School. Figure 2 shows the comparative failures in English, arithmetic, and history and geography in the terms closing February 1, 1919, and February 1, 1923. Few changes have been made in the teach- ing force in those departments involved in this study during the four years covered by it. This has reduced the possibility of error through the entrance of new teachers with different standards of promotion and failure. Uniform examinations and tests of achieve- ment are given to all classes of a grade to determine promotion. This figure indicates that the best school work is possible when the pupils who are about equal in ability are placed together and the work adapted to their knowledge and ability. In adapting the work to a backward group there are four things which are essential : First. An inventory should be taken of each pupil’s knowledge and ability. Tue SEconD YEARBOOK 283 Second. Those things should be taught which are not known but which must be used as a basis for other things. Third. Proceed slowly at first, gathering speed as ability is ac- quired. Fourth. Avoid difficult numbers or sentences and other elements that confuse, until principles are firmly established. CHAPTER V The Teaching of Reading Ernest Horn M. Eruet Brown CHARLES PoTTER MARION CARSWELL WILLARD W. BEATTY CHAPTER V The Objectives in Reading as a Guide to Remedial and Prophylactic Work Ernest Horn Professor of Education and Director of University Elementary School, State University of Iowa HIS CHAPTER in the Yearbook is concerned with the whole lho of the improvement of reading. It is especially con- cerned with the proposition that remedial and prophylactic work can be carried on efficiently only when the objectives in read- ing are kept clearly in mind. Since another chapter of this Year- book is devoted to remedial work with individuals, such objectives as are concerned primarily with the removal of special disabilities will not be discussed here. The objectives here set up are those which should be reached by all pupils, and for the most part, the attack on these may be made by children working as a group. When we speak of remedial work, we usually have in mind exer- cises intended especially for children with rather serious special dis- abilities. It is now a well-known fact that there are children in most elementary schools who suffer so seriously from one or more reading disabilities that they are incapable of progressing in anything like a satisfactory manner. Often these disabilities are so influential that a pupil whose intelligence quotient would seem to warrant normal progress is retarded several years not only in reading, but also in all subjects which must be learned from a book. It is clear that such pupils should be given immediate and skillful diagnosis followed by remedial treatment. Although this work is in its infancy, we already have had several very important contributions based on experimental studies of special deficiencies. The whole problem is well opened up in C. T. Gray’s “Deficiencies in Reading Abilities.” Additional material is given by Gates in his book “The Psychology of Reading and Spelling.’” The most complete and the most detailed description of case studies in remedial work is to be found in W. S. Gray’s “Remedial Cases in Reading: Their Diagnosis and Treatment.’* The diagnoses made by Dean Gray are particularly helpful, and his remedial treatments show admirably the great progress which has been made in adapting * Published by D. C. Heath & Co., Chicago. * Published by Teachers College, Columbia University, New York. Published by University of Chicago, Supplementary Educ. Monograph 22. [ 287 ] 288 ELEMENTARY SCHOOL PRINCIPALS school procedures to individual students. In fact, it is to be doubted whether, in the case of any complicated diseases in the field of medi- cine, the diagnosis and treatment of the physican is more accurate or more successful on the average than that shown in Dean Gray’s results. To continue the analogy in the case of medicine, it might be well to point out that modern medicine is interested not merely in curing the sick, but also in preventing sickness and in the improvement of the vitality and physical happiness of people who are not by any means bed-ridden. The curing of the sick is, of course, the part of the practice which is of an immediate and rather critical nature. Yet these critical conditions would often not have arisen had prophylactic measures been taken by earlier medical advisors or by the patients themselves. The modern practice regarding the remedial work in reading parallels very closely this best modern practice in medicine. We must, of course, regard the individual who has serious special diffi- culties as a case for immediate and critical attention. So far as read- ing goes and so far as his ability to study from a book is concerned, he is a hospital case. There are, however, large numbers of pupils who get along in their reading pretty well but who, because of one or more disabilities, fall far short of what they are capable of doing. Even students who make scores distinctly above the present standards for their age and grade are usually capable of considerable improve- ment. In fact, the very exercises suggested by Dean Gray and others for the improvement of pupils with special disabilities can be used with profit in the improvement of the scores of children who are already superior. These exercises also constitute a most excellent program for prophylactic work in preventing special disabilities from arising. In other words, most of the exercises which have been found to be helpful to actual hospital cases in silent reading are also helpful to students whose ability is fair or even superior. Even in the case of pupils who in any given month have proceeded about as well as we can expect for the time they have been in school, such exercises afford a wholesome stimulation to normal growth. How can one tell when remedial work is especially needed, or when abilities which are already fairly efficient should be improved? The cautions which have just been urged are repeated here for em- phasis. Even when a child may be able to read with a fair degree of speed, with a fair degree of accuracy, of comprehension, with @ fair degree of ability to organize, and with a fair knowledge of the technies by which he may remember what he has read, it does not mean that he is to be excused from reading exercises. What we de- oD we bee SS ses" FO | FO DD of SOS Oe ubted medi- ‘urate way’s > well uring ont of y any art of ature, had or by ading We dithi- read- rned, pupils f one loing. dards yrove- thers used 0 are ellent from been e also Even about such d, or nved? r em- legree ‘ith a f the s not ve de- THE SECOND YEARBOOK 289 sire is to perfect still more these desirable abilities. In order to do this, we must first know what his reading abilities are. The first step then must be to determine his reading status. This clearly involves some form of diagnosis. What shall this diagnosis be? The most common method of class diagnosis is that made through the means of the standard reading tests. These are supposed to measure, in a more or less satisfactory way, some rather general abilities in the type of reading covered by the test.. The oral-reading test is supposed to give a measure of general ability in oral reading; the vocabulary test a general idea of the pupil’s knowledge of words; the silent-reading test a measure of general ability in silent reading. Silent-reading tests do very little to show in what particular the individual has deficiencies; in fact, we are coming more and more to believe that the scores made on these tests should not be taken too seriously. The improvement shown on some of them after brief practice is certainly greater than the improvement in actual general reading ability. On the other hand, it has been shown that it is possible to make unmistakable improvement in certain important types of reading abilities commonly needed in life without showing any corresponding improvement on certain silent-reading tests. In general, it is probably true that the Monroe test, when applied to measure the results of specific drill in silent reading, usually exag- gerates the improvement which actually took place. On the other hand, the Thorndike test probably underestimates the improvement actually made in such practice exercises. The qualities which have been emphasized in most of the silent- reading tests are speed and comprehension. These, of course, are important and they are involved in all the reading which one does. No matter how well one can accomplish a given reading task it now seems that he would profit from obtaining still more of these quali- ties provided no other quality were lost in the process. It is a great mistake, however, to regard these two qualities as the ultimate ob- jective in teaching reading. These ultimate objectives must be stated in terms of needs, situations, and activities in life outside the school. These objectives must, of course, be stated in detail. They fall under the following heads: (1) those needs and activities bound up with locating data; (2) those abilities involved in selecting, com- prehending, and evaluating data in the light of the purpose at hand; (3) those abilities involved in organizing these data for any given 290 ELEMENTARY SCHOOL PRINCIPALS purpose; (4) those abilities and technics involved in perfecting one’s grasp of the material read, in reacting to the material as a whole, and in providing for remembrance. It will be seen that comprehension is basic in all these activities. One cannot skim, or use the table of contents, or refer to the index, or consult the dictionary without a certain amount of ability to com- prehend. By comprehension is not meant mere mechanical associa- tion of meanings. It involves selection, weighing of values, and many other rather technical and complicated abilities. It is also clear that speed is involved in each of these objectives as a desired condition of efficient work. Such a plan, however, keeps speed where it properly belongs—namely, always within the limits of the requirements of the job to be done. What is desired is not speed in reading, but the ability to be able to find material quickly, to select relevant data quickly, to organize these data in the solution of a problem quickly, to know the most economical methods by which one may clinch what has been read and provide for its per- manent retention. There is ample evidence from our experiments in silent reading that time pressure as a condition for practice exer- cises in silent reading must always be regulated in the light of the purpose for which the selection is to be read. It is one thing to tell a child to read as fast as he can. It is another thing to ask him to discover as quickly as possible from a given page the accurate answer to a question. In the latter case the pupil has a criterion by which he may judge whether or not his reading is too rapid. Furthermore, he works under the advantage of having his mind on the question at hand, rather than upon his reading processes. The final diagnosis of the status of the reading ability of pupils probably needs to be made in two ways: (1) by testing the pupil's ability to do each of the important types of reading which have to be done in working with books; (2) by testing the related essential abilities involved in such work. Both of these main and subordinate classes of skills or abilities must be developed regardless of what kind of scores one makes on a standard silent-reading test, or upon a test of some special phase of reading, such as that of phonics. It is therefore important to keep before the teacher a chart or outline of these essential abilities. Such a chart is published in Rochester for the course of study in reading. The following chart, prepared by Miss Maude McBroom, of Detroit Teachers College, is of a similar type. Tue SEconD YEARBOOK 291 READING THE SociAL AND PEDAGOGICAL OBJECTIVES IN THE CouURSE OF STUDY I. Recreatory Reading A. Oral 1. Social values— yu 4. a. To read aloud to others for social and recreatory purposes (as with friends) b. To read aloud for one’s own personal enjoyment, as in reading a lyric ec. To read as a part of the preparation of or participation in dramatics. (These are types of situations in which we read. Involved in these types are, of course, certain incidental values such as the development of ideals, the enriching and satisfying of emotions, etc.) . Skills, habits, and technics involved in these objectives— . Proper interpretation . Proper attitude toward audience, including posture, etc. . Expression of appreciation through inflection, etc. . Pronunciation . Enunciation . Voice training, including proper breathing, tone quality, ete. (At time of actual reading for the above purposes, the class-room atmosphere should be social and recreatory. Training in these essential skills is kept incidental to recreatory purposes. The actual drill lessons fall under the work type of oral reading as described under IIA below.) . Types of material to be used— . Short stories Poems Travel Plays Novels Essays Science History . Biography ji. Myths and legends . Fables . Newspaper and magazine articles Tests, informal a b. c. d. e. 2 9. h. + I k l B. Silent 1, 2. 3. 4. Social values— To be able to select and enjoy proper books and articles according to one’s mood. This implies the necessity for humorous, excit- ing, thoughtful reading, and reading for the general widening of one’s interests. This reading is done silently for recreatory purposes, and hence without such compulsion as may exist in silent reading of the work type. Skills or technics involved in— a. Interpretation b. Appreciation Types of materials to be used— While practically every type of literary material may be read silently, certain types are particularly suited for such reading, such as I A 3. Other types, such as poetry, necessitate oral reading, if full appreciation is to be made possible. In general, the longer selections would be assigned to silent reading. Tests— Tests should probably be limited to informal tests. It is doubtful whether a formal standard test of literary appreciation is either possible or desirable. 292 ELEMENTARY SCHOOL PRINCIPALS II, Work Type of Reading A. Oral 1. Social values— a. To inform others (announcements, minutes, news items, etc.) b. To prove a point, as in recitation or debates . Skills or technics involved— . Proper interpretation . Enunciation . Pronunciation . Voice training . Learning to recognize words through phonetics. (The actual drill for purposes of developing these abilities is to be distinguished from the incidental practice obtained in ordinary recreatory or social oral reading.) . Types of material— a. Minutes, announcements, etc. b. Material from texts in geography, history, etc., read in connection with class discussion or debates . Tests— a. Standard oral-reading tests b. Special diagnostic tests c. Special informal tests devised to show improvement in any specific ability, such as enunciation, voice training, pronunciation, ete. . Silent 1. Social values— . To get information . To solve problems . To understand situations, opinions, etc. . To verify facts, opinions, etc. To form opinions for use . To satisfy curiosity . To inform on questions of the day . To make judgments . To stimulate new problems . Skills, habits, or technics involved— a. Speed—eye movements, span, etc. b. Comprehension, understanding, interpreting, etc. c. Organization, assigning topics to proper order, summarizing, out- lining, etc. d. Remembrance . Types of material used— a. Phrases—flash cards b. All sorts of informational material as is furnished in geography, history, science, nature study, etc., in large and small units . Tests— a. Standard silent-reading tests b. Special tests of progress in achieving special abilities C. Use of Books 1. Social results— a. To find material quickly . To find the meaning and use of words . To find reference material . To understand tables, keys, maps, etc. . To use and care for books well . To evaluate material a b c d e. f 9g h 4 Tue SEconpD YEARBOOK 2. Skills involved— . Use of index . Use of content table . Use of dictionary . Use of library Use of reference tables, charts, maps, etc. Skimming . Care of books . Types of material— Any book with index Any book with table of contents Telephone directory or other alphabetical arrangements Dictionary Card file . Magazine articles . Readers Guide . World Almanac . Encyclopedias ayweaagca sPFE TS ages Miss McBroom’s chart does not show which objectives are to be ac- complished in a given grade. The Rochester chart gives the outline of objectives grade by grade, but it does not represent so skillful an analysis of the ultimate abilities which are desired. It is clear that, regardless of a pupil’s score on any general standard test, the teacher must still inquire concerning the degree to which the pupil has achieved the social and pedagogical objectives as outlined in Miss McBroom’s analysis or in the Rochester chart. Important beginnings have been made in the analysis of the abili- ties related to such objectives as are outlined in these charts, and in the discovery of exercises for the development of these abilities. An interesting example of a test for related abilities is the word-element test devised by Dean Gray and used by him in connection with his remedial work. This test, with the exception of the cards used in it, is given below with Dean Gray’s permission. He asks that the reader keep in mind that this is not a standardized test. Word-element test—This test consists of three lists of phonetic words and three packages of cards with these same words on them. The first list is presented to the child on cards, one word at a time. If the child gives the word correctly, the examiner checks the word on the list. If he fails, the examiner makes a cross after the word on the list and asks the child to turn the card over. On this side of the card there is a sentence using the word. If the child can Trecognize the word in the sentence, the examiner makes a check under the cross. If the child fails again, the examiner makes another cross under the first one. The second list consists of words belonging to the same family; two words in each family being given. These words are presented to the child on cards; one family on each card. The examiner tells the 294 ELEMENTARY SCHOOL PRINCIPALS child the first word and the family to which it belongs, then asks the child to give the other word. If he gives it correctly, the examiner makes a check after the word on the list; if not, a cross. The child is then asked to name other words in the family; the examiner indi- cating number thus—3, ete. The third list consists of words having the same initial sound; two words with the same initial sound on each card. The words are presented to the child on cards as before. The examiner gives the first word and tells the initial sound. He then calls the child’s atten- tion to the fact that the following word begins with the same initial sound and asks what the word is. If the child gives the word cor- rectly, the examiner makes a check after the word in the list; if not, he makes a cross. The child is then asked to give other words havy- ing the same initial sound. The examiner indicates the number as before. Sight-word test—The examiner gives the child the word list and asks him to pronounce the words checked. When the child makes a mistake, the examiner tabulates the word that should be given and the word the child gives. When the child fails to respond in any way to a word, the examiner tabulates the word. Worp-ELemMent TEst flint line felt hush jump grew hole scold twig glide enke spin an that eat shrill pen strive big black kind crack hop frog fun boil spring mash like vest new hug Tue SEconD YEARBOOK List 2 smack big wig snail ill spill flake in twin fall kind grind shame king fling plan five thrive vat clip skip stand side pride trace line shrine splash dog hog whale hop drop treat now plow shed old scold swell rock frock when gum chum queen fun shun sent cut strut drew luck cluck crest hush blush whet not trot thick List 3 bent fret frame eall could glow glide den dog grow grand fed fame place pluck get gum pride prop hand hut queen quail jail jut scold sean kind keen shake shun log luck skin sill meet mop slip slew neat nest smell small pen pale snake snow ran rock spin spun sand sum stew stale vat vest swing swell wind wick thing thine tail tent twig twine yet yell while wheat black blind shrine shrill brace brush track trick chin chum splash spleen clock clog spring sprig crack crush strive strip drop drive thrash threw flat fled knell knack A moment’s consideration of such a chart as the Rochester chart or that prepared by Miss McBroom shows clearly that there must be some provision for coérdinating in the various grades the attack on these objectives. The charts are intended to represent a complete outline of the task which must be performed by the school as a whole. Each grade teacher has her part in this work. Her best service 296 ELEMENTARY SCHOOL PRINCIPALS cannot be rendered unless she keeps in mind the relations of her work to that of the teachers in other grades. Here is an opportunity for the school principal, for it is he who must follow the progress of the pupils from grade to grade, who must discover hindrances to proper progress, and who must see that each step is thoroughly and efficiently mastered. A Mastery Vocabulary in Primary Reading M. EtHet Brown Supervisor Primary Grades, Springfield, Illinois HE TEACHERS of primary reading are indeed fortunate in having such interesting material to use as is today available in the various story readers. The story readers and story method have made primary reading a natural life-situation—reading to dis- cover something of interest—and have made the learning to read child-like, in the sense that children learn to read by rote as they learn to talk. Necessity for vocabulary study—Some teachers object to the story readers because the vocabulary in each text is too large for the chil- dren to learn and they feel that the children slip along from grade to grade with no real word power. To obviate this objection and make our story reading a success in our schools we began a year or more ago a vocabulary study in connection with our basal texts, the Winston Readers. The primer has a vocabulary of 321 different words; the first reader, 612; the second reader, 1495; and the third reader, 2786. This counts every word appearing in each book re- gardless of its appearance in an earlier volume. This vocabulary consists (1) of words having a high per cent of frequency in reading matter for children, and (2) of words of less frequent usage yet needed in a particular story or so. It seemed to us that a certain number of the common words should be mastered semester by semes- ter to give the children word power, while the major part of the vo- cabulary could be caught with the thought for the time being and not drilled upon. To find which words belonged in the mastery class was the purpose of our study. General plan of vocabulary study—My general plan for this vocab- ulary study consisted of checking each volume in our series of books, listing the different words, scoring their frequency in the primer and first reader and noting which words held over from volume to THE SEconD YEARBOOK 297 volume; then to select for mastery the words of highest frequency in the greatest number of stories. For the second reader I would not score frequency but list the different words, note which words were repeated from the primer and first reader, and then compare the list with the one made by E. T. Housh and reported in the Seven- teenth Yearbook of the National Society for the Study of Education, Part I, Chapter IV. His list comprised words common to ten different second readers. The words on our list which were also on his would be well worth mastering. For the third reader we would do as above except select the words for mastery on the basis of local teacher opinion as I knew of no third-reader vocabulary study to use for comparison. Results of the study—lI did the work, personally, upon the primer and first reader and with that as a basis turned the second and third reader studies over to committees. At that time I discovered the primer and first-reader lists had been done a year before by my predecessor and a local teacher. Since their study was in the hands of the teachers we used it instead of making copies of mine. Com- mittees with my help continued the work. When we were through we had selected only 680 different words for mastery in the first three grades plus one hundred more whose root forms were included in the 680 listed, but whose endings were different enough to require attention. This seems a very short list but it was all we could undertake then, though we plan to increase it as time goes on. Checking vocabulary by Thorndike’s Teacher's Word Book—The interesting part of our word study came after the publication of The Teacher’s Word Book by Edward L. Thorndike, which lists alpha- betically 10,000 words occurring most widely in a count of some four and a half million words from forty-one different sources. At the end of the book Dr. Thorndike lists in sets of 500 words each the 2500 words having the most wide and frequent occurrence. I checked our lists for the various semesters by this list of 2500 words and found that 408 of our 680 words selected for mastery in the first three grades are in his list of the 500 words of widest use and highest frequency. The balance of our list was distributed throughout his list of 2500 with the exception of the following 21. These do not appear in his list of 2500 words, though the italicized parts are in the first list of 500. 298 ELEMENTARY SCHOOL PRINCIPALS bumblebee she’s awoke rap (rapped) threw anybody pussy anyone anywhere couldn’t doesn’t ésn’t obey apron chin core pretended queer shelf thumb wrinkled Mastery words—Below are listed the 680 different words we have selected for mastery. The different forms of the same word, as “ask” and “asked,” are not included. The figures after the words indicate if the word or some form of it is in Dr. Thorndike’s first list of 500; his second list of 500, ete. The table should be read as follows: the word “afraid” is to be mastered in the first semester of the first grade. The word appears in the second 500-word group in Dr. Thorndike’s Teacher’s Word Book. The x used in the following list is placed after words that are not on the 2500-word list given by Thorndike: Reading Word Mastery List for First Semester—First Grade Figures show from which of Thorndike’s 500-word lists, each word is taken i ici ah Bia lisiatien dh imme breed 1 | 2 a igs gow tad awa wiate 1 —_ Scab abrecnsnanued ; re ihe aaa Gin track wine Sain 1 a a aie od d.widi to kei ocd 1 er 1 Ee = 1 soo oe ioc marne sions 1 Di ccenesacchwaben 2 rrr 1 eg ak ale aoe sieaeerae 1 bumblebee............ x Se er sees: 1 A Ae 1 NE 5, 0 ex’ des wlecen eli 1 rs dee hi an We Oa 3 I = 4 san Was ¥awore 2 SN oka. a Abielw ae kiek ied 3 is sans’ = aha warated 2 I aga a dik ag uaa 1 Mis a igsccce dwvlecan ae 1 Shas od kk ckae nie 1 Se 2 Cc aot wap beead dead 1 are 1 Seer: 3 Bs ob: tbstnedeedens 1 Die dccnesssoneceuns 1 SU di bbtteseddscacnee 1 BRA 6 6 taivececanenncia 3 SPPerrerrre re 1 GME. oc ccccccccccces 2 irsitaketaactnasueie 1 otal ies mana aden 1 Desk cache teomasees 1 ree 2 ee 1 SE eres 3 Rca se aviskca/s/eruiave dala sess 1 NG siaaidintiddeaaianeas 1 Naina x vibes Roktneaaan 1 IS s.6-n:3 sce me'aiecn ane 1 hai 0 5s ig ore nai 1 | re oye ry ee 1 ass si kg ova dl acaldioes 1 skp acd sci win wardaye oo 1 jump as ith ee intieireniel 2 DN ds i gneyeaneunaaete 1 ESS ie Oe 1 DR cc cdaeapanecews 1 ee eee 1 POPC errr Te 1 Se ee eee 1 NcGCk ade meneame 2 Serre re 1 DC cAsmadnbaaswaamane 1 ee er 1 SR 1 Me Recah cng waka ancen 1 | SURREBRES SRRSERE eer e 1 Ae 1 SR ee eee 1 SRS reer ey 1 OVEP. 22. s eee eeeeeee 1 Gn oo cccscccocoscces 3 ntcvccrncakedede 1 NE 3.0; sdala's alate scaler x SRE ee 1 een. 4 ee ee 2 has 5 a: ali aiakas dearer 1 Rd Pein n'a 4 awn mae 1 ge 5g a eller k-na l EE hs rsp nw oe ea rain dnkes 1 NS Biase aie wid a a.a eta 1 SE ee 1 SRE Reet x EE Kenenchmtscnwek 1 AA rarer ten are 1 id tia nem eae Awe 1 NE a teacgieark kaa kaha he 1 icon cl ota bars 1 Sr ee 2 IN arid ws wisaatdiex odie 1 Saree: 1 Ns a ec we gras ate n 1 Ree ee 1 = eee 1 gtk e dt makcaceckees 1 a lag aigcihe ant lgee 2 MS ik, oF a awreeeecals 1 aa Ge dbiachid-aeireeKes 1 SN iss, aie: acai diasaraceciier ten 1 EE re eee 1 heck nie anes alaceseih 1 ed alia ee eid aa a 1 I gid wiatatedeea eed l iii sina bate a acatw ec aipares 1 a cage wade aneaion 1 I s. saisndig aged areca 1 | I oe 1 — EE ee 1 a a creek arte wee 1 I a wid in a uae aie 1 Se ciccesneesnees 1 ickvevncsuenewns 1 int the sto! firs thi fift laa qu ar In re en have “ask” licate 500; : the rade. like’s laced like: aken ee ee, or eee) oe teeny cee, A a et ee a: a ER ee oe ee ee ee oh ha el a ll a ol el el od ood a NOL CLOT tee i Tue SeEconpD YEARBOOK 299 Overlapping of our vocabulary and Thorndike’s 2500 words—It is interesting to note in detail how our mastery list distributes itself over the 2500 words listed by Thorndike. The table following tells the story. It should be interpreted thus: of the total of 109 words to be mastered in the first semester of first grade 87 are in Thorndike’s first five hundred; 12 are in his second five hundred; 6 are in his third five hundred; one is in his fourth five hundred; none is in his fifth five hundred, and 3 are not in the 2500 list. Thorndike’s 500-Word Lists Semester | Grade 2500 List | Total Pe PitBie@tts 1 1 87 | 12 6 1 0 3 109 2 1 76 | 21 6|/ 4] 0 2 109 1 3 90 | 20; 5| 2] 0 1 118 3 2 68 | 26; 4); 2 1 0 101 1 3 73 |46)15| 7| 4 8 153 2 3 14 | 27 | 19 | 17 5 8 90 408 |152 | 55 | 33 | 10 22 680 In figuring by per cents we find 60 per cent of our mastery vocabu- lary is composed of words listed by Thorndike as the 500 most fre- quently used ; 22 per cent appear in the second list of 500; 8 per cent are in the third list of 500; 4 per cent are in the fourth list of 500; 1 per cent is in the fifth list of 500, and 3 per cent are words not listed in the first five sets of 500 each. It has meant much to us to have the opportunity to check the results of our local study by means of such an extensive study as Dr. Thorndike’s. It has given us faith in our own list and much more enthusiasm in working for its mastery. Aids in mastering the vocabulary’—The Board of Education has bought and the teachers have made much material to assure the mas- tery of these words. The 109 primer words we had printed on tag board for use as seat work cards. These the children can arrange in sentences emphasizing the thought of the story in the text or to make original stories. We also had all the mastery words printed in type the size of the readers, on book paper, to be made into home-made dictionaries by all children in the first three grades. These are used in word drill exercises and as reference in written work. *Full details of these various aids are given in the Springfield, Illinois, Course of Study with Suggestive Method for the Primary Grades. ELEMENTARY ScHOOL PRINCIPALS Reading Word Mastery List for Second Semester—First Grade Figures show from which of Thorndike’s 500-word lists, each word is taken The teachers printed the same words in large type on cards 3 by 8 inches and in phrases on cards 3 by 18 inches. These are used in class drills and by groups of children, one of whom plays teacher. Again these words have been printed in charts so each grade can review the words of the past semesters. Some teachers have made sets of silent reading flash cards incor- porating the vocabulary. Examples as follows: Put the cat under the bed. Jump over the chair. Run and get a pig for me. Put a tail on the dog. Can a man walk? Do rabbits eat grass? Are you a goat? Tue SEconD YEARBOOK Reading Word Mastery List for First Semester—Second Grade Figures show from which of Thorndike’s 500-word lists, each word is taken om can vom oe oom “a oa 3 cok » >» SN] ONNNO Avera to | WoHDDOmD alo en en : o SaSIE Gain per cent _ o Qo —_ Total...| 133 |1,138 Table 4 shows the number of pupils by grades for both P. S. 1 and P. S. 2 who did not equal the standard speed set by the Burgess Test. One hundred pupils who were below the standard speed on the first test were reduced to 22 on the second test. On the second test there was an increase of 20 pupils who made more than two mistakes. 312 ELEMENTARY SCHOOL PRINCIPALS This does not seem a serious matter when you consider the great increase in the number of paragraphs read and the number right. TABLE 4 Speed Accuracy Number pupils | Number pupils need dril who make Grades upon speed more than two mistakes P.S.1)| P.S. 2 P.S.1|P.8.2 4 23 6 10 13 5 21 6 7 17 6 21 3 9 8 7 25 7 3 10 8 10 0 1 2 Per cent. 75 16} 22 | Total.| 100 22 : | 50 Conclusions—Immediately following this special work in reading each teacher was asked to answer a series of questions on the work just done. The answers to the questions were calculated to sum- marize the results of this intensive period of silent reading work. The following is a résumé of the answers: Speed of reading has been greatly increased. With few excep- tions, comprehension has increased with the speed. The controlled period has done much to concentrate the thought. A better attack for comprehension has developed. These results have carried over finely in a supervised period and to some extent in any study period. Emphasis may be placed upon thought getting without materially reducing the speed by the use of well-planned questions which should follow the reading. Interesting stories, the subject matter of which is familiar to the children and those stories that contain much conversation are best for rapid silent reading. Detailed description cannot be read so rapidly. Silent reading methods should be used regularly in reading, geog- raphy, and history. Four phases of the work are (1) getting the principal thought from the paragraph, (2) finding answers to definite questions, (3) topic name for paragraph, (4) reproduction. Certain mechanical details, such as the development of new words and their pronounciation and meaning, must be cared for before silent reading begins. Ir can hens This how ing | Rea is th this func life men spon cons grad abili ing, at g l- )- d i eee = : ie 0 1 ™m Tue SEcoND YEARBOOK 313 In conclusion I wish to say that I am convinced that silent reading can be effectively speeded up in a short period of time, that compre- hension need not suffer if methods of testing are used consistently. This controlled period has taught the pupils how to read faster and how to get the thought. It has inspired them to attack other read- ing material with vigor. It has made their studying more efficient. BIBLIOGRAPHY O’Brien, Silent Reading. Burgess, The Measurement of Silent Reading. Burgess, The Measurement of Silent Reading (Hlementary School Journal), Volume XXII, No. 4. Readers Used: Serl, In the Animal World. Bolenius, Boys and Girls Fourth Reader. Elson, Primary School Reader No. 4. Bolenius, Boys and Girls Fifth Reader. Edson Laing, Fifth Reader. Young and Field, Sixth Reader. Pressey, Vocational Reader. Reading and Language in the Winnetka Public Schools Marion CARSWELL Principal of the Hubbard Woods School WILuarp W. Beatty Principal of the Skokie School Winnetka, Illinois HE MOST important single “fundamental” which the schools are called upon to teach is reading. The mastery of the ability to read simple prose with rapidity and understanding is the necessary prerequisite to any kind of an education. Lacking this ability to read, the doors are closed to arithmetic (beyond the fundamentals), literature, history, geography, and science. Modern life with its stores, transportation systems, newspapers, and amuse- ments assumes this ability to read as axiomatic. Our schools, re- sponding to the general assumption with regard to reading, place considerable effort upon the teaching of reading in the first three grades, and frequently for the rest of the school course take the ability to read for granted. The modern trend in our schools has been away from oral read- ing, and toward much greater emphasis upon silent reading, in recog- 314 ELEMENTARY SCHOOL PRINCIPALS nition of the predominance of silent reading in after life. With this tendency there can be no quarrel, for it is eminently practical. But while the tendency is sound there are pitfalls to be avoided on either side. In attempting to adjust the problem of the teaching of reading to the requirements of individual instruction in Winnetka, we have striven to keep the above facts in mind. Our problem therefore pre- sents itself in this manner: (1) To satisfy the children’s natural desire to read by supplying the mechanical elements, including, of course, phonics; (2) to review and expand these mechanical abilities; and (3) to supply quantities of simple reading material for both oral and silent reading, increasing in difficulty throughout the grades; (4) to base grade promotions upon both amount and quality of silent reading done; (5) to check the reading done: (a) For the story con- tent and (6) to see that the child is master of the vocabulary. (6) To study the reading habits of the slower readers and supply cor- rective work throughout the grades, which shall tend to increase eye-span, eliminate lip-movements, and enlarge vocabulary. In order to accomplish these six things, a certain technique has been developed which shall place the reading in consonance with the individual progress possible in other subjects. But in developing this technique we have not hesitated to profit by the work of others, and owe much to the reading experiments of Gray, Judd, and Bus- well at the University of Chicago. For the sake of simplicity it would seem best to take up each of the points in its natural order. Mechanics of reading—lIn the first grade the work varies greatly from room to room, because several methods are in use with a view to determining that which is best suited to individualization. In gen- eral, the children are introduced to reading by the story-telling method. The story is told first as a whole, then sentence by sentence as the printed text is presented. The entire group is usually started together, then divided as individual differences appear—first into smaller groups, and then as each individual acquires the ability of independent effort, he is allowed to progress at his own natural rate. In some of the rooms, means are being developed for speeding up this opportunity for individual activity, but it is as yet too early to report upon their success. In the later grades, further emphasis is placed upon the perfect- ing of the mechanics of reading to the end that the children as they pass on into the higher grades may have mastered correct reading habits. Tue SEcoND YEARBOOK 315 Beginning with the first grade, the children are encouraged to read as much as they will. A variety of simple books, suited to their varying reading skills are placed in each classroom library, and the children are urged to use them for both classroom and home reading. Comprehension is carefully checked by oral tests, oral reading with the teacher, and oral book reports to make sure that the child does not develop the habit of sliding over the more difficult words without comprehending their meaning. In order that the habit of much fluent reading be firmly estab- lished, the grade promotions are based upon both the quality of oral and silent reading, and the amount of silent reading actually accom- plished. A goal card for reading in the fifth grade is shown later, in which it will be seen how these points are emphasized. Silent reading—Buswell’s experiments at Chicago have served to substitute fact for assumption, with regard to much of the silent versus oral reading discussion. The correlations of eye-movement photographs with the reading voice, showed conclusively that after about the fifth grade the eye attains a permanently more rapid com- prehension span than it is possible for the voice to keep up with. This proved that the retention of much oral reading above this point materially slowed up the natural reading rate. These experiments also demonstrate that the good reader is one whose eye moves rhyth- mically across the page, stopping or “fixating’”’ for several short periods in each line, and seldom going back to reconstruct the thought. They showed, on the other hand, that the poor reader is one whose eye travels jerkily across the page, stopping frequently for relatively long fixations, and returning often to connect the thought or puzzle out disturbing intricacies. In other words, good readers read in word groups; poor readers read in words or parts of words. The good readers naturally possess growing vocabularies, constantly enriched from the new contexts in which they meet old friends or new acquaintances. The poor readers, on the other hand, struggle with limited vocabularies and frequently are lost upon the highways or in the by-paths of a strange and unfamiliar language. The best exercise for the good reader is plenty of reading; and, with some almost pathological exceptions, the best medicine for the weak reader is plenty of reading, provided it is simple enough to be suited to his capacity, and will tend to give him a heartening familiarity with the process of reading, and not leave him stranded as a derelict upon strange coasts. Reading goal sheets—Our reading goals for each grade, therefore, demand that a number of books be read each year. From one to 316 ELEMENTARY SCHOOL PRINCIPALS three points is allowed for each book read and reported on, but the “points” are not over-emphasized. Goal cards in reading for the First and Second Grades, and a Fifth-Grade card, typical of the other grades, are reproduced herewith: First GRADE READING GOALS EXPLANATION Worp List A “common word list’? has been prepared from the words most frequently used in primers and first readers. These words are so thoroughly mastered that they are recognized instantly without sounding. Books First Grade children read enough books to score 5 points. A primer scores 1 point; an average-sized first-grade book scores 2 points; an unusually long or hard one, 3 points. ReEap1inG Power TEst This is a test of a child’s ability to read at sight new material made up of words from the common word list and of new words composed of the phonics he has studied. Orat Reapine TEst Dean William S. Gray, of the University of Chicago, has devised the most successful test of children’s ability to read orally, and has secured data from the tests of tens of thousands of children. When one of our children makes 31 points on Gray’s scale, the average number scored by children at the end of the first grade the country over, he is promoted to second grade in oral reading. CHILD’s GOAL SHEET I. = common words learned “cc “cc “cc “ Required Reading — 5 points. Points a. Reading power test — phonics and common words b. Oral Reading Test (Gray) 31 points.......................... | Promoted to Grade 2 Reading Teacher GO NES? Sr em 9S tO — ~ _ Tue SEcoND YEARBOOK Seconp GRADE READING GOALS EXPLANATION Worp List A “common word list” has been prepared from the words most frequently used in primers and first readers. The list contains 266 words. Children have learned to recognize 150 of these at sight in first grade. Test I is a review of this 150. Test II carries the chil- dren through 200 words. Test III covers the entire list. Books Second-grade children read enough books to score 20 points. One book scores 1, 2, or 3 points according to length and difficulty. READING TEST Before promotion to grade 3 in reading a pupil is able to read at the rate of at least 520 words in 10 minutes, and to answer three out of four questions on what he has read. CHILD’s GOAL SHEET I. Word list 1 (150) Word list 2 (200) | MI TI i 5, a iho ie abet ey Bw 9 SGD, Sa ie Kits ony a Re ee oe ietaeaaite II. Required Reading 20 Points. _ Points itle Points . Gray’s Oral Reading Test—47 points Burgess Test—4] Phonics Test Course begun Promoted to Grade 3 Reading Teacher Firtru GRADE READING GOALS EXPLANATION A credit of from 1 to 3 points is given for each book read. A fifth-grade pupil must make 30 points, of which 4 must be literature, 4 history, 4 geography, 4 science, and the rest chosen by the pupil, subject to the approval of the teacher. Promotion is based on the Burgess picture test and Gray’s Oral Reading Test, which is given 318 ELEMENTARY SCHOOL PRINCIPALS after the required books have been read, and also during the school year to ascertain the progress made by the pupil. When the re- quired books have been read and the minimum goal of 9 paragraphs in 5 minutes has been reached in the Burgess test, and a score of 48 points on the Gray Oral Reading Test, the pupil is promoted to the next grade in reading. CHILD’s GoAL SHEET Teacher Space is provided in which to record the name of each book read, with provision for the teacher’s “O. K.” when she has established by a test that the book has been read with comprehension. That the reading may be varied, two at least of the books demanded for each year must be geographic in nature, two historic, and two in the field of science. After the silent reading goal has been achieved, the child must pass a form of the Burgess silent reading test with a score equal to the grade standard. In grades 1 through 5 the Gray Oral Reading Test is also demanded. The point requirements in reading, and the Burgess standard for the different grades, is as follows: Tue SECOND YEARBOOK 319 Burgess Standard Gray Oral Read- (in Number of Points Required ing Standard Paragraphs Read correctly) 5 20 30 25 30 30 15 books by 12 in 5 min. different authors 15 books by 13 in 5 min. different authors Room and school libraries—In the lower grades, each classroom is equipped with a small room library, from which the children borrow books. Instead of buying thirty readers for the grade—one per child—we buy thirty different books, suited to the age and grade of the children in the room, and the children use them in rotation. The children are also encouraged to bring in books of their own for the use of others in the class, and a loan library is created, which changes each year. A small appropriation each year serves to add constantly new titles to each room library making more alluring the feast of reading. The reading ability of any roomful of children naturally varies greatly, so in each room there will be found some books well suited to the grade below, and some mature enough for the grade above, thus catering to the reading ability of practically every child in the room. If a teacher finds that some child is an exception and can find nothing on her shelves suited to his needs, she may call upon any other teacher for the loan of the necessary books. In the junior high school (limited to seventh and eighth grades) we have a school library, in which all of the reading books, reference books, and texts not required to be in the hands of the pupils for constant use are kept. Last fall (the first term in our new building) the teachers each gave voluntarily their free time to keep the library open for constant use, and now a program readjustment has freed one teacher to operate the library, and it is crowded all day with earnest workers, excused from their various classes to secure books, or to do necessary reading. The same money which would have gone into duplicate readers for these grades has been put into worth- while fiction, donations have been received from parents, and the beginnings of a full and variegated library assembled. 320 ELEMENTARY SCHOOL PRINCIPALS At this point it may be well to emphasize a new departure in book buying, which is based upon a statistical check of use. When the ordinary school orders any title in fiction from a publisher or book- seller, without comments, the people who fill the order automatically pick out the cheapest edition to be found. Small type, cheap bind- ing, and lack of illustrations typify such books. They sell at about 75 cents each. We have gone to the opposite extreme. We specify the editions which are printed in large type upon good paper ; which are well and artistically bound; and wherever possible, those pro- fusely illustrated in color. Such editions cost us to begin with from $1.75 to $3.00. But they circulate three or four times as much. The purpose of having a book in a school library is to have it read, and anything which will double or treble the circulating power of a book is worth considering. A statistical check of the comparative circulation of different editions of the same work made by the author in another school system, justified us in adopting this policy and our own experience amply confirms the finding. Book reports—Where such a large and various amount of reading is done in a classroom, and it is desired that the children be checked up upon the quantity and quality of what they read, some device must be prepared. Three different devices are in use in Winnetka. The oral book report, the written book report, and the test. Each child is expected to present one or more oral book reports per term. These usually consist of a sketch of the plot, the description of a good scene in some detail, and perhaps the oral reading of some particu- larly interesting portion. Such a report takes not more than five minutes, and must be so given that it shows that the child reciting has read the book understandingly and at the same time interests the other children without telling them so much of the story as to kill their own desire to read the book. Many times several children who have read a book combine to dramatize a portion of it to stimu- late the interest of others, and serve as their own “book report.” Some children enjoy writing a summary of their reading and are encouraged to do so; some delight to retell portions of the story in their own words, and this is also encouraged. But these three methods cannot possibly care for the vast amount of reading which is done. A short individual oral quiz by the teacher enabled many books to be checked as to familiarity with content, but was difficult to administer, because few teachers had read or could remember the hundreds of books which thirty different children would read and report on. This problem has been partially solved. Testing for content—Graded book lists were first prepared, con- taining as many titles as were considered thoroughly satisfactory. THe SECOND YEARBOOK 321 The titles on these lists were then divided among the grade teachers, each of whom assumed responsibility for preparing a set of questions upon the given books. Two types of questions were prepared for use in different ways. The first or oral type was in the form of a series of questions covering the important points of the book in such a way that they afforded almost an outline of the story, and phrased in such a way as to allow for but a single short answer—preferably one or two words. ‘These questions were written upon 5” x 8” cards in hectograph ink, and then duplicated for each of the teachers. In testing any given child the teacher would not use all of the questions, but would select enough to satisfy herself that the child had read and understood the book. She would then be able to use an entirely or partially different set of questions for the next child who reported the same title. Several typical sets are here given to illustrate more clearly the method. In the following two examples the question is asked the child orally and is so phrased that he can give but one right answer— which, for the benefit of the teacher unfamiliar with the book, ap- pears in parentheses in this test. Second Grade—The Cherry Tree Children (Mary Frances Blaisdell) . What was Polly Robin building in the cherry tree? (A nest) 2. What did the farmer make to scare Blackie Crow in the cornfield? (Scare crow) 3. What was Puff, the kitten, doing when Muff found her in the basket of hay? (Sleeping) . To what did Polly Robin invite the squirrels, ducks, chickens and all the robins? (Toa concert) 5. Who went to school? (All good rats) 3. What came out of the green frog’s mouth? (Water) (He was a sprinkler) 7. Where did Polly Robin go with her family after her nest was too small? (To the pine trees) . What was the worm which the chickens had? (Fire cracker) 9. Of what did West Wind make a nest for Speckle? (Leaves) . Where did the two squirrels hide their acorns? (In the seare crow’s pockets) . Who rapped at the door when Papa Bunny was telling the story? (Jack Frost) Fourth and Fifth Grades—The Story of Roland (James Baldwin) . Where were Roland and his mother living after his father’s death? (Cave) . Where did Roland go to tell Charlemagne who he was? (To the feast) 3. How did Charlemagne honor Roland? (Made him page-feast in his honor) . When did Roland become a knight? (Battle with Saracens) . Name two things the king gave Roland? (Hector’s sword and ivory horn) . After fighting long with the Knight of the Red Plume, Roland finds he is (Oliver—boy friend) - Roland goes to Far East through enchanted region to get what? (Re- mainder of Hector’s armor) . Name two things he slew in Gardens of Falerina. (Dragon, siren of lake) . What good deed did Roland do in Ireland? (Slew sea monster—saved maiden) 322 ELEMENTARY SCHOOL PRINCIPALS 10. When Roland became ill and lost his mind what did he do with his armor? (Scattered it through woods) 11. Where was he healed and given good clothing? (Charlemagne’s camp) 12. What did Ganelon and Marceleus plot to do? (Kill Roland) 138. When Roland, in charge of rear guard, is set upon by Moors, how many are killed? (All) 14. When Roland is dying where does he hide his sword and horn? (Under his body) 15. What made Charlemagne turn around, come back and look for Roland? (Roland blew horn when all seemed lost) The second type of questions are prepared to allow for written testing. Several forms of test are prepared for each book and mime- ographed. The form of question used is one in which four possible answers are provided to a question or incomplete statement. One answer is right and the other three are wrong. The child is toe cross out the incorrect statements. The order of the correct and incorrect answers is so alternated that chance does not favor any position. This form of test is one with which the children are familiar, and the thing that they are required to do—that is, pick one correct answer and cross out three wrong ones is alwavs ‘he same, so that the form of the test is no handicap. Samples o° such tests are here shown. The correct answer is here italicized simply to illustrate the alternation of position. White Fang—Form A 1. Who wrote the book? . White Fang was born in a—House, Den, Tepee, Barn . His first master was—Kind, Gentle, Firm, Cruel . His Indian master sold him for—Whisky, Gold, Food, Clothing . His first white master compelled him to—Eat, Work, Sleep, Fight . He learned to—Despise, Hate, Love, Fear—his new master . Later he saved the life of his master’s—Cousin, Wife, Father, Daughter White Fang—Form B 1. Who wrote the book? 2. White Fang’s first master was an—LEskimo, White Man, /ndian, Negro 3. He was taught to pull a sled by—Boy, Man, Girl, Woman 4. He was taken to the—Great Lakes, Yukon, Panama Canal, Labrador 5. He was almost killed while fighting with a—Collie, Mastiff, Bulldog, Aire- dale 6. He was saved by a—Doctor, Lawyer, Indian Chief, Mining Engineer 7. With his new master he went—East, North, South, West. The Jungle Books—Form A 1. Who wrote the book? 2. Who wanted to kill Mowgli? Shere Khan, the tiger Bagheera, the panther Akela, the Lone Wolf Tue SEcoND YEARBOOK 323 3. With what did Mowgli frighten the wolves and Shere Khan at the Council Rock? A gun The .red flower A bow and arrow 4. Where did Hathi, the elephant, tell the story of “How Fear Came”? By the river In the field At the Council Rock 5. Who helped Mowgli to kill Shere Khan, the tiger? The priest Buldea, the hunter The Buffalo-herd and wolves 6. Who followed after Mowgli when he went to live with Man? Bagheera Gray Brother Baloo, the bear The Jungle Books—Form B Name 1. Who wrote the book? 2. Where did the wolves hold their meetings? By the trees In a cave At Council Rock 3. Where did the monkeys carry Mowgli? To the hill top To the Lost City To the Man pack 4. Who gave orders to let in the jungle on the village? Mowgli Kaa, the snake The panther 5. What did Mowgli finally do with the king’s Ankus that he took from the white Cobra? He kept it He left it buried He gave it back 6. Who won the battle against the Red Dogs? The wolf pack The Bander Log The people of the village Wonderful Adventures of Nilsa—Form A Grade - Who wrote the book? - In what language was it originally written? 3. Nils was changed into an elf because he tried to be dishonest with the elf he had caught he didn’t study his Sunday-school lesson he went to sleep over the Bible he wanted to ride with the wild geese to Lapland . When the white goosie-gander was tired and thought of turning back, he kept on because he wanted very much to go to Lapland he was angry because Nils thought he couldn’t fly Akka asked him to keep up with the flock the other geese were sorry for him and wanted him to stay with them 324 ELEMENTARY SCHOOL PRINCIPALS 5. The geese and other small animals began to like Nils because Nils tried hard to help them in every way he could he was so small he couldn’t hurt them Smirre Fox wanted to kill him he laughed at all their jokes . When the farmer heard how Nils had carried the squirrel’s babies to her he was very angry that he hadn’t caught Nils too glad Nils had brought the babies so he would have more squirrels ashamed of himself for keeping the squirrel in a cage sorry he hadn’t seen Nils carrying the baby squirrels . The black rats had always been able to keep themselves in Glimminge Castle because they didn’t eat as much wheat as the gray rats the old castle had such secure walls and so few rat passages that they could defend them easily the gray rats were satisfied elsewhere Herr Ermenrich, the stork, had a nest in the garret . The crane dance at Kullaberg was important for Nils because the cranes danced very beautifully all the animals became acquainted with Nils he was the only human being who had ever seen the animals play Smirre Fox was expelled from Skane, and swore revenge . When Thumbietot found the gray goose with the broken wing he pulled her wing to hurt her because he was jealous because he wanted to kill her so that the white goosie-gander would go away and leave her because he thought he could snap the bone back into place and mend her wing because she asked him to . Thumbietot was a pet name for the white goosie-gander Akka of Kabnekaise the leader of the crows Nils Holgersson . When Nils was taken by the crows to open the crock, he made fun of the birds and beasts whom he passed so that they would be angry they would remember that he had passed the crows would be teased he could find his way back Wonderful Adventures of Nils—Form B OS ee NB ONS hic cc ccccccdencossctscancsensss. 2. In what language was it originally written? 3. Nils jumped onto the white goosie-gander’s back because he wanted to fly with the geese to Lapland he wanted to keep him from flying away he was afraid of the cows he was afraid of what his parents would say when they found him so small 4. When the wild geese saw Nils they wanted to send him home because he had been a human being and they were afraid of him they thought he would starve to death if he stayed with them they thought he was too heavy to carry they thought it was so cold he would freeze Tue SEcoND YEARBOOK 325 . When the boy and girl caught the white goosie-gander Nils followed them because he was afraid he would be lost without the goose . he wanted to see where they were going he wanted to see the inside of the castle of Vittskovle he wanted to help the goose to escape from them . Akka asked the elf to change Nils back to his human form so that Nils would go home again because she wanted the white goosie-gander to go back to the farm with Nils because she wanted to repay Nils for saving the goose’s life, and for other good things he had done because she was afraid that Nils would go to Lapland with her if she didn’t . Akka saved Glimminge Castle for the black rats because the gray rats were afraid of the geese she poisoned the wheat the gray rats ate the black rats got back in time to defend the castle the gray rats followed Nils’ piping and left . While the geese were flying in the blinding sea fog, the other birds called out directions to them so as to help them on their way mix them up persuade them to turn back warn them of danger ahead . Out on the island of the three foxes, the white goosie-gander limped over the open ground because he didn’t know the foxes were there he was hurt, and was trying to get back to the flock he wanted the foxes to follow him and be killed Thumbietot had thrown a stone at him . The crows wished to open the earthen crock because they believed that there was food inside they were simply curious Smirre Fox told them there was silver money in it there was something to drink in it 11. The farmer was kind to Jarro, the wild duck because he wanted to use him to fool the other birds he was kind to all living things he wanted a playmate for his baby his wife was sorry for the wounded duck It will be seen that these tests, while probably none of them per- fect, will allow for a rapid determination of the child’s familiarity with the story which he has read. They are not presented as finished product, but as examples of the manner in which we are attempting to meet the problem. The questions are constantly being revised and improved; and to this end a careful record of the responses to each question is being kept. On a basis of this record, we hope to make them clearer and more understandable, while retaining the simplicity of administration and correction. Remedial reading growps—Despite the careful attention of the lower grade teachers, a few slow readers still manage to creep up into the upper grades. Some of them seem to possess an almost uncanny ability to glean the “story” element from the page, while baffled by 326 ELEMENTARY SCHOOL PRINCIPALS the maze of unfamiliar words. The glibness with which they can tell the story in detail is often deceptive—especially to an inexperi- enced teacher. Of course this slowness is usually revealed in the Burgess test—and a recent study which we have been making indi- cated a close correlation between immature reading habits—that is, bad eye movements, as described by Buswell, and a low score on the Burgess test. As a result, we have been organizing small special groups among the children in the upper grades with low reading scores, and offering various forms of corrective work. Each individual in such a group is personally analyzed to determine if possible what is responsible for the difficulty. Many times it is found to be an incapacity to analyze words into component parts, which can be aided by phonie drill. Sometimes slow recognition may be aided by a recognition drill. We are preparing in our print shop a series of flash cards, carrying words, groups of words and phrases for drill in group associations, for the purpose of attempting to lengthen the recognition span. A large part of the difficulties are intimately connected with vocab- ulary deficiencies, which many times are traceable to home environ- ment. Words which do not play a part in the conversation with which the child is surrounded do not function when they are en- countered in silent reading. We are attempting to remedy these deficiencies in small somewhat homogeneous groups which meet for vocabulary drill, and discussion and analysis of the words encoun- tered in the reading assignments of the content subjects. Many times words which prove stumbling blocks have been used in oral class discussions by other children to whom they were familiar, and have been passed over by the regular classroom teacher, who had no means of knowing what proportion of the class understood the usage. The child who did not understand, carefully disguised his ignorance, and prayed that he might never be exposed. We are gradually over- coming this reticence, and encouraging children to demand an understanding of the work which they are expected to read and dis cuss. Only by such an attitude is it possible to successfully deter- mine the relative difficulty of the books in use, or the actual com- prehension ability of the children. While the Burgess and other silent reading tests are undoubtedly an index to reading ability, they must never be assumed to be more than that, and the real check to efficient reading must come by establishing a codperative and self- helpful attitude upon the part of the child himself. Teaching language by the indwidual system—Very little that has not previously appeared in print in one form or another can be said about the Winnetka work in language. We present a brief sum- ' nu hol gir nut the wit] an ri- he (li- is, he ng ng up for y Ze ill. ill. ng ns, ab- on- ith en- ese for ny ral ind ge. ce, er- dis- ter- her hey c to elf- aid m- RT ar Tue SEcoND YEARBOOK 327 mary for those who may not have seen previous statements with regard to the language work. To make the operation of this individual work concrete, let us consider for a moment what you would find if you were to step in.o a fifth-grade room in Winnetka some morning when most of the children were studying language. You would find one child work- ing on the latter part of his fourth-grade language work. Most of the children would be scattered through different parts of the fifth- grade work. If you were to watch one of these, you would see that he has before him a mimeographed practice book. He is seen to read first the development material on, say, “commas in series.” He then practices writing sentences containing series, placing commas in their proper places, referring to the answers in the back of his book, and correcting his own work. After this specific practice in commas in series he takes a practice test. This is a part of his practice book and consists of a paragraph with all capitals and punc- tuation omitted; it requires knowledge of every element up to and including commas in series. He copies this paragraph in the correct form, and compares it with the correct copy in the answer part of his book. This correct copy is keyed to show in what elements the child is weak. A sample test and keyed answer sheet is reproduced herewith : FIFTH GRADE LANGUAGE BOOK—>». 8. Cumulative Practice Test—16-A a walk in the woods one day marys mother told her she might ask francess mother to let her go nutting the girls mothers packed a lunch for them and off they started it was a sunny october saturday the girls lived in winnetka illinois dont you think the childrens holiday was a happy one they met mr jones and he walked home with them. The girls brought nuts bright leaves and fall flowers. Cumulative Practice Test—16-A—Answer Sheet A Walk in the Woods. o.4 7 One day Mary’s mother told her she might ask Frances’s mother to let her go 4 6 8 6 8 nutting. The girls’ mothers packed a lunch for them and off they started. It wasa :. « 14 1 4 sunny October Saturday. The girls lived in Winnetka, Illinois. Don’t you think 12 11 re 5 135 149 the children’s holiday was a happy one? They met Mr. Jones and he walked home 15 3 4 10 2 6 with them. The girls brought nuts, bright leaves and fall flowers. 16 ELEMENTARY SCHOOL PRINCIPALS ... 4 times. Goal 9....1 time. ...1 time. Goal 10... .1 time. ..1 time. Goal 11... .1 time. ... .6 times. Goal 12... .1 time. ..2 times. Goal 13... .1 time. ...2 times. Goal 14... .1 time. ....1 time. Goal 15... .1 time. ...2 times. Goal 16... .1 time. If he finds that he has forgotten his apostrophe for contractions (9), he turns back to section 9 of his practice book and practices on that and on each other error that he has made, and then asks the teacher for a test. This test is another form of the practice test. After taking the test, he hands it to the teacher for correction. The next morning she returns it to him with all the errors marked. He turns back to his practice book and practices specifically on each point missed, and then gives himself a second form of practice test which he finds in his practice book. After correcting this, he asks for a second form of the regular test. If he gets it all right, he is marked O. K. in this topic in his “goal book,” an abbreviated course of study stated in terms of specific achievement and placed in the hands of pupils. If he still makes errors, he repeats the first pro- cedure. After receiving an O. K. in commas in series, he proceeds to the next goal, which happens to be “commas in address.” Moreover, it is sent home monthly in lieu of a report card. Par- ents therefore as well as pupils know exactly what has to be accom- plished. Opposite each page of goals is a page of explanation to the parents. The language page of the fifth-grade goal book looks like this: FirtTH GRADE LANGUAGE GOALS Fourth Grade cumulative review — test 1............... 0000-0 eee eee ee Ladawas 13. Simp Grade cumulative review — test 2 4 = Fg boys’ . Plural Possessives, children’s . Comma in series Teacher During the last year we have been preparing other practice work Tue SEcoND YEARBOOK 329 in language, presenting the teaching material in a direct rather than a “correction of error’ form, and hope during the spring term this year to put this new material into classroom groups and parallel with the “correction of error” material. In this way we hope to obtain statistical evidence as to the relative desirability of the two methods of presenting the language elements. This material is not yet in such shape that we consider it ready for publication. CHAPTER VI Remedial Work in Reading HELEN Bass KELLER GRACE M. FERNALD Expa L. Morton CHAPTER VI Remedial Work for Non-readers’ Heten Bass Keiier and Grace M. Fernayp Unwersity of California Southern Branch MONG the various types of poor readers probably the most A striking are those of normal mentality who, after one or more years of instruction have practically no ability to recognize the printed word, and who profit very little by intensive application of the usual methods of instruction in reading. In the diagnosis of individual cases brought to our attention we have found this type to occur not infrequently. For a time, remedial work with other types of poor readers was set aside so that we might concentrate our efforts upon securing accurate and reliable data, and eventually a teaching method for these non-readers. Characteristics of non-readers—The subjects diagnosed in our work have been, in many instances, strongly motor. Several have possessed exceptional ability in drawing and handwork; one who was talented in music played the piano with unusual skill. These children seem to have made no association whatever between sounds and their printed symbols, though they have no difficulty in re- peating sounds or words after the teacher gives them. Most of the non-readers lack confidence in themselves, evince no interest in reading, are unable to concentrate, and seem nervous and unstable in every way. Due to months of practice, they have developed a tendency to guess at words, to memorize sentences and stories, and to use many other means of camouflaging their deficiency. Case History The following typical case is described in detail as a means of illustrating concretely the steps in the diagnosis and in the remedial work: Boy M. Chronological age—8 years 6 months Mental age—9 years (Binet-Stanford Revision) I. Q.—106 Grade—Low second This article is a continuation of a similar report which appeared in the Journal of Educational Research, December, 1921. [ 333 ] 334 ELEMENTARY ScHOOL PRINCIPALS M attended public school two years and six months. His teacher reported that he was totally unabie to read with his group. He was nervous, unable to concentrate, and lacked interest in everything except handwork, in which he excelled. His mother reported that she could not help him at home because of his unwillingness to work. She was advised to have his tonsils removed but had delayed doing so. While his attendance in school had been scmewhat irregular, he never had been absent for a long period of time. His report card bore unsatisfactory marks in numbering, language and dramatization, reading and phonetics, writing and spelling. He showed a mischievous playful spirit during the first few days in our room and was indifferent as to his failure in his school work. Before the remedial work was begun a record of his reading ac- complishment was secured by the following standardized tests: M. February, 1922 SO EE TEC CT FE ee TE | No score Monroe Silent Reading Test 1 Form 2 | No score Haggerty Reading Examination Sigma 1: Test 1 Jones Vocabulary Test, Phonetic Because of the remedial method to be used, a measure of his spell- ing ability was taken also, with the following result: Ayres Spelling Scale, Columns A, B, C, D—5 words correct; score 27 per cent; Second grade standard 94-99 per cent. (Fig. 1.) Additional data were secured through the use of informal tests in reading and spelling. The following sentences were dictated to the subject and were written by him with crayola on a paper which had been attached to the blackboard (Fig. 2 on page 336) : Dictated—I see a cat. He wrote—I see a cat. Dictated—I am a boy. He wrote—I na a loy. Dictated—I like to play ball. He wrote—I o to po B. Dictated—I can run. He wrote—I can rnu. Dictated—I can see a girl. He wrote—I can see a ——. M had a well-developed habit of spelling unfamiliar words letter by letter after which he guessed at them using the pictures as a cue. He spelled “chair” and pronounced it “table” since both objects were shown in the illustration and either word made a sensible statement. We were still trying to break this habit of guessing at the pronunciation of unfamiliar words after two months’ work on word Tuer SEconD YEARBOOK Case M. Jan. 31922 April, 1922 Fic. 1.—Result of Spelling Tests on January 31, 1922, and April, 1922 ELEMENTARY SCHOOL PRINCIPALS 3 CaMV 299 V Fic. 2.—Written by M from Dictation recognition had been given, and after oral spelling habits had been entirely broken up. The following is a partial list of words miscalled while M read a selection from a second reader: For the word country he said careful For the word wanted he said went For the word asked he said as For the word our he said us For the word send he said son For the word answer he said ask For the word great he said grew As a part of the diagnosis a cue to the child’s chief interest was sought. M showed no inclination to read or write and for a few days seemed fascinated with the activities of the other children and of the teachers in the room. He was furnished with crayolas and a large paper and was asked to draw something. His first drawing was that of a stripped auto, or “racer” as he called it. This was the starting point for the work which preceded the formal reading in our remedial measures. Teaching procedure—M was asked to write “racer” under his picture and of course replied that he could not do so. The word was written on the board for him by the teacher, M being told to trace the letters with the first and second fingers while saying the word, not the letters. After the tracing was repeated several times Tue SEcoND YEARBOOK 337 the word was erased and the child was asked to write it on the board. He wrote “rnacer.” This incorrect work was quickly erased and another opportunity was given him to trace the correct word, after which the writing was repeated with complete success. He wrote the word correctly several times, each time without the copy before him. He then wrote it with crayola above the picture which he had drawn. He next asked for the word “now.” After tracing it twice, with two fingers, he wrote “na” and said, “I’ve forgotten the rest.” After another tracing he wrote “naw” and after the next tracing he wrote it correctly. “How” was the next word he asked for. After the first tracing he wrote “h.” The next trial was suc- cessful. No reason could be discovered for this peculiar choice of words, Fic. 3.—M’s Drawing, February, 1922 His attention shifted many times during this first short lesson. He examined spots on the board, the teacher’s ring, a notebook on the table, work which the other children were doing, rulers, erasers, chalk, and the like, asking “What’s this for?” and “What’s he doing?” and various other questions showing his natural curiosity and exhibiting a keen and alert mind. This lesson was followed by others of similar nature. The tracing was omitted whenever the child felt that he could look at the written word and write it without tracing. Very often it was necessary to resume the tracing again. Words Learned by M During Formal Reading Work, March—June, 1922. (Figures indicate number of times each word was written before final recog. nition secured. * indicates words not recognized on re-test, March, 1923.) 1 n rr Ir N 1 Ir 1 1 Ir 1 rr N n 1 nr 1 1 rt n —- a —-e—-e—e-e--2—e-e carryi children Tue SEcOND YEARBOOK squirming stile 7 Ft emt CAD bP tet bat SND ND tet et pie parsley planting pulled pillow pole perhaps pleasant cee san sou ..4 4 en oa