giOoeoiosxiOGouoiMiOiioooatioeoeo I I^ARSWELL Co., Limited J Bookbinders. iLrwpfooKa, A TORONTO I PUBLISUERS.etC.O ONT IJ a- 379.73 B936 1920 no.26 c.1 National Education Associat Reorganization of science i R.W.B. JACKSON LIBRARY OISECIR 3 0005 00029 0505 CVJ!?^.^ uyu«i LEGlSLA'fl' IbV^ PARUAMEN TO! 379.73 B936 1920 no.27c1 United States. Office of Ed Survey of tfie schools of Br R.W.B. JACKSON LIBRARY GIBE CIR 3 0005 00029 0513 379.73 B936 1920 no.28c1 United States. Office of Ed Montfily record of current e R.W.B. JACKSON LIBRARY OISE CIR 3 0005 00029 0521 379.73 8936 1920 no.29 c1 Bawden, William T. (William Tfie national crisis in educ R.W.B. JACKSON LIBRARY OISE CIR 3 0005 00029 0539 379.73 B936 1920 no.30c1 Hood, William Ross, 1874- State laws relating to educ R.W.B. JACKSON LIBRARY OISE CIR 3 0005 00029 0554 / DF.PARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR BUREAU OF EDUCATiON BULLETIN, 1920, No. 26 REORGANIZATION OF SCIENCE IN SECONDARY SCHOOLS A REPORT OF THE COMMISSION ON THE REORGANIZATION OF SECOND- ARY EDUCATION, APPOINTED BY 1 HE NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION WASHINGTON GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFRCE J 920 ADDITIONAL COPIES OF THIS PUBLICATION MAY BE PROCURED FROM THE SUPERINTENDENT OF DOCUMENTS GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE WASHINGTON, D. C. AT 10 CENTS PER COPY MEMBERS OF THE SCIENCE COINIMITTEE. i;i:i.\ 1..11, Percy S., High School, Medfortl, Mass.— ( Physics.) Briggs, Thomas H., Teachers College, New York, N. Y.— {Supervisor>i.) Caklwell, Otis ^\^, Teachers College, New York, N. Y.— (CJi. Supcrvisoni.) Carpenter, CD., School of Practical Arts, Teachers College, New York, N. Y.— (Cheinislii/.) <'oultor, John G.. Chicago, 111. — {Biology.) Cowan, G. A., West Itoxhui-y High School, Boston, Mass.— (7'/(;/.s'/r.s.) Dysart, P. M., Schenley High School, Pittsburgh, Pa.— (/'/(/ys/cs.) Eason, Thomas D., State Department of Education, Richmond. Va. — {liioJoyy.) Eddy, Walter H.. Teachers College, New York, X. Y.— (/?/o/o////. ) Fender, Charles W., Lowell High School, San Francisco, Calif. — {Biology.) Field, William L. W., Milton Academy, Milton, Mass. — {Biology.) Harvey, LeRoy H., State Normal School, Kalamazoo, IMich. — {Biology.) Heald, F. E., Agricultural College, Andierst. Mass. — {General Science.) Hedrick, W. A., McKinley High Scliool, Washington, D. C. — {Physics.) Higgenbotham, Blanche, High School, Houston, Tex. — {General Science.) Higgins, L. D., State Normal School, Danbury, Conn. — {General Science.) Hole, Louis G., High School, Pittsburgh, Pa. — {General Scieuec.) Jenks, L. E., University of lUilfalo, Buffalo, N. Y.— {Chemistry.) Kerr, Henry, High School, Fresno, Calif. — {General Science.) Kingsley, C. D.. State high-school supervisor, Boston, Mass. — {Siipcrcisory.) Kofoid, Chail(\s A., University of California, Berkeley, Calif. — {Biology.) ^fann, C. 11., Educational Division, U. S. War Department, Washington, D. C. — {General Science.) Orr, William, International Committee of Young Men's Christian Associations, New Yorlc, N. Y. — {Siiycrrisory.) Osborne, R. W., Francis Parker School, Chicago, Hi. — {Ch. Chemistry.) Packard, J. C, High Scliool, Brookline, Mass. — {Physics.) Palmer, I. O., principal, Technical High School, Newtonviile, INIass. — {Physics.) Parl^er, George H., Harvard University, Cambridge, Ma.ss. — {Biology.) Peabody, James E., Morris Higli School, New York, N. Y. — {Ch. Biology.) Peirson, Mabel, High School, I'asadena, Calif. — {Biology.) Powers, S. It., University High School, IMinneapolis. Minn. — {Clicniinii'y.) Randall, J. A., Toledo Scale Company, Toledo, Ohio. — {Physics.) Rivett, B. J., Northwestern High School, Detroit, Mich. — {Chemistry.) Sharp, C. IM., Manual Training High School, Indianapolis, Ind. — {Chemistry.) Shinn, Harold P>., Carl Schui'z High School, Chicago, 111. — {Biology.) Sohon, M. D., Morris High Scliool, New Yorli, N. Y. — {Chemistry.) Stuart, Milo H., principal. Technical High School, Indianapolis, Ind. — {Super- visory) Terry, H. L., State high-school supervisor, Madison. AVis. — {General Science.) Tillman, r]rnest S., High School, Hammoiul, Ind. — {Biology.) Twiss, G. R., Ohio State University, Columbus, Ohio. — {Ch. Physics.) Ullrich, Fred, State Normal School, Platteville, Wis. — {Biology.) Walter, Herbert E., Brown University. Providence, R. I. — (Biology.) Wauchope. .1. W., Mechanical Arts High School, St. I'aui. ;\[inn. — {I'hysics.) Webb, H. A., George Peabody College for Teachers. Nashville, Tenn. — ■ {Cliemistry.) Westcott, C. M., Hollywood High School, Los Angeles, Cnnf.~-{ Physics.) Whitman, W. G., State Normal School, Salem, Mas.s. — {General Science.) William R. H., The Scarborough School, Scarborough, N. Y. — {Chemistry.) ^^'ook 'iiik commission ox tiik itKuii- (JAM/ATIOX OF Si:('OXI)A1{V EDUCATIOX. <'riif Uoviowing Ci iiiinittce consists of 2<> iiuMiiliOrs, of wlioiii IC, an' chniniK'u of rom- iiiiitocs and 10 an> humuIxts at largo.) VlidiniiUH of the (.:oininissi(jn and vf the Revkiriitji {'oinmlttce: Clareiico D. Kiiiiislt'.v, State liis^h-scliool suptTvisor, Boston, :\l:iss. ilcmhcrs at la rye: lion. P. 1*. Clnxioii. I'liitcd States Conunissioner of Ediicntioii, Wasliiii},'- ton. D. C. Thomas II. Brigi;s, professor of secondary education, Teachers College. C-ohnnbia University, New York City. Al^^xander Inf:;lis, assistant professor of education, Hai'vard University, Cambridge, Mass. Henry Neumann, Ethical Cullnre School, New York City. William Orr, senior educational secretary, international 1'. M. C. A. com- mittee, 104 lOast Twenty-eighth Street, New York City. William B. Owen, principal Chicago Normal College, Chicago, 111. J. J. Didcoct, professor of secondary educatiou, George Teabody College for Teachers, Nashville, Tenu. .Joseph S. Stewart, professor of secondary education. University of Ceoi-gia, Athens, Ga. Milo H. Stuart, principal Technical High School, Iiulianapolis, Ind. H. L. Terry, State high-school supervisor, IMadison, Wis. Vhairnicii of Committees: Administration of Secondary Education — Charles Hughes Johnston, profes- sor of secondary education, University of Illinois, Urbana, 111.' Agriculture — A. V. Storm, professor of agricultural education, University of jMinnesota, St. Paul, Minn. Art Education — Koyal B, Farnum, president, INledianics Institute, Koch- ester, N. Y. Articulation of Higli School and College — Clarence D. Kingsley, State high- school supervisor, Boston, Mass. Business Education — Cheesman A. Herrick, president, Giravd College, I'liila- delphia. Pa. Classical Languages — Walter Eugene Foster, Stuyvesant High School, New York City. English — James Fleming Hosic, Chicago Normal College, Chicago, 111. Home Economics — Mrs. Henrietta Calvin, United States Bureau of Educa- tion, Washington. D. C. Industrial Arts — Wilstm H. Henderson, extension division, University of Wisconsin (now Major, Sanitary Corps, War Department, U. S. A.). Mathematics — William Heard Kilpatrick, professor of etiuoatiou, Teachers College, Columbia University, New York City. Modern Languages — Edward ]\Ia)dey, Englewood High School, Chicago, III. Music — Will Eaihart. director of music, Pittsburg, Pa. Physical Eduiation — James H. McCurdy, director of normal courses of physical education. International Y. M. C. A. College, Springfield, Mass. Sciences — Otis W. Caldwell, director, Lincoln School, and professor of edu- cation. Teachers College, Columbia University, New York City. Social Studies — Thomas Jesse Jones, educational director, Plit^liis-Stokes fund. New York City. Vocational Guidance — Frank M. Lt avitt, associate superintendent of sn of subject matter 'J'> B. Methods -'^ C. Sample topics -i" 11. Biological sciences -'■' A. Place of biological sciences 2i» B. Changes in the point of view in biological teaching -"•' C. Aims - ;!0 D. Sequence and continuity oO B. Content of a general biological course ol F. Methods 34 G. Content of special biological sciences ?>o 7 8 CO.X'IKXTS. Pag'\ ] 1 1. ( 'Itcinist i-y 3G A. Wliy i-eor.i;;uiiz;itioii is necessary ■ 30 15. Principal uinis ■- 3G O. (Jonei'ul considerations coiu-crning content and nietlioil^. - — 37 (1) Dimcnlties .-- 37 (2) Lalj'' D. Methods - 52 (1) Projects 52 (2) Correlation .. 52 (3) Unit of instruction : 52 (4) Class confei-eiHv . . ; __ 5o (5) Laboratory work , .. . . 53 ((3) Notebooks 54 (7) Demonstrations 54 (8) Excursions . 55 (9) Reports : 55 (10) Clubs 55 E. Organization , .- 55 (1) I'roblems as the basis of organization 5C (2) Unification by means of comprehensive principles 56 F. Content 57 AiTEXDix. — The science teacher Gl LETTER 01- TRANSMITTAL. DnPAiri MKNT OF THE IxTERIOK. liritEAU OF Education, Wa,shlnch "busy Avork" serves no worthy })urpose. (4) Many experiments are too minutely quantitative and call for retinemcnts beyond the need or appreciation of secondary school pupils. Too frequently the laboratory and classroom, sometimes improp- erly called "lecture room." arc separate not only physically but intellectually. The laboratory should be a i)lace where the pupil puts questions to nature, observes accurately, and deduces conclusions logically, not a place where directions are followed blindly and meaningless re- sults obtained. The value of individual laboratory work has been seriousl}^ injured by requiring each pupil to do exactly the same experiment as every other pupil and do it in as nearly the same time and same way as possible. The spirit of the project method should vitalize the experimental work. There will always be some pupils who should modify the work to meet their special needs or interests. Such differentiation should be encouraged and lists of alternative work should be available to utilize individual interests and inclina- tions. Improvement of laboratory practice will result in less cumbersome forms of note taking and of notebook making. The experiment is not designed for the sake of a notebook record. A summary of results which can be used in interpreting the work done should be made and pupils should be allowed much freedom in the precise manner in which the record is made. They should record important and sig- nificant facts, and the record should be clear and complete. That is, the laboratory is a " work place," and records should be simple and direct accounts of the real and vital work that has been done. C. Class-room, procedure. — The adoption of the problem-project- topic method of science teaching will lead to a considerable change in the purpose and use of the recitation period. The " hearing of lessons," memoriter repetition of facts and principles gleaned from the textbook, the more or less discontinuous dialogues between teacher and individual pupil should give place to a real class discussion in which all take an active part in contributing, organizing, and using the information dealt with. In such discussions the teacher serves to direct, stimulate, and advise. There should be a maximum op- })ortunity for self-expression in the immediate problem. In the recitationperiod the skillful teacher will develop and arouse interest, furnish the necessary background, and direct the class in its search for answers to a vital problem. In the development of such work the demonstration experiment plays an important part. Such experiments need not be spectacular and sensational, but the AIMS, METHODS, AND ORGANIZATION. 21 unexpected may well be utilized to arouse interest and raise questions that the teacher wants raised as fundamental to the initiation of a class problem. In the overempliasis on individual laboratory work, the value of demonstration experinxeiits has been minimized. Such demonstrations, besides being interest provoking, have many of the merits of individual efforts Avithout the confusion due to poor ma- nipulation or the failure to observe the most important aspects of the experiment. These may serve the class as examples of the proper way of working, of manipulating ap])aratus, of noting results, and of drawing inferences. Pupils should be encouraged to assist in l>crforming demonstration experiments. The recitation is often the center from which other class activi- ties radiate. It focuses the work done in the laboratory, at home, in the library, and in excursions. To it all contributions are brought and oifered for the consideration of the entire class. The need of text books is constant but usually no single text book can serve for all the needs of an actively working class. A better plan often is t(^» l)rovide several copies of the more important texts and a number of reference books to which assignment may be made. It is extremely important that such assignments should be definite and clear to the pupil. Few things are more discouraging to the pupil or more de- structive of his interest than to be given hazy assignments, and to feel that neither he nor the teacher knows exactly what is expected. It is not to be supposed tliat all pupils will be equally interested in a given topic, but if the interest of the majority can not be aroused the validity of the topic should be examined. On the other hand in- dividuals who have little interest or in whom no interest can be aroused, or those who have a very special interest, may often be en- couraged to pursue individual problems of their own and to report their Avork to the whole class. Such problems encourage initiative and individual responsibility. The results of such work should be interesting to the class as a whole, and reports to the class by all pupils should be a regular part of recitation work. All pupils should be encouraged to undertake some individual problems of their own choosing. D. Cooperation hetween pupil and teacher, school, home, and com- munity.— At many points in the above discussion the importance of cooperation between pupils and teacher has been suggested. It is vital to success in teaching, and especially in teaching by the problem method. How true it is that in most classes we find the teacher alone active, the class passive, the teacher dominant and aggressive, the class repressed, and attentive in only a receptive not in a cooperative sense. The responsibility for this rests squarely upon the teachers whose methods have resulted in this type of practice. 22 SCIENCE IN SECONDARY SCHOOLS. Although implied in several preceding statements, the need of home and community cooperation with the science work of the school should be specifically mentioned. Indeed, the kind of science teach- ing for which this whole report Argues can not be developed except through constant use of the manifestations of science in the work in which men and women are regularly engaged. It will appear later in the outlines of courses that science in secondary schools finds its proper basis in personal, home, and commimity life and needs. Therefore when teachers and pupils ask to visit a farm, orchard, a shop, a flour mill, saw mill, or manufacturing plant, the business men concerned should be informed of the ways in which these visits contribute to the courses in science, to the end that they may understand that they are helping in the work of education. Also, it may properly be the func- tion of the teacher and class to collect desired information or conduct experiments which are related to the business concerned, and are desired by those engaged in this business. Any device, plan, or method that will build up helpful coopera- tion between the home, school, and the community should be encour- aged. Among the topics that call for just this kind of cooperation are the following: Home gardens; community extermination of flies and mosquitoes; insects injurious to shade trees and agriculture; protection and feeding of useful birds ; care of the water supply ; protection from sewage contamination; community cleanliness; de- velopment and care of public parks; health in local industrial plants; and any other topics which inhere in or arise from the elementary study of general science, biology, chemistry, and physics. IV. SCIENCE SEQUENCES RECOMMENDED FOR VARIOUS CONDITIONS. The science sequences should vary with the type and environment of the schools. Each year's work should be so outlined as to give tlie best training without reference to whether the pupils take later courses in science. Many schools will need to make readjustments of a recommended sequence, so that it may best serve the school's particular constituency. The committee has outlined sequences for the following types of high schools : A. The junior-senior high school. B. The large four-year comprehensive high school with adequate teaching staff and equipment, usually enrolling over 500 pupils. C. The four-year high school of medium size, usually enrolling from 200 to 500 pupils. D. The small high school of not more than 200 pupils. AIMS, METHODS, A2sD ORGANIZATION. 23 xV. The junior-seni&r high school. — Seventh or eighth year, fiNe periods a week; or both years with three periods a week in eacli year — General science, including hygiene. Ninth year — Biological science, including hygiene; courses may consist of general biology, botany, or zoology. Tenth year, eleventh year, twelfth year — Ditferentiated elective courses in sufficient number to meet special needs and interests, as follows : (a) Chemistry — General chemistry, and chemistry specialized for \-;;rious curricidum needs, such as household chemistry, industrial chemistry, etc. (h) Physics — General physics; and physics specialized for various curriculmn needs, such as physics of the home, industrial physics, etc. (c) General geography, or i)liysiograph3\ (d) Advanced biological sciences. B. The large comprehensive four-year high school. — -The condi- tions usually prevailing in these schools make possible a wide dif- ferentiation of science courses, since there are likely to be enough pupils with special interests to constitute adequate classes in dif- ferentiated science courses. In such four-year high schools the fol- lowing plan is recommended : First year— General science, including hygiene. Second year — Biological science, including In'giene; courses may consist of general biolog}^, botany, or zoolog}'. Third and fourth j'ear — Ditferentiated elective courses to meet special needs and interests as follows : («) Chemistry — General chemistry, and chemistry specialized for various curriculum needs, such as household chemistry, industrial chemistry, etc. (5) Physics — General physics; and physics specialized for various curriculum needs, such as physics of the home, industrial physics, etc. (c) General geography, or physiography. {d) Advanced biological sciences. C. Four-year high school of medium size. — First year — General science, including hj-giene. Second year. — Biological science, including hygiene; courses may consist of general biology, botany, or zoology. Third year. — Chemistry, with emphasis on the home, farm, and industries. Fourth year. — Physics, with emphasis on the home, farm, and industries, general geography or physiography, or advanced biological sciences. 24 SCJENCE TX SKCi^XHARV SCHOOLS. 1). Snu/.U li'iiih sARV SCHOOLS. III. CHEMISTRY. A. Why reorganizatio)i is necessary. — In addition to the general reason calling for reorganization of science in secondar}' schools, which have been stated in the first section of this report, the follow- ing considerations apply particularly to chemistry: 1. The average person looks upon cliemistry as a mysterious, occult science, tinged with necromancy. This almost superstitious ignorance prevents appreciation of the chemist's power to serve so- ciety. In industry it is likely to result in great economic waste through failure properly to utilize raw materials, develop by- products, and a])ply chemical methods of control to processes of manufacture. The high-school chemistr}- course in its reorganized form should attract a larger number of pupils and do much to suj)- plant this ignorance b}^ a measure of broad unders-tanding. 2. In the past, chemical laws, theories, and generalizations have usually been taught as such, and their applications in industry and daily life have been presented largely as illustrative material. In the reorganized course, this order should be reversed. Laws and theories should be approached through experimental data obtained in the laboratory and through a})plications with which the pupil IS already familiar and in which he has a real interest. 3. In the past, chemistr}' courses over-emphasized theories, con- cepts, and information of value principally to these who will pursue advanced courses. A course Avhich em])]iasizes the chemistry of in- dustry, of commerce, of the soil, and of the household furnishes a wider outlook, develops a practical appreciation of the scope of chemical service, and moreover arouses an interest which leads naturall}' to further study. 4. The war showed the lack of a sufficient number of chemists trained to work out such problems as arose in that national emer- gency. The reconstruction period and the new conditions of world competition in trade will increase the demand for specialists in the chemical })roblems of manufacture. High-school courses in chem- istry sliould therefore be so reorganized as to arouse an interest in the science of chemistry, and thereby stimulate more and more pupils to specialize later in this and related fields. B. Principal ainis. — The piincipal aims in teaching chemistry in the high school should be — 1. To give an understanding of the significance and importance of chemistry in our national life. The services of chemistry to in- dustry, to medicine, to home life, to agriculture, and to the welfare of the nation, should be understood in an elementary way. 2. To develop those specific interests, habits, and abilities to which all science study should contribute. THE PRINCIPAL COURSES IN SCIENCE. 37 The i^owers of observation, discrimination, interpretation, and deduction are constantly called for in chemistry and are so used in this subject as to require a high type of abstract thinking. The prin- ciples and generalizations of chemistry are often difficult. For this reason chemistry should occur in tlie third or fourth year of the high school. 8. To build upon the earlier science courses, and knit together previous science work by supplying knowledge fmidamental to all science. Coming after at least a year of general science, and usually idso a year of Inological science, the work in chemistry should fur- ther use these sciences. It should furnish a new viewpoint for the organization of science materials, and develop wider and more satis- fiietory unifying and controlling principles. By this means the de- sii'able element of continuity in the science course will be secured. 4. To give information of definite service to home and daily life. This aim has been the chief influence in reorganizing high-school chemistry courses, and will undoubtedly produce further changes. The criterion of usefulness, as a basis for the selection of subject matter, should not be limited to the immediately useful or practical in a narrow sense, but should be so interpreted as to include all topics which make for a better understanding of. and a keener insight into, the conditions, institutions, and demands of modern life. 5. To help pupils to discover Avhether they have aptitudes for further work in pure or applied science, and to induce pupils having such aptitudes to enter the university or technical school, there to continue their science studies. C. General considerations concerning content and method. — This statement is based on the assumption that chemistry will usually be given in the third or the fourth year of the four-year high school. Investigation shows that a little more than one-half of the four-year high schools present chemistry in the third year, and that pupils electing chemistry usually have had one year of general science and often a year of biological science. (1) Difficulties. — Some difficulties in 'organizing courses in chem- istry on the basis of individual and specific pieces of work are : {a) Many of the most important principles are impossible of direct or experimental proof. They can not be demonstrated in specific, individual problems, and hence can not be grasped easily by the immature mind. These concepts must be accepted on the basis of their service to the science and the useful conclusions based ujjon them, for example, the assumptions of the atomic hypothesis and the rule of Avogadro. (&) The number of important principles and facts is so great that organization of the information supplied by discussion, investi- gation, and experiment is difficult. Appreciation of the science as 0(5 SCIENCE IN SECONDARY SCHOOLS. siR'h is impossible until the bases for establishing relationships and controlling facts are developed. (c) Many problems and questions which the pupil tends to raise involve complex phases of chemistry, or ideas too advanced for his understanding. Some motive, some compelling desire to know, must actuate the pupil in any stud}' which is really educative. Progress in chemistry, therefore, is dependent upon a specific purpose, a conscious need to learn the facts and their underlying causes or explanation. The educational value of any problem depends upon the degree to which the pupil makes it his own and identifies himself with it, rather than upon its concreteness, or the useful applications involved, or the familiar associations connecting it with other problems, important as these considerations are. The basis for organizing a course in chemistry should lie in the changing character of the pupil's interest and the increased intensity of his needs as a result of his growing abilities and of his increased power to direct and use them. A topic in chemistry which would have seemed abstruse and uninteresting a year or even a few months earlier may suddenly become a real prob- lem to the pupil. Such questions as what the constitution of things really is, what properties the atoms possess, or why the volumes of gases have such simple relations to one another, may become prob- lems of real significance to the pupil. Ultimate causes and reasons appeal to the adolescent pupil. Problems having to do with home, farm, local industries, the civic and the national welfare, are limited only by the time and energy available for their pursuit. (2) Laboratory work. — The relation between class and laboratory work is a most important problem for the chemistry teacher. Un- fortunately, theory and practice have not been properly related. Some of the reasons for this situation are : (a) It is difficult to correlate recitation and exj)eriment. One lags behind the other. The remedy is a greater flexibility in the program, so that the time may be used for either purpose as needed. There is a growing tendency to make all periods of a uniform, 60-minute length instead of 40 or 45 minutes on some days and 80 and 90 minutes on other days. This change helps to make possible a closer correlation between experiments and the discussion of them. (^>) ^Experiments often fail of their object because of insufficient directions, failure to provide needful data, or lack of a definite and clear purpose. This needful information must be supplied, but in such a way as to stimulate interest and raise questions to be answered by the experiment itself. Some teachers prefer to take the first few minutes of each laboratory' exercise in talking over the work, sug- gesting important questions, pointing out difficulties, and giving necessary cautions. It might be well to embody more of the infor- THE PRINCIPAL COURSES IN SCIENCE. 39 mation usually supplied by the text 'in the laboratory directions themselves, so that they would be thought-producing and stimulating rather than simply directions for manipulation and observation. {(') Too many experiments involve repetition of work described in the text or have no outcome beyond the mere doing and writing in the note book. Unless the experiments contribute to tlie recita- tions and provide data or information which is used, they are largely a waste of time. Laboratory experiments, to accomplish their purpose, must con- cern a problem or a question wdiich the pupil seeks to answer because he is interested in doing so. The titles of experiments can often be worded so that they become suggestive by stating them in problem or question form. P'or example, instead of the title "Mordant dye- ing,"' a better one would be. '' AV'hy are mordants used in dyeing?" Or, in place of " Equivalent weight of magnesium," substitute " How much magnesium is needed to produce a gram of hydrogen?" Or, for "Anal3^sis of ammonia " substitute, " What is the most economical brand of household ammonia to purchase?" The mere rewording of a title itself is not enough. The question itself must be a vital one to the pupil either through his own independent thought or as a result of the stimulating influence of the class discussion. Flexibility in the keeping of notebooks is desirable, provided that rhe essential facts and conclusions are always included. The notes should usually include a clear statement of the problem in hand; a description of the method of procedure, making use of a diagram of such apparatus as may have been used; and a statement of results •did conclusions, with answers to any specific questions Avhich have arisen. If the pupil's notes cover this ground, tlu'v should be ac- cepted, and he should be encouraged to work out any plan of his own for the improvement of his notebook. To refpiire all to use ex- actly the same plan may make the checking of notebooks more easy >!nd their appearance more satisfactory, but it stifles the pupil's originality and prevents him from discovering and correcting his own faults in this direction. The notebook has often been a fetish with chemistry teachers, and time has been demanded for making a record which, while beautiful in appearance and completeness, is yet full of needless repetition and useless detail. The notebook should not destroy the interest attached to an experiment, for the experiment is not for the notebook but for the pupils' clearer understanding of important chemical facts. Only when properly used will the notebook enhance the value of laboratory work. The teacher in the laboratory should not set up apparatus, weigh out materials, or attend to other purely manual matters, which in most cases should be done by the pupils. The teacher should see 40 SriENCE IN SKC'ONDARY SOHOOl^S. tliat i)upils ai'c trnined to observe accuratelj', to draw correct infer- ences, to relate tlieir conclusions to the facts of previous experience in and out of school, and to find the answers to questions and prob- lems brought out. It is proper that the teacher should perform laboratory demon- strations that are too difficult, too costly in materials, or too long, for student assignment. These should be done with model techni(]ue. for the pupils will imitate the teacher's methods. They should be lecorded in the student's laboratory notebook just as any otlier experiment, but Avith the notation " performed by instructor." (3) Aids to the chemistr}' teachers. — («) Reference books and magazines. A part of the requisite equipment of every chemistry department is a well chosen set o ' reference books, available and in constant use. Each pupil will need a textbook as chief reference book, but he shoidd find it necessary to use additional books. There should be provided duplicate copies of the bettei- textbooks, other books on special subjects, articles, newspaper clippings, etc. These books are necessary in order that the pupil may investigate all the ) Individual topics and reports. The study of special topics and reports upon them by individual members should be a regular feature of the class work. Pupils should be encouraged along the line of their special interests, and lists of topics should be suggested by the teacher from time to time. By this plan individual initiative and abilit}' may be given encouragement and the whole class stimu- lated. (c) Optional experiments. The j^upils should be given encour- agement to bring in materials to test in various ways and, when- ever time permits, to perform additional experiments, the results of which may be reported to the clas-s. In the chemistry laboratory it is not necessary or desirable that all pupils be always at work on the same experiment. Even if the experiment is essentially the same, a variety of materials may often be used, and each pupil may contrib- ute to the general result. For example, if colored cotton cloth is to be bleached by chloride of lime, let the pupils bring in samples from home so that a variety of colors may be tried out ; or, if the presence of coal-tar dyes is to be tested in candy or food products, each pupil should be responsible for his own materials. In this way the work of the class will have a breadth and scope which will make the results more significant. THE PRINCIPAL COURSES IjST SCIENCE. 41 {(J) Tlie review. In chemistry the number of detailed facts is so great, and the application of its principles so Avide, that from time to time a definite plan for insuring proper organization of ideas is needed. These need not be formal reviews and tests, though such have their place, but they should always be exact and comprehensive. Quizzes should frequently follow excursions or a series of labora- tory experiments upon some central topic of study. These should be conducted in such a way as to lead pupils to organize knowledge for themselves rather than to force upon them a classification of tlie material that does not develop from their own work. {e) Excursions. Many topics in chemistry should be initiated or suijplemented by an excursion to a factory or industrial plant where, the operations may be viewed at first hand. If such excursions are to be really profitable, there must be a very definite plan covering the things to be seen. The first recitation after such an excursion shoidd be devoted to answering (juestions suggested by what has been seen and to defining further studies based upon these observa- tions. The great value of the excursion lies in the opportunity to give the pupil a vivid conception of the jjracticability of chemical knowledire and to make him see that there is a definite relation be- tween the test tubes and beakers of the laboratory and the vats, con- centrators, and furnaces of the factory. (/') Science clubs. Whenever the number of students taking chem istr}' is sufficient to warrant the formation of a chemical club, thiii is desirable. The members of the chemistry class should be encour- aged to join or organize a science club and to make it an attractiv.; feature of the school life. In small schools a science section may be a part of a literary or debating society, thus widening the inter- ests served by such an organization. Such a club provides motive and opportunity for the exercise of individual interest and effort, and the interest of the whole school may be extended through it. D. Specifi-c p/'inciples controlling reorganization. — 1. Larger units of study. — The number of important principles and facts in chem- istry is so great that there is grave danger that many topics will remain isolated and unorganized in the mind of the student. Eeor ganization sliould develop larger units of study connected by and emphasizing natural relationships. {a) These larger units of study should be presented in such a manner as to appeal to the pupil personally. Interest is not likely to be aroused if the more important elements are taken up in the order suggested by the periodic system. It is equally destructive of enthusiasm to use one unvarying plan of study with every element, as occurrence, physical and chemical properties, methods of obtaining, uses, important compoimds, etc. 42 SCIENCE IN SECONDARY SCHOOLS. (h) The selection of these large topics should not be handicapped by the traditional content of the course. Traditional divisions should be retained only when they are found to aid the pupil in making his own organization of the facts and principles involved. Such topics should show many cross relationships, necessitating the use of information previously gained in new situations and serv- ing to fuse all into an organic whole. Thus, sudden leaps into abso- hitely new material would be avoided or at least greatly reduced. As an illustration, the interesting, unified, and vitally significant topic of fertilizers can be developed out of information usually sup- plied under such isolated headings as nitrogen, phosphorus, potas- sium, sodium, calcium, sulphur, carbon, etc. (c) Certain topics of chemistry cover wide fields. The large topic is valuable because it shows broad relations and secures the risfht sort of organization in the mind of the pupil. Neutralization, hydrolysis, oxidation, etc., are examples of such topics, which are constantly recurring in new phases and which should be brought out not once but many times. 2. Laws and theories.— A chemical law or theor}^ should be taught as a generalization, justified by experimental data, or as a device to explain things that the pupil is eager to understand. Likewise, chemical mathematics should be developed through problems arising from the laboratory work or through practical problems that the chemist is called upon to solve in everyday situations. E, Content. — Different introductory courses in chemistry contain much in common in that they deal with fundamental facts, concepts, laws, and theories, but the teaching of these fundamentals must be influenced by the particular conditions and purposes which control in the individual school. It is not the purpose of the committee to lay out the work in detail or to offer a syllabus, but to suggest by a few type topics the character of the organization recommended. These have been selected solely as illustrations, and no sequence is implied by the order in Avhich they appear here. 1. The atmosphere. (A sample introductory topic.) — (a) Physi- cal properties. Recall, or perform demonstration experiments to show, that air possesses weight, exerts pressure, expands when heated, and is compressible. Demonstrate diffusion of gases by spilling am- monia. Development in simple way of kinetic molecular hypothesis as basis for explanation. Demonstration experiments to illustrate Bo^'le's and Charles's laws, if needed. (b) Air and burning. How does a candle burn? Structure of flame : Products of combustion, identification of water by condensa- tion, soot by deposit on cold objects, and carbon dioxide by reaction with lime water. (Water may be electrolyzed to show its composition. ) Definitions of element, compound, mixture, and chemical changes. THE PRINCIPAL COURSES IN SCIENCE. 43 Fuels : Composed chiefly of carbon and hydrogen. Prove by burn- ing coal, gasoline, kerosene, gas, wood, etc. Luminosity of flame due to carbon. Kindling temperature. (c) Oxygen. Laboratory study of oxygen and burning in oxygen contrasted with that in air. Action on metals. {(l) Composition of air. Analysis, using phosphorus and iron filings. Eesidual nitrogen tested for effect on combustion. Nitroge.i as diluting material in air. Is it fortunate air is not all oxygen? {e) Other questions to be considered or used for assignment pur- poses: How was oxygen discovered? How abundant is it? How are rusting and decay different from burning? How is spontaneous combustion caused? What precautions should be used to avoid it? Why is perfect combustion desirable in furnaces and steam-p(jwer plants ? Why is imperfect combustion dangerous in stoves or grates ? Oxyacetylene process for welding and cutting. How is oxygen pre- pared for commercial purposes? Oxygen as necessary to life. 'Ven- tilation for health and comfort. Corrosion of metals, causes and prevention. 2. Purification of water. — (a) Importance of the question from standpoint of health and industry. (b) Common impurities and their removal: Sedimentation and fil- tration for suspended matter; boiling to destroy bacteria; coagula- tion to remove sediment and bacteria (use alum and lime water) ; distillation to remove dissolved minerals; chlorination with bleach- ing powder (chloride of lime; add solution of bleaching powder to water and taste) ; tests for sulphates, chlorides, calcium compounds, and organic matters; laboratory testing of spring and mineral waters collected by pupils. (c) How cities get pure water: Protecting the catch basin (New York) ; sedimentation and filtration methods (St. Louis) ; coagula- tion and precipitation method (Columbus) ; demonstration experi- ments to illustrate ; excursion to local pumping station and study of system of purification employed. (d) Soft and hard water, temporary and permanent varieties; effect of hard water in tubes of steam boilers (specimens of boiler f^^^cales) ; why a laundry needs soft water; action of hard water on soap ; softening power of borax, ammonia, soda, soap, and washing powder of various J^rands. (e) Sewage disposal: Relation to pure water supply of other cities or communities; dilution method (Chicago drainage canal) ; oxida- tion methods (spraying, activated sludge) ; methods for small towns and rural homes ; the septic tank. 3. Limestone, lime, and allied products. — (This topic is developed in considerable detail, suggesting a possible plan for correlating 44 SCJBJs'CE IN ^EGONDAHY SCHOOLS. laboratory and classroom work, excursions, and individual reports, iiud showing how drill in equation writing and problem solving may naturally arise.) IN THE LABORATORY. IN THE CLASSROOM. 1. Kxcuisiou to lirut?stone bluff or quarry. Collection and display of liuK^stoiie fossils. Observe, ou the way, any limestone or marble used in l)uildlngs. Visit limekiln and hy- dra ting plant if possible. 2. Note texture, solubility, reaction to moist litmus, and effect of acid ou a limestoue lump. Heat the lump, note changes in the above proix-rties. 3. Using quicklime, note heat on solution, reaction to litmus, etc. Pour the following mixtures in the form of thick pastes, into match-box molds : (1) Lime and water; (2) lime and sand and water; (3) lime, sand, ce- ment, and water. Allow to stand until hardened. Examine these specimens for suitability as mortar. Test those specimens, also old mortar, with acid. Test evolved gas. Examine both in l>lace and as laboratory specimens, samples of mortar, plaster, concrete, reinforce*! concrete. 4. Note properties of a piece of native gypsum. Heat a crystal, note water driven off and change in form. Pour thick paste of plaster of Paris into a match box, and press into it some ob- .iect such as a nut, small brass orna- ment, or small clay model, previously greased with vaseline. Let iiaste harden thoroughly. 5. Test the solubility of a limestone lump in (o) distilled water; (b) rain water: (c) distilled water into which carhoii dioxide has ))een passed to acid- 1. Discussion and explanation of the mode of limestone deposit. Ob- servation of fossil shells, corals, skeh'- tons. Reference to geologj^ text. Study of metamorphic limestone (marble) and uses of marble and lime- stone in buildings. 2. Discuss visit to limekiln, or \is«^ diagrams. Describe use of " lime- light " in stereopticons, etc. Deriva- tion of the phrase " to se«'k the lime- light." 3. Make sure that the students can write equations, and fully understand the chemical reactions from limestone, calcium carbonate as quarried, to cal- cium carbonate as the final product in mortar or concrete. Prepare and dis- cuss the following special reports: " Manufacture of lime in large quan- tities ; " " Manufacture of hydrate. Shake any of above solutions in which some limestone has dissolved with soap solution, adding drop by drop. Prepare the following samples : (*/) Distilled water; ib) bubble car- I»()n dioxide through water, and shake with ground limestone, tiltcr ; (c) add several drops of saturated calcium sul- Itliate solution to water; ((/) hydrant water. To one-third of each add soap solution (approximately Clarke's standard) from burette and record amount needed to form suds. Boil one- third of each vigorously. Observe any precipitate. Filter and add soap solu- tion as before. To one-third of each add a few cc. of washing soda solution, tlien soap solution as before. Test the efl'ect of otlier softening agents— ammonia, borax, lime, com- mercial softening agents, and boiler jireparations. 7. Test solubility of powdered lime- stone in weak acids — dilute hydro- chloric, carbonic, citric. Test soil in a swampy place for acid- ity, sprinkle with powdered limestone and test several days later. Extract soil with HCl — burn bones aud extract ash with HCl — coagulate milk, filter — and test all filtrates for calcium with ammonium oxalate. Examine face powder, testing for chalk or gypsum. Examine blackboard crayon. test fpr carbon dioxide, these processes. The limewater Equations for G. Discussion of temporary and iki- manent hardness. Methods of soften- ing each. Complete set of e^pia lions. (This is an excellent exercise on in- tei'pretatiou of results.) Require spe- cial reports : " Household experience in the use of river and spring water in washing and cooking"; "The use of hard water in boilers" (illustrated with specimens of boiler scale) ; "Com- parative cost of softening water with different agents, including soap"; " What are commercial softening agents composed of? " It is believed that the softening ))Ower of washing soda is more logi- cally discussed under this heading than in the chai>ter on "Sodium," and that "Hardness of water" should be ti-eated in detail here unless included in such a topic as the " I»urification of water," previously outlined. At any I'ate, the cross reference should be made, the facts reviewed, and the prin- ciples extended to the new topic. 7. Special reports and discussions : "What causes acid soils?" "What crops will not grow In acid soils?" "The use of ground limestone (and plaster) on acid soil"; "An interview with a progressive farmer or fertilizer salesman on method of calculating the amount of limestone needed per acre of soil " ; " The presence of calcium com- pounds in plant and animal tissues " ; " Use of powdered limestone for miscel laneous purposes." 4. Simple inorganic preparations. — The introduction of simple, inorganic preparations to the laboratory work of the second half of the year furnishes every desirable opportunity for the bright pupil to test his ability. It gives him a chance to do extra work, learn additional chemistry, and gain considerable skill in manipulation. The materials for this work include : Copper sulphate from copper scraps; copper nitrate as by-product from preparation of nitric oxide; ammonium-copper sulphate from copper sulphate; mercu- 46 SCIENCE IN SECONDARY SCHOOLS. rous nitiiite and mercuric nitrate from mercury; boric acid from borax; zinc sulphate as a by-product of the preparation of hydro- gen; sodium thiosulphate from sodium sulphate; mercuric sulpho- cyanide from mercuric nitrate; zinc oxide from zinc sulphate; and potassium nitrate from wood ashes. It has been demonstrated that the pupils are greatly interested in such experiments and spend many hours willingly in completing these preparations. The committee does not desire to outline other topics in detail, since too much elaboration might tend to retard rather than stimu- late the proper reorganization of the chemistry course. The follow- ing list is added to show a great variety of interesting topics which may be drawn upon for illustrative and informational purposes and for developing the fundamental generalizations of chemistry. Local conditions, the interest and needs of the particular class, and the time available should determine the choice of such topics and their proper organization into the larger units of study. The following list could be greatly extended : Glass. — Crown, flint, lead, special glasses, coloring of glass. Clay products. — Brick, pottery, chinaware, porcelain. Artificial stone. — Lime, plastei*, mortar, hydraulic cement, concrete stucco, plaster of paris. Fertilizers. — Problems of soil fertility, elements needed by growing plant and function of each. Photosynthesis and carbon dioxide cycle. Nitrogen cycle and function of nitrogen fertilizers. Use of limestone and phosphate rock. Coal. — Composition and fuel values of different varieties. Distillation of coal tar, light oil, middle oil, heavy oil, tar, pitch. Relation to dyes and explosives. Petroleum. — Fractional distillation into burning oils, solvent oils, lubricants, paraffins. Problem of gasoline supply and possible exhaustion of petroleum. Wood. — Distillation of wood to produce methyl alcohol, acetone, acetic acid, charcoal. Explosives. — Black powder, nitroglycerine, dynamite, guncotton, trinitro- toluene. Relation to nitrogen fixation by arc, Haber, and cyanide processes. Paint, varnish, etc. — Oil paints and driers, varnish, shellac, copal. Linseed oil, oilcloth, linoleum. Pigments. — White lead, red lead, iron oxide, lead chromate, etc. Textile fibers. — Natural and artificial silk. Wool : Scouring, bleaching, felt- ing, etc. Cotton : Bleaching, mercerizing, etc. Dyeing. — Direct and mordant dyes. Cleansing agents. — By acid : Oxalic, hydrochloric. By alkalies : Caustic soda, soap emulsiflcation. By special solvents: Carbon tetrachlorid, benzene. Com- position of trade-marked cleaning fluids. Photography. — Blue prints, plates, films, prints, toning, etc. Food constituents. — Starch preparations from corn ; cooking to dextrin and to paste, hydrolysis to glucose. Sugars. — Preparation and refining of beet and cane varieties; conversion to caramel ; inversion. Fats. — Olive oil, cottonseed oil, butter, oleomargarine, hardening oils by hy- drogenation. THE PRINCIPAL, COURSES IN SCIENCE. 47 Proteins. — Albumins, casein, gluten, peptones, gelatine, vitamlnes. ^leverages. — Charged waters, soda, mineral, infusions, tea, coffee, chocolate. Fruit juices (artificial flavors), fermentation. Poisons and common antidotes. — Common Inorganic drugs. Leavening agents. — Yeast, soda, baliing powders. ^latches. — Ordinary and safety types. Adhesives. — Gums, paste, dextrin, glue, casein, water glass (sodium silicate). Inks. — Various types. Refuse disposal. — Sewerage, garbage; fermentation and putrefaction; civic problems; disinfectants and deodorizing agents. Preserving. — Sterilizing, pasteurizing, dessicating, pickling by salt and sugar ; chemical preservatives and tests for them. Metals. — Extraction processes ; oxide ore, iron, sulfid ore, lead ; electrolysis, sodium and aluminum ; extraction of other metals may be studied by comparison with these. Metals used for basic purposes, iron, copper, aluminum, lead ; for ornament, gold, silver, nickel ; for alloys, bronze, brass, solder, type metal, antifriction or bearing metals, fusible metal. F. Differentiated chemistry courses for certain curriculums. — The content of the regular course in chemistry has been indicated in the two sections just preceding. It is designed to meet the needs of young people and to enable such as need it to count the work done for college entrance. It remains to show how modified chemistry courses may be offered to meet the requirements of special groups of pupils by including topics and problems bearing more directly on the work these pupils will enter or in which they are already engaged. These differentiated courses are chiefly of two tyi^es, those Avhich aim to better prepare girls for home making and home man- agement and those offered in technical curriculums to suit the needs of students primarily interested in industry. These two types are briefly considered. 1. Courses in household or domestic chemistry. — There are two methods which are followed in teaching household or domestic chemistry. Girls may be taught the regular chemistry the first half of the year and the second half they may be given instruction in topics relating directly to the home, or a year's course in household chemistry may be given. Each school should choose the method best adapted to its organization. If a year's course of household chem- istry is given, the first half should emphasize the study of chemical change, combustion, water, air, acids, bases, salts, and chemical formulas. In the second half the following topics should be em- phasized : Carbon compounds in their relation to fuels, cooking, and foods; metals used in the home, as iron, copper, aluminum, and silver; textiles and cleaning agents; dyeing and removal of stains; fertilizers and insecticides; disinfectants and antiseptics; poisons and their antidotes ; paints and varnishes. 48 SCIEMCE IN SECOJJDARY SCHOOLS. 2, Courses in tcduiicjil currieiilnm. — In many technical ciu'ricu- liiins there is a demand for a two or three years' course in chemis- try. In such cases tlie elementary course is given in the tenth or eleventh year, followed by qualitative analysis and organic chemis- try. Some teachers may prefer to give in the second year a half year of advanced general chemistry and a half year of qualitative analysis. In addition to these, special courses for certain types of students should be offered if there are facilities and if there is suffi- cient demand for the Avork. To illustrate, a few courses which have been successfully tried in tlie continuation and evening classes of a large technical high school are described : (a) Chemistrj' for nurses: Girls who study nursing find it of great advantage to know something of the fundamental principles of chemistr3\ Many of the girls have not completed a high school course and have not studied chemistry. For such girls a special course consisting of laboratory work and discussion two afternoons a week for 13 weeks is given. This course covers elementary chem- istry through carbon compounds, and emphasis is placed on the study of substances used as drugs and in the home. (h) Chemistry for electroplaters : A large percentage of men actually engaged in the electroplating of metals have only a common school education, and their work is done mechanically. Without a knowledge of the fundamental princij)les of chemistry and elec- tricity the men find much difficulty in solving their problems. To remedy this condition the National Society of Electroplaters has been organized. At least one technical high school has been co- operating with this organization the past two years. A special class for electroplaters has been conducted in the evening school. The men study elementary chemistry, electricity, and volumetric analysis and discuss their problems with the instructor. Th(^ stu- dents are very enthusiastic over the course and they have become more intelligent and skilled workers. (harmacy. For this pui'])ose a three-year course in chemistry is desirable. The first year the pui)ils study elementary chemistry, which (lifters from the regular course by emphasis on technique, preparation of tinctures and ointments, the study of drug manu- facturing, and chemical arithmetic. Qualitative analysis is studied the second year, quantitative analysis and organic chemistry tlie third year. (d) Special courses for workmen and foremen in chemical indus- tries: Some manufacturers permit their employees to study in tech- nical hich schools for one afternoon a week in order to make them more intelligent workers. The cliemistry course in these cases is THE PEIlv:ClPAL COURSES IN SCIENCE. 49 adapted to the needs of the individuals. Where facilities permit there is opportunity for great service to the men and the community. A course in simple, inorganic preparations, sucli as ammonium, sodium, and potassium compounds, is valuable to teach in connection with or following the elementar}' course. IV. PHYSICS. A. Why reorganination is necessa/'ij. — The need for a thorough reorganization of physics is evidenced by the following considera- tions ; (1) The content and methods of presentation in vogue for the past 20 years have failed to make a vital appeal to most pupils. With the large majority the subject has aroused little enthusiasm. (2) The content has been too largely that handed down by tradi- tion through the textbooks, wdiich were largely based on the logical organization of subject matter, neglecting the interests of pupils and the laws of learning. Some of the material is obsolescent or wholly obsolete, because it treats of applications of physical theory to prob- lems now of little or no value, and much of it has no connection with the present-day activities in the industries, in municipal enterprises, on the farms, and in the homes. (3) The teaching of the past has too freipiently assumed that a principle may be readily grasped if only it be once stated in clear language and illustiated by a few examples, and that it may then be generallj^ applied with comprehension and completeness. It is now recognized that j^rinciples may be best arrived at and comprehended through solving ^jroblems. From such experiences the teacher should guide and stimulate the pupils to recognize that they must arrive at the generalizations by their o^^ n mental processes. In order to have the power to apply these principles, pupils must have practice in appljdng them. Such applications not onl}!^ make the principles usable, but also clarify the under.standing of the principles them- selves and stimulate the interests of the pupils. (4) With a few exceptions the class work and the laboratory work have not been intimately connected. A formal list of laboratory experiments has been made the main feature of the course, and formal textbook recitations not closely related to the laboratory experiments have com})leted the program. This failure to coordinate laboratory work with recitations and class discussions is pedagogicall}' unsound and is wasteful of effort. (5) The traditional courses do not contribute as physics can and should to help pupils to understand the higher type of vocations in which physics is fundamental, such as mechanical and electrical pro- fessions and trades. This failure prevents phj^sics from making the 50 SCIENCE IN SECONDAEY SCHOOLS, contribution which it slioukl render in vocational and educational guidance, and also in giving a liberal understanding of the world's Avork. (6) Many schools have already made changes which have resulted in marked improvements in interest and in outcome. B. Local surveys needed. — ^In order that the teaching of physics may be adapted to actual needs, the teachers in each school should make a careful survey to determine what physical facts and phenom- ena are especially significant in local occupations and contacts, since pupils of high-school age naturally look forward to taking active part in adult vocational, social, and civic life. These facts and phenomena, collected in the survey of the whole subject, should be analyzed and classified with reference to the principles of physics that underlie them, with reference to the wideness and frequency of their uses, and with reference to the interest and teaching utility of the projects arising therefrom. C. Aims. — Physics, in common Avitli the other science courses in secondary education, should be directed so far as possible to the realization of the seven main objectives of education defined by the Commission on the Eeorganization of Secondary Education to be : Health, command of fundamental processes, worthy home mem- bership, vocation, citizenship, worthy use of leisure, and ethical character. To realize these objectives, education must develop cer- tain specific interests, ideals, habits, and powers, as well as an essen- tial body of knowledge. Among the habits and abilities which should be developed in all science teaching and which should be emphasized in physics instruc- tion, the following may be enumerated : (1) Observing accurately significant facts and phenomena, and at the same time neglecting distractions and details that have no direct relation to the problem in hand. (2) Developing a methodical plan of attack before beginning an experiment or set of observations. (3) Using eyes, ears, and hands before consulting books, when knowledge of phenomena is sought. (4) Maintaining S3^stem, order, and neatness in the arrangement of apparatus and appliances for the observational and experimental work. (5) Using care and intelligence in the manipulation of tools and apparatus, endeavoring to acquire a good technique. (6) Making measurements where quantitative knowledge is re- quired, always carefully, intelligently, and as accurately as is de- manded by the nature of the knowledge sought, but not more so. THE PEINCIPAL COURSES IN SCIENCE. 51 (7) Makinoj and recording calculations accurately and rapidly, using- practical aids in computation such as logarithms, multiplica- tion tables, and the slide rule. (8) Maintaining accuracy and methodical procedure in arranging and tabulating the data obtained from experiments and observa- tions. Physics must teach its pupils to consider common physical phe- nomena carefully and to interpret and classify observations, to the end that the knowledge gained may become orderly in arrangement. For example, if a flamelike luminosity is observed, is it due to com- bustion of gases, or to incandescence caused by the passage of an electric current, or to electrostatic discharge, or to phosporescence ? When we seek to explain it we are really referring it to its proper class and attributing to it the properties that we know belong to others of the same class. We are trying to record, predict, or indi- cate its properties by placing it first in a large class, then in a smaller class within the larger, and so on, until we get it into the smallest class Ave know. We then know something about its causes and effects because we know it to be like others in that class whose properties are already familiar. Ba^ practice in making such interpretations, cer- tain habits, methods, and ideals as to interpretation maybe developed. It is not the purpose of this report to present a syllabus in physics. Tcaciiers should make their own, because the subject matter must be adapted to the needs of the pupils, and these needs vary widely throughout the country. The subject matter should l)e made simple enough to be clearly comprehended by the pupils. It should be of fairly obvious utility, from the pupil's standpoint, in the accom- plishment of some wortiiy purpose. It must have the greatest number of elements in common with eveiyday situations, within the experi- ence, interest, and knowledge of the pupils, or in common with the situations in which they may reasonably be expected to take part when they have become adults. Information that does not square with these criteria is not likel}^ to afford real training in the habits and abilities outlined above. Considerations to be kept in mind in teaching piiysics are sum marized as follows : (1) Adapt the organization of physics to the nature and needs of the pupils, bearing in mind especially adolescent characteristics and individual differences. (2) Select subject matter thoughtfulh% choosing that amount and kind which, in view of the nature and needs of pupils, is likely to be individually and socially useful. So present it that it will be actually usable when needed. (3) Use constantl}'^ those types of procedure that are of the high- est value and widest application both for the individual and through 52 SCIENCE IK SECONDARY SCHOOLS. liiin to societ3\ The methods of teaching and control should be such iis to cause these modes of procedure to be formed into habits. (4) Develop as far as possible those scientific ideals that served to motivate the great discoveries and achievements of phj^sics. (5) Develop as far as possible scientific insight and powers of in- terpretation. (6) Secure the cultural values of physics by developing tastes and appreciation for scientific pursuits, either as vocations or avocations. (7) Ac«iuaint pupils with the lives of some of the great leaders in science, especially those Avho were obliged to make great effort or undergo great sacrifice in their efforts to establish truth. D. Methods. — (1) Projects. — To accomplish the aims stated above tiie teacher should use both individual student projects and class projects. But the project method should not be employed to such an extent as to sacrifice unity, coherence, and adequate scope. The worthwhileness of the project must be recognized by the indi- vidual in individual project work and by the class in class j)roject work. When a project is ado])ted by an individual student, he should be encouraged to use his own initiative in devising methods for carry- ing it out, but should have the teacher's guidance whenever needed. When a project is adopted by the class, initiative on the part of the class should be encouraged in the choice of methods, under the guid- ance of the teacher. The socialized recitation is of special importance in connection with the class project. (2) Correlation, — The three principal methods in use during the past 10 or 15 years are the recitation method, the class-demonstration method, and the laboratory method. Theoretically, these methods were to have been closel}' connected in the treatment of a given por- tion of the subject matter; but this desirable intimate connection or correlation has not been generally maintained. The laboratory les- sons often bear very little direct relation to the recitations and class demonstrations. There has been too little experimenting by the teacher or by pupils before the class. (3) Unit of instruction. — The unit of instruction, instead of con- sisting of certain sections or pages from the textbook, or of a formal laboratory exercise, should consist of a definite question, proposition, problem, or project, set up by the class or by the teacher. Such a problem demands for its solution recalling facts already knoAvn, acquiring new information, formulating and testing hypotheses, and reasoning, both inductive and deductive, in order to arrive at correct generalizations and conclusions. This method calls for an organization in which information, ex- perimental work, and methods of attack, all are organized with refer- ence to their bearings on the solution of the problem. The recitation, THE PRINCIPAL COURSES IN SCIENCE. 53 the laboratory lesson, and the class demonstration should not be dis- crete and unrelated units. Each should have its part in the activities, the y;athering of information, and the reasoning essential to the con- t'lusion reached. (4) Class conference. — The usual formal recitation should be re- ]>hiced by a well-balanced combination of group and individual work. In group Avork the class conference fosters cooperation, investiga- tion, reciprocal interrogation, open or free for all discussion, and the scientific method of study and problem solving, as opposed to me- moriter repetition. In the class conference the teacher selects a topic suggested by one or more of the .preceding exercises or assignments. By ({uestions and smaller topic assignments the teacher leads the chiss to summarize the knowledge i)reviously acquired. Additional knowledge and experiment are necessarj^ for the intelligent under- standing of the facts or principle involved in the main topic. The l)upils are stimulated to set up h3'potheses, to experiment, and to pro- pose methods for testing out the different suggestions. The experi- ments and tests are made by teacher and pupils at the demonstration table or in the laboratory. At later conferences the final conclusions are reached. They are then applied either in securing other knowl- edge or in verifying and explaining practical applications as ob- served in the industries or elsewhere. Initiative sliould be given full scope in the class conference, but the discussion should be conducted in an orderly and effective numner. It may even be well to train the pupils in parliamentary rules and to insist on observance of those lules in the classroom. The teacher should endeavor to avoid domi- nating the discussion on the one hand, or letting it become aimless and desultory on the other hand. (5) Laboratory work. — The high-school physics laboratory is too often thought of as a place in which to " verify laws,*' to " fix prin- ciples in mind," to " accjuire skill in making measurements," or to " learn to be accurate observers." With a project or a problem as the unit of instruction and its solution as the motive for work, the pupil should go to tlie laboratory to find out by experiment some facts that are essential to the solution of his problem, and that can not be ob- tained at first hand by other means. With such a motive he is more nearly in the situation of the real scientist who is working on a prob- lem of original investigation. He is getting real practice in the use of the scientific method. The problem or project should underlie the " laboratory exercise." For example, instead of aiming " to determine the specific gravity of a liquid," the pupil may be incited to find out whether the milk delivered at his door has probably been watered. Tliis is a i)roject of vital interest to the pupil himself and to his family at home, and it involves finding the specific gravity of the 54 SCIENCE IN SECONDARY SCHOOLS. milk. Laboratory problems in physics should provide direct and obvious connections between what immediately precedes and follows. The following principles with reference to the conduct of the physics laboratory work have become fairly well standardized, and are recommended as important: (a) The number of laboratory problems per year should lie some- Avhere between 30 and 50, according to the nature of the problems cliosen and the circumstances controlling- the work. The preference should in general lie with the smaller number, thoroughly and intel- ligently worked out and reinforced by frequent, subsequent applica- tions so as to insure permanent retention. {7j) The schedule for work in physics should provide for laboratory periods of from 60 to 90 minutes in length. (c) The maximum number of pupils that can be efficiently directed in a physics laboratory division by one teacher is 25 ; better work can be accomplished when the maximum is 18 to 20, If more than 25 are Avorking in the laboratory, there should be a competent assistant in addition to the teacher. (d) Each pupil should be required to keep a notebook record of all his experiments. The notes should be clear, concise, and syste- matically arranged, and should be repeatedly utilized in subsequent work. (6) Notebooks. — The notebook should contain a statement of the problem ; a brief description of the apparatus, materials, and pro- cedure; tabulations of numerical data, with original calculations, Avhen calculations are involved ; the conclusions reached ; and a brief statement of such precautions and sources of error as it is necessary or profitable to consider. Graphs and draAvings should be used as means of expression or interpretation, not as ends in them- selves. The use of printed forms, where the pupil only fills in the blanks Avith figures and words, should be discouraged as tending to inhibit thinking rather than to stimulate it. All notes belonging directly to the laboratory work should be recorded in the laboratory at the time of making observations or of doing the work. Original notes should be made with such method and care that copying of notes will be unnecessary. (7) Demonstrations. — In the classroom the demonstration experi- ment Avith informal comment and running conference should be frequent, and formal lecturing the exception. The lecture demon- stration, howeA'er, has its undoubted uses in high-school physics. Accounts of new discoveries in physics, demonstrated by experi- ments and lantern slides, will present a fascinating and effective appeal and furnish strong incentives for stud}'. Accounts of the lives and labors of great physicists, and especially of the formatiA'e influences and character dcA^elopment that contributed to their great- THE PKINCIPAL COURSES IN SCIENCE. 55 iiess, serve to arouse human interest, crystallize ideals, and motiv^ite effort. The help of volunteer pupils should be enlisted in the preparation of the demonstration experiments. The demonstra- tion, when given, should be a model of clear exposition and experi- mental technic that will challenge admiration, arouse enthusiasm, and stimulate imitation, (8) Excursions. — In nearly every community there are opportuni- ties for making profitable excursions to places in which the prin- ciples of physics taught in the schoolroom are applied. The teacher should arrange for excursions at such times as best fit in with the school instruction. Every available physical device in the homes, local stores, shops, factories, waterworks, street railway or electric- lighting power plants, school heating and ventilating plant, news- paper-printing plant, telephone exchange, ice-manufacturing and cold-storage plant should be used for instruction. Mimeographed instructions prepared before an excursion will be of great service. After the excursion the things seen and their bearings on other work should be thoroughly discussed. In a few cases written reports of the excursion should be required, and the best of these should be credited as oral or written compositions in English classes. (9) Reports. — During the year each pupil should be assigned one or more definite pieces of study to be made from books or papers, the study to be organized for presentation before the class. Assign- ments should be specific, giving subject, properly delimited, and usually the books or papers to be consulted, with specific citations. There should always be a report in good form made to the teacher, if not to the class. (10) Clubs.^ — The science club, or society, officered and managed by pupils under teaclier guidance, may prove a stimulus to science throughout the school and may become an important factor in com- munity life. Physics should join with other sciences in the science clubs of small high schools, but in some large schools a separate physics club may be desirable. Experiments, objects from amateur natural-history collections, reports on scientific books, and articles from magazines, biographical sketches, and also occasional lectures by teachers should compose the programs. E. Organization. — It is assumed that physics will be given in either the third or fourth year of the high school. Pupils will ordinarily have had one year of general science and should have had one year of biological science, and these science courses should constitute a good basis for the physics work. For example, the pupil ought to know something about matter and its states, energy, work, simple machines, and sliould have an elementary idea of electrical appa- ratus and its control; he should know how plants and animals live, their processes of food manufacture and use, and the principles and 56 SCIENCE IX SKI ox UAH V SCHOOLS. pr;ictices of good health. In beghiiiiiig a topic in phj'sics a brief review of any rehvtecl facts learned from general science and biology or from the pupil's everyday experiences sliould be made. The method Avhicli was begun in the first year and carried on in the second should make it ])ossible for the pupil to advance more rapitUy tlian otherwise in his study of pliysics. (1) Problems as the basis of organization. — AVhenever possil)le the problem should furnish the basis of organization. ISubject mat- ter should be arranged Avith reference to its solution. Kelated prob- lems organize themselves naturally into topics. Suppose the topic is electric lighting and the pioblcm is to iind out A\hether a mazda lamp is more economical than a carbon lamp of the same candle- power. The laAvs of electrical resistance, the specific lesistance of different materials, the heating poAver of tlie current, and the defi- nitions and units in Avhich the facts are cx[)ressed or the quantities measured should be aids in solving tlie problem. The skillful teacher Avill not present the material completely organized for the pupils, but by means of questions and suggestions Avill lead them to do as much as possible of the organizing for themselves. One problem leads to another. One fact or phenomenon suggests the need for dis- covering another. The associations thus formed are likely to be fre- quent and vivid and to result in satisfaction; therefore tliey are more likely to be remembered. (2) Unification by means of comprehensive principles. — The or- ganization of the subject matter of physics should be })rogressi\'e. The task of recalling and selecting from the acciumdating mass of information those particular items tiiat can be applied to a ncAV problem becomes increasingly difficult. Fortunatel}^ the facts of physics can be unified by means of compreliensive princij)les. For example, most physics textbooks discuss the "three classes of levers," making much of the definitions and distinctions tliat may arise from the different relatiA^e positions of the fulcrum, the eifort api)lied, and the resistance overcome. These distinctions serve no useful l^urpose. The}' are Avholly traditional. In principle these levers are alike. Each is a case of the equality of opposing moments of force about a point; and so are others, such as the bent lever, Avheel and axle, capstan, single fixed pulle}-, single movable pulley, rack and pinion, gear Avheel, derrick, and the door on its liinges. Instead of a separate law for each, the one principle holds for all. It is their resemblances, not their differences, that should be emjjhasized. The ability to predict results by applying the one simple principle is tlie important ability to be gained. There Avill be no motion if the moment (measured by force multii)lied by arm) that tends to rotate the device one Avay about an axis is e<|ual to the moment that tends to rotate it in the opposite direction about the same axis. This THE PKINCIPAL COURSES IN SCIENCE. 57 principle and the princ'i]jles of the parallelogram of motions and the work principle are sufficient for the understanding of all cases involving the action of elementarj? machines. By a simple algebraic substitution any case coming under the principle of moments maj^ be related to the principle of work. If to the Avork principle and that of the paiallelogram of forces we add Newton's third law, we liave the principles and definitions mider which all the phenomena of the median ics of solids included in the high school course may be grouped. Nearly all the phenomena of fluids worth while for high-school students may be similarly grouped under the principle of Pascal, the principle of Archimedes, the i^rinciple that fluid work equals pressure multiplied by volume, and the principles already mentioned as summarizing the phenomena of solids. Also the principle of Archimedes may be shown to be only a type of application under tlie principle of Pascal. The principle of fluid work is not a new one, but only the definition that " work equals force multiplied by displacement,"' with the factors grouped in a difl^erent way, so that a pressure gauge may be used instead of a dj^namometer for meas- uiing the force. The relative compressibility of gases as compared with liquids necessitates the addition of Boyle's law as an interpre- tation of their behavior Avithin certain limits under pressure. Other- wise their behavior is like that of liquids and can be summarized under the same laws. After tlie phenomena of heat and electricity have been studied and similarly organized under a few comprehensive principles, it wnll be seen that the work principle is a special case, for solids and fluids, of the princi])le of the conservation of energy, and this principle may be taken as the great unifying generalization by means of which the jihenomena in all the departments of ph3?sics are to be linked together. The student thus Ijrings all his knowledge of the subject into unified and harmonious relations by arranging small groups of phenomena under minor principles that describe them, then arrang- ing these minor groups into major groups under major principles that describe all of them in a still broader way. Finally he is led to correlate all the major groups under such comprehensive laws and theories as the w^ave theory of sound, light, and electrical radia- tion, and the conservation of energy. F. Content. — As has been said above under the caption of organi- zation, the course, when it reaches the final stage of organization near the end of the year, should take the form of a body of facts and principles set forth in an orderly manner. The facts and laws of major importance should stand out clearly and should be grouped under tlie greater principles that give unity to tlie science. On the 58 SCIENCE IN SECONDARY SCHOOLS. other hand, when the facts or principles under a given topic are first introduced they should be organized about a series of problems or projects. In the order of study, the facts and principles of mechanics are so fundamental to those of the other divisions, namely, heat, elec- tricity, sound, and light, that the mechanical principles ought to come first. At least those most essential to the understanding of the others should do- so, but there are many good reasons for defer- ring some of the most difficult mechanical principles till near the end of the course. For similar reasons molecular physics and cer- tain portions of electricity and light may be deferred, thus giving the course some of the advantages of a so-called " spiral " method of treatment. Hence at first we should set up problems and projects mainly from the field of mechanics, then from heat, then from elec- tricity and magSffitism, and finally from sound and light. There is, however, no good reason why facts or principles from one of these convenient groups should be excluded from every project until that group is reached. When working out projects in mechanics, for example, if electrical facts or light phenomena are needed for the solution of the problem, enough information about them to serve the purpose should be put within reach of the pupils, but these should be incidental at the time and should be reviewed and organ- ized with the other electrical facts and principles when that main field is reached. In choosing the projects through which the important principles are to be approached, and in solving which the important facts and laws are to be acquired, a leading criterion of selection should be the closeness of the project to the pupils' immediate interests and the immediate interests of the locality ; but this criterion should not rule to the extent of circumscribing inquiry or curbing curiosity about the larger interests of the State, the Nation, and the world. The value of this criterion lies in the fact that the physical appliances and phenomena of the home, the farm, the near-l)y factory, the municipal water and electrical plants, are most easily perceived by the pupils to be of value to them and to the locality whose welfare is their own welfare and whose needs are their own needs. Under mechanics of solids, the leading principles are those of gravity and center of mass, of work, energy, power, and efficiency relations, of equilibrium of moments of force, and of the composi- tion and resolution of forces. These principles can be approached naturally and inductively^ through projects and problems connected wdth steelyards and balances, balancing toys, and " meccano " sets ; sewing machines, washing machines, and wringers, and the simpler mechanical devices of daily household use; hand and machine tools used on the farm and in the shop; and the simpler mechanical THE PRINCIPAL COURSES 12^ SCIENCE. 59 l)roperties of bicycles and motor cycles, autoniobiles and farm tractors, wind mills, water wheels, and turbines, cream separators, motor boats, and sailboats. lender mechanics of -fluids^ the leading principles are those of atmospheric and liquid pressure due to weight and depth, and to force externally applied, all involving the principles of Pascal and Archimedes, Boyle's law, and the application of the work principle to flowing liquids or gases under pressure. The problems selected for approaching these principles may come out of projects for milk testing, pumps, efficiency of water motors and windmills and hy- draulic rams; the barometer and its relations to measuring heights and predicting weather changes; hydraulic presses, pneumatic drills, balloons, submarines, and diving apparatus. In the domain of heat, the most important principles have to do with the factors of measuring heat (temperature change, specific heat, and mass) and the units in which heat is measured; changes from solid to liquid, vapor, or gas, and the reverse, together with the energy changes involved (heat of fusion and evaporation) ; the effects of such changes on climate ; and the relations of heat to mechanical energy, including efficiency of heat engines and other heat appliances. Here the household heating and cooking apparatus, the school heating plant, the weather apparatus and maps, the steam and gas engines and turbines, and the smaller and more intimate facts and factors connected with housing and clothing may serve as starting points. These may lead to a genuine interest in experiments witli thermometers, calorimeters, hygrometers, and other somewhat abstract but essential experiments of the laboratory. Under electricity the important principles are numerous; but they center mostly about the prochiction of electricity for power, light, and heat ; its transmission from the place of production to the place of conversion ; and the efficiencies of the apparatus used in producing, transferring, and converting it. Thus the study of electricity^ is largely a study of magnets, dynamos, primary and storage batteries, electrical currents and Aviring. transformers, motors, bells, annuncia- tors, telegraphs, tcdephones, electric lights, and electric heaters. Hence, the course should deal largely with these things, and with commercial measuring instruments, rather than with Daniell's cells, combinations of cells in series-multiple, AYheatstone bridges, elec- trostatic phenomena, vacuum tubes and the like, which make up so much of the traditional courses of the textbooks and syllabi. Under sound, the greatest interest will naturally center around the simplest and most familiar musical instruments and the phono- graph. Through these the properties of vibrating strings, rods, and air columns, of resonance, of simple and complex wave motion, and the basis of the chromatic and tempered scales can best be approached. CO SCIENCE IN SECONDARY SCHOOLS. Uiuler light ^ interest in the human eye and the photographic camera may lead easily toward projects that will result in an understanding of the rectilinear proi)a;j:ition of light, its reflection by mirrors, its refraction by prisms and lenses. The use of lenses for ej^eglasses. liiagnifiers. microscopes, and telescopes would then follow as a natu- ral subject of inquir}'. Interest in color phenomena can easily be aroused by comparing the effects produced by mixing colors with the Maxwell disk, or the color top, with the very different effects obtained by mixing paints or dyes; and the whole subject of color can be interestinjilv reviewed and classified by carefid examination of the facts of color photography and color-process printing. A natu- ral introduction to the Avave theory of light lies through the infer- ence— fringes produced by a soap film. These may be compared with the ''beats'' produced as a manifestation of interference of sound Avaves when a pair of tuning forks or organ pipes of nearly the same pitch are sounded simultaneously; and also to the nodal points of a cord or wire that is vibrating in segments. Throughout the course after the first ideas of work and encr«>v have been introduced, the transferences of energj' involved in phy!^i- cal phenomena should be made prominent by directing attention to the transfer from one body to anc^her. When heat and work rela- tions are taken up, the transformation of heat into mechanical work, and the reverse, should be emphasized in connection with many examples of transformation. As the students go on through the l)henomena of electricitj'', sound, and light, the transference and transfornuition of energy should be brought out more and more strongly until the law of the conservation of energj' has been grasped inductivelj^ and w^ith such clearness as to serve as a great unifying principle in the organized scheme of the science at which the pupils are finally to arrive. The tendency of energ}' to rim down through friction and other wastes into less available forms and conditions should also be brought out with increasing emphasis as the course progresses. Such exercises as tracing the energy of light and mo- tion of a trolley cai back to the coal or water power at the power house and thence back to the radiant energy from the sun will prove to be of great interest and value. In conclusion, the motto " Not how much, but how^ well "" should control the choice of subject matter. Quality rather than quantity of knowledge should be sought : and ability to control materials, forces, and ideas should be the aim, rather than the mere acquisition of facts and laws. APPENDIX. THE SCIENCE TEACHER. The fiiiulrtiiicntal qualities that make for success in science teach- ing tlo not differ from those essential to success in teaching other subjects. In addition to the usually recognized values of good health, good spirits, poise, and i-eserve force, forceful personality and clear ideals of the purposes of democratic education, the science teacher should be an enthusiastic lo^er of science, and a believer in its great value, when rightly used, in the uplift of mankind. The science teacher should possess the power of leadership that comes from thorough knowledge of the things to be learned, the things to be done, and the reasons therefor. Those lacking in the power of leadership, which generates enthusiasm for the work and which makes arbitrary exactions and repressive disciplinary measures unnecessary, may learn it by ])ractice and imitation from associates. As a leader, the science teacher must himself be willing to wurk hard. He must show an open mind on all questions and at all times in dealing with his pupils as well as in dealing with the facts of the subjects of study, and ideas. He should be genuinely interested in his pupils, their ambitions, their proljlems, and their success. He should be as i-eady to submit his teaching problems to experimental variation and systematic, controlled testing, as he is to appeal to experiment within the field of the science he is teaching. Profound learning and research ability, although of great value, are not essentials for the high-school science teacher, but he must have sound scholarship and a large amount of common sense to know the proper relation of knowledge to human efficiency. The science teacher should neglect no opportunity to know Avell the sciences tliat he is teaching and to keep his knowledge as nearly as possible up to date, both as to facts and practical applications that touch closely on the things he is teaching. His knowledge should go beyond the mastery of the typical general college text in his subject, at least in some department or phase of it; and the more of such knowledge he had gained through actual laboratory practice, the better. It is highly desirable that the teacher's knowledge be extensive, covering many fields, as Avell as intensive in a few fields. All teachers of science should be able to draw fairly well, ready facility in the making of blackboard sketches and charts being especially desirable. They should also be skilled in the use of projection apparatus as well as the special demonstration and laboratory apparatus pertaining to their subjects. Science teachers should be fairly expert in the use of bench and machine tools since skill of this sort is of great ad- 61 02 APPENDIX. \ aiitage from time to time in teacliing- any of the sciences. Biology teachers, of course, should be skilled in the use of the microscope, in section cutting, and in the mounting of microscopic preparations for use in demonstrations. The making of photographs and lantern slides is another accomplishment of great value in all science teach- ing. The graphical method of presenting facts is well-nigh essential in the work of science teachers. The better the science teacher's scholarship, the more effective is his teaching in most cases. He should have some knowledge of his- tory, economics, and sociology, especially in those phases of thete subjects in which science and the scientific method are shown to be rehited to human progress and welfare. Besides his major studies in the science or sciences Avhich he teaches, he should have had at least a general college course in each one of these fields of science — biology, earth science, and physical science. A course in the teaching of each of the sciences in which he gives instruction is also very much to be desired. Since psychology is fundamental in teaching, every science teacher ought to have at least one general course in psychology, with labora- tory practice bearing especially on the learning processes, on the psychology of thinking, on individual differences, and on the prac- tical relations of these to the art of teacliing. Either as undergrad- uate or graduate work he should acquire a practical knoAvledge of intelligence tests and educational measurements and should have a course in secondary education, including the social and vocational aspects of high-school problems, the relations of science to the curric- ulum as a whole, and fundamentals of class management. The professional spirit of the science teacher should prompt him to read, benefit from, and help support the special journals devoted to the interests and needs of teachers of the several high-school sciences, and to read at least occasionally such leading research journals in his special science as are likely to appeal to his students and to increase his own store of useful knowledge. As far as practicable, he should support and promote by membership and attendance at least one each of the local and national societies for the promotion of science and education. The science teacher should aim to be an exponent of science in his community and should respond willingly, whenever he can, to invitations to give illustrated popular lectures or talks to local gatherings or to the school on some of the interesting and socially important phases of his subject. Finally, if he can contribute some- thing toward improving science teaching through individual or co- operative experimentation on content of the courses or devices and methods of teaching, he should be moved by professional zeal to give freely of his spare time and strength to this cause. o zsi ^ ^alUtiv^S. 1920. _v>.oS.a-$"-:^a,.. NOTICE TO BORROWER This card is to be kept in this pocket and returned with the book. This book must be returned oo or before the last date entered on the card. If not requested by another borrower the loan may, on application, be renewed. This book must not be marked or mutilated in any way. In case of loss its value must be paid to the Librarian. Any violation of these rules may deprive the borrower of any further privileges of the Library. Department of Education, Toronto