DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR BUREAU OF EDUCATION BULLETIN, 191 7, NO. 2 REORGANIZATION OF ENGLISH IN SECONDARY SCHOOLS REPORT BY THE NATIONAL JOINT COMMITTEE ON ENGLISH REPRESENTING THE COMMISSION ON THE REORGANIZA¬ TION OF SECONDARY EDUCATION OF THE NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION AND THE NATIONAL COUNCIL OF TEACHERS OF ENGLISH COMPILED BY JAMES FLEMING HOSIG Chairman of the Committee WASHINGTON GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE 1917 ' BUIXETXM OF THE BUREAU OF EDUCATION. [For numbers prior to 1916 see leaflet, “ List of Available Publications, Bureau of Edu¬ cation/’ wbich may be had on application.] 1916. No. 1. Education exhibits at the Panama-Pacific International Exposition. W. Carson Ryan, jr. No. 2. Agricultural and rural education at the Panama-Pacific International Exposition. H. W. Foght No. 8. Placement of children in the elementary grades. K. J. Hoke. No. 4. Monthly record of current educational publications, January, 1916. No. 5. Kindergarten training schools. No. 6. Statistics of State universities and State colleges. No. 7. Monthly record of current educational publications, February, 1916. No. 8. Reorganization of the public-school system. F. F. Bunker. No. 9. Monthly record of current educational publications, March, 1916. No. 10, Needed changes in secondary education. Charles W. Eliot and Ernesto Nelson, No. 11. Monthly record of current educational publications, April, 1916. No. 12. Problems involved in standardizing State normal schools. O. H. Judd and S. C. Parker. No. 18. Monthly reeord of current educational publications, May, 1916. No. 14. State pension systems for public-school teachers. W. Carson Ryan, jr., and Roberta King. No. 15. Monthly record of current educational publications— Index, February, 1915-January, 1916. 5 cts. No. 16. Reorganizing a county system of rural schools. J. Harold Williams. No. 17. The Wisconsin county training schools for teachers in rural schools. W. E. Larson, No. 18. Public facilities for educating the alien. F. E. Farrington. No. 19. State higher educational institutions of Iowa. No. 20. Accredited secondary schools in the United' States. Samuel P. Capen. No. 21. Vocational secondary education. No. 22. Monthly record of current educational publications, September, 1916. No. 23. Open-air schools. S. P. Kingsley and F. B. Dresslar. No. 24. Monthly record of current educational publications, October, 1916. No. 25. Commercial education. Glen Levin Swiggett. No. 26. A survey of the educational institutions of the State of Washington. No. 27. State higher educational institutions of North Dakota. No. 28. The social studies in secondary education. Arthur W. Dunn. No. 29. Educational survey of Wyoming. A. C. Monahan and Katherine M. Cook, No. 80. University training for public service. No. 81, Monthly record of current educational publications, November, 1916. No. 32. Some facts concerning manual arts and home-making subjects in 156 cities. J. C. Park and C. H. Harlan. No. 33. Registration and student records for smaller colleges. B. F. Andrews. No. 34. Service instruction of American corporations. 'Leonhard F. Fuld. No. 35. Adult illiteracy. Winthrop Talbot. No. 86. Monthly record of current educational publications, December, 1916, [Continued on page 3 of cover.] DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR BUREAU OF EDUCATION BULLETIN, 1917, NO. 2 REORGANIZATION OF ENGLISH IN SECONDARY SCHOOLS REPORT BY THE NATIONAL JOINT COMMITTEE ON ENGLISH REPRESENTING THE COMMISSION ON THE REORGANIZA¬ TION OF SECONDARY EDUCATION OF THE NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION AND THE NATIONAL COUNCIL OF TEACHERS OF ENGLISH COMPILED BY JAMES FLEMING HOSIC Chairman of the Committee WASHINGTON GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE 1917 ADDITIONAL COPIES OF THIS PUBLICATION MAY BE PROCURED FROM THE SUPERINTENDENT OF DOCUMENTS GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE •WASHINGTON, D. C. AT 20 CENTS PER COPY CONTENTS. Page. Letter of transmittal _ : - - - 4 Preface _ a _ _ _ : - - 5 Members of the national joint committee _ _ — - - - - 8 Reviewing committee of the commission _ _ _ _ 9 I. The history of the study of English in American secondary schools- 11 II. The movement for reorganization _ 17 III. The point of view of the committee _ _ _ 26 IV. The aims of the English course _ 30 V. The organization of the English course _ . _ _ 33 VI. Report of the commission on composition in the seventh, eighth, and ninth grades _ _ 36 ■VII. Report of the committee on literature in the seventh, eighth, and ninth grades (junior high school) _ _ _ _ 45 VIII. Report of the committee on composition in the tenth, eleventh, and twelfth grades (senior high school) _ _ _ 54 IX. Report of the committee on literature in the tenth, eleventh, and twelfth grades (senior high school) _ 63 X. Report of the committee on oral expression _ 85 XI. Report of the committee on business English _ 94 XII. General reading _ 99 XIII. Report of the committee on the library and its equipment _ _ _ 106 XIV. Administrative problems _ _ _ 123 Bibliography _ . _ _ _ 156 3 LETTER OF TRANSMITTAL. Department oe the Interior, Bureau oe Education, W ashing ton, D. C. Sir: From the time of its appointment several years ago the Bureau of Education has cooperated with the National Education Association Commission on the Reorganization of Secondary Educa¬ tion and has sought its aid in working out certain problems pertain¬ ing to the reorganization of courses of study in the high schools, which the bureau was unable to do alone because of the lack of a body of experts in this subject. The Commissioner of Education and several members of the staff of the bureau have served on the com¬ mission in one capacity or another, and it has been my purpose to recommend the several parts of the report of this commission for publication as bulletins of the Bureau of Education if, when com¬ pleted, they appeared to be sufficiently thorough and comprehensive to make it desirable that they should be thus published for distribu¬ tion among high-school principals and teachers and others interested in secondary education. A preliminary report of the work of all the sections of this commission was published as Bulletin, 1913, No. 41, and the report of the section on social studies was published as Bulle¬ tin, 1916, No. 28. I am transmitting herewith for publication the part of the report dealing with the reorganization of English in the secondary schools, which has been worked out by a joint committee representing the commission and the National Council of Teachers of English. The report was compiled by Mr. James Fleming Hosic, professor of English in the Chicago Normal School and a special collaborator in the Bureau of Education. Respectfully submitted. The Secretary of the Interior. 4 P. P. Claxton, G ommissioner . PREFACE. This report has been several years in the making. It represents, however inadequately, a distinct educational movement in which a large group of American educators have gradually come to a clear consciousness of limitations that they believe must be removed and of new and worthy purposes that they would see realized in the actual work of the schools. What this movement is will be seen by a perusal of the section in which is presented a brief history of the committee and its work. It should be recognized that the agitation leading to the appoint¬ ment of the committee was not personal or sporadic but impersonal and persistent. It sprang from a set of conditions that had grown up in the course of time with the evolution of American society and American education, and was confined to no one section, though more violent in some regions than in others because of greater con¬ servatism and weight of conditions. In short, the efforts to bring about reform, though they may have seemed needlessly violent at times, were due to real dissatisfaction with the existing state and a genuine and quite inevitable desire to adjust the forces of the school to the changed conditions of society surrounding it. The new view of the school course and of the aims and ideals of the teacher is merely one of the corollaries of our democratic theory, and hence is bound to work itself out to some decisive con¬ clusion. The high school is rapidly becoming a common school. That is what it was first planned to be, and that is what the people seem now determined to make it. From that point of view the folly of insisting that the high-school course in English shall be a college- preparatory course is evident. Nor will it answer to bring forward the shopworn plea that what best prepares for college best prepares for life. There is too much skepticism as to the value of much of present-day college work to warrant this. As a matter of fact, the college itself is passing through a period of adjustment. But more fundamental still is the fact that college-preparatory work in Eng¬ lish never has prepared for college. College men freely confess that they make no attempt to base their courses upon what the high schools are supposed to have done, and, more significant still, boys and girls brought up in high schools free from the domination of the college-entrance ideal very frequently surpass their classmates who were carefully pointed toward the college examination. The entire doctrine of “preparation” for higher institutions is fallacious. The best preparation for anything is real effort and experience in the present. 5 6 ENGLISH IN SECONDARY SCHOOLS. The crux of the whole difficulty of college entrance in English is the formal examination. Examinations have their educational uses, and are skillfully employed by good teachers everywhere as edu¬ cational instruments. But when the officials of a distant college or examining board undertake to lay down specific requirements in English and to set questions upon them, the results are very likely to be unfortunate. Teachers of high-school pupils read the re¬ quirements and the sample-question sheets, and then set to work to drill their pupils in the facts likely to be called for. A flood of over-edited classics sweeps over the schools. The whole tradi¬ tion of method in English is set in the direction of the mere matter of fact, the detritus thrown up by the literary stream, and as a result real literary study is driven out and vital composition prac¬ tice is scarcely attempted. The fact that nobody intended to bring about such results does not minimize their effect. The harm is actu¬ ally done. The hope of improvement lies in the schools themselves. The dogma that anybody can teach English — or at least anybody who knows the subject — has been much shaken of late. The high school is becoming imbued with a distinctly professional spirit. High- school teachers and principals have set themselves to the working out of their own problems, which are indeed complex and difficult, and they are being very greatly aided by the scientific studies made possible by the growth of college departments of education. In the course of a few years we shall see the American high school fully established as an advanced common school or “ people’s college.” This report on English will aid, it is believed, in bringing this consummation to pass. The material for it has been collected in large measure by high-school workers. Several different commit¬ tees have carried on extensive research in order to gather the facts upon which it is based. Since its inception a national organization of English teachers has sprung into being, and through its meet¬ ings, discussions, and investigations has made available an immense body of definite educational experience. Much of this the present report undertakes to digest and make readily accessible. Three definite purposes the report is intended to serve, namely: (1) To provide school authorities with information useful in ar¬ ranging courses of study and in providing proper conditions; (2) to assist teachers in choosing the most valuable material and in handling it according to the best methods; and (3) to lay a basis for articulating elementary school and high school and high school and college in such a way as to make possible the best types of work in each. Course making is always more or less a matter of scissors and paste. It is exceedingly difficult to secure the information necessary to make PREFACE. 7 it anything else. At present the English course in our high schools is characterized by a monotonous and unintelligent uniformity. It is believed that the presentation of the attempts of some of the more enterprising teachers to work out courses adapted to the needs of the pupils will prove a helpful stimulus and example to many others. The conditions surrounding the work of English teaching are sus¬ ceptible of vast improvement. The large number of pupils now com¬ monly assigned to an English teacher makes thorough teaching all but impossible, both because of the consequent lack of attention to the individual pupil and the physical exhaustion of the teacher. No teacher, though a Hercules and a pedagogical genius both in one, can be expected to do justice to 200 pupils in English. Fortunately, such conditions are unnecessary. The expense of the subject per pupil is low, and more teachers can and must be employed. More money should be spent also on equipment. There is no suffi¬ cient reason for lavishing expense upon shops and laboratories while the library and the English classroom are neglected. The results do not justify it. And lastly, high-school English that calls out the active powers of boys and girls will do more than can be accomplished by any system of requirements and examinations to prepare them for more advanced study. It is not the knowledge of certain facts about authors or books which proves of worth in the college classroom in literature, but the habit of thoughtful reading and the joy of study. What college teachers delight to find is not so much information as intelligence, intelligence in gathering and digesting information. If this report should succeed in accentuating and making articulate the movement for a better type of study and teaching of high-school English, it will have justified itself. A summary of the report has been approved by the reviewing com¬ mittee of the commission on the reorganization of secondary edu¬ cation. This approval does not commit every member of the reviewing committee individually to every statement and every im¬ plied educational doctrine. It does, however, mean essential agree¬ ment as a committee with the general recommendations. On the basis of this summary, the reviewing committee has authorized the publication of the report by the Bureau of Education as one of the reports of the commission. The report has been officially approved also by the Board of Directors of the National Council of Teachers of English. James Fleming Hosic, Secretary , National Council of Teachers of English , and Chairman , National Joint Committee on the Reorganiza¬ tion of English in the Secondary Schools. MEMBERS OF THE NATIONAL JOINT COMMITTEE ON THE REORGANIZATION OF ENGLISH IN THE HIGH SCHOOLS. James Fleming Hosic, chairman, head of the department of English, Chicago Normal College, Chicago, Ill. Allan Abbott, assistant professor of English, Teachers’ College, Columbia Uni¬ versity, New York City. Elizabeth G. Barbour, head of the department of English, Girls’ High School, Louisville, Ky. Mary D. Bradford, superintendent of- schools, Kenosha, Wis. Emma J. Breck, head of the department of English, University High School, Oakland, Cal. C. C. Certain, head of the department of English, Cass Technical High School, Detroit, Mich. Randolph T. Congdon, field agent, University of the State of New York, Al¬ bany, N. Y. Mary E. Courtenay, teacher of English and oral expression, Englewood High School, Chicago, Ill. Joseph V. Denney, dean of the College of Arts, Philosophy, and Science, Ohio State University, Columbus, Ohio. Charles W. Evans, supervisor of English, East Orange, N. J. Mary B. Fontaine, supervisor of English, Charleston, W. Ya. Allison Gaw, head of the department of English, University of Southern Cali¬ fornia, Los Angeles, Cal. Mary E. Hall, librarian, Girls’ High School, Brooklyn, N. Y. W. Wilbur Hatfield, instructor in English, Chicago Normal College, Chicago, Ill. Benjamin A. Heydrick, head of the department of English, High School of Commerce, New York City. Helen Hill, librarian, William Penn High School, Philadelphia, Pa. Alfred M. Hitchcock, head of the department of English, Public High School, Hartford, Conn. Mrs. Henry Hulst, head of the department of English, Central High School, Grand Rapids, Mich. Walter J. Hunting, superintendent of schools, Carson City, Nev. William D. Lewis, principal, William Penn High School, Philadelphia, Pa. Orton Lowe, assistant superintendent of Allegheny County schools, Wilkins- burg, Pa. E. H. Kemper McComb, head of the department of English, Manual Training High School, Indianapolis, Ind. May McKitrick, assistant principal and head of the department of English, East Technical High School, Cleveland, Ohio. Edwin L. Miller, principal, Northwestern High School, Detroit, Mich. Minnie E. Porter, teacher of English, Emerson School, Gary, Ind. Edwin T. Reed, college editor, Agricultural College, Corvallis, Oreg. Edwin T. Shurter, professor of public speaking, University of Texas, Aus¬ tin, Tex. Elmer W. Smith, professor of rhetoric and public speaking, Colgate University, Hamilton, N. Y. Charles S. Thomas, head of the department of English, Newton High School, Newtonville, Mass. Harriett A. Wood, public-school librarian, Portland, Oreg. 8 THE REVIEWING COMMITTEE OF THE COMMISSION ON THE REORGANIZATION OF SECONDARY EDUCATION. (The Reviewing Committee consists of 26 members, of whom 16 are chairmen of com¬ mittees and 10 are members at large.) Chairman of the Commission and of the Reviewing Committee: Clarence D. Kingsley, State high school inspector, Boston, Mass. Members at large: Hon. P. P. Claxton, United States Commissioner of Education, Washing¬ ton, D. C. Thomas H. Briggs, associate professor of education, Teachers College, Columbia University, New York City. Alexander Inglis, assistant professor of education, in charge of secondary education, Harvard University, Cambridge, Mass. Henry Neumann, Ethical Culture School, New York City. William Orr, senior educational secretary, International Y. M. C. A. Com¬ mittee, 104 East Twenty-eighth Street, New York City. William B. Owen, principal, Chicago Normal College, Chicago, Ill. Edward O. Sisson, commissioner of education, Boise, Idaho. Joseph S. Stewart, professor of secondary education, University of Georgia, Athens, Ga. Milo II. Stuart, principal Technical High School, Indianapolis, Ind. H. L. Terry, State higli-school inspector, Madison, Wis. Chairmen of committees: Organization and Administration of Secondary Education — Charles Hughes Johnston, professor of secondary education, University of Illinois, Urbana, Ill. Agriculture — A. Y. Storm, professor of agricultural education, University of Minnesota, St. Paul, Minn. Ancient Languages — Walter Eugene Foster, Stuyvesant High School, New York City. Art Education — Henry Turner Bailey, Newton Mass. Articulation of High School and College — Clarence D. Kingsley, State high- school inspector, Boston, Mass. Business Education — Cheesman A. Herrick, president Girard College, Philadelphia, Pa. English — James Fleming Hosic, Chicago Normal College, Chicago, Ill. (Address for- 1916-17, 404 West One hundred and fifteenth Street, New York City.) Household Arts — Amy Louise Daniels, University of Wisconsin, Madison, Wis. Industrial Arts — Wilson H. Henderson, assistant superintendent of schools in charge of vocational education, St. Paul, Minn. Mathematics — William Heard Kilpatrick, associate professor of educa¬ tion, Teachers College, Columbia University, New York City. Modern Languages — Edward Manley, Englewood High School, Chicago, Ill. Music — Will Earhart, director of music, Pittsburgh, Pa. Physical Education — James H. McCurdy, director of normal courses of physical education, International Y. M. C. A. College, Springfield, Mass. 10 ENGLISH IN SECONDARY SCHOOLS. Chairmen of committees — Continued. Sciences — Otis D. Caldwell, director, Lincoln School, and professor of edu¬ cation, Teachers College, Columbia University, New York City. Social Studies — Thomas Jesse Jones, United States Bureau of Education, Washington, D. C. Vocational Guidance — Frank M. Leavitt, professor of industrial education, University of Chicago, Chicago, Ill. REORGANIZATION OF ENGLISH IN SECONDARY SCHOOLS. I. THE HISTORY OF THE STUDY OF ENGLISH IN AMERICAN SECONDARY SCHOOLS. The high school has ceased to be mainly a preparatory school. This fact explains why there is a movement for the reorganization of the English course and indicates what the general character of the reorganization is likely to be. Agitation for reform in English is not unique. It is identical in spirit with the effort to develop a better type of course in history, mathematics, science, and foreign languages and has much in common with current demands for increased em¬ phasis upon art, music, physical education, manual training, agri¬ culture, and domestic science. After more than half a century of struggle, the public high school has definitely established itself as a continuation of common-school education, as a finishing school (in the good sense of that term) rather than a fitting school, and now, recognizing its freedom and its responsibility, it has set to work in earnest to adjust itself to its main task. The early secondary schools in America were traditional. In the Latin-grammar school of the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries only a few formal studies were carried on because little besides Latin and Greek was demanded by the college of that day. Broader courses were instituted in the academies at first, but these, too, became chiefly preparatory schools, and hence in them the emphasis was placed on ancient language and mathematics. Even Franklin’s academy, in which he had planned to have instruction in English and other studies necessary, as he thought, to fit for real life, when finally organized followed traditional lines and offered little but the classics.1 It was not until dissatisfaction in Harvard College with the quality of expression used by the students led that institution to require preparation in composition2 that any sort of English study received much attention in the academies except English grammar. This was taught, moreover, like much else in the secondary schools of the time, mainly as formal intellectual discipline, not as useful knowledge or as a means of attaining a specific kind of skill. 1 Lull, H. G. Inherited Tendencies of Secondary Instruction in the United States. 2 Hill, A. S. Briggs, L. B. R., and Hulburt, B. S. Twenty Years of School and College English. 11 12 ENGLISH IN SECONDAEY SCHOOLS. The early admission requirements in English at Harvard are of special interest because they established a type of preparation and examination which has persisted in some localities even to the pres¬ ent. The catalogue for 1865-66 announced that “Candidates will also be examined in reading aloud.” In 1869-70 the requirement was for the first time called “ English,” and two books, Julius Caesar and Comus, were named as alternatives for the examination. Three years later the catalogue announced that “ Correct spelling, punctua¬ tion, and expression, as well as legible handwriting, are expected of all applicants for admission; and failure in any of these particu¬ lars will be taken into account in the examination.” In 1873-74 the requirement was as follows : English Composition. Each candidate will be required to write a short English composition, correct in spelling, punctuation, grammar, and expres¬ sion, the subject to be taken from such words of standard authors as shall be announced from time to time. The subject for 1874 will be taken from one of the following works : Shakespeare’s Tempest, Julius Caesar, and Merchant of Venice; Goldsmith’s Vicar of Wakefield; Scott’s Ivanhoe, and Lay of the Last Minstrel.1 The example of Harvard was followed by other colleges and led, after a time, to the creation of The Commission of New England Colleges on Admission Examinations, which undertook the task of formulating from year to year the requirements in English. The custom of prescribing certain masterpieces of English literature as the basis of tests in writing was followed and became firmly estab¬ lished. The test in oral reading seems to have been dropped. The Harvard requirement related primarily to expression. A new ele¬ ment, namely, knowledge of literary masterpieces for their own sake, was introduced by Yale University in 1894, was favorably consid¬ ered by the New England Commission in 1895, and quickly became general. The college admission requirements in English did not become uniform, however, even throughout New England, and in 1893 a movement to bring about such uniformity was started by Wilson Earrand, principal of the Newark Academy in Newark, N. J. He read a paper on “ English in the preparatory school ” before the Association of Colleges and Preparatory Schools of the Middle States and Maryland, at Columbia College, in December of that year, in which he deplored the lack of uniformity in the college- entrance requirements in English. In consequence, a committee was appointed to prepare a report upon the subject. The committee in¬ dorsed, in the main, the recommendations of the Committee of Ten, whose findings had been made public a short time before, added a few of its own, and proposed a joint conference with other associa- 1 Twenty Years of School and College English, Appendix. HISTORY OP THE STTJDY OF ENGLISH. 13 tions having to do with the problem of college entrance in English. These recommendations were as follows : 1. That any examination set should be based upon the reading of certain masterpieces of English literature, not fewer in number than those at present recommended by the Commission of Colleges in New England on Admission Examinations. 2. That certain of these books should be of a kind to be read by the candi¬ date as literature ; and that others — a limited number — should be carefully studied under the immediate direction of the teacher. 3. That each of the whole number of books should be representative, so far as possible, of a period, a tendency, or a type of literature ; and that the whole number of works selected for any year should represent with as few gaps as possible, the course of English literature from the Elizabethan period to the present time. 4. That the candidate’s proficiency in composition should be judged from his answers to the questions set, which should be so framed as to require answers of some length and to test his power of applying the principles of composition. 5. That formal grammar and exercises in the correction of incorrect Eng¬ lish should in no case be more than a subordinate part of the examination.1 This resulted in the formation of the National Conference on Uniform Entrance Requirements in English, which met at intervals of three or four years thereafter and selected lists of books for read¬ ing and study in the preparatory school, to which were appended certain aims of English study and directions concerning the ex¬ aminations to be set. The lists grew longer from time to time, in response to the demands of secondary teachers for greater freedom of choice, and at the meeting of May, 1912, even the short list of books for intensive study was so extended as to allow some option. In February, 1916, an alternative “comprehensive” plan was insti¬ tuted, by which all candidates taking college entrance examinations should have the option of choosing questions not requiring a knowl¬ edge of certain prescribed books. It should be steadily borne in mind that this national conference never attempted to deal with secondary education as such. It grew out of the demand of the preparatory schools for a convenient uni¬ formity, and had always before it the problem of insuring to the colleges a certain quantity and quality of preparation on the part of entering students. Indeed, the conference sedulously avoided the appearance of dictating the high-school course in English and did not suggest any definite organization of the subject matter which it approved. It is but just to say that the books listed were invariably worth while from the point of view of the student of English litera¬ ture, though in many cases quite too mature for boys and girls in their ’teens, and that the reports of the conference, copied into most 1 Cook, A. S. A Summary of the Proceedings of the Meetings of the Conference on Uniform Entrance Requirements in English, 1894-1899. 14 ENGLISH IN SECONDARY SCHOOLS. of the college catalogues, were largely instrumental in establishing English as an important study in the high-school curriculum throughout the country. The principal cause of complaint was the examination, which tended to overemphasize historical and other facts and which fostered mere memory work and writing based almost entirely on literature. These ill effects were due in large measure, it is true, to the lack of definite educational standards in the secondary schools themselves and to ignorance of the principles of high-school instruction on the part of high-school teachers, and tended to disappear with the spread of professional intelligence. The corrective might have been found in the report of the Com¬ mittee of Ten had that commission and the English conference organ¬ ized by it been properly constituted. Both were composed, however, largely of college professors and preparatory-school principals and teachers. It was inevitable that such a commission should fail in some measure to grasp an educational situation in which preparation for college was rapidly sinking into a subordinate place. Neverthe¬ less, the report of the Yassar conference on English contains many wise and progressive ideas, which have been too little regarded.1 Doubtless the activities of the college-entrance examination board tended to divert attention from some of the more fruitful and con¬ structive of the suggestions made by the conference. The definite tests to be met were a more powerful influence than the more vague standards set up as ideals by the English conference. The National Education Association attempted to follow up the work of the Committee of Ten by appointing a committee on college- entrance requirements in English, whose report was published in July, 1899. The point of view was still that of preparation for col¬ lege, however, a,nd hence the English course could not be considered on its merits as a part of the instruction and training which a young person should have irrespective of whether he is to enter one of the professions or not. The committee did, indeed, lay out a course of study, distributing a list of books only partly identical with that provided by the national conference through the four years of the high school, and did outline the studies which should accompany them. But the basis of organization was essentially a formal one. Narration, both in literature and in composition, was to occupy the first half of the first year ; description, the second. In the following year exposition was to be mainly the subject of study, while correla¬ tion with the novel and the drama were emphasized in the third year. Finally the history of English literature and of the English lan¬ guage, and the writing of compositions of some length and maturity were to be taken up in the fourth year. The committee sohght to 1 See comments by Lull, op. cit., pp. 227-233. HISTORY OF THE STUDY OF ENGLISH. 15 emphasize the necessity of freedom of choice in reading, and evi¬ dently intended to stimulate the high schools to work out their own problems. The rhetorical element was, however, unduly emphasized in the outlines of literary study, while, on the other hand, the close correlation of composition with certain typical literary forms could result in nothing but excessive emphasis on composition essentially literary either in purpose or in subject matter. Like the preceding commissions, the committee on college entrance requirements made a report which tended to foster a type of English study that prac¬ tically ignored oral composition and subjects of expression drawn from the pupil’s own experience, and that constantly applied in the study of literary masterpieces formal rhetorical categories. A re¬ action against such a type of study was inevitable. With the wonderful development of the public high school during the last two decades that reaction has come. From its beginning the high school was fighting ground. Established, like the academy, to provide a greater variety of studies than the preparatory school, it was soon itself called upon to furnish the opportunity for college preparation. Funds were hardly adequate to carry on courses both for those who were going to college and those who were not, and in the end the definite desires of the college-preparatory group tri¬ umphed. The effect was to render the English work excessively formal in character. This was due in large part to the dogma of formal discipline, which the colleges insisted upon as the essential element in prepara¬ tion long after they had partly discarded it for themselves. Studies must be hard and disagreeable and a certain amount of ground must be covered in order that the mind of youth should be steeled for the intellectual encounters to be met with in college days. This was the ideal which had justified emphasis upon the classics and mathe¬ matics, and it was insisted upon also for English j1 and this without regard to the fact that the term English covered such diverse sub¬ jects as grammar, composition, literature, history of literature, his¬ tory of language, spelling, etymology, etc. About the year 1870 an educational movement began which re¬ sulted in the multiplication of public high schools, and which was destined ultimately to insure to the high school freedom and sym¬ pathetic assistance in adjusting itself to its varied tasks. This was the movement for the establishment of cooperative relations between the State universities and the public secondary schools. The Uni¬ versity of Michigan arranged a system of accrediting the schools which were known to do good work and of accepting their graduates without examination. This custom soon became almost universal, 1 Lull, H. G., op. cit. 16 ENGLISH IN SECONDARY SCHOOLS. except in the region of the older and larger endowed colleges, and has had a tremendous influence in stimulating young people to seek a higher education. While at times communities have been led to undertake high school programs too ambitious for their means, and while undoubtedly the system of inspection put into operation by the higher institutions has tended to shape high-school studies in accord¬ ance with university ideas, this has not been an unmixed evil. The universities are themselves responsive to the needs of their con¬ stituencies and have made great strides in adjusting their activities to widely varying demands, and they have not been slow to recognize the necessity of the vocational side by side with the cultural and the disciplinary in secondary-school studies. Hence they have been disposed to encourage the efforts of the high schools to adjust their courses to the newer educational ideals and purposes. This is the spirit also of many endowed colleges and universities, and it is rapidly becoming the spirit everywhere. It seems clear that the public high schools of the United States will soon be free from any influence tending to a rigid, quantitative course of study. There is the greatest need, therefore, of sober consideration of the high- school course by those who are directly responsible for it. High- school principals and teachers, supervisors, and students of education, as a rule, seem to realize this. Indeed, the movement leading to the compilation of this report may be said to have arisen out of a desire to discharge that responsibility and secure for the youth of the land the best possible organization of instruction in English. II. THE MOVEMENT FOR REORGANIZATION. The national movement for a reorganization of secondary English was launched at the Boston meeting of the National Education Asso¬ ciation in July, 1910. At no time had the uniform requirements given general satisfaction,1 but the discontent became acute in the period between 1905 and 1910. It was voiced in many articles and addresses, and led to lively debates between the critics and the apolo¬ gists of the system.2 The storm center was New York City, the teachers of which were under the influence of various requirements and examinations, in¬ cluding those of the National Conference on Uniform Requirements in English and the college-entrance examination board. In both the New York State and New York City Associations of English Teach¬ ers the situation was discussed at length at various meetings held during 190T, 1908, and 1909, and it was agreed that a determined effort must be made to bring about reform. The meeting of the English round table of the secondary depart¬ ment of the National Education Association at Boston offered the opportunity to secure the support of teachers in all parts of the coun¬ try, and accordingly certain representatives of the New York City Association of English Teachers attended the meeting of the round table, presented the need for action, and brought about the appoint¬ ment of a committee to make protest to the National Conference on Uniform Entrance Requirements in English and the college-entrance examination board. This committee, appointed by Principal MacKenzie, of the Detroit Central High School, president of the secondary department of the National Education Association, was as follows: James Fleming Hosic, Chicago Teachers’ College, chairman; Henry B. Dewey, State Department of Education, Olympia, Wash.; Rueben Post Halleck, Male High School, Louisville, Ky. ; Benjamin A. Pleydrick, High School of Commerce, New York City ; Cornelia Steketee Hulst, Cen¬ tral High School, Grand Rapids, Mich. ; Fannie W. McLean, Berke¬ ley High School, Berkeley, Cal. ; Edwin L. Miller, Central High School, Detroit, Mich. ; Charles Swain Thomas, Newton High School, Newton ville, Mass. It is significant (1) that the committee repre¬ sented every part of the country in proportion to the high-school 1 See Carpenter, G. R., Baker, F. T., and Scott, F. N. The Teaching of English, pp. 287-289. 2 See the bibliography in the English Journal for February, 1912, pp. 118-121. 75080° — 17 - 2 17 18 ENGLISH IN SECONDARY SCHOOLS. population, and (2) that all the members were concerned with public education. This is in striking contrast to all committees that had previously made reports on the subject of high-school English. The committee was organized in October, 1910, and at once under¬ took to collect information concerning the influence of the uniform requirements in English and the entrance examinations set upon them by the colleges. Early in 1911 over 8,000 copies of the follow¬ ing questionnaire were sent out, and eventually about 700 replies were received : NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION. ENGLISH ROUND TABLE OF THE HIGH-SCHOOL SECTION. To principals of high schools and teachers of English in high schools : At the meeting of the English round table of the National Education Asso¬ ciation, in Boston July 1, 1910, it was decided to appoint a committee to lay before the college-entrance examination board the views of the high-school principals and teachers of the country in regard to the present entrance require¬ ments in English and the examinations set upon them. The purpose of the committee is to learn from those best qualified to say whether the present system of entrance requirements and examinations in English fosters the best sort of English work in the high school and what changes, if any, should be urged upon the college-entrance examination board through its subcommittee on English and its board of review. The supreme consideration is to unite the teachers of the country in support of sound principles of secondary education, in order that boys and girls passing through high school may receive the kind of training in English best fitted to develop them and to prepare them for life. To accomplish this purpose it is necessary to enlist the sympathetic interest of supervisors, parents, and college examiners and instructors, as well as high- school teachers. It is proposed, therefore, that every association of teachers or parents in the country likely to be able to assist in reaching a consensus and decision on the questions at issue be asked to appoint a cooperating committee, to gather evidence, direct discussion, and report conclusions to the committee of the round table, which shall compile and edit a final report. This central committee will report progress at the next annual meeting of the National Education Association and hopes to complete the work within the following year. The central committee, in order to get this work under way in a definite fashion, makes the following suggestions r TO COOPERATING COMMITTEES. Each cooperating committee should secure, as soon as possible, the judgment of its constituency upon the main question : Do the college-entrance requirements in English, as at present administered, foster the best kind of English work in the high schools? If not, what changes should be made? The results of corre¬ spondence, discussion, and conference should be formulated and placed in the hands of the central committee, together with a digest of the evidence upon which each conclusion is based. MOVEMENT FOR REORGANIZATION. 19 The following questions, particularly those under 1, 2, and 3, should be care¬ fully considered : 1. The Influence of the Uniform College-Entrance Requirements in English upon the High School. ( a ) What is the influence of these requirements upon the high-school course in English? In what field is the influence most felt? (&) What is the influence of these requirements upon methods of teaching English in the high school? (c) What is the influence of these requirements upon the pupil’s attitude toward his English work? (d) What changes, if any, would you make (1) in the high-school course in English and (2) in methods of teaching English in the high schools if the problem of preparation for college were eliminated? (e) Do you offer the same courses to your college and your noncollege group ? Why or why not ? (/) Are certain high schools affected in special ways by the entrance re¬ quirements or examinations of particular colleges? If so, specify. 2. The High-School Course in English. (a) Is the following statement of aims of the high-school course in English satisfactory? If not, how should it be modified? “ The aim of the high-school course in grammar and composition is to de¬ velop the power of the pupil to express the ideas that come to him from the whole range of his experience. The aim of the high-school course in literature is to develop in the pupil (1) a liking for good reading and (2) the power to understand and appreciate it.” (&) What principles should be followed (1) in the selection of reading for the high-school course in literature and (2) in distributing the reading through¬ out the course? Should the list be (1) prescribed, (2) advisory, or (3) open? Do the uniform requirements include too many books? Too few? Sufficient variety of type? Should the distinction between reading and study be dropped? What provision should be made for the study of the history of literature? 3. Entrance to College. (a) Would the following specifications provide a suitable test of efficiency in English upon graduation from high school and entrance to college? (1) A test of the pupil’s power of written expression by one or more com¬ positions on subjects suggested by the personal experience or the general in¬ formation of the candidate. (2) A test of the range and quality of the reading of the pupil and of his power of literary appreciation by means of : (a) The answering of a number of simple, suggestive questions on standard texts not previously prescribed. (b) The explanation of two out of three or four passages of prose of poetry of ordinary difficulty, selected from books not previously prescribed. (3) A test of the candidate’s power of oral expression by reading aloud and by conversing. (&) Should a high-school diploma be given to a pupil whose deficiencies in English are such as to prevent his being recommended for admission to college? 20 ENGLISH IN SECONDARY SCHOOLS. (c) Which is preferable, certification or uniform examination for entrance to college? Why? Is there a third method, better than either? ( d ) How should the National Conference on College Entrance Requirements and Examinations be constituted? 4. References. What books or articles may be cited as expressing sound views (a) of the present situation with regard to high-school English? (5) Of the high-school course in English and of methods of teaching English in the high school? (Give full library reference in each case.) 5. Additional Questions. What additional matter or matters do you wish to lay before the various co¬ operating committees throughout the country? James Fleming Hosic, Chairman, Committee of the Round Table. Chicago Teachers College, April 25, 1911. As it was not possible, because of the wide separation of the mem¬ bers of the committee, to compile a report for presentation to the English round table at San Francisco in July, 1911, the chairman of the committee offered a statement of the “ Questions at issue,” 1 which was discussed by the members of the round table and unani¬ mously approved as setting forth the views of the 300 teachers present from all parts of the United States. In this statement the appointment of the committee and its purposes and plans were set forth, and there followed an analysis of the problem of articula¬ tion of school and college and of various suggestions as to its solu¬ tion. It was pointed out that the growth of public high schools had led to a clash between the purpose of educating the children of the many for life and life’s occupations and the preparation of the few for entrance to the privately endowed colleges, with their tra¬ ditional courses for general culture. The definite entrance require¬ ments of the colleges and the examinations based upon them were felt by many to be hindering the high schools from adapting their courses to the needs of their own communities and were tending to highly formal and profitless methods of instruction. The accredit¬ ing system of the State universities was described and was declared to have its drawbacks. The higher institutions inevitably tended to influence the high-school courses to their own ends. The University of Chicago and Harvard University, it was pointed out, had just announced new and apparently liberal systems of entrance and doubtless an adjustment was possible. This could come, however, only when high-school officers and teachers set to work in earnest to solve their own problems. They must work out both courses and methods really adapted to pupils of high-school age. 1 Proceedings of the National Education Association for 1911, p. 592. MOVEMENT EOR REORGANIZATION. 21 The final report of the committee was printed in the English Journal for February, 1912.1 It showed that the lists of books published from time to time by the national conference and the examinations set upon them by the colleges were practically deter¬ mining the high-school course in English and the methods of teach¬ ing it throughout the country. Of course, the influence was more apparent in the immediate vicinity of the examining colleges, but it was felt everywhere. The tendency was to emphasize literary com¬ position and composition based upon literature and to> teach litera¬ ture itself as fact and language rather than as humanistic and as art. Moreover, there was widespread dissatisfaction with many of the books selected by the conference, which consistently held to the principle that high-school reading should be directed to master¬ pieces significant in the development of English literature and which refused to include any but books out of copyright. Not less impor¬ tant was the failure to recognize the value and encourage the practice of oral expression both in composition and in literature. The English course as a whole tended to formality, scholasticism, and over¬ maturity, and needed to be vitalized, redirected, and definitely related to the life of the present. Some of these views had previously found expression in a series of resolutions adopted by the New York State Association of Teachers of English in 1908, and they were embodied in an open letter pub¬ lished by that association on October 1, 1911. These resolutions declared that the requirement for graduation from high school and for entrance to college should consist of the following tests : 1. A test of the pupil’s power of written expression by one or more compo¬ sitions on subjects suggested by the personal experience or the general infor¬ mation of the candidate. 2. A test of the range and quality of the reading of the pupil and of his power of literary appreciation by means of : (a) The answering of a number of simple and suggestive questions on stand¬ ard texts not previously prescribed. (&) The explanation of two out of three or four passages of prose or poetry of ordinary difficulty, selected from books not to be previously prescribed. 8. A test of the candidate’s power of oral expression by reading aloud and conversing. The open letter recited a series of objections to the current require¬ ments, stated what the aims of high-school English work should be, and proposed a set of requirements, including the suggestion of an open list of recommended books, a choice of composition subjects drawn from a wide range of interests, demands in punctuation and other features of technique in keeping with the immaturity of the 1 See also Proceedings of the National Education Association for 1912, p. 707 and p. 761. 22 ENGLISH IN SECONDARY SCHOOLS. pupils, and the testing of the power to read aloud and to speak from the floor. This open letter was offered to the National Council of Teachers of English in Chicago, December 1, 1911, by two delegates from the New York State and city associations but it failed of approval, not because the kind of work suggested was objected to but because the letter assumed that the examination system for entrance to col¬ lege was to continue. The council was composed of delegates from 20 States and was therefore dominated by those who refused to sub¬ scribe to the examination system in vogue in only a comparatively small section of the country. In short, the council took the stand that the high schools are not mainly preparatory schools and hence must not be made to conform to a system applicable mainly to private secondary schools fitting for college. 1 The National Council of Teachers of English, soon after its or¬ ganization, created a committee on high-school English, whose mis¬ sion was to collect information as to the kinds of English work actu¬ ally being done in the secondary schools of America. This commit¬ tee prepared a questionnaire, addressed to principals of high schools, covering every phase of high-school English, and distributed copies of this through its representatives in the various sections of the country. Between three and four hundred answers, many of which were accompanied by printed or typewritten courses of study, copies of school papers, and special circulars or other information, were received. A summary of these answers appeared in the English Journal for November, 1913, under the title “Types of organization of high-school English.” The most striking fact disclosed was that there were no distinct types. Instead there was surprising uni¬ formity, though with notable exceptions and with a marked tendency to experimentation and to emphasis on new activities, especially in the Middle West. The prevailing mode was to distribute the college- entrance books through the four years, with no general agreement as to the locus of any,2 and to carry on written composition in close connection with the study of these books, giving a single credit for all kinds of English work at the close of each term. A comparative table showed that while 181 books, collections, and individual pieces were named as being used for class study in the schools, a dozen or so were almost universal — no doubt because of their prominence in the college requirements. The most important facts emphasized by this report seemed to be that the high-school course was organized, so far as it could be said 1 Proceedings of the First Annual Meeting of the National Council of Teachers of English. English Journal. 1 : 1, January, 1912, p. 37. 2 Except those prescribed for “careful study” by the National Conference on Uniform Entrance Requirements in English. These, of course, were generally placed in the fourth year. MOVEMENT FOR REORGANIZATION. 23 to be organized at all, on a formal basis. The favorite plan was to read the books in chronological order and to write themes to illus¬ trate the “ forms of discourse.” The question of motive, of actual use and reality, was for the most part not suggested. There was much complaint of the excessive number of pupils assigned to the teacher, of the lack of opportunity for conference with individuals, and of the fact that local conditions must be ignored because of the influence of the college requirements. The suggestions for improvement covered the difficulties just men¬ tioned and added that there were too few well-trained teachers ; that there was a lack of cooperation on the part of teachers of other sub¬ jects; that standards of attainment were too vague in the different years of the course; that the practical aspects of composition were neglected for the sake of reading and of composition based upon reading, and that the course in literature should therefore be sepa¬ rated from the course in composition ; that more stress should be laid upon debating and other forms of oral expression ; that better library facilities were badly needed ; that more use should be made of current books and periodicals; that a good list of home reading should be provided; and that grammatical nomenclature should be made uni¬ form. Many of the answers were vigorous and constructive ; by put¬ ting together the suggestions from all quarters it was evidently pos¬ sible to construct a new and sound high-school policy, with an eye first of all to the more perfect training and development of boys and girls, and with regard primarily to their present interests, powers, and capacities, and only secondarily to their occupation upon finish¬ ing school. Meanwhile the committee on the articulation of high school and college, which had reported to the secondary department of the National Education Association in July, 1911, a new plan for the organization of high-school courses and for crediting them in college, had become the commission on the reorganization of secondary edu¬ cation, and the National Education Association authorized the ap¬ pointment of committees to work under the direction of this com¬ mission upon the various high-school studies, the object of reference being not preparation for college but the life purpose of the pupils. The committee on college-entrance requirements in English was asked to undertake the preparation of a report on that subject, and, after being somewhat changed and enlarged, was united with the com¬ mittee on types of organization of high-school English of the Na¬ tional Council of Teachers of English so as to constitute the national joint committee of thirty, as given on page 8 of this bulletin. The first meeting of the committee was held in Chicago in Novem¬ ber, 1912, at which the general purposes and plans of the committee were informally discussed. A second meeting of a similar character 24 ENGLISH IN SECONDARY SCHOOLS. occurred in Philadelphia in February of the following year, and it was decided that a preliminary report, setting forth the purpose of the committee, the aims of high-school English work, and the prob¬ lems which must be worked out should be submitted at the conven¬ tion of the National Education Association in Salt Lake City in July of that same year. This report wTas printed in advance and was dis¬ cussed at a meeting of the English round table held for the purpose. It was afterwards included in a bulletin on the Reorganization of Sec¬ ondary Education, edited by Clarence D. Kingsley, chairman of the Commission on the Reorganization of Secondary Education, and issued by the United States Bureau of Education,1 and was widely and favorably noticed in the public press. It was also presented be¬ fore the high-school and college sections of the National Council of Teachers of English in November, 1913, and was discussed at a large number of educational gatherings in all parts of the country during that school year. The committee was now organized into subdivisions for the pur¬ pose of working out the details of various portions of the report, and a second preliminary formulation was offered at a hearing of the commission at the annual meeting of the National Education Asso¬ ciation at St. Paul in July, 1914. This included a definite statement of the good which it was hoped the report would accomplish and also tentative outlines of (1) attainment at the end of the sixth school year, (2) projects in oral expression, (3) projects in composition for the seventh, eighth, and ninth grades, (4) projects in composition for the tenth, eleventh, and twelfth grades, and (5) lists of reading for the seventh, eighth, and ninth grades based upon definite principles of choice. The work of compilation proceeded by correspondence, and another meeting of the general committee was held in November, 1914, at which the contents of the report were decided upon and all the larger questions involved carefully gone over. The results of this meeting were summarized at a special hearing of the commission in connec¬ tion with the department of superintendence of the National Educa¬ tion Association at Cincinnati, in February, 1915, and were enthusi¬ astically received by an audience of several hundred representative supervisors, principals, teachers, and professors of education from all parts of the United States. There seemed to be not the slightest doubt that the point of view adopted by the committee was that held by almost all who were conversant with the educational situation as pertaining to high schools and high-school English. A final meeting of the general committee was held in Chicago in November, 1915, at which decisions were reached upon all important questions remain¬ ing unsettled and the editing of the report placed in the hands of the Bulletin, 1913, No. 41. MOVEMENT' EOR REORGANIZATION. 25 chairman of the committee, with the understanding that each subcom¬ mittee should be held responsible for its particular portion of the work. The subcommittees, with their assignments, were as follows: (1) Composition in the seventh, eighth, and ninth grades, Mr. Evans, chairman ; Mr. Heydrick, secretary ; Miss Porter, Mr. Hunting, Miss Fontaine, Mr. Hitchcock; (2) Composition in the tenth, eleventh, and twelfth grades, Miss McKitrick, chairman ; Mr. McComb, secre¬ tary; Miss Barbour, Mr. Miller, Mr. Shurter; (3) Literature in the seventh, eighth, and ninth grades, Mr. Congdon, chairman; Mrs. Hulst, secretary; Mr. Gaw, Miss Courtenay, Mr. Lowe; (4) Litera¬ ture in the tenth, eleventh, and twelfth grades, Miss Breck, chair¬ man ; Mr. Thomas, Mr. Lewis, Mr. Certain, Mr. Smith, Mr. Abbott; (5) Oral expression, Mr. Smith, chairman; Miss Courtenay, secretary; Mr. Shurter, Mr. Heydrick; (6) Business English, Mr. Hatfield, chairman; Mr. Heydrick, Mr. McComb; (7) Attainment at the end of the sixth grade, Mr. Peed, chairman; Miss Fontaine, sec¬ retary; Mr. Lowe, Mr. Hosic; (8) Libraries and equipment, Miss Hall, chairman; Miss Hill, Miss Wood, Miss McKitrick, Mr; Miller. III. THE POINT OF VIEW OF THE COMMITTEE. The newer conception of the high school, which the committee on English has borne steadily in mind, is as follows : 1. The college preparatory function of the high school is a minor one. Most of the graduates of the high school go, not into a higher institution, but into “life.5’ Hence the course in English should be organized with reference to basic personal and social needs rather than with reference to college-entrance requirements. The school, moreover, will best prepare for either “ life ” or college by making its own life real and complete. 2. The chief problem of articulation is not how to connect the high school and the college but how to connect the high school with the elementary school. This can best be solved by regarding the seventh, eighth, and ninth grades as constituting the first stage of the high school. This new unit should be reorganized so as to gain in efficiency and save time by providing for individual and group interests and for instruction suited to adolescent and overage pupils. 3. The enormous increase of attendance on the high school has produced a situation requiring new treatment. The tendency is to make the high school truly democratic ; that is, a school for the chil¬ dren of all the people. Consequently a varying social background must be assumed and a considerable range of subject matter pro¬ vided. 4. This is not incompatible with the desire to preserve a reason¬ able uniformity of aims and a body of common culture. Skill in thinking, high ideals, right habits of conduct, healthy interests, and sensitiveness to the beautiful are attainments to be coveted for all. Much of the writing of both the present and the past is, more¬ over, so universal in its human appeal as to awaken a sympathetic response in all men everywhere. The essential thing is to make sure that each pupil is permitted to enjoy and profit by the typical ex¬ periences that the English course is peculiarly fitted to provide. 5. It is a mistake to regard English as merely a formal subject. The implication of such a view is that skill in the use and inter¬ pretation of symbols is the sole end sought and that this may be attained by drills upon technique quite apart from an interesting or valuable content. Only the specialist in language can be induced to concentrate his attention upon the forms' of speech and writing 26 POINT OF VIEW OF COMMITTEE. 27 as objects of interest in themselves. The attempt to induce chil¬ dren to do so, except during the early period when language forms are novel, invariably results in stultifying indifference, mere mem¬ ory of words without real significance, and an utter failure td establish right habits of speech or of interpretation. The content of both literature and composition is, first of all, the body of fact, interpretation, and imaginative conception to be expressed, and sec¬ ond, that small body of principles of technique the consciousness of which actually enables children and young people to improve their use of the vernacular. 6. Nor is English a subject that can be finished by dint of intense application on essentials in the early years of the high school, to be relegated thereafter to the place of an optional study. While it may be freely granted that great improvement in English instruc¬ tion is possible, it must nevertheless be affirmed that the relation of language to the expanding life is so close and intimate that to drop the systematic practice of speaking, writing, and reading at any point in the school program would be like ceasing to exercise or to take food. English is unique in its relation to mental develop¬ ment and to the constant enlivening and reorganization of the pupiPs whole life experience on ever-higher planes, with ever- widening horizon. Only so much of technique should be taught at any one time as pupils can actually use or profit by. 7. English must be regarded as social in content and social in method of acquirement. The chief function of language is com¬ munication. Hence the activities of the English classroom must pro¬ vide for actual communication. The pupil must speak or write to or for somebody, with a conciously conceived purpose to inform, con¬ vince, inspire, or entertain. He must read with the confident expecta¬ tion of being himself informed, persuaded, inspired, or entertained. With this view the course should be made up of expressional and interpretative experiences of the greatest possible social value to the given class, and it should be so administered as to appeal to the members of the class by reason of its social quality and social value. No one has more need to be a close student of contemporary social activities, social movements, and social needs than the teacher of English. In terms of these the artistic monuments of the past must in the end find their interpretation and their relation to the pupiPs own life, and in terms of these, also, modern books and periodicals will find value and significance. 8. English as a training for efficiency should be distinguished from English as a training for the wholesome enjoyment of leisure. Much ill placing of emphasis and confusion of values have resulted from the failure on the part of course makers and teachers to realize this distinction. The careful and methodical arrangement of words 28 ENGLISH IN SECONDARY SCHOOLS. and sentences with the aim of entire clearness and accuracy, as in a guide book, is an undertaking decidedly different from the writ¬ ing of a travel sketch by a man of genius. The two are unlike in purpose and unlike in method. The former almost anyone can learn to accomplish. The latter is possible only to the few, though the attempt to accomplish it has a certain value in developing ap¬ preciation on the part of all. The English course should be so ar¬ ranged as to couple speaking and writing for practical purposes with reading of the same character, and speaking and writing for pleasure and inspiration with the study of the novelists, the play¬ wrights, and the poets. 9. Such a form of organization will make possible that coopera¬ tion of all teachers in establishing good habits of thought and of expression without which they are rarely attained. The teacher of history may reasonably be excused from giving more than sym¬ pathetic support to the teacher of poetry, but he can not be ex¬ cused from demanding of his pupils such observance of good usage, such thinking out of intellectual problems, such organizing of bodies of ideas, and such clothing of those ideas in appropriate language as the instruction of the English teacher has made possible. What the pupil learns in English he must be required to use in his other classes. 10. The value of extra classroom activities should be realized. The modern recitation, it is true, is not a stilted, formal affair, but nevertheless it can not well provide the entire range of social situa¬ tions in which language functions; the students’ club is more nearly the counterpart of the town meeting or the literary society. Par¬ ticularly does the play before another class or before the school afford opportunity for exploiting powers not fully called into ac¬ tivity in the class. 11. Finally, the success of the English work is conditioned by certain material and personal factors, the most important of which are the number and size of classes, the library and other equipment, and the preparation of the teacher. Composition is personal as well as social. Each individual must have opportunity for practice under sympathetic guidance and criticism. Mere learning of rules never made a speaker or a writer. Even the reader of literature loses much when he is given no opportunity to compare his impressions with others or to interpret them by reading aloud. No subject is more truly a “ shop or laboratory subject” than English. Hence the number of pupils assigned to each teacher of English must be reason¬ ably limited. 12. The same principle holds true of the equipment. Textbooks alone do not provide that generous companionship with writers necessary to the making cf readers and writers. High-school classes POINT OF VIEW OF COMMITTEE. 29 in English need a library and a good reading room, with a generous collection of books adapted to the needs of the pupils and with a trained teacher-librarian in charge. They need also the stereopticon, the duplicator, the filing cabinet, and the picture collection. 13. The supreme essential to success in high-school English is the trained teacher — the teacher trained by the study of his subject, trained by the study of educational principles and methods, and trained by practical experience. The novice and the itinerant — often one and the same — are the chief stumbling block to progress in English as in other fields. They must give way to the professional imbued with the sympathetic spirit. Such a person will have ra¬ tional standards, mature judgment, and definite methods of measur¬ ing results. IV. THE AIMS OF THE ENGLISH COURSE. The committee believes that a single statement of aims will prove serviceable as a guide to the English work of all schools. There should be, however, no expectation of uniformity in results, such as is implied, for example, in uniform examinations or the prescription of certain books to be read in certain grades in all schools. A course in English should make very clear to all concerned what ends are sought, the character of the activities necessary to reach those ends, and the standards and measures by which progress may be ascer¬ tained ; but it should at the same time provide for choice and adapta¬ tion of material to meet special group and community interests and needs and to fit individual capacities for expression and enjoyment. Stated broadly, it should be the purpose of every English teacher, first, to quicken the spirit and kindle the imagination of his pupils, open up to them the potential significance and beauty of life, and develop habits of weighing and judging human conduct and of turn¬ ing to books1 for entertainment, instruction, and inspiration as the hours of leisure may permit; second, to supply the pupils with an effective tool of thought and of expression for use in their public and private life, i. y teacher and completed by pupils. ATTAINMENT : Reading that can be distinctly understood by the class with books closed. Oral composition with a fair degree of fluency and coherence. Note. — For materials for reading aloud, classics for dramatization, and the drama, see the report on literature for this grade. GRADE VIII. ACTIVITIES : 1. Vocalization, same as in seventh grade, extending the practice to all combinations of consonant and vowel sounds, and extending the range of pitch to one octave. 2. Articulation, practice same as in seventh grade. 3. Speech defects studied as in the seventh grade. 4. Oral reading continued, with emphasis laid on smoothness and flow of sentences. 5. Memorized selections recited before the class. These may be either prose or poetry. Attention should be given to avoiding a singing effect. 6. Posture corrected to secure erectness and graceful pose. 7. Oral composition, as in the seventh year. Stories told by teacher, based on models. Emphasis laid on variety of sentence length, form, and structure. ATTAINMENT : Reading to which the class listens with pleasure with books closed. Note. — For materials for reading aloud, classics for dramatization, and the drama, see the report on literature for this grade. GRADE IX. ACTIVITIES : 1. Vocalization, same as in eighth grade. 2. Pronunciation of words containing commonly misused sounds, as — (a) oi sounds; e. g., oil, voice, etc. ( & ) aw sounds ; e. g., saw, draw, etc. (c) ing endings. (d) other sounds misused in the locality. 3. Enunciation of words that are commonly slurred, as in “ had to ” and in “ would have,” etc. COMMITTEE ON ORAL EXPRESSION. 91 ACTIVITIES— Continued. 4. Posture. Instruction and practice in poise and simple movements for expression. 5. Memorized selections, prose or poetry, delivered before tbe school or class, stress on phrasing, emphasis, and some dramatic effectiveness. 6. Oral composition. ( a ) Exposition on current events; clearness empha¬ sized. (&) Reproduction of (1) scenes from books read, (2) myths, Bible stories, fables, etc., emphasis laid on coherence. 7. Oral reading, {a) Poetry, with proper phrasing and emphasis to avoid singing effect. (&) Prose, conversations wTith some dramatic effect, ATTAINMENT : Intelligent interpretative reading and recital of simple prose and poetry. Voice pleasing. Utterance distinct and reasonably accurate. The habit of answering in complete sentences in all recitations. Note. — For materials for reading aloud, classics for dramatization and the drama, see the report on literature for this grade. GRADE X. ACTIVITIES : 1. Corrector of speech defects. Rapid utterance, incorrect movement of tongue, rigid lips, slight movement of lower jaw, etc. Exercises for private practice to overcome defects. 2. Phonetics. A study of the vowel and consonant sounds of the English language, and practice in producing these sounds separately and in combination. Particular attention to pupils who lisp or have a foreign accent. 3. Pronunciation. Instruction in syllabification, and accent. Classification of common errors. Drill in difficult vowels and words commonly mis¬ pronounced. 4. Training the ear. By calling attention to pleasant and unpleasant ef¬ fects in connection with work in phonetics, pronunciation, voice culture, oral reading, and speaking. 5. Cultivation of the voice. Continued exercises for resonance and range of voice. This can be carried on in connection with work in phonetics, reading, and oral composition. 6. Oral reading. Relating utterance to thought through grouping, inflec¬ tion, pauses, and emphasis. Portions of the prose and poetry used iu literature study of the class are available. 7. Posture and action. Instruction and practice in posture and action in connection with delivery of selections and dramatization. 8. Delivery of memorized selections. Practice in conveying an author’s thought to an audience, securing and holding the attention of an audience. Attention should be given to rate of utterance, force, pitch, and quality of voice. 9. Dramatization. Analysis of character, relation of one character to an¬ other, interpretation of character, stage business, dramatization of scenes from Silas Marner, Browning’s poems, Shakespeare’s plays, or other literature that is studied by the class. 10. Oral composition. Well pronounced sentences should be required for all oral recitations. Class conversations, stories, experiences, reports, extemporaneous speeches, on subjects drawn from the literature study, correlated studies, school affairs, current events. Emphasis should be laid upon complete paragraphs and a coherent arrangement. 92 ENGLISH IN SECONDARY SCHOOLS. ATTAINMENT : The ability to talk coherently in conversation, recitation, and speech. The ability to render simple selections distinctly, interestingly, and with simple, natural interpretative action. Note. — For materials for reading aloud, classics for dramatization, and the drama, see the report on literature for this grade. ACTIVITIES : GRADE XI. 1. Exercises in phonetics, pronunciation, correction of speech defects, cultivation of voice, and ear training to be continued from the tenth grade. 2. Oral reading and delivery of memorized selections. Selections to be studied for the appropriate interpretation of the various literary types ; the lyric, the dramatic monologue, the essay, etc. The literature studied in this grade will be found available for exercises. 3. Physical response or action. Instruction in appropriate bodily response to thought, gesture. Kinds of gestures, their use and abuse. Exercises for spontaneous response. 4. Dramatization. The simple dramatization of scenes from the literature studied in this grade. The study of Shakespearean dramas and the presentation of important scenes by the members of the class. The study of the contemporary drama, with discussions. The presentation by a selected cast of classical and popular dramas. 5. Oral composition. Extemporaneous speaking on topics assigned in ad¬ vance and impromptu speaking on questions of school and local in¬ terest. Instruction in speech organization. Debate. Instruction as to ( a ) Statement of question. (&) Definition of terms, (c) Distinction between assertion and proof. ( d ) The nature of evidence, debating between members of the class, divided into teams, on questions of local interest and simple questions of State or national interest. 6. Public speaking. While the class will furnish the audience for much of the speaking practice, public occasions should be arranged for, where those preparing themselves for work that calls for public speech will have opportunity, after careful preparation, of speaking in public. 7. Vocabulary. Emphasis should be laid upon the importance of extending the vocabulary by looking up words not well understood, by keeping a notebook for desirable words, and by the study of synonyms, antonyms, and idioms. ATTAINMENT : The ability to interpret simple specimens of the different literary types. For those planning to become public speakers, the ability to address effectively a class, club, or other group, on simple topics. Note. — For materials for reading aloud, classics for dramatization, and the drama see the report on literature for this grade. GRADE XII. ACTIVITIES : 1. Exercises in phonetics, pronunciation, correction of speech defects, voice and ear training should be continued for pupils who have special need of it. 2. Physical response to thought and feeling studied in professional speakers and actors. Habits of gesture and facial expression that are in force. Thought should be developed. COMMITTEE ON DEAL EXPRESSION. 93 ACTIVITIES— Continued. 3. Oral reading and delivering memorized selections. — Aside from the liter¬ ature prescribed for this grade, the great orations and poems furnish material for interpretation. 4. Dramatization. — The reading and discussion of some of the best of the contemporary dramas, with a view to presentation of one or more of these by a selected cast. 5. Oral composition. — Debating continued, as in the eleventh grade, with the emphasis upon a logical development of the thought, the presen¬ tation of satisfactory evidence, and interesting delivery. Planning speeches for particular occasions ; e. g., social occasions, introduction of speakers, after-dinner talks, gift presentations ; business occasions, explaining a business proposition, soliciting cooperation, a lawyer’s plea, etc. 6. Ovations. — The memorizing and delivery of carefully prepared composi¬ tions on important themes from political or industrial life, or from literature. Instruction in choosing subjects and illustrations within the experience of the audience. Consideration of the elements of in¬ terest and how to avoid digression and tediousness. Relation between speaker and audience. 7. Vocabulary. — Continued emphasis upon the necessity of acquiring an ample vocabulary. 8. Parliamentary practice. — Instruction and practice in parliamentary pro¬ cedure. ATTAINMENT : The ability to address an audience effectively and to make a graceful speech for school occasions. The ability to preside satisfactorily at meetings of a class or club. Note. — For materials for reading aloud, classics for dramatization, and the drama, see the report on literature for this grade. XL REPORT OF THE COMMITTEE ON BUSINESS ENGLISH, The movement for business English is too important and wide¬ spread to be overlooked. At the same time, the subject is so new, practice is so diverse, and opinions concerning the matter are so confused, that the time has not yet come for a definite formulation of a course in business English. This report will therefore be con¬ fined chiefly to a statement of the principles that should govern the construction of such courses in individual schools. At present the amount of time devoted to business English varies greatly. One extreme is represented by those schools in which the pupils in commercial curriculums receive exactly the same training in English as the other pupils. The principals and teachers in these schools say that “English is English” and that by teaching their boys and girls to read and write and speak they are preparing them for business life. On the other hand, very few high schools devote more than two years to business English, and but few of their syllabi show any profound influence of the vocational point of view. The general practice in schools that make this differentiation seems to be to give one or two years, usually toward the close of the high- school period, to commercial correspondence. Occasionally this appears as an elective in addition to the regular English courses. This variation in the time allotted to business English arises from different conceptions of the purpose of such a course. Only two such conceptions seem to the commitee to be tenable ; namely, ( 1 ) that this course is a part of the general preparation that all pupils should receive, and (2) that it should be a direct preparation for specific vocations. This report will adopt the second point of view and treat business English as part of the training for commercial occu¬ pations. Far from minimizing the importance of the other point of view, the committee approves the incorporation of business English in the work of other curriculums, but it thinks that the conduct of such instruction is satisfactorily covered by the principles enunciated in the reports of the other subcommittees. The vocational phases of vocational curricula have two chief aims: (1) The direct preparation for specific vocational activities and (2) the development of general intelligence and adaptability to changing conditions in the business or industrial world. In choos¬ ing the content of instruction in composition and literature for busi¬ ness English classes these aims must be kept constantly in mind. The 94 COMMITTEE ON BUSINESS ENGLISH. 95 fact that this course is to be a direct preparation for specific voca¬ tions should determine the degree of emphasis upon certain details, even upon certain forms; and the degree of adaptability necessary, because of ever-present rapid change in the commercial and in¬ dustrial conditions of modern life, requires the avoidance of over¬ specialization and formalism. A corollary of the vocational point of view is that a vocational curriculum should contain, among other things, work dealing di¬ rectly with the future vocation, and other studies taught with con¬ stant reference to that vocation, from which they will derive their meaning and motive. For business English, then, even more than for the other English classes, choice and emphasis of subject matter must be fitted to the particular class. The teacher must keep in close touch with commercial life and with the present activities and future plans of the pupils. If it is possible to separate bookkeepers, salesmen, and stenographers, adjustment to actual needs may be made much closer than it could otherwise be. Oral composition should have as large a share of the time here as in any English class. It is only the stenographer for whom business is chiefly a matter of writing, and the language sense that stenography requires may be very successfully cultivated through oral exercises. Oral composition may be made also to contribute very large to the development of personality, which is the chief key to larger success in both commerce and the professions. Even such elements of per¬ sonality as the voice may be cultivated here with immense profit, both vocational and social. Commercial subject matter for oral composition is plentiful. Sales talks, reports upon commercial activities, debates, free con¬ versation upon business situations and ethics wfill be interesting to the pupils, and are certainly as good material for training in the efficient use of the mother tongue as can be found. The chief objection urged against oral composition is that it is likely to degenerate into a “ talkf est ” in which principles are for¬ gotten and the pupils gain nothing. Probably there is no subject so well fitted as business topics to compel attention to the principles of effective speech. Moreover, for many who take this course free conversation in an atmosphere that makes all eager to appear at their best, and therefore careful of their language, is highly profit¬ able even when it is not accompanied by direct teaching. Written composition. — In written composition the business letter will naturally receive much emphasis. Care should be taken not to emphasize form more than content. By refusing to consider any business letter that is incorrect in any detail of the accepted form the teacher will be free to devote his attention to the thought and its clear expression. Assignments should be of the nature of prob- 96 ENGLISH IN SECONDARY SCHOOLS. lems presenting the elements of actual business situations that boys and girls can understand and calling for the exercise of tact and judgment. Commercial correspondence is one of the most important phases of instruction in composition, and yet it is one that most teachers of English dislike and in which frequently the poorest results are ob¬ tained. The great danger is the stereotyped formalism to which the customary emphasis of the types of letters is so likely to lead. Here, as elsewhere, to ask children to follow a ready-made rule or blindly to use a mature model is to court disaster. Let the problem be within the real comprehension of the pupils; let the solution be sought through common sense and the principles of composition worked out by the class, and there will be no complaints of ennui on account of the monotonjr of the work. The class may be divided into groups and actual correspondence set up, the writers really trying to get the readers to take definite action, just as they would in business. By means of carbons each may send out half a dozen letters. His rivals for business may do the same. Thus each mem¬ ber of the class will in his incoming mail have several appeals, from among which he must choose. Thus a genuine test of the selection of material, clearness, and force is furnished by the success of one plea where another failed. In such competition pupils will welcome all aids to expression. Besides business letters, the written composition may include reports on commercial and industrial subjects, writing of advertise¬ ments with the emphasis on the English rather than on the display form, and composition of the newspaper or prospectus type. The essay, for which few have much use in later life, has little place in the commercial curriculum. In the English classes for two-year vocational pupils, especially in those for stenographers, form must be emphasized and most of the time given to drill. But drill need not, must not, be a dull grind. Much that would be merely mechanical for pupils with other voca¬ tional aims may be tolerated here if handled with vigor and speed, yet the pupil’s use of the form in accomplishing some end of his own choosing is the surest means of permanent acquisition. At all events, this emphasis upon form and drill must not be so mechanical as to permit slipshod thinking or inattentiveness. The business man prefers the stenographer who misses a word occasionally to the one who writes a meaningless sentence without question. Undoubtedly grammar, spelling, and punctuation must receive a considerable amount of the attention of commercial pupils, but just what details of form should receive most emphasis can not be deter¬ mined except by reference to the actual needs of persons engaged in the occupations for which the pupils are preparing. These needs COMMITTEE ON BUSINESS ENGLISH. 97 must be determined by scientific investigation. By means of a care¬ ful study of the language errors of the children of Kansas City, Prof. Charters has mapped out a course in grammar really adapted to the elementary schools. The same sort of thing needs to be done on the high-school level and in each community, for not all com¬ munities have the same needs. Mr. Ayres, in a study of 2,000 business and social letters, found that 720 words make up probably 90 per cent of the words used in ordinary correspondence. His list is most valuable as a core for an elementary-school spelling list, but it does not meet the needs of a commercial department, for the gradu¬ ates, especially the stenographers, must be familiar with the spelling and use of 99 per cent of the words they will meet in their first year at work. Clearly further investigation is needed. These investigations are made relatively easy by the fact that actual business letters ordinarily compose most of the dictation given stenographers, and the letters written in intraclass correspondence approximate those which pass through the mails. The material is at hand, there are many models to guide; why should not every school find out what its own needs really are ? Literature . — The views of teachers with regard to the place of literature in this course are widely divergent. In many schools, even high schools of commerce, the old college entrance requirements have absorbed the majority of the total' time devoted to instruction in English. In others, the study of literature has been reduced to a matter of reading at home of sometimes as few as two or three books in a semester, with single periods for written reports. Again, the difficulty seems to be that we have not agreed upon the purpose of a vocational curriculum. To prepare directly for vocational activities, pupils ought to have literature that is in the spirit of the present, that has a commercial tang, that treats of the problems; and even of the activities and processes that they will meet after leaving school. Adaptability and general intelligence with regard to their vocations can be secured only by a habit of general reading upon special subjects, and this habit can probably be fixed best by the English department. This means a searching of current magazines, a turning over of the biog¬ raphies of successful men, the reading of books upon salesmanship and kindred topics by the teacher of English in search of general reading for his pupils. On the other hand, these pupils have the same need as those in other curriculums for standard literature. Literature, well chosen and sanely taught, may be of great assistance in building character and may provide a good antidote for the harmful pleasures that invite the weary workers in our cities. 75080°— 17 - 7 98 ENGLISH IN SECONDARY SCHOOLS. Perhaps the best compromise between these just claims is to devote most of the class study of literature to the standard works, and to select the home-reading list largely from the vocational literature. This is not to neglect the difference between general and vocational curriculums, even in the class study of the standard literature. Literature is not really assimilated by a pupil until its message comes home to him, until it has been connected with his own life. Shake¬ speare may really gain most cultural value for boys and girls through their attempt to parallel his characters and situations in modern commercial life. Not only may Julius Caesar throw light upon sales¬ manship, but salesmanship may illuminate Julius Caesar. XII. GENERAL READING. The subject of home reading has received attention in each of the subcommittee reports on literature. It seems desirable, however, to supplement these reports with a general statement, partly because of the importance of general reading and partly because it should, be thought of as connected with English composition, history, science, industrial arts, etc., as well as with literature. One of the chief marks of the educated man is his habit of wide and intelligent read¬ ing of books and magazines in which are reflected a variety of in¬ terests. It is the business of the school to educate young people in this sense. Hence definite provision should be made by all high- school faculties for proper lists, library collections, class conferences, time, and credit. Since the teacher of English is in a special sense a professor of books, he may well be expected to take the lead. Any who doubt the necessity of special attention to the general reading of their pupils should make such an investigation as was recently carried out in the junior and senior high schools of Decatur, Ill. In a report of this investigation made to the National Council of Teachers of English, at New York City, in July, 1916, Supt. Engleman gave the following facts: Eight hundred students in the senior high school and 225 in the eighth grade were questioned. One- fourth of the high-school pupils reported that they did not read the daily papers, not even during the progress of the European war. One hundred and one pupils read no magazines. The others re¬ ported a total of 178 different publications. The 25 most popular of these, with the number of readers of each, were as follows : The Youth’s Companion, read by 182 students ; The Ladies’ Home Journal, 156; Saturday Evening Post, 98; Popular Mechanics, 78; Woman’s Home Com¬ panion, 72 ; Pictorial Review, 72 ; Collier’s, 71 ; Cosmopolitan, 65 ; American Boy, 59 ; The Outlook, 59 ; Life, 47 ; McCall’s, 46 ; American Magazine, 44 ; Ladies’ World, 44; Literary Digest, 43; Delineator, 38; Woman’s World, 36; Scientific American, 31 ; Everybody’s', 30 ; Puck, 29 ; Harper’s, 28 ; Good House¬ keeping, 28 ; McClure’s, 28 ; Current Opinion, 27 ; World’s Work, 26. Three hundred and eighty-three pupils had read no books during the semester not required by the teachers. In the lists of the others ap¬ peared 418 different titles, the most popular being “ Eyes of the World,” read by 17 students. Others most popular are : Girl of the Limberlost, with 15 readers; Pollyanna, 15; Shepherd of the Hills, 14 ; Freckles, 12 ; The Virginian, 11 ; Inside of the Cup, 10 ; St. Elmo, 9 ; Crisis, 8 ; Lavender and Old Lace, 8 ; The Winning of Barbara Worth, 8 ; Little Women, 7. 99 100 ENGLISH IN SECONDARY SCHOOLS. Ben Hur, Bible, Graustark, Rosary, Their Yesterdays, each with 6. Alger Books, Call of the Wild, Laddie, Rebecca of Snnnybrook Farm, and Tom Sawyer, each with 5. Yearly 807 of the books in the list have but one reader each. Perhaps the most significant thing is the list of titles which do not appear. Dickens had but 4 voluntary readers; Hawthorne, 2; Scott, 2 ; Kipling, 1 ; Bulwer-Lytton, 1 ; Cooper, 2 ; Victor Hugo, 2 ; Barrie, 1; Milton, 1; Tennyson, 1; Kingsley, 1; and Shakespeare ( mirdbile dictu) 1 ; Stevenson, none ; George Eliot, none. From these facts Supt. Engleman concludes that so far the methods in use in the schools have not led to further reading of the works of standard authors. He would, nevertheless, continue instruction in the classics, but would attempt to connect the work with the pupils’ present day interests. The answers of the 225 eighth-grade pupils were equally interest¬ ing. About one- fourth of the whole number stated that they read no magazine. Twenty per cent preferred The Youth’s Companion. Popular Mechanics came next, with the Ladies’ Home Journal third. The Pictorial Review followed with 21 readers, Saturday Evening Post with 16, the Rational Geographic Magazine, Boys’ Life, and American Boy, each with 12, and then with slowly diminishing num¬ bers, McCall’s, Woman’s World, Collier’s, Red Book, Literary Digest, St. Nicholas, The American Magazine, Woman’s Home Companion, and the Delineator. Only 22 of the 225 pupils confessed that they did not read a daily paper regularly. Their good showing was doubtless due to the in¬ fluence of the course in current events which is a part of the eighth- grade history work in the junior high school. An inquiry asking the grade students to indicate the lines of read¬ ing they do with greatest pleasure brought the following informa¬ tion : One hundred and twenty-four like fiction ; 86, stories of inven¬ tion; 84, current events; 81, nature stories; 67, history; 32, poetry; 15, biography. The first result might well have been anticipated. The small number with a preference for biography was a surprise. Of the 32 expressing an interest in poetry, only 4 are boys. Thus, in that school at least for every 7 girls who like poetry there is but 1 boy. On the other hand, of the 86 who enjoy stories of invention there are but 14 girls and 72 boys, — five times as many boys as girls. In the light of this information, Supt. Engleman thinks it per¬ tinent to inquire whether the best results can be obtained from teach¬ ing mixed classes of boys and girls of this age when we know that for every seven girls who like poetry there will be but one boy equally pleased. If the boys were segregated and a course for them pre- GENERAL READING. 101 scribed including more literature of a practical sort — adventure, in¬ ventions, history, biography, and industry — would results be better in the end ? The Decatur schools have well-arranged home-reading lists of books, an account of which will be found in the Journal of Adminis¬ tration and Supervision for 1916. Credit is given for the read¬ ing of the books on the list, and this credit is varied with refer¬ ence to the value of the particular volume. For example, while but four points are allowed for a reading of Kennedy’s “ The Servant in the House ” or “ Zangwill’s “ The Melting Pot,” seven points are given for “Henry Esmond” or “Pride and Prejudice,” and 10 for Hugo’s “ Les Miserables.” Each student is required to earn a mini¬ mum of 10 points by outside reading each semester. The value of this plan is said to consist not merely in the fact that every student must do some independent reading of worth-while books to earn his promotion, but in the added fact that he is made familiar with a list of authors and titles which he may find the inclination to read at his leisure when his course is finished. It is becoming a somewhat common practice to invite the pupils of the high school to write out briefly their opinions of the books that they read voluntarily. Highly interesting sets of answers have been placed in the hands of the committee by Miss Minnie E. Porter, who gathered material from a group of pupils in a rural district in Kansas; by Mr. C. C. Certain, when in the Central High School of Birmingham, Ala. ; by the Department of English in the Manual Training School of Indianapolis, Ind., under the direction of Mr. E. H. K. McComb; by Mr. Max J. Herzberg, of the Central Com¬ mercial and Manual Training High School in Newark, N. J. ; by Mr. Andrew H. Krug, of the City College of Baltimore, Md. ; and by Mr. Allen Abbott, when in the Horace Mann School, Teachers Col¬ lege, Columbia University. These evaluations by pupils are highly illuminating and ‘should be secured from time to time by teachers in all schools. The comment by a girl to the effect that Poe’s “ The Gold Bug ” is a very weird story and she would advise all young people to read this book in the daytime — that it gives one a very uncomfortable feeling if read by night — undoubtedly influenced the members of her class much more than anything that could have been said by the teacher. It will be found advisable to set apart from time to time a recita¬ tion period for informal conference and discussion of the general reading of the pupils. Care should be exercised to avoid formality in these exercises. Written reproductions and reviews will be found, as a rule, ineffective. It is far better to invite free exchange of opinion and advice with the idea that each pupil is helping the 102 ENGLISH IN SECONDARY SCHOOLS. others. This will call out genuine expression and will give the class meeting a vital and really social character. Unless the pupils feel free to report what they actually like, the teacher is not in a position either to understand them or to help them. He can easily be too austere in his judgment, forgetful of the fact that he is dealing with immature persons who have not yet formed a mature taste and who must simply be led to like the best they can understand and appre¬ ciate at the stage of progress to which they have arrived.1 Certainly, every such class should from time to time compare notes as to daily and weekly newspapers and the magazines. So few modern publishers take any responsibility as to the moral influence of their periodicals that it is a most important duty of the teacher to direct the pupils, both in choosing what they are to read and in reading it with proper discrimination. This is especially true in the larger cities, which are now so often cursed with journals more or less yellow and by a bewildering variety of cheap and more or less sensational magazines.2 SOME BOOKS SUGGESTED FOR READINGS ON INDUSTRIAL SUBJECTS. I. The Woodworking Industries. II. The Metal-working Industries. III. Power (electricity, gas and gasoline, and steam). IV. Books of general industrial interest and others (not falling under the above divisions). I. THB WOODWORKING INDUSTRIES. 1. General studies of the industries. Bassett, S. W. The story of Lumber. Penn Pub. Co. ; Lathrop, Lee & Shepherd. An interesting story of logging and milling operations. Kimerly, W. L. How to Know Period Styles in Furniture. Grand Rapids Furniture Record Co. Written for laymen, is non-tecbnical, and profusely illustrated. Mills, A. E. The Story of a Thousand Year Pine. Simons, Constance. English Furniture Designers of the Eighteenth Century. Brief nontechnical discussions of such schools of furniture design as the Chip¬ pendales Brothers Adams, Meppelwhite, and Sheraton. Wheeler, F. R. The Boy with the U. S. Forester. 1 Many schools have found it advisable to put in the hands of each pupil a copy of the home-reading list prepared by a committee of the National Council of Teachers of English. This may be had in quantities at the i*ate of 60 cents a dozen, carriage pre¬ paid. Address the Secretary of the National Council. Sixth-eighth Street and Stewart Avenue, Chicago, Ill. 2 See The Undefended Gate, by Prof. F. N. Scott, in the English Journal, 3 : 1, January, 1914. GENERAL READING. 103 2. Technical. Levison, J. J. Studies of Trees. John Wiley & Sons. Written for beginners — A splendid guide to the recognition of trees and woods from the standpoint of the industrial worker. Moon, F. F., and Brown, N. C. Elements of Forestry. John Wiley & Sons. Readable and reliable. Covers growth of the tree — silvics — forest mensuration, lumbering forest products — wood technology — preservation — -forest enemies — and forest areas. Noyes, William. Wood and Forests. Manual Arts Press. A handbook of woods and forestry written .for students. Pinchot, Gifford. Primer of Forestry. Washington, Government Printing Office. Deals with the life of the tree, trees in the forest, the life of the forest, and enemies of the forest. Roth, Filbert. A First Book of Forestry. Ginn & Co. Upkeep of forests — Use of the forests — Woods and how to distinguish them — How to distinguish the common trees. 3. Fiction. Burleigh, C. B. All Among the Loggers. Lathrop, Lee & Shepherd. Grey, Zane. The Young Forester. Harper & Bro. Lawson, W. P. The Log of a Timber Cruiser. White, S. E. The River Man. Scribner. - Adventures of Bobby Orde. Scribner. - The Blazed Trail. Scribner. II. METAL-WORKING INDUSTRIES. 1. General studies of the industries. A. B. C. of Iron and Steel. Cleveland, Fenton Pub. Co. Excellent articles on mining, transportation, and reduction of iron ores; modern commercial steel production ; and the organization of steel plants. Well . adapted to high-school uses. Cook, A. O. A Day in an Iron Works. Hodder & Stoughton. (World at Work Series.) Samuel, E. I. Story of Iron. Smiles, Samuel. Industrial Biography- — Iron Workers and Tool Makers. Houghton Mifflin. An English publication which traces the early development of the iron industry. - - The Machinist. Boston, Vocational Bureau. 2. Technical. The Art of Making Tool Steel. Columbia Tool Steel Works. (Pamphlet.) Lake, E. J. Heat Treatment of Steel. McGraw Hill. 3. Fiction. Samuel, E. The Story of Gold and Silver. Weir, PI. C. Cinders — The Young Apprentice of the Steel Mills. Boston, W. A. Wilde & Co. From prospecting to the making of bullion into money. Interestingly told. 104 ENGLISH IN SECONDARY SCHOOLS. III. POWER. 1. General. Morgan, A. P. The Boy Electrician. Lathrop. Includes such subjects as microphones, wireless telephones, transformers, etc. Well illustrated. One Hundred Years of the Locomotive. (Pamphlet.) Erie, R. R. Shafer, D. C. Harper’s Beginning Electrician. Harper. Explains what is known of electricity. Gives simple experiments which any boy can do. Also a description of modern uses of electricity. Thurston. History of the Steam Engine. Appleton. 2. Technical. How to Make Thing Electrical. Modern Pub. Co. Jackson. Elementary. Electricity and Magnetism. Macmillan. Describes electric lighting, the telephone, and present-day uses of electricity. Regan, H. C. Locomotives — Simple, Compound, and Electric. Schneider, N. H. Electric Instruments and Testing. Chamberlain. - Power Plants. Chamberlain. Describes modern electric generating stations. Sloss. Book of the Automobile. Appleton. Swoope, C. W. Lessons in Practical Electricity. D. Van Nostrand Co. Timbie, W. H. The Essentials of Electricity. John Wiley & Sons. A book for beginners in practical work. Verrill, A. M. Harper’s Gasoline Engine. How the Engine is made — how to run and how to keep in order. Harper. Whitman, P. B. Motorcycle Principles and the Light Car. An elementary treatise covering principles underlying operation of motorcycle and light car. Written for beginners. 3. Fiction. Kipling, Rudyard. The Day’s Work. Moffett, Cleveland. Careers of Danger and Daring. Century Co. Short stories of the fireman and the locomotive engineer. IV. BOOKS OP GENERAL INDUSTRIAL INTEREST. 1. Industrial studies. Allen, F. J. Business Employment. (Studies by the Vocation Bureau, Bos¬ ton.) Ginn & Co. Allen, N. B. Industrial Studies. Ginn & Co. The Architect. Boston, Vocation Bureau. (Pamphlet.) Claxton, W. J. Journeys in Industrial England. Harrap-London. Cook, A. O. A Day with the Leather Workers. - A Visit to a Coal Mine. Hodder. - A Visit to a Ship Yard. Stoughton. Dyer, Walter. Early American Craftsmen. Century. Husband, Joseph. America at WTork. Harper. I. H. C. Service Bureau. Creeds of Great Business Men. International Har¬ vester Co., Chicago. - Harvest Scenes of the World. International Harvester Co., Chicago. GENERAL READING. 105 lies, George. Leading American Inventors. Henry Holt. Knox, D. C. All About Engineering. Cassell & Co. Maule, H. E. The Boys Book of New Inventions. Doubleday, Page & Co. interesting talks on recent inventions. Price, O. W. The Land We Live In. Small, Maynard. A study of industries and conservation. Proctor, H. H. The Making of Leather. Putnam Sons. Rocheleau, W. F. Great American Industries. A. Flannagan. Smith, J. R. Industrial and Commercial Geography. Henry Holt & Co. Squires, Frederick. The Hollow Tiles House. W. T. Comstock Co. Williams, H. S. Wonders of Modern Science. Funk & Wagnalls. 2. Technical. Baldwin. Steam Heating. Collins, F. A. Boys Book of Model Aeroplanes. Century Co. Davis, C. G. Motorboat Building for Boys. Harper. Duncan. The New Knowledge. A. B. Barnes & Co. Recent chemical discoveries. Hayward, Chas. B. Building and Flying an Aeroplane. American School of Correspondence. Verrill, A. M. Harper’s Gasoline Engine. Harper. 3. Fiction. Allen, F. J. Business Employments. Ginn & Co. Beach, Rex. The Iron Trail. A book on railroad building in Alaska. - The Silver Horde. - - The Spoilers. Bond, A. R. Pick, Shovel and Pluck. Scientific American Co. - With Men Who Do Things. Scientific American Co. Answers boy’s questions about the great engineering feats of the day. Connolley, J. B. Out of Gloucester. Scribner. Stories -of deep-sea fishing. - The Seiners. Scribner. Gown and Wheatley. Occupations. Ginn & Go. Harbottle, John. Finding His Stride. Appleton Co. Story of a young engineer. Kipling, Rudyard. Captains Courageous. Doubleday, Page & Co. Lorimer, G. H. Letters from a Self-made Merchant to His Son. Small, May¬ nard Co. Lynde, Francis. Scientific Sprague. Scribner. Railroad detective stories. Monroe, Kirk. Gerrick Sterling. Harper. A story of the mines. Sfiearman, F. H. Held for Orders. McClure Co. Short stories, switcher, dispatcher, master machinist. Webster, Mervin. Calumet K. Macmillan. Story of building an elevator in Chicago. Wheeler, F. R. The Boy with the U. S. Census. Lathrop, Lee & Shepherd. - The Boy with the U. S. Survey. Lathrop, Lee & Shepherd. XIII. REPORT OF THE COMMITTEE ON THE LIBRARY AND ITS EQUIPMENT. L INTRODUCTION. In preparing" this report the committee has followed the lines sug¬ gested in the “ Report on English equipment,” by Mr. Vincil Ct Coulter in the English Journal for March, 1913. Our aim has been to supplement his report with such definite recommendations as will aid high-school principals and teachers in reorganizing their school libraries so that they may prove more effective in the English work of to-day. By calling attention to the library needs of the English department and showing how these needs have actually been met in city and township high schools and in small rural high schools we have endeavored to point the way to the introduction of modern library methods that will make for efficiency in even the smaller schools. As far as possible we have kept in mind the needs of three types of schools : I. The metropolitan high school _ 800 to 3,000 pupils. II. The high school of the town or small city _ 200 to 300 pupils. III. The small rural high school _ . _ under 100 pupils. The work of certain high-school libraries in cities and towns in different sections of the country has proved beyond a doubt the value of a carefully selected school library as an aid to the teaching of English. Such a library in charge of a trained librarian can make a distinct contribution to the success of the work in oral Eng¬ lish, vocational and moral guidance through English composition, dramatics, debating, and, above all, in the study of standard and con¬ temporary literature along the lines of interpretation and apprecia¬ tion and the development of a taste for good reading. In the modern high school, where the more progressive ideals and aims obtain in English work, a school library is as essential for the English department as the science laboratory is for the department of physics, biology, or chemistry. At present much of the work that ought to be done in the school library during the school day under the personal supervision of teacher and school librarian has to be done after school in the rush hours in the public library because the average high-school library is 10 years or more behind the times, is often closed when most needed, and generally lacks proper equip¬ ment and expert supervision. Because we believe that the high-school library within the school building has great possibilities and that it can do an important work 108 COMMITTEE ON LIBRARY. 107 for the pupil which the busy public library can not do for him as he goes out to it after school, we urge united action on the part of teachers of English in behalf of better equipped, better organized, and better administered high-school libraries, with adequate floor space and regular and sufficient appropriations for books and main¬ tenance. These libraries should be open during the entire school day, and pupils with study periods should be given freedom to consult books of reference and use books and magazines in connection with their school work. In many schools the whole atmosphere of the high-school library invites them to browse among the books for pure pleasure, and this frequent dipping into the best books of all kinds is felt in their, progress in English. For this reason we urge that greater freedom be given students in the use of the school library than has been customary in the past. II. THE LIBRARIAN. A librarian with knowledge of modern library methods is essential in every high-school library, and present conditions make that pos¬ sible even in many small high schools. Books must be carefully se¬ lected, grouped according to a standard method of classification, and together with all other library material, pictures, clippings, pam¬ phlets, lantern slides, etc., must be so catalogued, indexed, or listed as to be available at short notice. Proper means of caring for pam¬ phlets and clippings will make available for English work some up-to:date material that would otherwise be lost. Whenever possible, the standard for the high-school librarian should be fully as high as that for teachers of English. There should be the same educational qualifications — college graduation, etc. — and the librarian should bring to the work the professional training guaranteed by a full course of one or two years in an ap¬ proved library school. This is the highest type of training for librarianship, and graduation from such a school usually insures breadth of culture, efficiency, and initiative gained by the compara¬ tive study of library methods in schools, colleges, and other institu¬ tions besides the public library. This comparative study and the high standard of entrance requirements for these library schools make their graduates especially fitted for the administration of high- school libraries, and distinguish the training from that given in the apprentice course, or training class, of a public library. Such public-library courses train primarily in the methods of a single library and for a lower grade of service — their entrance requirements are much lower than a regular library school. The successful liigh-school librarian must be much more than a trained cataloguer and organizer. If she is only this the school 108 ENGLISH IN SECONDARY SCHOOLS. library will be a failure. The personality of the librarian is of the utmost importance. Enthusiasm, personal magnetism, broad sym¬ pathies, power to teach and inspire are as essential in the good school librarian as in the good teacher. She must be one who understands boys and girls of high-school age — this is quite a different problem from the work in the children’s libraries. Librarians who have merely done technical work, such as cataloging, as a rule are not fitted to undertake high-school work. There must be maturity, breadth of culture, and wide interests to enable the librarian to enter intelli¬ gently into the work of all departments and cooperate with teachers of all subjects. For information as to approved library schools giviilg training in the administration of high-school libraries, also for lists of persons fitted to make successful high-school librarians, write to the chairman of this committee, Miss Mary E. Hall, Girls’ High School, Brooklyn, N. Y., who as chairman of the National Education Association com¬ mittee on high-school libraries is in touch with most of the pro¬ gressive high-school work of the country, or to Mr. Frank K. Wal¬ ter, chairman of committee on training of school librarians, New York State Library School, Albany, N. Y. Write also to the sec¬ retary of your State library commission at your State capital and confer with the librarian of your public library. For English teachers who are anxious to secure organized modern libraries for their high schools and wish data to submit to school superintendents and boards of education we suggest the following three solutions of the high-school library problem and append a list of references which will contain necessary data and arguments for maintaining the new type of high-school library. III. THREE FORMS OF HIGH=SCHOOL LIBRARY ADMINISTRATION. A . The high-school library under the control of the board of educa¬ tion and an integral part of the high school. Here the entire expense of maintenance is borne by the board of education, while the librarian is appointed as a member of the faculty and usually has many of the powers of a head of department. With a high standard of qualifications for the librarian, adequate appro¬ priations for maintenance, and close cooperation with the pub¬ lic library this plan secures the fullest freedom for the development of the school library according to the needs of each high school. The problems of the school library have more in common with the college library than with the public library, and this plan admits more easily of the adaptation of library methods to the needs of the school. The success of this type of library depends upon the school board’s intelligent appreciation of the function of the high-school COMMITTEE OST LIBRARY. 109 library, proper care in selecting the librarian, and freedom given to the librarian to develop the library. Examples of this type of library are : The 23 high-school libraries in New York City; high-school libraries of Albany, N. Y. : Hart¬ ford, Conn.; William Penn High School, Philadelphia; Spokane, Wash.; Detroit and Grand Eapids, Mich.; Los Angeles, Cal.; New¬ ark and East Orange, N. J. ; Newton Technical High School, Newton- ville, Mass.; Hughes High School, Cincinnati, Ohio; High Schools of Oakland, Cal. B. The high-school library under joint control of the board of educa¬ tion and the public library , or as a branch of the public library. In many cities and towns where otherwise an up-to-date high- school library would be out of the question this plan has proved of great value. As a rule, the board of education and public library share the expense — room, light, heat, furniture, and equipment being furnished by the board of education, and books, periodicals, binding, and supplies furnished by the public library. The salary of the librarian may be paid jointly by the board of education and the public library, or by either body separately. Where the library is under joint control, the board of education and the public library usually set up a high standard of qualifications and salary in order to insure a librarian equal to the high-school teachers in culture and training. When it is a regular branch of a public library, the libra¬ rian is a member of the public-library staff rather than of the school faculty. The success or failure of this plan depends so much upon the librarian of the public library and his consideration of special high- school needs that local conditions must always determine its feasi¬ bility. Where conditions are favorable, it means economical and efficient buying of books and supplies, rebinding, etc. The librarian of the public library often has a larger vision of the possibilities of the high-school library than the school authorities and can better select the right librarian. Its disadvantages are that its administra¬ tion must conform to that of other branches and there is slight op¬ portunity to make the changes that school work often demands. Present public-library salaries make it difficult to secure the proper college men and women. If the general public are admitted to the high-school branch, there is a distinct loss to the students unless a reading room is provided that is selective in its book collection and does not include the u best seller ” and the mediocre. If a librarian must divide her time between the students and the general public, the students are likely to have less of that personal guidance which the high-school librarian ought to give. 110 ENGLISH IN SECONDARY SCHOOLS. Examples of successful high-school branches of public libraries are found in Cleveland, Ohio ; Passaic, N. J. ; Kansas City, Mo. ; Somer¬ ville, Mass.; Madison, Wis. ; Portland, Oreg. ; Tacoma, Wash.; Pitts¬ burgh, Pa. ; Chicago, Ill. C. The high-school library with a trained librarian giving fart-time service . For the small high school where neither of the above plans is pos¬ sible the following suggestions are made : That the teacher or librarian in charge of the school library take a six-weeks’ course in library methods. Such courses are given in the summer in almost every State under the auspices of the State library commission, the State library, State university, or the State normal schools. In Minnesota a six- weeks’ course in library methods is required for all school librarians. Teachers who have charge of school libraries in that State must have this training and also be given a light teaching schedule to insure time for proper care of the library. In States where many of the high-school teachers are normal- school graduates those who have had required courses in library methods in a normal school should be thoroughly competent to con¬ duct the small high- school library along modern lines. This has meant better administration of high-school libraries in Kansas. Many normal schools in addition to their regular courses give summer training to teachers in simple library methods. This is done in Michigan. The small rural high school should be able to secure advice at any time from the normal-school librarian. For the small towrn which can not afford a trained librarian in its public library the “ Wisconsin idea ” is suggested. The board of education and the public library combine, and a librarian is appointed to serve the school library a part of the school day and the public library certain hours of the afternoon and evening. An example of the Wisconsin plan is to be found in the Deerfield- Shields High School, Highland Park, Ill. REFERENCES ON THE MODERN HIGH-SCHOOL LIBRARY. Bard well, Darwin L. The modern high school. Educational Review, April, 1915. Contains an excellent plea for a good school library. Tribute to the library as an important factor in high-school work. - Report on high-school libraries in New York City. In Maxwell, W. H. Sixteenth annual report of the city superintendent of schools. Special report on high schools, 1914. New York City, Department of Education, 500 Park Avenue, p. 43-50. Contains summary of duties of a librarian, tentative budget for schools of 1,000, 2,000, and 3,000 pupils, equipment and supplies needed, list of periodicals, outlines for eight lessons, on use of library, etc. COMMITTEE ON LIBRARY. Ill Breck, Emma J. The efficient high-school library. English Journal, 5 : 10-19, January, 1916. Certain, C. C. Status of the library in Southern high schools. Library Jour¬ nal, 40 : 632-637, September, 1915. Fay, Lucy E. Development of the library in the high schools of the South. Library Journal, 42 : 234-237, March, 1917. Hall, Mary E. Development of the modern high-school library. Library Jour¬ nal, 40:627-632, September, 1915. - Vocational guidance through the library. American Library Associa¬ tion, 1914. 10 cents. Hargreaves, It. T. The possibilities of the high-school library. In National Education Association. Proceedings, 1915. p. 730-734. Illinois Association of Teachers of English. Investigation of the equipment actually available in the high schools of the State. English Journal, 4:477-179, September, 1915. Judd, Charles H. The school and the library. In National Education Associa¬ tion. Proceedings, 1910. p. 1026-1030. Keyes, Itowena K. How we use our school library. English Journal, 3 : 86-93, February, 1914. Describes tbe use of the library by the English department. The library in the school. Dial, 40 : 73-77, February 1, 1906. Excellent plea for larger rooms and better equipment for the high-school library as the English teachers’ laboratory. Library service in the schools and qualifications of school librarians. Library Journal, 39 : 692, 1914. Statement adopted by the National Council of Teachers of English and the American Library Association. National Education Association. Report of the Committee on High-School Li¬ braries. In Proceedings, 1912. p. 1273-1281. Summarizes results of investigation of conditions in 60 cities giving recom¬ mendations for betterment. - Report of Committee on High-School Libraries. In Proceedings, 1914 to date. New York Library Association. Report of the Committee on High-School Li¬ braries. New York Libraries, 3 : 182-184, 1912. Reviews recent progress. Newberry, Marie A. A normal budget for the high-school library. In National Education Association. Proceedings, 1914. p. 817-820. Ward, Gilbert O. The high-school library. 1915. Chicago, American Library Association Publishing Board, 78 East Washington Street. 10 cents. (Pamphlet.) One of the best and most recent authorities on the high-school library. Contains excellent bibliographies. Warren, Irene. Some high-school problems of interest to teachers. White Plains, N. Y., 1915. (The Wilson Bulletin, 1 : 19-23, March, 1916.) Williams, Sherman. High-school library problems. New York Libraries, 4: 174-178, February, 1915. Plea of a State superintendent of school libraries for better choice of books, larger appropriations, etc. Wisconsin idea in library cooperation. New York Libraries, 3 : 130, 1912. Outlines plan for small high-school libraries. For a complete list of references on the high-scliool library see the following : Davis, E. M. Library aids for teachers and school librarians. H. W. Wilson Co., White Plains, N. Y. 10 cents. The Wilson Bulletin, June, 1916. H. W. Wilson Co. 5 cents. 112 ENGLISH IN SECONDARY SCHOOLS. HIGH-SCHOOL BRANCHES OF PUBLIC LIBRARIES. Askew, Sarah B. Public libraries and school libraries. Library Journal, 37 : 363-366, 1912. The New Jersey plan. Ayres, Leonard P. The public library and the public school. Cleveland, 1916. (Cleveland Foundation Survey.) 25 cents. Jones, T. L. What the public library can do for the high school. Public Libraries, 17 : 274-276, July, 1912. A high-school principal’s view of the plan adopted in Madison, Wis. McKnight, Elizabeth B. The high-school branch. (Modern library economy as illustrated by the Newark Public Library.) White Plains, N. Y., H. W. Wilson, 1913. 50 cents. Excellent plan of room and equipment and description of service rendered to English department. White, Elizabeth. The high-school library as a branch of the public library. Library Journal, 41 : 630-631, July, 1916. Wood, Harriet A. Administration of high-school libraries as branches of public libraries. Library Journal, 30:659, September, 1914. Wright, Purd B. High-school branches in Kansas City. Library Journal, 30 : 673-76, 1914. IV. THE LIBRARY ROOM OR ROOMS. The library room should be sufficiently large to accommodate all students who may need to use library books during any study period. In all schools that can possibly afford the space this room should be distinct from the study hall, although the study hall should be near it. In small schools of a few hundred pupils the library reading room may serve as a study hall as well as library, as in the high school of the School of Education, Chicago University, where the trained librarian supervises the study of pupils. In the larger high schools provision should be made for a seating capacity of 100 to 200 persons and shelf room for from 10,000 to 20,000 books, as in the Boys’ High School, Brooklyn, Y. Y., and the Hutchinson High School, Buffalo, Y. Y. From 5,000 to 8,000 vol¬ umes carefuly selected make a good working library, if the school is not unusually large. Libraries in schools of from 800 to 1,000 pupils should seat from 50 to 80 pupils at a time and shelve from 5,000 to 8,000 volumes. Even in schools of from 200 to 300 pupils we find library reading rooms in charge of librarians who can devote their time to the library and who have had some training, often a six-weeks course. In these more progressive small high schools the seating capacity is from 30 to 40 persons and shelf room is provided for 3,000 or more volumes. Examples of small high schools with reading rooms well equipped and in charge of librarians with some training are Ypsilanti, Mich. ; Wausau, Wis. ; Orange, Cal. COMMITTEE OH LIBRARY. 113 The library room, its furniture, and equipment should be planned by a librarian familiar with approved plans and fittings of a mod¬ ern library. If the school librarian is untrained, help should be secured from the librarian of the public library or the State library commission. This should not be left entirely to architects or princi¬ pals unfamiliar with library standards. Shelving should be low — the top shelf being within the reach of the average pupil. Locked cases and glass doors should be avoided. Tables seating six or eight pupils are preferable to larger ones. One of the most important pieces of furniture in the modern high school is the “vertical file” or set of drawers of uniform size in which clippings, pictures, pamphlets, etc., can be arranged alphabetically by subject in dictionary order. Provision should be made for filing lantern slides, post cards, and mounted maps in the library ; also for keeping Yictrola records and manufacturers’ exhibits for exposition work in English. Exhibit cases, Such as those in the Passaic high school, N. J., are suggestive to those planning a high-school library room. It is in the line of efficiency and economy to make the library the central distributing agency for all illustrative material and thus save the duplication which is sure to result when each department keeps its own set of slides, pictures, etc. A lantern slide for Julius Caesar is of use in Latin, English and history, a manufacturer’s ex¬ hibit of the manufacture of cotton goods is valuable in the biology work on economic uses of plants, in exposition work in English and in industrial courses. If kept in the library all this material can be properly catalogued and available for all departments. The school library should have such an exposure as will insure plenty of sunshine where growing plants may add to the attractive¬ ness of the room. If the library is to do its best work for the pupils it should be made as inviting and suggestive as possible. There should be interesting pictures on the walls, many bulletin boards for posting pictures, tempting reading lists, clippings, etc., and a large news bulletin board, on which can be arranged clippings from the morning paper, giving the gist of the day’s news. The editing of such a news bulletin is excellent practice for high-school students in selecting and sorting the day’s news, and learning to read a daily newspaper quickly and intelligently. V. A LIBRARY CLASSROOM AND ITS POSSIBILITIES. Wherever possible there should be a library classroom or lecture room adjoining the library and belonging to it. This room should be equipped, as suggested by Mr. Coulter, with projectoscope, Yic¬ trola, etc., and could serve all departments of the school. 75080°— 17- - 8 114 ENGLISH IN SECONDARY SCHOOLS. We are indebted to Prof. Allan Abbott of Teachers College, Co¬ lumbia University, for the following plan for this library classroom and its service to the English department : 1. There should be adjoining the library a room not assigned to regular classes, but available for occasional use by any class that wishes to use for a period material from the library or the special equipment of the room. 2. Equipment. As a laboratory of letters, corresponding to the science laboratories and the art studios, to contain all appliances of occasional use to the English teacher that are too expensive to duplicate and too cumbersome to move about conveniently ; e. g., Yictrola, reflecto- scope, model stage, small actual stage. 3. Arrangement. Seats for not more than 50 students, to be movable chairs with arms for note taking. These seats to occupy not more than two-thirds of the room. At one end a stage about 2 feet high ; curtain poles above at the height of the window tops, from which can be hung draperies (designed and stenciled in the art department) of a formal or symbolic sort, to suggest backgrounds of Shakespearean or other plays. A small taJble and two chairs of formal lines as stage properties. On rear wall an aluminum screen for projections. Electric connection and a low power reflectoscope. Black shades for darkening room. Walls fitted with cork and burlap for easy display of pictures. Filing cabinet for selected pictures and post cards. A model of the Elizabethan stage as reconstructed by Godfrey or All- bright, and of a modern stage, possibly of a Greek theater and others. 4. A few projects : (a) Yictrola . Records from great passages of literature recited well — as by Bispham, Miss Matheson, etc. For the teaching of lyric — well-known songs, as the Schubert setting of Shake¬ speare’s songs, or the1 original airs ; songs of Burns and others. (b) Reflectoscope. Talks by teachers, or better by students, on travel, on the life and surroundings of an author, on the scenery described in a given book (e. g., Lady of the Lake), etc., illustrated on the screen. Similar talks on the works of a given artist or period, on a scientific topic, on a social topic, as child labor, etc., to be handled as oral composition and written up by the class. (c) Stage. To be used for the reading (or acting very simply, with¬ out costume or make-up) of scenes from a variety of plays, the object being to stimulate the dramatic imagination by the use of a fewT abstract or symbolic properties, just enough to screen off the actual school-room details. ( d ) Wall display. A set of Hogarth’s prints displayed when a class is studying eighteenth century literature ; made a basis for free observation and discussion for half an hour, with note taking in preparation for composition. In addition to the above uses of the room, as suggested by Prof. Abbott, the committee suggests that it be used by the librarian and COMMITTEE ON LIBRARY. 115 teachers of English in giving definite instruction to students in the use of reference books and library tools, such as card catalogue, indexes to periodicals, etc. Here also an English teacher could bring a class to look over illustrated books on a particular time or author, such as the Odyssey or manners and customs of Addison’s time, or to spend an occasional “ library period ” with a class, arous¬ ing interest in books recommended for home reading, showing stu¬ dents tempting illustrated editions of these books which may be read in the library during free-study periods, having parts of the books read aloud to arouse interest. This room would make an excellent social center for library reading and debating clubs after school. All departments could use it in ways similar to those suggested for the work in English. Such a room has been planned for the library of the Girls’ High School, Brooklyn, 1ST. Y. F or the small high school, where the above suggestions are entirely out of the question, even that of combination of study hall and library, the room devoted to English and history may be made head¬ quarters for the library. This use of a recitation room for the library should be a last resort, for the school library should be acces¬ sible to all teachers and pupils during the entire school day, and there is loss when books are shut up in recitation rooms. For plan of room, size, equipment, etc., see the following references : Bar dwell, Darwin L. Report on high-school libraries. In Maxwell, W. H. Sixteenth annual report of the city superintendents of schools. Special Report on high schools, 1904. p. 43-50. Outlines equipment needed in modern high, school. States approximate cost annually. Fay, Lucy E. School library equipment. In her Use of books and libraries. Boston, Boston Book Co., 1915. p. 375-380. $2.25. The library room and its equipment. White Plains, N. Y., H. W. Wilson Co., 1916. (Wilson Bulletin. High-school library number. June, 1916. p. 111-113.) McKnight, Elizabeth B. The high-school branch. Newark Public Library, New¬ ark, N. J. White Plains, N. Y., H. W. Wilson Co. 50 cents. Contains excellent plan of room and equipment. Newberry, Marie. The normal high-school library budget. In National Educa¬ tion Association. Proceedings, 1914. p. 817-820. Discusses cost. Nunn, Janet. Planning and equipping a high-school library room. Public Libraries, 20 : 406-409, November, 1915. Excellent practical suggestions for a city school Ward, Gilbert O. High-school library. Chicago, Ill., American Library Associa¬ tion Publishing Board, 1914. p. 2-3. Wilson, Martha. The school library room. School Education, 35:29-30, January, 1916. Practical suggestions for the small high school. 116 ENGLISH IN SECONDARY SCHOOLS. VI. BOOKS. The following are suggestions as to books needed for effective work in English: (a) Reference books. 1. General reference books, such as dictionaries, encyclopedias. 2. Special reference books for teachers, such as methods of teaching English, works on dramatization, short-story composition. 3. Special reference books for students, such as debating helps, one or more good histories of English literature, anthologies. (&) Good illustrated editions of the great books in standard literature which every boy and girl should know before he leaves high school, such as Arabian Nights, Odyssey, Shakespeare’s works, illustrated by our best artists, Rackham, Maxfield Parrish. The influence of these books in arousing interest in good literature is so great that we urge upon even the small high-school library the im¬ portance of making a collection, even if only one book a year can be pur¬ chased. Classes on graduating could often give as much as the cost of one book, and often the proceeds of an entertainment will make possible the purchase of several each year. These should be kept for use in the school building. A suggestive list, with prices, may be obtained from the chairman of this committee. (c) Books for collateral reading, e. g., those which add to the interest in a study of a literary period ; or the works of a special author, e. g., books on the life and time of Addison, Johnson, Shakespeare. Books making the work in Ivanhoe, Irving’s Sketch Book, etc., interesting ; those adding to the interest in. Tale of Two Cities by giving some idea of the French Revolution. (d) Books for home reading. Biography, fiction, travel, poetry, drama, and readable works on present-day questions, civic and social. The best of contemporary writing as well as standard works. Stimulating and in¬ spiring books that the average high-school student will enjoy. Such books as those used in the Central High School, Grand Rapids, are ex¬ cellent in vocational guidance. ( e ) A representative collection of these books in good editions should form a permanent collection in the school library and be always on hand for pupils to use during free periods. This will awaken interest in many books and lead to a desire to take them home. There should always be some arrangement for duplicate copies which may be borrowed through the school library. Either the school should provide these or the school library should arrange for traveling libraries from the public library. These should be kept the entire school year or for shorter periods and circulate from the school library for home use. This makes it possible for the high-school library to experiment with many different books and try them out on different students in the effort to meet their personal needs. It means using the school library as something of a “ sample shop,” to show high-school boys and girls what the public library offers them in the way of good reading; and these few books in the school library mean the circulation -of many copies from the public library itself when enthusiasm over certain books is awakened. COMMITTEE ON LIBRARY. 117 /. There should be a collection of popular scientific books which can be used as bases for oral themes. Many boys who are not interested in so-called literature begin the reading habit when directed to these books. The ownership of books and the building up of home libraries should be encouraged by thevSchool library. There should be a suggestive collec¬ tion of good editions to own, Everyman, Cranford series, Temple edition, . Ben Greet Shakespeare, and a list of prices and publishers. In building up the high-scliool library care should be taken not to lumber the shelves with deadwood. Avoid whole sets of standard au¬ thors whose works are never read and subscription books, which are usually of slight value. * As aids in buying books we suggest the following book lists for high- school libraries. Without exception these lists have been prepared for the medium-sized and small high school. Fay, Lucy E. Selection of books for a small high-school library. In her Use of books and libraries. 1915. p. 149-182. Hall, M. E. Books for the browsing corner of a high-school library : a list of illustrated editions. In Wilson. Bulletin, June, 1916. p. 118-121. Hitchcock, Alfred M. List of books for home reading. Hartford, Conn., Hart¬ ford High School. 5 cents. Oregon. Library Commission. Books for high-school libraries. Salem, Oreg. 25 cents. United States. Bureau of Education. List of books suited to a high-school library, compiled by the University High School, Chicago, Ill., 1918. University of the State of New York. Division of school libraries. Annotated book list for secondary schools : English section. Albany, N. Y., 1914. Wilson, Martha, ed. Books for high-school libraries. Chicago, American Li¬ brary Association Publishing Board, 1914. 50 cents. Wisconsin. Department of Education. List of books for high-school libraries in the State of Wisconsin. Madison, 1911. 15 cents. Supplement, 1911-12. 15 cents. LISTS OF BOOKS FOR HOME READING. Grand Rapids Public Library. List of books used in vocational and moral guidance in the English department of the Central High School, Grand Rapids. National Council of Teachers of English. Report of the Committee on Home Reading. Chicago Normal College. 10 cents. Newmrk (N. J.) Public Library. Reading for pleasure and profit. 1913. 10 cents. Graded list of books and readings prepared in cooperation with teachers of Barringer High School. VII. PERIODICALS. So much of the work in the modern high schools deals with con¬ temporary affairs that periodicals are essential. For oral report, topics for theme work, and debate, the following periodicals are recommended: Independent, Outlook, World’s Work, Literary Di¬ gest, Current Opinion, Survey, Review of Reviews, American City, Rational Geographic Magazine, Scientific American, and Popular Mechanics. For examples of best contemporary short stories, essays, poetry, travel, and biographical sketches and discussion of current 118 ENGLISH IN SECONDARY SCHOOLS. topics high-school libraries find the following useful : Atlantic Monthly, Harper’s Monthly, Century, Scribner. Whenever possible the school library should have on file the Readers’ Guide to Periodi¬ cal Literature. For the small library we recommend the World’s Work, one good weekly magazine, and one of the four monthlies above mentioned. In the small library gifts of magazines from the homes of stu¬ dents can often be secured. These can be bound or clippings made from them for English work. For list of periodicals for high-school libraries consult: Fay, Lucy E. Periodicals recommended for a small high-school library. In her Use of books and libraries. 1915. p. 137-138. Horton, Marion. Periodicals for the high-school library. Library Journal, July, 1916. p. 522-524. New York City. Department of Education. Report on the high-school libraries of New York ; by Darwin L. Bardwell. In Sixteenth annual report of the city superintendent of schools for year ending July 31, 1914. Special report on high schools, p. 43-50. Newark Public Library. High-school branch. White Plains, N. Y., H. W. Wilson Co., 1913. 50 cents. Ylli. CLIPPINGS FROM MAGAZINES AND NEWSPAPERS. For either the large high-school library or the small these are in¬ expensive aids in English work when properly selected, classified, and filed. They are particularly valuable for local affairs — those of the city or town in which the school is situated. Newspaper clippings may be mounted on cheap mimeograph paper 8J by 11 inches and filed in manila envelopes or folders 9 by 11J inches. These can be kept alphabetically in a vertical file or drawer and arranged by head¬ ing written on upper left-hand corner, “ Commission Government,” “ Shipping Bill,” “ Unemployment,” etc. Clippings from magazines are particularly valuable for good ex¬ amples of the short story, description, narration, etc. These may be bound as in the Barringer High School, Newark, N. J., or fastened in Gaylord pamphlet binders (Gaylord Bros., Syracuse, N. Y.), or simply covered with manila paper such as the biology folders found in high schools. They are loaned for home use the same as books and are of great value. For references on methods of keeping clippings and their use in high-school work see the following: Dana, J. C. The veffical file. White Plains, N. Y., H. W. Wilson Co. 50 cents. Practical suggestions for keeping clippings. Johnston, W. D. The newspaper morgue. In National Education Association. Proceedings, 1914. p. 812. McKnight, E. B. The high-school branch. 1913. pp. 17-18. (Modern American library economy as illustrated in the Newark Public Library.) White Plains, N. Y., H. W. Wilson Co. 50 cents. COMMITTEE ON LIBRARY. 119 IX. ILLUSTRATIVE MATERIAL. As a matter of efficiency and economy the library should be the center for all illustrative material. (a) Lantern slides. These should be filed in a special case and a collection of these should be made to meet the needs of the English work, e. g., reproductions of Rackham’s charming illustrations of Rip Yan Winkle, scenes from Ivanhoe, Shakespeare’s plays, Strat¬ ford, etc. For information concerning slides and lantern or projecto- scope see departments of visual instruction: University of the State of New York, Albany, N. Y. ; University of Wisconsin, Madison, Wis. For a classified catalogue of lantern slides for school work see The World Visualized. New York, Underwood & Underwood. $1.00. (List of slides for English work selected by J. F. Hosic.) (b) Pictures, mounted or unmounted. — These may be secured at little expense and are of value in awakening interest. In addition to the well-known pictures, Perry, Cosmos, Brown, etc., sold for a cent or so, high schools make use of illustrations from magazines and books too worn to bind. The Mentor Magazine furnishes in a year’s subscription many pictures which may be used to good ad¬ vantage in English. As illustrating what a rich mine the magazines form for this col¬ lection, we mention the Maxfield Parrish pictures of Milton’s L’Allegro and II Penseroso, Abbey’s illustrations for Shakespeare’s plays, for Deserted Village, etc. For picture collections see : Dana, J. C. The picture collection. Modern library economy. White Plains, N. Y., H. W. Wilson Co. 35 cents. - and Coult, Margaret. High-school aids — pictures and objects. White Plains, N. Y., H. W. Wilson Co. $1.00. Contains an article on the use of pictures in English in the Barringer High School, Newark. Lists dealers in pictures, lantern slides, etc., and best pictures for Ivanhoe, Silas Marner, Julius Caesar, etc. Ward, C. C. Manual for the use of pictures in the teaching of English. New¬ ton, Mass., University Prints Co. 25 cents. For use of pictures in teaching literature see the following: (1) Illustrative helps for the De Coverley papers. English Journal, 4 : 529-530, October, 1915. (2) Coleridge. Ancient Mariner. Illustrated editions and pictures. English Journal, 4 : 673-674, 1915. (3) Pictures for Ivanhoe, and Irving’s Sketch Book. English Journal, 4: 274-280, April, 1916. (4) List of print catalogues and post-card publishers. English Journal, 4 : 672-673, December, 1915. ( o ) Post cards— These may be used in a lantern with proper at¬ tachment, and even .where there is no lantern they can be used to advantage for many years if protected by celluloid post-card holders (Gaylord Bros., Syracuse, N. Y.) when passed around in class or posted on bulletin boards. Where these holders are used, friends of 120 ENGLISH IN SECONDARY SCHOOLS. teachers and pupils will often lend or give post cards to the school library. Especially valuable in English work are the “ Little Phos- tint Journeys,” by the Detroit Photographic Co.; the French post cards illustrating the French Eevolution; cards from Stratford, Westminster Abbey, and from the Scott country; Library of Con¬ gress cards for Comus, Wordsworth, Keats, and Shelley. These cards should be arranged by subject in drawers or trays in the school library. F or information as to sources for illustrative material see : Craw¬ ford, Mary. The laboratory equipment of the teacher of English. English Journal, March, 1915. pp. 145-151. X. USE OF LIBRARY RESOURCES OUTSIDE OF SCHOOL BUILDING. As a committee we recommend that the library make the largest possible use of all outside agencies that may further its work. The secret of the successful high-school library to-day is in a knowledge of the work of these educational agencies and cooperation with them. The high-school library can no longer afford to be sufficient unto itself. (a) Public library . — There should be the fullest possible use of the larger resources of the public library and close cooperation between public library and school library. Students should be given library work which requires the constant use of the public library and should be trained by librarian of school and public library to use books and library aids intelligently. Excellent use can be made of traveling libraries from the public library, and there should be a definite scheme by which books wanted for only a few days for special work in the school library may be sent by the public library or by a school messenger without the formality of a traveling library. In some cities from 300 to 500 books a year are borrowed in this way by the high-school library and kept on school shelves from September to June for home circulation. For the small town or rural high school the county library or the State library often is the source for the same kind of help that the public library renders in the city. (b) State aid. — In most States there is aid and counsel for the small high-school library in the State university library, the normal school libraries, wThich are, often in charge of public-spirited libra¬ rians interested in the whole school-library problem, in the State library commission, or the State superintendent of school libraries, as in Minnesota. ( c ) National aid. — The library of the United States Bureau of Education can often be of great service to the small high school, especially in supplying lists of references on topics of special interest COMMITTEE ON LIBRARY. 121 in high-school work, e. g., self-government, vocational guidance, school gardens, etc. Much valuable printed matter for debate subjects may be obtained free or at little cost from the Superintendent of Documents. XI. INSTRUCTION OF STUDENTS IN THE USE OF A LIBRARY. As a Committee we feel that a most important work of the school library is to train pupils for the intelligent use of any library — school, college, or public. We recommend that in the final report on the course of study in English there be included from four to eight les¬ sons as a minimum requirement in definite training of high-school pupils in the use of reference books, encyclopedias, standard large dictionaries, year books, indexes to periodical literature, to ordinary books, to sets of books, etc., also instruction in the use of a card cata¬ logue and some knowledge of the classification commonly used in libraries. We urge that this instruction be given by the school libra¬ rian or English teacher, or, if more feasible, by the librarian of the public library and that credit be given by the English department for this work. For references on the value of this instruction, outline courses, etc., see the following : Hopkins, Florence M. Methods of instruction in the use of high-school libraries. In National Education Association. Proceedings, 1905. p. 858-864. - The place of the library in high-school education. Library Journal, 35 : 55-60, February, 1910. Mendenhall, I. M. Training of high-school students in the use of the library. Library Journal, April, 19J3. p. 189-192. Wooley, E. C. Student’s use of the dictionary. Educational Review, 1912. p. 492-501. Outline's of Courses and Aids in Instruction. Gilson, M. L. Course of study for normal-school students on the use of a library. White Plains, N. Y., H. W. Wilson Co., 1909. (Modern American Li¬ brary Economy. Pt. Y, sec. 2.) 75 cents. The first four lessons are adapted to high-school use. Hopkins, Florence M. Allusions, words and phrases that should be known and where to find them. Detroit Central High School. Pub. by the author. 35 cents. - - Reference guides that should be known and how to use them. Detroit, The Willard Co. $1.50. Sold also in sections at 35 cents each. - Outlines and reference problems for eight lessons for high school pupils. Detroit Central High School. Pub. by the author. 4 cents. Ward, G. O. Practical use of books and libraries. 2d ed. Boston Book Co., 1914. $1. Teaching outline to accompany the above, 50 cents. See also outlines in — Madison, Elizabeth. A high-school course in library use. English Journal, March, 1916. 122 ENGLISH IN SECONDARY SCHOOLS. We recommend that there be appointed in every State a trained and experienced librarian as supervisor of school libraries, as in Min¬ nesota and in New Jersey. In order that this may be brought about and the development of high-school libraries be encouraged in every way possible we urge the appointment in each State of a standing committee on high-school libraries to be made up of representatives from State teachers associations and State library associations. Teachers of English and history are especially urged to serve on such committees and to form such committees. The members of the Committee on the Library and its Equipment wish to express their indebtedness to many teachers and librarians for the help so generously given in compiling this report. We are particularly indebted to the following for their careful reading of the preliminary draft of the report and their constructive criticism and valuable sugges¬ tions : Prof. Allen Abbott, Teachers College, Columbia University ; Mr. Gilbert O. Ward, Cleveland Public Library ; Mr. W. H. Kerr, State Normal School, Emporia, Kans. ; Miss Irene Warren, School of Education, Chicago University, Chicago, Ill. ; Miss Martha Wilson, State Supervisor of School Libraries, St. Paul, Minn. ; and Miss Edna Pratt, State Super¬ visor of School Libraries, Trenton, N. J. XIV. ADMINISTRATIVE PROBLEMS. The reorganization of the English course must ultimately be ef¬ fected by the administrative and supervisory officers of the schools. In order to give definite point to this obvious fact a series of brief summaries of the principal problems that are peculiarly adminis¬ trative has been prepared by the committee. In the bibliography under appropriate heads will be found sufficient references to make available the best current thought and information on each subject. i. ARTICULATION WITH THE ELEMENTARY SCHOOL. Much attention has been given for many years to the problem of college admission. Unfortunately, the relationship of the elemen¬ tary-school course in English to that in the high school has not re¬ ceived commensurate attention, although the most casual observation revealed the fact that there was little or no correlation between these two principal parts of public-school education. To assist in meeting this difficulty the National Council of Teachers of English appointed, in May, 1912, a committee to make an investigation and offer recom¬ mendations. At the annual meeting of the council in November, 1913, the committee, through its chairman, Ernest C. Noyes, of Pittsburgh, offered a report based upon about 300 replies from all parts of the Union. The principal conditions commented upon in the report are sum¬ marized by the committee as follows: First, a study of the courses of the elementary school indicates that much more is being called for on paper than can possibly be accomplished. The requirements are too many, too heavy, and too vague. Such different types of work as grammar, oral composition, written composition, rhetoric, spelling, word study and dictionary work, reading, literature, and memorizing are all required at the same time ; and so general are the recommendations made and so large is their content that individual teachers must become bewildered. Definite, detailed, printed courses of study reasonable in their prescriptions are the great desiderata of the grammar-school work in English.1 At present there seem in most cases to be no irreducible minima that must be attained under individual heads. The result is heterogeneity in instruction and in accomplishment. 1 Among the best printed courses which have fallen under the eyes of the committee are those of Everett, Mass. ; Brookline, Mass. ; Worcester, Mass. ; Washington, D. C. ; Paterson and Plainfield, N. ,T. ; Indianapolis, Ind. ; Decatur, Ill. ; Muncie, Ind. ; State Normal School, Farmville, W. Va. ; “ The Teaching of Elementary Composition and Grammar,” State of New Jersey, Department of Public Instruction, and especially Boston, Mass., “ School Document ” No. 8, 1909. 123 124 ENGLISH IN SECONDAKY SCHOOLS. In the second place, certain things are being taught that had better be post¬ poned to the high school, since they do not appeal to the capacity and state of development of the elementary-school pupil. Too much is asked for in the way of analytical grammar. This subject derives its present untoward emphasis from a widely prevailing conception that it is basic, that upon progress in grammar depends language sense and, hence, advance in appreciation and use of language. One extremist who has answered the committee’s blank com¬ pares the knowledge of formal grammar to knowledge of the combinations in multiplication. This is a false analogy. Advance in language power comes not through the reasoning mind, but through the automatic, unreasoning ear ; ear training makes for real advance in language and ear training only, with the young. The time-devouring demands of formal English grammar are out¬ rageous ; the results on language interpretation and language use are practi¬ cally nil. The elementary school should sharply delimit the term “ grammar ” as applying to analytic, formal grammar — the grammar that encumbers absorp¬ tive little minds with useless -terminology — and emphasize grammar in the sense of correct use, the facts to be drilled on as use and not to be terminolo- gized. In some places too much attention is paid to analysis of forms of dis¬ course and to other topics which, though valuable in themselves, are devouring time that could be better expended. Such work demands information and analytic tendencies, including reflection simply not possessed by children. The elementary schools have become too ambitious. Because so many pupils leave at the close of the elementary school to enter the business world there has developed a quasi doctrine that the grammar school must give the children a little of everything before they “ get out into the world,” and that the high school, “the people’s college,” must, for a similar reason, forestall much that used to be left for the college. The fact that a hundred things are interesting does not mean that a school should try to give instruction in all of the hundred. The coming of the “ subject teacher,” the specialist, with broad and intensive equipment, has emphasized the tendency to cover more ground than can profit¬ ably be covered, and it is time that some one called a halt and demanded that the elementary school, as well as the high school, center instruction on the chief needs and interests of our pupils to the exclusion of all else. To proceed to details : Oral composition, though strongly emphasized in the North Central States, is frequently not mentioned in the Middle and Eastern States ; and, where it is mentioned, it is not systematically organized and appar¬ ently has received little definite attention. In many places it seems to be regarded as merely incidental or as preparatory to written composition, and to be conducted in a haphazard manner. Especially noticeable in all parts of the country is the neglect of the training of the voice in distinct enunciation, clear articulation, and agreeable tones. Written composition receives much more attention, though in many schools there is not enough practice. The best interests of children require the writing of at least one composition a week. Though much time is given to the writing of business and social letters, friendly letters seem to receive little attention. The overemphasis of the study of the forms of discourse has already been men¬ tioned. The elements of formal rhetoric pursued in some schools form another subject that can be taken up to better advantage in the high school. The most conspicuous weakness, however, in composition courses is the lack of sufficient practice in talking and writing. The situation in regard to reading and literature is much better. It seems probable that in the majority of schools the young people are placed in touch with the best literature. Sometimes a book like Hamlet — manifestly un- ADMINISTRATIVE PROBLEMS, 125 suited to grammar-school pupils — is used, and in some courses there is still too narrow a range of reading. Most of the courses, however, offer the teacher an opportunity to select from a wide list of supplementary boohs those best adapted to her class. Those most frequently used, not necessarily the most suitable in all cases, seem to be : The Christmas Carol, The Courtship of Miles Standish, Evangeline, The Lady of the Lake, The Legend of Sleepy Hollow and Rip Van Winkle, Snow-Bound, Tales from Shakespeare, Julius Csesar, The Merchant of Venice, The Great Stone Face, The Man Without a Country, and Heidi. Grammar, in most schools, seems to occupy from half to three-fifths of the school time devoted to English in the last three years of the eight-year course. The content of the courses in grammar ranges from the extreme of formal tech¬ nical study to the very simplest treatment of the parts of speech, the sentence, and elementary syntax, with stress upon constructive work and the correction of faulty English. The courses considered vary so widely that all that can safely be said about them is that, on the whole, grammar receives altogether too much time and is taught too intensively and too analytically. None but the very 'simplest instruction in formal analytic grammar is needed by ele¬ mentary-school pupils.1 Any really general constructive change in the articu¬ lation between the two types of schools would involve, at the outset, the de* termined delifnitation of grammar for the two types of schools and of the in¬ tensiveness with which it shall be studied. Grammar is a grand educational bugaboo, a much-terrifying but really harmless Mumbo Jumbo. It should be subjected to missionary attack. This committee wishes to be counted among the first of those to take a hand at the rope to pull down this heathen idol. In some of the schools having the most definite courses of study the use of the dictionary is carefully taught, and certain rules of punctuation are assigned for mastery in each grade. These practices should become universal. If one is to judge by the answers received by the committee, the high-school courses in the first year are much more carefully organized than those in the three last years of the elementary school. The outlines of work are more defi¬ nite, and attention seems generally to be concentrated on a few specific points. The chief faults of first-year high-school courses are that they are often too ambitious and too literary for the ordinary pupil ; that too much time is spent in detailed critical study of classics that are too difficult ; that, as in the gram¬ mar school, too much stress is laid upon form and not enough upon use; and that the courses, instead of being flexible enough to be adaptable to the need of entering pupils, are rigid in their prescriptions. The high school should fit the course to the pupil ; as a rule, it attempts to fit the pupil to the course. The country over, there appears, from the answers received by the committee, to be less variety in the classics read in the first year of the high school than in those assigned to the last year of the elementary school. The most popular are : Julius Csesar, Ivanhoe, The Sketch Book, The Lady of the Lake, Treasure Island, and The Vision of Sir Launfal. Four of these, it will be noticed, are among those most used in the grammar schools. It seems, however, to be gen¬ erally agreed that, though there are defects in the English course of the high school in the first year, these are not nearly so much to blame for the fail¬ ures of first-year pupils as is poor teaching in the first year. To recapitulate, your committee finds in the elementary school as condi¬ tions hindering good articulation : Requirements too extensive and too indefi¬ nite ; subjects like dry, unapplied grammar, the analysis of specimens of dis- 1 For an interesting study of the value of formal grammar as a training of the mind, see “ Formal English Grammar as a Discipline,” Teachers College Record, September, 1913. 126 ENGLISH IN SECONDARY SCHOOLS. course, and formal rhetoric which is ill adapted to young pupils; too little practice in speaking and writing; too little drill on the essentials of spelling, punctuation, and manuscript neatness, and the ready conventional use of paper ; and, in some schools, poverty of reading material. In the high-school courses the requirements lack elasticity, are too ambitious and literary, and so are often unrelated to the interests of the entering classes, to which there is little continuous effort to adapt the work. After passing in review various complaints as to unsatisfactory articulation and suggestions for the improvement of the situation, the committee concludes as follows : To sum up, the committee has found articulation to be generally unsatisfac¬ tory the country over. The adjustment is poor in all forms of English study. It is believed by many that this prevailing maladjustment is due to defects in the curriculum or the organization of the elementary school ; to the unreason¬ able demands of the high school, traceable in part, it may be, to the college entrance requirements ; to the complete difference in organization between the elementary school and the high school, which confuses an entering pupil thrown on his own responsibility to an extent wholly alien to his experience ; to faults in the teaching in each type of school ; to the failure of each type of teacher to learn of the work of the other ; and to the almost tofal absence of cooperation between teachers in the two classes of schools. To your committee, however, it seems that the majority of these criticisms deal with symptoms of the disease rather than with causes. The true causes lie deeper. The articulation is poor in most places simply because little effort is made to secure good articulation. As Mr. Mitchill has well expressed it : “A diligent exami¬ nation of all available material has failed to produce any evidence that choice of books, subjects of instruction, or methods of teaching of subjects can be assigned as a reason for good articulation or poor articulation between the ele¬ mentary schools and the high schools of particular localities. To arrive at any such conclusions would mean a straining of the facts or a distortion of logic. Good articulation at the present time arises from a combining of a good selection of material by well-educated, professionally minded, enthusiastic, conscientious teachers of elementary schools and high schools working together for a common end under amalgamating supervision.” That is to say, provide all the conditions necessary for good teaching, plan for a correlation of courses and for cooperation in working them out, and you wall have good articulation. In short, to articulate, you must articulate. As remedies which, it must be distinctly understood, are only palliatives without the establishment of the healthful general conditions named above as essential to any permanently successful articulation, the committee makes the following recommendations : 1. That the large and complex terminology of English be clearly defined by those whose position enables them to speak with authority so that the work to be done in any particular part of the school course can be accurately stated and clearly understood. 2. That the ground to be covered in each phase of English in each type of school be carefully delimited. 3. That in both schools the courses of study be simplified and revised so as to include much less formal grammar, but much more thorough drill in applied grammar, so as to include a wider range of reading matter and more oral composition, and so as to appeal more to the sympathies and interests of pupils. That in the high-school course a separation be made between what may be ADMINISTRATIVE PROBLEMS. 127 called “ practical English,” which every pupil should study, and so-called “ cul¬ tural English.” 4. That full, definite syllabi, rich in specific details, be prepared and printed for the guidance of teachers, and that representative teachers of various grades be consulted in the preparation of such syllabi. 5. That the organization of the two schools be planned and the courses administered in such a wTay as to contribute to good articulation by the employ¬ ment of such and as many of the schemes following as may be feasible in any particular locality : ( a ) The assignment of the most efficient teachers in the high school to the charge of first-year classes. ( & ) The more general use of departmental teaching in the elementary school, or the plan t)f one teacher in several subjects in the first year of the high school, or of both. (c) The promotion of acquaintance and mutual cooperation between teachers in the two classes of schools by means of joint conferences, exchange of visits, notification by the high-school teachers of the prevailing faults in the English of entering pupils, and similar means. (d) The assignment of successful elementary-school teachers to the first-year work of the high school and vice versa, for a year at least. ( e ) The complete reorganization of the two schools on the plan, giving six years to each. (/) The close correlation and continuous supervision of the two courses by a supervisor of English or other competent authority. The problem of articulation was in a measure solved in the city of Charleston, W. Va., through the efforts of a special supervisor of English. In her account1 of her activities, Miss Mary B. Fontaine states that the principal steps taken were to secure an agreement upon the essentials which should be insisted upon in the various grades and the working out in detail of a course of study which should be continuous from the first grade through the twelfth. The publication of Miss Fontaine’s article has proved a stimulus to other cities, and a number of supervisors of English have already been empolyed. The results are uniformly good and would seem to argue for the general extension of this plan. The contention is not justifiable that a subject like drawing or German should require the supervision of a highly trained expert, while the teaching of the ver¬ nacular may safely be left in the hands of those who have had only a general, and often not too thorough, education. The committee would urge upon the administrators of the country, as a definite policy, the employment of special supervisors of English. In the judgment of the committee the other main effective step to take at the present time is to regard high-school work as beginning with the seventh school grade. In order to facilitate such a step the outlines in literature and composition which have been prepared and which appear above cover the six years beginning with the seventh grade. This is in harmony with the report of the committee on the 1 English Journal, 3 : 410, September, 1914. 128 ENGLISH IN SECONDARY SCHOOLS. six-year course of study which was presented to the National Educa¬ tion Association in 1908 by the chairman, Eugene Lyttle,1 and is in accord also with the forthcoming recommendations of the National Education Association commission on the reorganization of secondary education. In the former report a tentative statement was made as to what attainments might be expected at the end of the sixth school year. The present committee has prepared a similar statement after wide consultation of principals and teachers in the elementary schools. It is not to be understood as constituting high-school en¬ trance requirements, but rather as the aims that the elementary schools themselves regard as reasonable. The statement of attain¬ ments is as follows : At the end of the sixth grade pupils should be able: (1) To express clearly and consecutively, either in speech or in writing, ideas which are familiar and firmly grasped; (2) to avoid gross grammatical errors; (3) to compose and mail a letter; (4) to spell their own written vocabulary; (5) to read silently, and after one reading to reproduce the substance of a simple short story, news item, or lesson; (6) to read aloud readily and intelligently simple news items, lessons from textbooks, or literature of such difficulty as The Ride of Paul Revere, or Dickens’s A Christmas Carol; (7) to quote accu¬ rately and understanding^ several short poems, such as Rennet’s The Flag Goes By and Emerson’s The Mountain and the Squirrel. Building upon the attainments which the elementary-school pupils are found to possess, each high school should organize a course in English in accordance with the aims and principles set forth above. The details of such a course will of necessity be varied to satisfy the requirements of different communities. It should be emphasized that to make any scheme of articulation effective there must be a definite and clear understanding as to what is to be undertaken in each year of the course, and that there must be constant conference between the teachers of the different years. The plan adopted in Newton, Mass., of exchanging certain teachers in the elementary school with the teachers in the high school for a year at a time has proved very successful in supplementing group conferences. 2. SEPARATION OF THE TEACHING OF LITERATURE AND THE TEACHING OF COMPOSITION. The report of the present committee distinguishes clearly between English for work and English for leisure ; that is to say, between the more practical aspects of English and the more purely esthetic and literary. This distinction is of great importance and should be very carefully defined. It should be understood that there is no desire on the part of the committee to separate reading from speaking and writing. Any misconception on this point will be prevented if the fact is perceived that the word “ literature ” is used by the com- 1 Proceedings of the National Education Association, 1908, p. 625. ADMINISTRATIVE PROBLEMS. 129 mittee in its narrow sense — that of the French belles-lettres — and refers to poetry, fiction, drama, and the informal personal essay and not to well-written biography, history, science, travel, and me¬ chanics. When the pupils are practicing speaking and writing for the sake of giving information or of forming opinion, they should certainly have the opportunity of reading and discussing good, ex¬ amples of the same sort, taken mainly from contemporaries. In the same way, when they are reading poetry, plays, and stories, they should be encouraged to creative effort as one of the best possible methods of attaining to skill in interpretation and fullness of appre¬ ciation. The administering of any scheme of separation will require the making of separate records and the handing in of separate credits for the work in practical English and the work in literary English. This may be accomplished by assigning the work in practical English to a certain specified place in the course and the literary English to another. In several school systems, Detroit, Chicago, Madison, and Washington, for example, Miis has been accomplished by an alterna¬ tion of semesters, one being devoted to what is called composition and another to what is called literature. In other systems the period of separation is shorter, consisting of 10 weeks or less. Still other schools carry it out less effectively by assigning composition to cer¬ tain days in the week and literature to other days in the week. In any case, both types of instruction should be entrusted to the same teachers of English unless there is some very excellent reason to the contrary, in order, first, that useful correlation may be made between the two types of work, and second, that no one teacher shall be over¬ burdened with the work in composition. It should be understood, moreover, that the general reading of the pupils, done at home or in free periods at school, should go on without interruption during the weeks devoted to composition as well as during the weeks devoted to literature. The arguments for such a separation have been clearly set forth by several recent writers, whose articles are listed in the bibliography under the appropriate head. The principal ones are as follows: (1) Separation leads to the proper emphasis upon oral and written com¬ position based on topics drawn from the personal life and observa¬ tion of the pupils. (2) It obviates the difficulty of doing justice to the hard worker who is not brilliant in literature, on the one hand, and the careless and dilatory but quick-witted reader of literature, on the other. (3) It makes possible more appropriate aims and methods in the treatment of what are essentially different types of work. It prevents confusion of aims. The serious grind which is necessary for the mastery of the fundamentals of grammar and composition is 75080°— 17 - 9 130 ENGLISH IN SECONDARY SCHOOLS. deadly when applied to the study of literature, whose ultimate pur¬ pose must be the establishment of ideals of life, good methods of read¬ ing, and the habit of turning to books for the proper enjoyment of leisure hours. Finally, (4) it makes possible cooperation on the part of all departments from the fact that the teacher of mathematics and the teacher of science will readily assist in establishing habits of care¬ ful and accurate expression, but can hardly be expected to support, except through general attitude, the teaching of poetry and fiction. It is believed that these arguments are sound. No school that has put the new plan into effect has failed to find satisfaction or has gone back to the older method of organization. 3. COOPERATION WITH OTHER DEPARTMENTS. The relation of the work in English to the other studies of the school, which was discussed at length in the Nation and other peri¬ odicals a few years ago, and which was worked out practically in certain reports made to the New England Association of Teachers of English,1 has recently been treated at length by several writers. Speaking to the secondary department of the National Education Association at Salt Lake City in 1913, Mr. James F. Hosic, of the Chicago Normal College, pointed out the importance of cooperation because of the fact that the use of good language is a habit and there¬ fore must be practiced throughout the day’s work. The pupil often comes to school with bad habits of expression well established. It requires the united efforts of teachers to overcome these. Such efforts are possible only where all the members of the teaching staff have the same standards and common aims and when the working conditions of the school are favorable. Moreover, these requirements can be supplied only through the good generalship of the principal of the school. He must see that the English teachers are not over- precise nor the science teachers unduly careless. He must plan for conferences in which the minima of English instruction are carefully outlined, and he must see to it that the English teachers have the opportunity of dealing with their pupils as individuals.2 As a typical example of successful cooperation the following con¬ cerning the High School of Commerce in Boston, written by Mr. O. O. Gallagher, principal of the West Roxbury High School, when in charge of the High School of Commerce, may be quoted : The teacher of subjects other than English demands that the work be clear and substantially correct in spelling, punctuation, and sentence structure. Fail¬ ing to secure the first, he lowers the pupil’s mark, and, at his option, demands revision ; failing to secure the second, he withholds all credit until the work is 1 See Brown, Successful Combination Against the Inert ; Gallagher, Cooperation in English ; Grace, Some Successful Experiments in Cooperation, in the bibliography. 2 Proceedings of the National Education Association for 1913, p. 478. See also the School Review, vol. 21, and Johnston’s Modern High School, chap. 25. ADMINISTRATIVE PROBLEMS. 131 presented in a satisfactory form. The teacher of English insists that every piece of writing shall be regarded as an English theme to be corrected, revised, and rewritten, and to count in the making up of the mark in English. The collection of papers at unexpected moments convinces most pupils of the un¬ wisdom of taking chances, for even if the English teacher fails to collect a set, the teacher of the other subject is likely to send him any piece of slipshod work. Again, a conscientious attempt is made to teach pupils how to answer ques¬ tions in other subjects. We correlate the English work in the first year with history, in the second with commercial geography, in the third writh local in¬ dustries and civil government, in the fourth with business law and economics. By drawing upon these branches for occasional subjects and correcting the themes orally for sentence structure, unity, mass, and coherence we try to train the pupils to bear in mind the principles of English while their atten¬ tion is focused upon another subject. Similarly in connection with science de¬ scriptions of apparatus and expositions of experiments are required, and the teacher of science is consulted as to the adequacy of the productions from a technical standpoint. With foreign languages the English department has found most need for cooperation in drill upon points of grammar as they are taken up in German and in French. Besides “ corrective ” cooperation there is such a thing as “ preventive or anticipating ” cooperation, which is quite as important as the other. Since most teachers are interested in English as a means rather than as an end, the use of English must be made effective in recitation as well as in writing. Several subjects taken up in the first year of a secondary school lend themselves readily to such drill, especially history and elementary science. After con¬ sultation between the teacher of English and the teacher of history the his¬ tory textbook may be taken up in the English class and the pupil taught how to make his English do the work that the author tried to have his do. What has the author aimed at? Did he hit it? Why? How? This brings the pupil to the outline; he must get his sights in line. Then the discharge — oral de¬ livery. The class watch as markers, criticize the sighting, aiming, line of flight, and the hit. The aim is thus upon the English essentials of unity and coherence in whole composition, paragraphs, and sentences. The result is easier work for the teacher of history, for the teacher of Eng¬ lish, and for the pupils, since the work in the English class is “ a practical job.” The pupils can measure the success of their effort in one class by their achievement in the other. A definite experiment in cooperation was conducted in the schools of New York State during 1913-14 by Mr. K. T. Congdon, English inspector. He sent out the following letter : The general method suggested is the setting of a standard in the simple funda¬ mentals of written and oral speech to which all class work must attain or be rejected. As a preliminary measure, it is wise to make some arrangement by which the pupils’ written work may be distributed throughout the week, and not crowded, as is often the ease, into a day or two. Teachers may be assigned certain days each week or alternate week when they are at liberty, or perhaps are expected to require written work from their various classes. The standard set should be simple, as an overambitious scheme will almost surely defeat its own ends. It seems reasonable to demand neatness, correct spelling, broadly correct punctuation, the avoidance of apparent mistakes in grammar and sen¬ tence structure. Beyond this, in the first and second years, reasonable division 132 ENGLISH IN SECONDARY SCHOOLS. into paragraphs may be required, and in the third and fourth years reasonable constructions of the whole — that is, a beginning, a middle, and an end. By thus distributing written work throughout the week and simplifying and systema¬ tizing its correction, it is perhaps possible to secure daily effective drill. In the oral composition of all classrooms the first necessity will probably be to empha¬ size the handling of subject matter in such a way as to secure a reasonable proportion of recitations of several sentences in length. Then, when recitation bids fair to be of more than a sentence or two in length, the pupils may be required to rise, stand free from their desks, and speak substantially without aid from the teacher. In such recitations it is not too much to exact correct grammar and sentence construction, reasonably correct pronunciation and use of ordinary words, and the fundamentals of correct structure of the whole; that is, the presence of everything necessary to a complete whole, the absence of irrelevant material, and proper order. I mention these points to emphasize the essential simplicity of the oral correction of the most common and funda¬ mental errors in construction. Some objection to so comprehensive a scheme is naturally to be expected. A full understanding of the conditions involved can not fail, however, to go far toward removing these objections. The work suggested need take but little time. Teachers can tell almost at a glance whether or not written work is deficient in the points mentioned ; at most, the attention necessary to judge the correctness of the content /will at the same time test the correctness of the fundamentals of form. In all composition correction for construction (that is, for omission, irrelevance, and illogical order) is absolutely necessary to a correct statement of the subject matter of the recitation, as is correction relative to the meaning of words. For the rest, nothing more is intended than persistent criticisms of obvious, prevailing errors. It should be remembered, too, that the effectiveness of the discussion of any subject can not be greater than the co¬ herence and accuracy of the language used. Moreover, the work of the teacher will be lightened by the fact that after a little she will be free from the drudgery of attempting to read carelessly written, illegible manuscript. “ The law of self-preservation might suggest * * * that the summary rejection of papers obviously deficient in the prime elements of decent English would be an imme¬ diate relief in the number Of papers to correct and a permanent relief in the ease with which subsequent papers may be corrected.” The ultimate reason, however, for adopting a system of cooperation is the advantage to the pupil. The public is beginning to demand insistently that high-school graduates shall have greater ability in the use of mother tongue for practical daily purposes. The English teacher can not in an hour a day offset the bad habits of speech acquired during all other waking hours; it is unreasonable to expect her to do so. The only remedy that I can conceive is along the line here indicated. Daily, hourly drill in correct English is abso¬ lutely necessary, if the school is ever really to correct the bad habits of speech of average pupils. “ It is simply school-boy human nature to give you as slov¬ enly and inaccurately written and spoken English as you will accept. Exact any standard, all of you as one teacher, and you will get it.” 4die results were very gratifying and most of the teachers of science, mathematics, history, and Latin, as well as of English, voted unanimously in favor of the plan. The principals were also pleased, as is evidenced by the following from Principal Fletcher, of the Jamestown High School ; J ADMINISTRATIVE PROBLEMS. 133 We have done enough to satisfy me that the plan is workable, and that it has in it the possibility of very great good to the pupil as well as ultimately a saving of time and strength to the teacher. The difficulty will be to get teachers to follow up the system with persistency and good judgment. Where supervising officers will see to it that this is done, the result can hardly fail to be of great value. Stenographic reports of the recitations conducted during the course of the experiment serve to support the views of the teachers and principals. Mr. Congdon concludes that two things seem es¬ sential to the success of such a plan of cooperation: “ (1) A simplic¬ ity of standards such that their observance can become habitual to both teacher and pupils; and (2) almost absolute uniformity in their enforcement by all teachers of the school.” More recently a plan of cooperation in the teaching of English was worked out by a committee of the California Association of Teachers of English in cooperation with the commissioner of sec¬ ondary education of the State department. This plan is as follows: 1. Principals should use all possible methods for emphasizing the general need of good English. The methods should include talks to entrants, teachers’ meetings, and other devices suggested below. 2. Principals should consider the English acquirements of each teacher before recommending him to the appointing power. In general, power of effective expression, oral and written, should be demanded of every teacher in the school. Where, as in the case of certain manual crafts, there is as yet but a small supply of academically trained teachers, every effort should be made to stiffen the demand for manual arts teachers with satisfactory English training. 3. All teachers in all subjects should be required to demand good English, oral and written, and the principal in his periodic classroom visit should insure compliance with this requirement. The principal, in his visits, should take notice of such points as are suggested below, and as may be contained in future letters from this association ; and he should demand compliance with the general cooperative scheme. Unless he follows up his visits with the proper enforcement of his demands, no good wull be gained. Wherever the time of the principal permits, regular visits for this purpose should be made. 4. In all subjects all papers that are deficient in the mechanics of good ex¬ pression should be rejected, and individual cases of repeated rejection should be reported to the English department. By the “ mechanics of expression ” is meant form of manuscript, spelling, elementary punctuation, elementary syntax, penmanship, and paragraph marking. Alternative to 4. All teachers should make a written statement on each paper of which the English expression is unsatisfactory, should lower the grade of the paper therefor, and report all such statements periodically to the principal and the English department. 5. All students reported under 4 should be given extra English drill, in addi¬ tion to their regular courses, until all their teachers shall have certified to satisfactory habits of written expression. This extra English drill should not be called the “ hospital class,” because of the stigma of the name. It should be called an “ ungraded class,” or “ English drill class,” or “ special English class.” In the small school this extra drill should be done largely through individual consultation. In the large school it might be done in small sections, 134 ENGLISH IN SECONDARY SCHOOLS. in order to avoid conflicts in studies. Individual consultation should always play a large part in this extra drill. The teacher who has charge of this drill should be chosen very carefully, for his sympathy with backward and stubborn children, for his effectiveness as a drillmaster, and with reference to the time he can legitimately be asked to give to this work. Such classes or consulta¬ tions should be counted as a component part of the teacher’s work, not as extra work. Care should be taken to prevent instructors in regular classes making use of this special English in order to shift responsibility. Com¬ mercial classes can sometimes be used for this special drill. The drill should consist of spelling, punctuation, syntax, definition of words, grammar, dicta¬ tion, paragraph writing, and speaking. 6. Topical recitations should be required in all subjects, and students who are deficient in oral English should be sent for special drill, as under 4 and 5. Fluent and idiomatic English should be required in translating from foreign languages. 7. A uniform scheme for arranging written work and a uniform system of corrections should be provided. Lists of common errors in grammar, syntax, spelling, punctuation, etc., should also be supplied to all teachers, so that there may be some common understanding of what constitutes “ unsatisfactory ex¬ pression.” From time to time this association will compile and distribute lists of suggestions covering these points. See the “ First List of Practical Sugges¬ tions ” printed below. 8. Upon recommendation of teachers concerned, specially good themes in departments other than English may be submitted by the student to the English department for credit, to take the place of regular English themes ; and themes assigned by the English department on subjects suggested by other departments may, on the recommendation of the English teacher, be submitted to other de¬ partments for credit, to take the place of regular themes in the other depart¬ ments. But no student should write less than one theme each month. 9. Twice each term all teachers in all subjects should report the common Eng¬ lish errors they have observed to the English department. From these reports the English department should make up a general list and send it to all teachers, who thereafter should be particularly careful to report all students who com¬ mit such errors with undue frequency. Note. — It should be observed that, with the exception of the extra drill classes, the above recommendations require of the teacher nothing more in the way of new work than the filing of certain reports and the constant insistence upon good English. The English teachers of New York city have, in similar fashion, prepared a series of recommendations, which are set forth in the bulletin of that association for May, 1915. The principal recom¬ mendations of the committee are as follows : ENGLISH TEACHERS. To the English teacher we recommend that he continue to employ the methods whereby he has tried to spread the effects of his teaching over his pu¬ pils’ life; such as ( a ) assigning themes from the subject matter of other courses taken in school, (&) introducing subjects from every-day life with the purpose of impressing the student with the idea that English is a tool for use as well in every business and profession as in every school department, (c) convincing students of the English teacher’s interest in their habitual use of the mother tongue by inquiring from other teachers of the work done in history, science, and so on, and by reading and criticizing such papers and notebooks occa¬ sionally, ( d ) considering special problems which confront the pupil in preparing ADMINISTRATIVE PROBLEMS. 135 his work in other departments (such as a history outline or the record of an experiment in science) and giving him proper training therefor, and ( e ) wherever it is practicable, taking at frequent but irregular intervals whole sets of papers in other subjects in lieu of composition assignments in the English class. OTHER TEACHERS. To the teacher of another department desirous of cooperating with English teachers to secure better written and spoken English from his pupils we offer the following list of specifications as a definition of the uniform standard to which pupils are expected to measure up. We should like to emphasize the suggestions concerning oral work. Cooperation should not be restricted to noting violations of good usage. It should aim to develop the most effective use of language possible. The effort should not stop short of connected discourse. The boy or girl will never think with perfect clarity until he or she learns to express ideas in lucid language. SUGGESTIONS FOR COOPERATION. In Oral Work. 1. Insist on clear speaking. The student should stand erect, with head up, and speak with sufficient clearness to be understood in all parts of the room. 2. Insist on exactness. Require that the answer match the specific question asked. Do not say, “ I know what you mean. It is this way.” Lead him to employ words that will express his meaning with some approach to precision. 3. Insist on full answers. Resist the temptation to accept piecemeal replies. Where such a regulation is not too artificial, frequently require the pupil to explain in complete sentences what he means. Encourage the pupil so to organize his material that he can speak two or more minutes in elucidation of his ideas. 4. Insist on correctness. Do not. accept “ ain’t ” for “ isn’t,” “ don’t ” for “ doesn’t,” “ this here,” “ those sort,” or similar ungrammatical or unidiomatic expressions. Be careful to secure the proper use of the tenses, especially of the present tense. In Written Work. 1. Require the uniform heading. The faculty in each school should reach an agreement concerning the heading to be required of all pupils in all their written work. 2. Insist on neatness in both handwriting and arrangement. 3. Require correct spelling, not only of words in your subject, but of all com¬ mon English words. To call attention to such errors will not be suffi¬ cient, unless the pupil is made to feel that he can not safely repeat the error. 4. Insist on clear sentence structure. Sprawling or incoherent sentences should be pointed out to the student. He will soon learn that he must exercise the same care in his other writing that the English teacher exacts in his themes. 5. Require such punctuation as will make the sentence clear at a single read¬ ing, especially the proper use of the period and the question mark. The faculty might well agree on a few of the important rules for the comma to be enforced in all writing. 136 ENGLISH IN SECONDARY SCHOOLS. 6. Reject summarily all reports, papers, and notebooks obviously deficient in tlie elements of decent English and good form noted above. Supervisory Officers. Of principals and chairmen of departments we urgently request that they devote a part of their supervision specifically to this matter of cooperation and that they commend effective cooperation wherevef* they find it. Even the most enthusiastic teacher will not long continue to spend extra time and care in giving his pupils a more practical command of English if he does not from time to time receive encouragement. His weaker brother and sister will hardly make a beginning. Certainly, without praise there will be no concerted effort within the department, no uniform maintaining of standards within the school in this matter so vital to the pupil’s development and future career. On the other hand, judicious praise for attention paid to these matters will lead to increased devotion to the pupils’ welfare. Examinations. To the principal of each school we recommend that he promulgate the fol¬ lowing rule for all examinations in subjects other than English : “ On all papers marked 60 or above the teacher grading the paper shall give an additional credit, up to five points, for notably good English.” Such a regulation will stimulate the pupil to more conscientious efforts to improve his English in all classes. It will also encourage the teacher. Under present conditions his incentive to cooperate is the hope that his work of this term will bear fruit in greater power for his pupils in the long years that follow school. Under the proposed ruling he would have the satisfaction of a more direct and immediate reward for his labors. Indeed, without the incentive furnished by such a regu¬ lation the committee sees no prospect among our teachers for any but sporadic efforts at cooperation. The recommendations of the committee are supported by a series of reports from teachers of various subjects other than English as to the possibilities of cooperation in those subjects. In the case of Latin, cooperation in vocabulary is especially emphasized; in the case of history, the organization of oral and written recitations. The plans of the New York teachers may be more clearly under¬ stood by the reading of the following letter from Mr. Frederick H. Law, head of the department of English in the Stuyvesant High School : About two years ago our English department placed on exhibition about 3,000 term compositions written in strict correlation with other studies than English. The subjects chosen were selected by the pupils, after consultation with English teachers and teachers of other subjects. The compositions represented every type of work taken up in our school, which, as you may know, is a technical and scientific high school. The work represented narration, description, ex¬ position and argumentation. A few of the subjects are given below as typical of the great mass : The part that chemistry plays in life. Autobiography of an electron. A visit to a soap factory. The adventures of a drawing board. ADMINISTRATIVE PROBLEMS. 137 How to make a drawing outfit. Why I studied drawing. The story of a, piece of iron. The tumbler as part of the foundry. How to obtain wrought iron. Dan Carroll’s experience in German. A picture of a German village. How Jimmy learned French. Modern languages vs. the classical. Humorous scenes in the “ gymn.” Jimmy’s experience on the ropes. The art of rope climbing. The structure of the teeth. The biology laboratory. The laughing stock of the gymnasium. Basketball vs. football. Horatius at the bridge. Pickett’s charge. The Roman forum. The meaning of civics. American representation vs. English representation. The bad boy receives a scolding in “math.” How to find the height of trees. My first week in the math. room. Do “pretty” boys excel in mathematics? The autobiography of a screw. The speed lathe. How I made a fly-wheel pattern. The gas engine vs. the steam engine. The adventures of a wireless set. The four-cycle marine engine. The manufacture of ice. Pumping out a flooded mine. From forest to home. A shop teacher’s mistake. Chair making. The growth of a tree. The joinery course in Stuyvesant. The essays were for the most part illustrated with plans, drawings, and inserted pictures. All had heavy covers with original artistic designs by the writers of the essays. A year ago we broadened the field of our cooperative work by allowing students to write on topics in connection with the work, trade, or profession they would follow in mature life. This year we broadened still more and allow topics taken from current events. The result of our work has been satisfactory in many ways. Some time ago I carried out a most interesting experiment in having a group of students write on “Altruistic work in the neighborhood of the Stuy¬ vesant High School.” We allowed no two students to write on the same topic. A very great deal of active work ensued, and about 40 topics were written on. The ethical value of this work was remarkably great. We have two groups of “ cooperative ” students now. Their work in English is different from the work of any other students in the school. All the work is in strict correlation with the work the students are now taking up in school 138 ENGLISH IN SECONDARY SCHOOLS. other than English, and in correlation with the work the students are to carry- on in life. With these students we have much of the long, formal report of the type given to the city of New York in the different city technical departments. For six months our students presented such reports every Monday, the reports covering all the work done by the students while at work outside the school in technical work for the city during the week preceding. On every Tuesday we asked these students to present about 20 technical words with clear definitions and illustrations, presenting all this on library cards for filing in card trays that our school supplied for the purpose. By this means every student made for himself a technical dictionary of about 500 terms, and no two students had the same list of words. On every Wednesday we asked the students to present letters of about 20 different types, written with much regard for form. The subjects written about w’ere always technical or scientific and in touch with the student’s work. On every Thursday we read from scientific and tech¬ nical literature, using Bird’s “ Modern Science Reader,” Huxley’s addresses, and books of that sort. One day a week we gave to oral reports of tech¬ nical work. All our work in English was carried on after consultation with teachers of other subjects. We followed this work by adding lectures by pupils on the world’s leading scientists and technical workers of all ages; by adding readings from current literature and periodicals, always emphasing the technical ; by having the students prepare their own techincal rhetorics, bas¬ ing their work on readings and discussions in class ; by making close study of business forms such as contracts, specifications, bids, estimates, etc., and by making a general study of technical English. The result of our work has been most gratifying. It has stimulated interest, made work more akin to pleasure, and has increased the value of the work done. It is clear that there is a widespread opinion to the effect that definite plans of cooperation between the department of English and the other departments of the school are essential not merely for the sake of the teacher of English but for the sake of the pupil and of the other departments. Such cooperation will not lessen the labors of the English teacher, but will render his work effective. The mere dumping of the written papers in history, science, etc., upon the Eng¬ lish teacher is in no sense cooperation. On the other hand, mere nagging of the pupil as to his mispronunciations and grammatical errors in all classes fails to touch the most vital matters. The essence of cooperation is harmonious effort to train pupils in the art of study— that is, of thinking — and in the art of expression — that is, communication of ideas. There is no essential difference between the problem of preparing an oral or a written composition and the prob¬ lem of preparing to recite a lesson in history or in science. Coopera¬ tion, to be worthy the name, must involve the fundamentals of intel¬ lectual training, not merely the more mechanical aspects of speech and writing. Probably the most effective single device for making the work of the English teacher permanent is that of regarding the credits in English as probationarj^, subject to withdrawal at any time if the pupil permits himself to become careless in his speech or writing. ADMINISTRATIVE PROBLEMS. 139 If each pupil in the school knows that he may at any time be remanded to the English department for special treatment, he will not willingly become a candidate for the “hospital.”1 4. DISTRIBUTION OF PUPILS. The amazing increase of attendance upon the public high school, combined with the general extension of the course in English over the entire high-school period, has congested the classes of the English teachers, especially in the large city, almost beyond endurance. From Boston, New York, Philadelphia, and Chicago come reports showing that it is common to assign to a single English teacher 5 or 6 classes, each containing from 30 to 40 pupils. When we remember that the success of the English work depends, especially in the case of composition, very largely upon individual guidance and adequate at¬ tention to the written papers, we can see that the assignment of such overwhelming numbers to the English teacher is fatal to results. It certainly need not be pointed out that it is destructive of the teacher’s health. These conditions are not wholly necessary. Careful investigations carried on by the committee on the labor and cost of English teach¬ ing’, a committee working under the joint direction of the Modern Language Association of America and the National Council of Teachers of English, show that relatively the cost of English is less than any other subject in the curriculum. The average annual teach¬ ing cost for each pupil of English in the country is about $7. In mathematics it is 23 per cent more in Latin, 42 per cent more ; in German, 36 per cent; in history, 18 per cent more; in science, 75 per cent more ; in chemistry alone, 170 per cent more. The average num¬ ber of pupils assigned to a teacher in English is found to be about 130; in German, 99; in mathematics, 115; in history, 115; in Latin, 96 ; in science, 80 ; in chemistry alone, 66. The figures for shop work will be found, both in the matter of cost and in the assignment to the teacher, relatively more favorable to that subject than in the case of those just listed. It is evident that the number of pupils assigned to the teacher in English could be lessened by from 50 to 75 per cent without increasing the cost of that subject over some of the others in the high-school curriculum. Certainly no one would contend that instruction in science is of greater value to the pupils of a democracy than instruction in our language and literature. Nor would anyone who is familiar with modern methods of instruction contend that individ¬ ual work in the laboratory is any more essential in the work in science than similar individual attention in the case of English. The fact is 1 See Charters, W. W. A Spelling “ Hospital ” in High School. School Review, 18 : 192, March, 1910. 140 ENGLISH IN SECONDARY SCHOOLS. merely that a tradition has been built up in favor of small classes with adequate apparatus in the case of science, while no similar tra¬ dition has become current in the case of English. It is hoped that the careful investigations carried on by the committee under the direc¬ tion of Prof. Hopkins which, in preliminary form,1 have already been widely published in several States, and which will ultimately appear in the form of a bulletin of the Bureau of Education, will bear fruit in the reduction, both in the number and in the size, of classes in Eng¬ lish. Indeed, the earnest of such a reform is seen in the case of cities like Grand Rapids, which has already reduced the number and size of English classes, and in the State of North Dakota, which has done likewise. How general and profound the feeling is that this should be accomplished, is shown in the following resolution, which was unanimously passed at the third annual meeting of the National Council of Teachers of English held in Chicago in November, 1913 : The National Council of Teachers of English approves the steps taken by the North Central Association to lim.it and decrease the number of pupils assigned to English teachers in high schools, and requests the association and all similar accrediting bodies to recommend for immediate action that schools in which the maximum number of pupils .assigned to a single English teacher exceeds 100 be not accredited in English ; and it also requests the association and ail similar accrediting bodies to take further action at as early a date as seems expedient to reduce this maximum to 80, with due provision, as at present recommended, for necessary time for conference and theme reading counted as teaching time. 5. EXTRA CLASSROOM ACTIVITIES. The burden of the English teacher is in most schools increased by certain extra classroom activities that are fully as important in their way as the regular recitations. These include dramatics, the school paper, and various club activities, such as debating, speaking of pieces, and the like. To these is often added a good deal of responsibility for the work of the pupils in the library. The importance of high-school dramatics and the festival is now becoming well understood. The drama is primarily a thing to be acted, not merely to be read, and hence full appreciation of it de- " mands production, or at least, the witnessing of production upon the stage. Moreover, there are personal and social values to be realized through production which can come in no other way. When the members of a class or several classes combine their forces, appoint committees, carry on rehearsals, criticize results, all under direction but still with individual initiative and freedom, they attain to social power which the recitation in the classroom can never produce. Moreover, it is the duty of the school to prepare for the right use of 1 Issued by the Department of Journalism Press, University of Kansas, 5 cents, post¬ paid. ADMINISTRATIVE PROBLEMS. 141 leisure as well as for occupation. More and more the theater and its counterpart, the moving-picture play, are becoming the chief source of entertainment of our people. The school, therefore, must under¬ take to raise the standard of such performances and to increase the appreciation of the best there may be in them. This the school must undertake to do. That the influence of the school may be far-reach¬ ing, even to the extent of raising the standard of plays offered to the public, there can be no question. The value of school dramatics has been well summed up by the committee of the National Council of Teachers of English on plays, under the chairmanship of the late Thacher Guild. In the report of the committee made in November, 1914, and published in the English Journal for January, 1915, appears the following summary: A. The aims of such study should be : 1. To develop the power of discrimination which enables one to recognize in the best drama the enduring literary and artistic values. 2. To develop a permanent interest in reading plays. 3. To develop such artistic and emotional qualities as may be appro¬ priately and successfully stimulated in the exercises of dramatic interpretation (i. e., reading and acting). 4. To develop a spirit of active and intelligent interest in contemporary dramatic entertainment. B. The chief means of attaining these ends (in addition to a study of literary values) are: 1. In the study of each play a proper consideration of its dramatic values ; emphasis on the need of visualization ; recognition of the relation of the play to the theater of its period and to the general development of the drama. 2. Wider reading of plays, including foreign and contemporary drama ; such plays to be assigned or suggested by each teacher according to circumstances. 3. Exercises in arranging tableaux and dramatizing scenes from assigned reading. 4. Definite correlation of the school or class dramatics with the regular work in literature and public speaking, recognizing always, of course, that such productions must be thoroughly entertaining if they are not to defeat their own educational purpose. 5. Some consecutive study, preferably in the upper classes, of the develop¬ ment of the drama, with .definite consideration of the relation of the contemporary drama to literature and to society. 6. Encouragement and supervision of attendance on dramatic entertain¬ ments, with a view to discussion of values and with special reference to the problem of developing the pupils’ taste by utilizing their mani¬ fest natural interest. C. The committee recognizes the fact that teachers (especially outside of the city schools) may find it difficult to adopt some of these measures, through (1) lack of special training, (2) lack of opportunity to study the acted drama, and (3) lack of a suitable library. It is none the less desirable to adopt these standards and to attempt to meet the special problems as they arise. 142 ENGLISH IN SECONDARY SCHOOLS. D. The committee feels that in teaching drama in the schools one should plan the work so as to take advantage of the natural interest of the pupils and to preserve in their minds an active sense of the vitality of the art. The proper handling of the school play requires financial organiza¬ tion, which ought to come under the direction of the budget com¬ mittee of the school as a whole. It involves, also, the handling of crowds, and hence ushering and other duties attendant upon public audience. It demands, too, certain architectural features that are only beginning to be provided in the American high school. These are particularly a suitable stage, with lighting and dressing rooms, an account of which will be found in a very suggestive article by Walter H. Nichols, which appeared in the English Journal for De¬ cember, 1914. He points out that from 15 to 30 two-hour rehearsals may be necessary for a successful play to be given publicly, and that for such rehearsals adequate conveniences must be provided. These should include something akin to the old-fashioned greenroom, with halls leading to the dressing rooms on each side, and a revolving stage, which would cost very little more than a good automobile turn¬ table. To these must be added the switchboard for color effects and proper curtains and flies. Further details are to be found in an article by O. B. Sperlin, “The production of plays in high school,” which appeared in the English Journal for March, 1916. He explains the process of con¬ stituting a committee of pupils and faculty to handle the box office and other business arrangements, and suggests that the money which is obtained be spent for articles of value to the entire school, such as paintings for the walls or books for the library. An excellent presentation of other extra-classroom activities will be found in the English leaflet of the New England Association of Teachers of English, for November, 1915. The editor, Charles S. Thomas, emphasizes the value of the school paper in providing an incentive for better work in composition by offering the reward of publication. He thinks great care should be exercised in the ac¬ ceptance of articles ; only those clear in style, wholesome in humor, and original in treatment being allowed a place. The organization of the staff and. the editing and the publishing of the paper will give play to a fine spirit of cooperation and will result in the de¬ velopment of efficiency. Mr. Thomas argues also for the value of debating, provided that it is genuine and informal. He evidently favors contests of the type made famous at Lake Forest College, in which the speakers have a limited time to prepare themselves and must be ready to speak on either side of the question. In this case it is good organization of ADMINISTRATIVE PROBLEMS. 143 the school as a whole, and not mere drilling by the coach, which in¬ sures success. Many of those now prominent in public life received their first impetus in the literary society of their high school or college. If nothing more is possible, the class itself, as has been done by one teacher in the Central High School of Kansas City, for example, may be organized into a club and may hold occasional meetings for discussion, recitation, and the presentation of original pieces. The provision for all this becomes ultimately an administrative question, and requires both sympathy and good judgment on the part of the principal or other administrative officer. 6. VOCATIONAL GUIDANCE THROUGH COMPOSITION. It seems to be generally agreed that pupils in the junior and senior high schools should obtain such an outlook on the various vocations as will give motive to their school work and at the same time save them from drifting unintelligently into some occupation of which they happen to have knowledge. This outlook is to be obtained, how¬ ever, not by pursuing a school study known as vocational guidance, but by giving due attention to vocations in the appropriate sub¬ jects now in the curriculum. Because of the fact that English com¬ position employs of necessity a large body of interesting and valu¬ able content, this subject lends itself particularly to the study of occupations. . The following suggestive outline of work, which was compiled by the English teachers of the Central High School of Grand Rapids, will serve to set forth the possibilities.1 SEVENTH AND EIGHTH GRADES. The vocational guidance work of the seventh and eighth grades is taught in connection with English and geography; and all of the exercises are for composition, either oral or written. They cover such subjects as occupations, simple biography, and the value of an education. The pupil is not marked on howT much he knows of those subjects, but on how well he tells what he knows. All the exercises have proved of interest to the pupils, and have filled a long- felt want among teachers of composition, because the subjects seem to be vital and enlarge the horizons of the class. The study of some occupations is less likely to interest the girls. A few general subjects under the study of occupations are the following: (1) The study of a home occupation; (2) this occupation compared with the same occupation in foreign countries; (3) the account of a trip through some manufacturing plant, office building, or store. 1 See also Davis, Jesse P. Vocational and Moral Guidance. 144 ENGLISH IN SECONDARY SCHOOLS. Sample exercise: The Comparative Study of an Occupation. 1. In what foreign countries can this occupation be found? 2. How does the occupation in these other countries differ from it as I know it? 3. Where should I especially like to live to follow it? Why? (a) Is the country healthier? (b) Does the country give me more opportunity to expand my oc¬ cupation ? A few subjects under the study of biography are these: (1) The life of a successful celebrated person (this should be read to the class by the teacher). (2) The life of a successful person whom the pupil knows. (3) The life of the pupil himself. Sample exercise : The Life of a Successful Person. 1. When and where did - live? 2. What work did he do? 3. What was the most important point in his life? 4. What pleasures did he have? 5. What made his work successful? 6. Did he render service to his fellow men? 7. Did he live by any law or motto or aim of his own? What was his guide (law, motto, aim), and was it a good one or not? Why? Sample subjects that may follow the pupil’s life are as follows: (1) How I earned my first money. (2) How I spend my Saturdays. (3) My first real work. To show the value of an education, the following subjects are good: (1) A talk by some young person who has returned to school after being out for a period, on “ Why I left school ” or “ Why I came back to school.” (2) What people I know say about the value of an education. (3) What I could do if I left school now. (4) What other young people have done who have left school at the end of the eighth grade. (5) Wages of eighth-grade graduates com¬ pared with the wages of high-school graduates. (6) What a family has done (this is taken from an article in the Outlook of August 26, 1911). NINTH GRADE. In the ninth grade the study becomes personal, and enters into more elaborate biography. Perhaps the first exercises will be as follows : My ancestors : Where they came from, why they came to this country, whether or not they had to contend with hardships, what they have done here. My parents : Early life ; hardships ; occupation, its difficulties and advantages. What have they done for their children? ADMINISTRATIVE PROBLEMS. 145 Myself: My childhood; my school life; any uncommonly good fortune, or bad, that has befallen me ; my pleasures ; my favorite studies ; my ambitions ; my health; etc. These essays will serve not only to draw the pupil out and secure natural expression, but also to establish a personal and intimate re¬ lation between pupil and teacher. The teacher should hold the in¬ formation gained in this way as a privileged communication. The school spirit of the pupil may be transformed by it. “Morals and manners” can well be added to this in a series of essays, in which, with the true spirit of comedy, the undesirable is shown its own image in the glass of nature. Monologues and dia¬ logues give a fit form. The subjects presenting the person with bad manners are inexhaustible: (1) In the street car. (2) At the theater. (3) On the playground. (4.) Buying a hat. (5) Telling a fish story. (6) Gossiping with a neighbor. The healthy humor of the mimicry does much to make the class one. “Health and hygiene” also adds a stimulating subject for com¬ position, as well as for better living among the children. Some of the subjects given are: The value of open-air life; exercise; proper amount of sleep ; food values ; bathing ; neatness of person. Among the biographies most useful in this grade are those of Helen Keller, Jacob Kiis, Booker T. Washington, Phillips Brooks, Jane Addams, Alice Freeman Palmer, Mary Lyon, and Thomas Edison, an essential element in whose success is that it was often at¬ tained without advantage at the start of life. Most of this work is oral. TENTH GRADE. In the tenth grade a great number of occupations are listed at the suggestion of the class, perhaps because the members; have some special opportunity for knowing them ; then each pupil presents one orally, or in written composition, helped in his preparation by means of an outline. Sometimes this offers opportunity to do research work. One girl listed 350 occupations for women, and the salaries paid each. Her method was to take the. lists of the telephone directory and call up the people whose names she found, and then to ask what she wanted to know. Ingenuity will invent other methods. Others ob¬ tained their facts from relatives or friends who knew the occupation. Suggested outline: The vocation — (1) Its character, its present status, its future, its healthfulness, the kind of life it compels as to hours and other condi¬ tions, its effect upon one’s personal development, its opportunity for service to the community. (2) The preparation necessary for entering the vocation (gen¬ eral requirements, natural ability or skill, education, special training), the means of entering it (apprenticeship, working up, schooling, local chances of an opening). (3) Sidelights on the vocation (opinions of those in it at present, 75080' -17 - 10 146 ENGLISH IN SECONDARY SCHOOLS. statistical reports, laws affecting the vocation, periodicals and books discussing it, personal observation). In the second half of this year some of the pupils will be ready to study some occupation that they expect to enter. Those who have no definite occupation in mind will choose one under the guidance of the teacher that has some special interest to him. An outline can be given by the teacher to aid the pupil in his investigations. My own vocation: (1) Origin or history. (2) Modern conditions (as in pre¬ ceding outline). (3) Good points and bad points (degree of independence, per¬ manence, importance, remuneration — money or pleasure in the work itself, or in social returns). (4) How to enter it (preparation, cost, length of time for study). (5) Characteristics necessary to success. This last will require self-analysis of a limited kind, as well as analysis of men who have succeeded in the occupation. The self- analysis should be strictly confidential. Here it may be possible to save some one who habitually fails in mathematics from entering engineering because a hero or relative has succeeded in it, or because father or mother are ambitious that he shall succeed in it. ELEVENTH GRADE. Now that the vocations have been considered, the preparation be¬ comes important, and schools and colleges may be studied. There are various kinds to consider, among which are the industrial, profes¬ sional, and purely literary; art schools, manual-training schools, schools for physical training, etc. Each pupil should take a special interest in some school and look it up through its catalogues and by interviews with graduates, and compare it with other schools of the same kind. The small college versus the large, coeducation versus separate schools for men and women, eastern colleges versus western, native versus foreign — all of these are good subjects for discussion and debate. This information as to the ideals of the col¬ leges and the conditions of student life is soon to be of great value to the students in deciding on their college course. The subjects re¬ quired for college entrance and other conditions must be ascertained and pupils’ own programs inspected to see whether their own work is properly mapped out to satisfy the colleges. In the second half of the year the ethics of the vocations are con¬ sidered. Girls who are not going to college and have no special choice study problems of domestic life — the relation of mistress and serv¬ ant, expenditure, gossip, treatment of clerks in the stores, proper dress, and buying good articles in providing household supplies. Those who have definite plans consider the moral codes of the professions and business life. The subject is inexhaustible. Here are debated the ethics that inspired the founders of the Consumers’ League, ADMINISTRATIVE PROBLEMS. 147 Anti-Saloon League, and other leagues for the betterment of social conditions. TWELFTH GRADE. When the occupations of the business and professional world have been studied, to which most men devote their lives and by which they earn their living, it is well to single out for special study those which are distinguished as supported by and for the people because they are necessary for the public well-being and the betterment of society. Soon most of the pupils in this grade will be earning their own living, and paying either by taxes or by gift for the maintenance of public institutions. Public institutions maintained by taxes will supply subjects for the first half year, and those maintained by subscription for the second. The result of the year’s study must be a growth in public spirit, a willingness to give support by seeking occupation in one of the institutions, by contributing in money and mind, by the aid of a vote or sympathy. “ Each for all ” is the unconscious teaching and a return to the State and society for benefits received. When they are asked, “ What institutions does the State maintain for its people, opening occupations to some of its citizens ? ” the class will readily suggest a long list, beginning with the police department and ending with the Army and Navy. In ten minutes the list will contain more institutions than are sufficient to supply subjects for the individuals of the class. It will include the board of health, city hospitals, fire commission, water supply, weather bureau — an indefi¬ nite list. This is swelled by the institutions which the State charters and in a fashion directs, such as insurance companies, railroads, trusts, etc. These subjects are excellent for exercising the pupil in research work. He has now reached a stage where it is well for him to collect and organize a large body of facts independently. His material will be obtained from the reference library, by personal visits for inspection of the institutions studied and interviews with the officials, or by any other means that ingenuity can devise. The organization of this body of material and the writing of a manu¬ script in the best possible form, with footnotes, a bibliography, and an outline — this is a labor to stimulate the pupil to his highest efforts. 7. PREPARATION OF TEACHERS. The most difficult administrative problem, in the presence of which all others seem insignificant, is, of course, that of securing properly trained teachers. The number of school authorities who still believe that anybody can teach English is fortunately growing small. It is now generally recognized that the giving of instruction in the 148 ENGLISH IN SECONDARY SCHOOLS. vernacular is not only the most important but probably also the most difficult task in the high school. To take in hand young people from homes of culture, of little culture, and of almost no culture at all and undertake to present them at the end of the high-school course capable of speaking and writing with clearness and correctness and of reading with intelligence and appreciation is a daring feat at best. The experienced know that only an approximation to success is possible. The difficulty is that mastery of English does not consist in the learning of facts and rules nor in mere mechanical skill. Com¬ munication is an art, and whether it be approached constructively or interpretatively it must be treated from the standpoint of art. This precludes the leaning heavily upon the textbook, which, at the best, can be only a laboratory guide or a book of reference. The construc¬ tive activity of the pupil in reorganizing his own experience in order to appeal to an audience or to realize the meaning of what another has written — this, and this alone, is what really counts. Now, the inducing and guiding of genuine constructive activity is not a task for greenhorns. It is, indeed, not a task for the mere scholar ac¬ customed to having bodies of facts presented in lecture form from the teacher’s desk. It requires knowledge, but also skill — skill in using that knowledge in the guidance of others. The main facts with regard to the preparation of the teachers of English who are now in service may readily be gathered from the report of a committee of the National Council of Teachers of English which appeared in the English Journal for May, 1915. This com¬ mittee, under the direction of Prof. Franklin T. Baker, of Teachers College, Columbia University, assisted by a committee of the Illi¬ nois Association of Teachers of English, under the chairmanship of Prof. Harry G. Paul, sent out some 1,500 copies of a questionnaire, to which 450 answers were received. From these it appears that about 90 per cent of high-school teachers of English have a college degree. Twenty-five per cent have the master’s degree. About half of those replying have specialized in English to the extent of taking five or more English courses in college. There is, however, no clear consensus as to the relative value of the courses taken. About 50 per cent have had some special training in the teaching of English. This is generally regarded as helpful. The same could not be said, however, for the courses in education in general, which were declared to be frequently too theoretical. Among other subjects, the languages were regarded as most valuable, with history as a close second. The report as a whole indicates that as yet the question as to what constitutes the best preparation for the English teacher has not been widely or thoroughly considered. ADMINISTRATIVE PROBLEMS. 149 Some institutions, however, have organized very definite plans for such preparation. An example of this is seen in the case of the University of Southern California, whose course is set forth at length by the professor in charge, Allison Gaw, in an article in the English Journal for May, 1916. This provides four college years and a graduate year, in which provision is made for extensive studies in English, foreign languages, history, public speaking, philosophy, and education, together with a special course in the teaching of high- school English, continuing three hours a week throughout the gradu¬ ate year. This is accompanied by practice teaching four periods a week and by a course in school management two periods a week. Inasmuch as almost all the larger colleges and universities of the country have begun to offer special courses for the training of high- school teachers, particularly in their summer sessions, it seems likely that in the near future such courses may become reasonably standard¬ ized. That they should include (1) studies in the nature and ele¬ ments of the various literary types, in addition to a broad reading knowledge of English and American literature, (2) sufficient train¬ ing in oral and written composition, including public speaking, (3) a course in the application of educational principles to the teaching of English in the high school, and (4) actual practice under direction, may safely be affirmed. Preliminary steps have been taken in certain States to demand specific professional training of all high-school teachers, and it is certain that it is only a question of time until this will be a .common practice. Doubtless this result will be hastened by the recent action of the University of California, which has established a degree for teachers known as graduate in education. This will be conferred upon the successful completion of the following requirements : 1. Not less than four years of successful professional experience. 2. Two full years of graduate study, one of which must have been spent at the University of California. 3. A minimum of 36 units of upper-division major and graduate work, distributed as follows : (a) A minimum of 12 units of courses in education based on a “ group elective ” in education, or on its equivalent, and in¬ cluding at least four units of seminar work during the sec¬ ond year, this 12 units, together with professional ex¬ perience and a professional thesis, to constitute the candi¬ date’s “ major.” (b) A minimum of 12 units of advanced work in a minor. (c) A professional thesis and an examination, both to be under the direction of the school of education, and both to be subject to the usual rules of the committee on higher de¬ grees. 150 ENGLISH IN SECONDARY SCHOOLS. 8. TRAINING OF TEACHERS IN SERVICE. Clarence D. Kingsley, High School Inspector, Massachusetts Board of Education, makes the following suggestion regarding the need for State directors of high-school English : No system of liigh-school education may be regarded as complete unless ade¬ quate provision is made for the continued training of teachers after they have entered upon their work. Even after the teacher has secured the best possible preliminary training, many problems will arise upon which he needs the advice of an experienced teacher. Consequently, it is recommended that each State department add to its force a specialist in the teaching of high-school English. This specialist would : (а) Visit English teachers in their classrooms so as to discover their indi¬ vidual problems. (б) Confer with groups of teachers regarding common problems. (c) Issue bulletins embodying the results of successful experimentation, giv¬ ing references to useful material. {cl) Revise from time to time State manuals on the teaching of English. The assistance of such State directors is needed especially by teachers in smaller high schools, inasmuch as these teachers have no one to whom they may look for expert detailed advice. Even in the larger high schools where several persons are teaching English, these State directors could give much valuable assistance because they would be familiar with methods and material used successfully in other high schools. Under an ideal scheme some arrangement could be made whereby these State directors of English could, in alternate years, serve as instructors in institu¬ tions preparing teachers of English. In this way they would bring to the preparation of teachers an intimate knowledge of the needs of the schools, and during the years in which they were acting as field agents they would know what preliminary training the teachers had received. 9. CLASSROOM EQUIPMENT. The trained teacher, like Mark Hopkins, may be able to succeed with no apparatus but a log. There is no reason, however, why he should be required to get on with such limited equipment. A recent investigation by a committee of the Illinois Association of Teachers of English shows that in the best schools he has a great deal in addi¬ tion to his desk and chair. This committee reports as follows : Excluding schools outside of the State, 135 high schools were addressed. Forty-five- of these had enrollments of less than 150, 80 of less than 300, 25 of less than 600, and 30 had enrollments ranging from 600 to 2,000. Seventy-one replies were received (55 per cent) ; 26 of Class I, 16 of Class II, 16 of Class III, and 12 of Class IV responded. Recitation rooms. — Only 25 per cent of Class I have a separate recitation room for English work, and but 50 per cent of Class II. In one school of Class IV, having an enrollment of 900, the English recitations are held in what¬ ever room the pupils are seated for study, the teachers passing from room to room. This method, however, is uncommon. The seating capacity of the reci¬ tation room averaged 30. ADMINISTRATIVE PROBLEMS. 151 Committee and rehearsal rooms. — Thirty-three per cent have a room, or rooms, suitable for committee, debate teams, or dramatic practice. Only 10 per cent of these are near or adjoin the English recitation rooms. Dramatic facilities. — Per cent. A. Stage in assembly room _ ; _ _ 70 B. Dressing rooms adjoining _ 25 C. Footlights _ 48 D. Curtain _ _ _ _ _ _ _ : _ 40 E. Scenic properties _ _ 20 F. Furniture properties _ 25 G. Costumes _ _ _ _ Fourteen per cent have a smaller room equipped with a platform in which less ambitious dramatic work may be done before a small audience. Fifing cabinets. — The filing cabinet is just beginning to gain ground. Eight per cent use the cabinet for filing themes, 5 per cent for individual home-read¬ ing cards, 7 per cent for consultation cards, 12 per cent for topical clippings from periodicals, 18 per cent for illustrative pictures for class use, 35 per cent for course outlines for teachers’ guidance, and 27 per cent for class grade cards. Maps. — Sixty-five per cent have in the recitation room a map of America, 78 per cent a map of England, 28 per cent a liteary map of Scotland. Notebooks. — The laboratory size, loose-leaf notebooks are used in 60 per cent of the schools, with ruled paper about 8 by 10 inches in dimension ; 90 per cent of the schools use ruled paper; 45 per cent ask the pupil to provide a small pocket notebook for assignments. Lanterns. — Twenty per cent have projection lanterns ; 30 per cent stereop- ticons. Moving-picture machines. — Only 2 of the 71 schools responding have moving- picture machines. Victrolas. — Fifty per cent have a Victrola or similar machine, a rather large average. Duplicator or mimeograph. — Eighty-five per cent have either one or both of these devices. Typewriters. — Ten per cent have a typewriter for the exclusive use of the English department. Bookcases. — Sixty per cent of the recitation rooms are equipped with book¬ cases. Teachers'1 desks. — Ninety-five per cent of the English teachers have an in¬ dividual desk. The committee recommends the following as essentials in the equipment of any high school : 1. One or more recitation rooms properly equipped for English. 2. A small stage with curtains, dressing rooms, etc. 3. A file for themes and other records. 4. Maps of England, America, and Europe. 5. Loose-leaf notebooks. 6. A projection lantern or stereopticon with slides. 7. A Victrola. 8. A duplicator. 9. A working library supervised intelligently. 10. Three magazines of general interest, four of technical nature; a daily newspaper. 152 ENGLISH IN SECONDARY SCHOOLS. 11. A serviceable collection of books for liome reading, at least oneTourth of contemporary authorship. 12. Several copies of the more useful reference books and one copy of the less valuable. 13. Filed pictures for illustrative class use. 14. A few attractive pictures for wall decoration and a few casts. 15. Writing materials in the recitation room. 16. Informal seating arrangements. 17. Devices of various sorts to make the recitation rooms attractive places for recitation, conference, and reading.1 That the providing of such equipment would not entail a cost out of proportion to that now common in the case of several other sub¬ jects is clearly shown in the report of the committee on English equipment which was presented to the National Council of Teachers of English in November, 1912.2 The following table sets forth the main facts : Average teaching cost and equipment cost per pupil in the high schools reporting. Subject. Number schools reporting teaching cost. Average teaching cost per pupil. Number schools reporting equipment cost. Equip¬ ment cost per pupil. Average annual increase per pupil. English . 106 $7. 80 63 SI. 75 $0. 06 .09 Latin . . . 104 9. 44 55 1.62 German . 99 11.01 53 1.28 . 12 French. . . . . . . . 27 9.81 10 1. 75 .06 Mathematics . 105 8. 53 52 .75 .08 History . - 103 7. 88 60 2. 39 .22 Physics. . . . 95 12. 59 63 19.71 1.30 Chemistry . 84 14. 98 58 23. 49 1.44 Biology . . 86 9.17 64 9. 02 .69 Domestic science . 44 7. 75 38 10. 90 .62 Manual training . 60 13. 57 40 28.51 1. 51 Commercial . 78 10.17 38 4. 55 .33 Physical geography . . . 29 7. 04 15 8. 66 .56 Physiology. . 12 6.10 6 4.02 .23 Agriculture . 9 15. 40 5 10. 75 4. 50 From this table it appears that 10 of the 15 subjects reported on involve a larger equipment cost per pupil than English both in the total and in the average annual increase, though it can hardly be argued that these subjects are of greater value or that they require an equipment so disproportionally greater. io. STANDARDS AND MEASURES OF ATTAINMENT. In no respect has there been more rapid advance in the last decade than in the matter of setting up definite standards of attainment and the working out of objective measures of ability. For the most part, however, these have had their application rather to the elementary 1 Information as to the carrying out of several of these recommendations will be found in an article by Miss Mary Crawford entitled The Laboratory Equipment of the Teacher of English, which appeared in the English Journal for March, 1915. 2 See English Journal for March, 1913. ADMINISTRATIVE PROBLEMS. 153 school than to the high school. There have been pleas for the deter¬ mination of minimum standards in English,1 and actual attempts have been made to set up such standards, as in the case of a com¬ mittee of the Boston schools, under the chairmanship of Miss Carolyn Gerrish.2 The findings of this committee were as follows : A graduate of a high school should meet the following requirements : A. He should have ability — /1) To write original compositions — whether they be narration, description, exposition, or simple argument — that are logically planned and so developed as to be conspicuous for unity and coherence. The spelling md grammar should be correct and the punctuation adequate. (2) To plan coherently and give fluently a five-minute talk on some prac¬ tical subject on which he has had time to think. (3) To write any common type of business or social letter with technical accuracy and with simplicity and directness. (4) To find and organize material for an original composition of 1,000 words upon business, political, historical, literary, or scientific sub¬ jects. (5) To read aloud, at sight, with intelligence and clear enunciation, any¬ thing from a newspaper to a classic of ordinary difficulty. (6) To tell why a piece of literature (like a standard novel, or essay, or a lyric poem such as may be found in the Golden Treasury) has merit. (7) To quote either orally or in writing 200 lines (not necessarily consecu¬ tive) of classic prose or poetry. B. He should have a working knowledge of the course of both English and American literature, of their great names and great books, and of some of the most significant influences in history and life that have molded such literature. C. In addition to regular prescribed work in literature he should have read (from A List of Books for Home Reading, prepared for the Latin and high schools by the English council, or from the college-entrance requirement list) four good books of shor,t stories, five good novels, three good plays, two good biographies, two good books of history or travel. The need of more definite standards for measuring results has been made evident by such investigations as those carried on by Starch and Eliot at the University of Wisconsin. It is now well known that an English composition submitted to a group of teachers will, in all probability, receive marks ranging in value from 60 to 95 on a scale of 100.3 To reduce this variation, Profs. Hillegas and Thorndike worked out their now famous “ Scale for the measurement of quality in English composition by young people.” This, however, has not proved entirely successful in actual use, the chief difficulty being that the compositions are not typical of the work of pupils and are of widely varying types. In an attempt to overcome both these difficul- 1 See Reynolds, Minimum Standards, English Journal, 4: 349, June, 1915. 2 See Education, 36 : 95, October, 1915. 3 Starch, Daniel, and Eliot, Edward C. Reliability in the Grading of High-School Work in English. School Review, 20 : 7, Sepetmber, 1912. See also Kelly, F. J. Teachers’ Marks : Their Variability and Standardization. Teachers College, Columbia University Contributions to Education, No. 66, 1914. Humphries, Florence Y. Effort vs. Accom¬ plishment. English Journal, December, 1914. 154 ENGLISH IN SECONDARY SCHOOLS. ties “Scales for measurement of composition” were prepared by Frank W. Ballou and published in the Harvard-Newton Bulletin for Sep¬ tember, 1914. These scales consist of groups of compositions from eighth-grade children, each representing a single type of writing, and representing different degrees of excellence, ranging from passing to very good. The relative value of these new scales is not yet es¬ tablished. A similar scale for the fourth year of the high school in the one field of descriptive writing has been worked out by Wirt G. Faust and appeared in the English Journal for April, 1916. The specimens in both of these scales are accompanied by definite notes as to their merits and demerits, and these doubtless will assist teachers in arriving at more definite points of agreement. Doubt¬ less some such precise method of grading as is suggested by Prof. Percy W. Long in his article, “ Grades that explain themselves,” in the English Journal, volume 3, pages 488-493, October, 1913, must be adopted in order to do justice to the various aspects of each com¬ position. This plan consists essentially in giving one mark for the particular purpose which the composition is to serve and other marks for definite qualities of correctness and effectiveness. In the field of reading we have as yet only the “ Kansas silent read¬ ing tests,” by F. J. Kelly, which are described in the Journal of Edu¬ cational Psychology, volume 7, page 63, February, 1916. These are based upon the reading scale for children worked out by Edward L. Thorndike and consist essentially in the pupil’s doing what the pas¬ sage tells him to do, the time element being considered. Such scales, of course, can not be well applied to the reading of literature but rather to other kinds of writing. ii. ECONOMY OF TIME. The movement for economy of time in education, initiated by Presi¬ dent Eliot, of Harvard, and carried forward by President Harper, of the University of Chicago, and President Baker, of the University of Colorado, has as yet borne small fruit in the high school itself. Never¬ theless, the interest in the subject has resulted in the discovery that a good deal of the work of the seventh and eighth grades is dupli¬ cated unnecessarily in the ninth and tenth, and that in the same way a good deal of the work of the eleventh and twelfth grades is dupli¬ cated in the college.1 The report of the present committee will, it is hoped, assist in avoiding a duplication in the early years of high school. The work should be carried forward so as to cover at least the first two years of the college so that there may be definite prog¬ ress, with careful articulation, from the seventh grade to the point where the student is ready to specialize. 1 See Angell, J. R. The Duplication of School Work by the College. School Review, 21 : 110, January, 1913. ADMINISTRATIVE PROBLEMS. 155 Within the high school itself great economy in the English work is possible through better defining of the aims, closer cooperation of departments, the application of methods adapted to the different kinds of work, the use of definite objective standards and measure¬ ments, and the omission of much useless formal material of instruc¬ tion. There is no doubt that the influence of the college require¬ ments, while it has stimulated the high schools to more strenuous efforts, has, at the same time, led them in some respects to become overambitious. The youth in the high school can assimilate only what his experience will permit, and hence it is worse than useless to impose upon him the results of mature analysis and formulation. He must analyze and formulate for himself. BIBLIOGRAPHY. EDUCATIONAL BEARINGS. Bourne, R. S. Youth and Life. Bostoa, Hofi&hton Mifflin. Butler, N. M. The Meaning of Education. New York, Macmillan, 1916. Charters, W. W. Methods of Teaching. . Chicago, Row, Peterson & Co., 1909. A suggestive treatment of school studies, including English, from the functional viewpoint. Subject matter is defined as a way of thinking, feeling, or acting. Colvin, S. S. The Practical Results of Recent Studies in Educational Psy¬ chology. School Review, 21 : 5, May, 1913. Davenport, E. Education for Efficiency. Boston, D. C. Heath & Co. Dewey, John. How We Think. Boston, D. C. Heath & Co., 1910. The chapter on language and thought is specially valuable. ■ - Interest and Effort in Education. Boston, Houghton Mifflin. The best analysis of the true nature of interest. Eliot, Charles Yvr. Education for Efficiency. Boston, Houghton Mifflin, 1909. Hall, G. Stanley. Adolescence. New York, Appleton, 1911. - Youth : Its Education, Regimen, and Hygiene. New York, Appleton, 1911. Johnston, C. H., and others. High School Education, and the Modern High School. New York, Scribner. Judd, C. H. On the Scientific Study of High School Problems. School Review, 18:84, February, 1910. * - Psychology of the High School Subjects. Boston, Ginn, 1915. King, Irving. The High School Age. Indianapolis, Bobbs-Merrill Co., 1914. • — - Social Aspects of Education. New York, Macmillan, 1913. Kirkpatrick, E. A. The Individual in the Making. Boston, Houghton Mifflin, 1911. Klapper, Paul. Principles of Educational Practice. New York, Appleton, 1914. Lewis, W. D. Democracy’s High School. Boston, Houghton Mifflin. MacCunn, John. The Making of Character. New York, Macmillan, 1913. McMurry, Frank M. How to Study and Teaching How to Study. Boston, Houghton Mifflin, 1909. Monroe, Paul, ed. Principles of Secondary. Education. Written by a Number of Specialists. New York, Macmillan, 1914. Moore, E. C. Improvement in Educational Practice. School Review, 21 : 323, May, 1913. Parker, S. C. Methods of Teaching in High Schools. Boston, Ginn, 1915. Ruediger, W. C. The Principles of Education. Boston, Houghton Mifflin, 1910. Sachs, Julius. A Syllabus of a General Course on the Theory and Practice of Teaching in the Secondary School. New York, Teachers College, Columbia University. - The American Secondary School. New York, Macmillan, 1912. Sandwick, Richard L. How to Study and What to Study. New York, Heath, 1915. 156 BIBLIOGRAPHY. 157 Slaughter, - . Adolescence. New York, Macmillan, 1911. Snedden, David. Problems of Secondary Education. Boston, Houghton Mifflin, 1917. Yocum, A. Duncan. Culture, Discipline, and Democracy. Christopher Sower Co., 1913. A closely reasoned analysis of the aims and processes of education. The author believes in general discipline, which is not to he confused with “ formal discipline.” BIBLIOGRAPHIES. Carpenter, G. R., Baker, F. T., and Scott, F. N. The Teaching of English. Classified Bibliography (1915). Hall, Mary E. A Suggestive List of References on High-School Libraries. New York Libraries, May, 1913. An excellent bibliography on all phases of library work. Harvard University. Associated Harvard Clubs. Selected List of Articles Dealing with Examination System and the Inspection and Certificate Sys¬ tem of Admission to College. In its Relation of Harvard University to Schools for Secondary Education. 1906. Appendix 2, 15 p. Lists and reviews 31 articles on both sides. Henderson, J. L. Bibliography. In Ms Admission to College by Certificate. 1912. p. 170-71. Johnson, C. H. High-School Education. The Modern High School. Locke, G. H. A Bibliography of Secondary Education : Being a Classified Index of the School Review, Volumes I-X. Chicago, University Press, 1903. 41 p. 8°. p. 31-35, High school and college. National Education Association. Bibliography of Topics from 1857-1907. In its Fiftieth Anniversary Volume. 1906. College-entrance requirements, p. 672. Higher education — colleges and universi¬ ties, p. 687-90. Secondary education — high schools, p. 720-21. United States. Bureau of Education. The Articulation of High School and College. References to . Recent Publications. In Report of the Commis¬ sioner, 1910. Vol. 1, p. 29-32. List of 50 articles and papers published 1908-1910. - Committee of Ten. Bibliography. In Report of the Commis¬ sioner, 1892-93. Vol. 2, p. 1491-94. HISTORY OF ENGLISH IN SECONDARY SCHOOLS. College Entrance Examination Board of the Middle States and Maryland. Plan of Organization and a Statement of Subjects in which Examinations are Proposed ; Adopted May 12, 1900. Outline of plan of organization in Educational Review, 20 : 102-6, June, 1900. Brown, Elmer E. The Making of Our Middle Schools. New York, Longmans, 1902. The standard reference on the history of American secondary schools. Carpenter, G. R., Baker, F. T., and Scott, F. N. The Teaching of English. New York, Longmans, 1903. Eggleston, Edward. The Transit of Civilization from England to America in the Seventeenth Century. New York, Appleton, 1900. Eliot, C. W. Educational Reform. New York, Century, 1898. p. 97-101. Cen¬ tury Magazine, June, 1884. Contends that English literature and not Latin and Greek should be the chief instrument of a liberal education, (cf. Beers.) 158 ENGLISH IN SECONDARY SCHOOLS. Eliot, C. W. The Fundamental Assumptions in the Report of the Committee of Ten. ( 1893. ) Educational Review, 30 : 325-43, November, 1905. Defense against the attack on the report made by G. Stanley Hall in his “ Psychol¬ ogy of Adolescence.” • - The Gap Between Common Schools and Colleges. In National Educa¬ tion Association. Proceedings, 1890. p. 522-33. Also in Arena, 2 : 24-39, June, 1890. Also in his Educational Reform, 1898. p. 197-219. In ab¬ breviated form in U. S. Bureau of Education. Report of the Commis¬ sioner, 1889-90. Vol. 2, p. 1112-16. - - Secondary School Programs and the Conferences of December, 1892. In New England Association of Colleges and Preparatory Schools. Proceed¬ ings, 1893. p. 19-33. Also in School Review 1 : 603-17, December, 1893. In Educational Review, 7 : 105-10, February, 1894. Describes in full the difficulties attending the work of the Committee of Ten. Flexner, Abraham. The College dnd the Secondary School. In his American College. 1908. p. 60-115. The college net only hinders its own progress by its requirements and examina¬ tions, hut vetoes modern teaching methods in secondary schools, so that the two work at cross purposes. Johnston, C. H. High School Education. New York, Scribner. See Chapters I to V and Chapter XI. Lull, Herbert Galen. Inherited Tendencies of Secondary Instruction in the United States. Berkeley, University of California Press, 1913. p. 4. (University of California publications. Education, Vol. 3, No. 3, April 15, 1913.) An exceedingly valuable study from original sources. National Education Association. Committee of Ten. Report. New York, American Book Co., 1894. COLLEGE ENTRANCE REQUIREMENTS. Abbott, Allan. Entrance English from the Boy’s Point of View. Education, 22:78-88, October, 1901. Brown, Elmer E. Report of the Commissioner of Education for 1910, Vol. 1, p. 15-24. Bowles, Ralph N. An Investigation into English Requirements. School Re¬ view, 12 : 331. Butler, N. M. Uniform College Entrance Requirements with a Common Board of Examiners. In Association of Colleges and Preparatory Schools of the Middle States and Maryland. Proceedings, 1899. p. 43-49, 137-40. Dis¬ cussion, p. 49-89. (New York (State) University. Regents’ Bulletin No. 50.) Also in Educational Review, 19: 68-74, January, 1900. Presentation of resolutions resulting in the formation of the college-entrance examination board. Cook, Albert S. A Summary of the Proceedings of the Meetings of the Con¬ ference on Uniform Entrance Requirements in English. 1894-1899. Denney, J. V. English Requirements. In North Central Association of Col¬ leges and Secondary Schools. Proceedings, 1898. p. 42-47. Also in School Review, 6 : 339-43, May, 1898. Recommends that greater attention he paid to composition, with extensive rather than intensive study of prescribed classics. Farrand, Wilson. The Reform of College Entrance Requirements. In School¬ masters’ Association of New York and Vicinity. Annual Report, 1895-96. p. 19-32. Also in Educational Review, 10 : 430-44, December, 1895. Reviews the status of requirements, the chief objections to existing conditions, and some plans proposed as remedy. Advocates uniformity. BIBLIOGRAPHY. 159 Greenough, C. N. Tlie College Entrance Requirements in English. Leaflet of the New England Association of Teachers of English. No. 94, December 1, 1911. Hartshorn, Helena E. The College Entrance Examination in English. Educa¬ tion, 35 : 43-49, September, 1914. Heydrick, B. A. The Relation of the College Entrance Requirements to' the High School Course in English. In High School Teachers’ Association of New York City. Yearbook, 1908-9. p. 45-52. Hosic, James F. College-Entrance Requirements in English and the High- School Course. Boston, Houghton Mifflin, 1912. (English Problems, No. 2, February, 1912.) - The Questions at Issue. In National Education Association. Pro¬ ceedings, 1911. p. 592. Influence of the Uniform Entrance Requirements in English. English Journal, 1 : 95, February, 1912. Kingsley, C. D. College Entrance Requirements. Washington, Government Printing Office, 1913. (U. S. Bureau of Education. Bulletin, 1913, No. 7.) Lewis, W. D. The Teaching of English. Outlook, 94 : 631. Monroe, Paul, ed. College Requirements for Admission, or College Entrance Requirements. In his Cyclopedia of Education. 1911-13. Vol. 2, p. 97-107. Historical development ; statement of the problem; Latin, Greek, English, mathe¬ matics, modern languages, history, science, etc. References, p. 107. National Education Association. Committee on College Entrance Require¬ ments. Report, July, 1899. - Committee on Articulation of High School and College. In Proceed¬ ings, 1911. Neilson, William Allan. The Problem of Entrance Requirements. Boston, Houghton Mifflin. (English Problems, No. 4, November, 1912.) Nightingale, A. F. Report of the Chairman of the Joint Committee on College- Entrance Requirements. In National Education Association. Proceedings, 1897. p. 647-52. Discussion, p. 652-655. Pancoast. H. S. College Entrance Requirements in English. Educational Review, 3 : 132-44, February, 1892. A criticism of the hooks commonly read in preparatory English. Pearson, H. G. Historical Sketch of the Joint or National Conference on Entrance Requirements in English, with Especial Reference to the Con¬ ference of 1908. School Review, 16 : 646-59, December, 1908. The Reorganization of Secondary Education. Washington, Government Print¬ ing Office, 1913. (U. S. Bureau of Education. Bulletin, 1913, No. 41.) Contains the preliminary report of the Committee on English. Russell, J. E. Educational Value of Examinations for Entrance to College. School Review, 11 : 42, January, 1903. Scott, F. N. College Entrance Requirements in English, School Review, 9 : 365, 1901. - College-Entrance Requirements in English. In North Central Asso¬ ciation of Colleges and Secondary Schools. Proceedings, 1901. p. 37-49. Also in School Review, 9 : 365-78, June, 1901. “ Rationale of the subject.” - - Discussion of College-Entrance Requirements in English. In North Central Association of Colleges and Secondary Schools. Proceedings, 1913, p. 67-72. - - The Preparatory Fallacy. In New York State Educational Associa¬ tion. Proceedings, 1908. 160 ENGLISH IN SECONDARY SCHOOLS. Scott, F. N. What the West Wants in Preparatory English. School Review, September, 1909. Stoddard, F. H. The Uniform Entrance Examinations in English. Educa¬ tional Review, 30 : 375-83, November, 1905. Review of 25 years’ progress, resulting in the formation of the conference for recommending requirements. University of Wisconsin. Requirements for Admission to the Freshman Eng¬ lish Course (English 1). Bulletin No. 599. High School Series, No. 13. Woolley, Edwin C. Admission to Freshman English in the University. Eng¬ lish Journal, 3 : 238-244, April, 1914. AIMS AND ORGANIZATION OF THE COURSE. Abbott, Allan. A Course of Study in English for a Metropolitan Academic High School. Teachers College Record, 16 : 217, May, 1915. — - - An Experiment in High School English. School Review, 12 : 550. Experiment growing out of author’s investigation of reading tastes of high- school pupils. Gave a course in “ Literary Types ” in second year of high school. Aiton, George B. Purpose of English in the High School. School Review, 5:148, March, 1897. Bagley, W. C. Principles Justifying Common Elements in the School Program. School and Home Education, December, 1914. Baker, Franklin T. The Vernacular. In Munro’s Principles of Secondary Education. Chapter IX. New York, Macmillan, 1915-. (See also Dewey, Sisson, ancl WLipple in this book.) Barnes, Walter. The English Course for High Schools. Bulletin of the State Normal School at Fairmont, W. Va. Vol. I, No. 1. Breck, Emma. A New Task for the English Teacher. English Journal, 1 : 65- 71, February, 1912. Bredvold, Louis L. Suggestions for Reconstruction in High School English. Education, 33 : 492-498, April, 1913. Chubb, Percival. Duty of the School to Educate for the Right Use of Leisure. Religious Education, 7 : 699, February, 1913. Colby, J. Rose. Literature and Life in School. Boston, Houghton Mifflin, 1906. - Shall the Courses in Composition and Literature be Divided? Yes. Bulletin of the Illinois Association of Teachers of English, March 15, 1916. Urbana, Ill. Coulter, Vincil C. The Redistribution of the Content of Some High-School Courses. English Journal, 3 : 490-499, October, 1914. The Course of Study in English — The Call for it, the Character of it, and the Construction of it. School Review, 15 : 559-575, October, 1907. Crowe, John M. Report of the Conference Committee on High-School English. School Review, 17 : 85. Denney, Joseph V. English. In Johnston’s High School Education. Chapter XI. New York, Scribner’s, 1912. (See also Koch and Watkins in this book. ) Eliot, C. W. Differentiation of the High School Course in English. Education, 31:639, June, 1911. - Education for Efficiency. Boston, Houghton Mifflin, 1908. Gosling, T. W. How the High-School Teacher Can Assist in the Exploitation of Pupils’ Powers. English Journal, 2 : 513-517, October, 1913. BIBLIOGRAPHY. 161 Hall, G. S. The High School as the People’s College. In National Education Association. Proceedings, 1902. p. 260-268. Discussion, 268-272. Also in Pedagogical Seminary, 9 : 63-73, March, 1902. Outlines a course with English, science, and motor training as the fundamental subjects. Herford, C. H. The Bearing of English Studies upon the National Life. Leaflet of the English Asociation, No. 16, June, 1910. Hulst, Cornelia S. The Organization of the Course in Literature in Secondary Schools. English Journal, 2 : 72, February, 1912. Lewis, W. D. The Aims of the English Course. English Journal, 1 : 9-14, January, 1912. Miller, E. L. Rebuilding an English Course. In National Education Associa¬ tion. Proceedings, 1910. p. 483. - Separating Composition from Literature in the High School. English Journal, 3 : 500-512 , October, 1914. - - Separating Composition from Literature. Boston, Houghton Mifflin. (English Problems, No. 7.) New Jersey. Department of Public Instruction. The Teaching of High School English. Trenton, N. J., State Department of Public Instruction. (High School Series, No. 3, June, 1914.) Owen, W. B. The Educational Opportunity of High School English. English Journal, 1:193-202, April, 1912. Parkinson, William D. The Course of Study in English. A Report to the New England Association of Teachers of English, March 9, 1907. School Re¬ view, 15 : 559, October, 1907. Rapeer, Louis V/. The Outside of the Cup. English Journal, 5 : 379-391, June, 1916. Snedden, David. A Letter to a High School Teacher of English. Leaflet of the New England Association of Teachers of English. Yol. XIV, No. 121, November, 1914. • - New Problems in Secondary Education. School Review, 24 : 177, March, 1916. Thomas, C. E. English for Industrial Pupils. English Journal, 2 : 241-246, April, 1913. Types of Organization of High School English. English Journal, 2 : 575, No¬ vember, 1913. Whitney, Frank P. Differentiation of Courses in the Seventh and Eighth Grades. Educational Review, 41 : 127, February, 1911. Yocum, A. Duncan. The Determinants of the Course of Study. Educational Review, September, 1914. p. 166-183. SUBJECT MATTER OF LITERATURE. Abbott, Allan. Contemporary Literature in the High School. Illinois Associ¬ ation of Teachers of English. Urbana, Ill. (Bulletin, Yol. VII, No. VII, April 15, 1915.) - - A High- School Course in Drama. English Journal, 2 : 93, February, 1913. - A High-School Course in Periodical Literature. English Journal, 2:422, September, 1913. Arnold, Matthew. Literature and Science. In his Discourses in America. Macmillan, 1902. Baker, Franklin. Shakespeare in the Schools. English Journal, 5 : 299-309, May, 1916. 75080°— 17 - 11 162 ENGLISH IN SECONDARY SCHOOLS. Beard shear, W. M. The Influence of Poetry in Education. In National Educa¬ tion Association. Proceedings, 1900. p. 153. Blakely, Gilbert S. The Choice of Reading for High School Classes. Boston, Houghton Mifflin, 1912. (English Problems, No. 3, May, 1912.) Bowman, James Cloyd. The Use of the Magazine in English. English Journal, 5:332-40, May, 1916. Britten, Caroline E. A Loose-leaf Textbook in English Literature. English Journal, 2 : 145, March, 1913. Eaton, E. J. Shakespeare for Performance in High Schools. English Jour¬ nal, 1 : 625, December, 1912. Edgerton, Frederick W. A Recent Experiment with Magazine Literature. English Journal, 1 : 278, May, 1912. FitzGerald, Ellen. Training in Poetry. English Journal, 1 : 126, February, 1912. A review of Seward’s Narrative and Lyric Poems for Students. Suggestive as to selection of poetry for young people. Guild, T. H. Suggestions for the High School Play. English Journal, 2 : 637, December, 1913. Halleck, R. P. The Value of English Literature in Ethical Training. In Na¬ tional Education Association. Proceedings, 1900. p. 160. Henion, Lora Atkins. The Teaching of the History of Literature. Illinois As¬ sociation of Teachers of English. Urbana, Ill. (Bulletin, Vol. VII, No. V, February 15, 1915.) Hodgson, Elizabeth. The Adolescent’s Prejudices Against the Classics. Eng¬ lish Journal, 4 : 427-48, September, 1915. Illinois Association of Teachers of English. A List of Short Stories. Urbana, Ill. (Bulletin, Vol. VIII, No. VIII, May 15, 1916.) Jones, C. Edward. Sources of Interest in High-School English. New York, American Book Co., 1912. Lange, Alexis F. Literature as Educational Means. English Journal, 5 : 371- 78, June, 1916. Lawrence, I. Children’s Humor. English Journal, 4 : 508-12, October, 1915. Lewis, Edwin. Introduction to the Study of Literature. New York, Macmillan, 1899. Littell, Winifred. Modern Literature in the Small High School. English Journal, 5 : 112-18, February, 1916. McConn, C. M. High-School Students’ Ranking of English Classics. English Journal, 1 : 257, May, 1912. Moe, Maurice W. Magazine Poetry in the Classroom. English Journal, 523-25, October, 1915. Opdycke, John B. Editing to Kill. School Review, 23 :• 225, April, 1915. Reynolds, G. F. English Literature in Secondary Schools. Education, 32:1, September, 1911. Scudder, H. E. American Classics in School. Atlantic Monthly, July, 1887. - Literature in School. Boston, Houghton Mifflin, 1889. Shackford, Martha H. Entrance Literature and the Ancient Classics. English Journal, 3 : 644, December, 1914. Simons, Sarah E. American Literature and the Modern Magazine in the High School. English Journal, 2 : 357, June, 1913. Smith, C. Alphonso. What Literature Can Do for Me. New York, Doubleday, Page & Co., 1914. Terry, H. L. Two Lines of High-School Reading. School Review, September, 1912. BIBLIOGKAPHY. 163 Trent, W. P. Literature and Morals. In Tlie Authority of Criticism. New York, Scribner, 1899. Williams, M. Ida. Anything New in High-School English? English Journal, 4 : 439-44, September, 1915. Wilson, Woodrow. Mere Literature. Boston, Houghton Mifflin, 1900. Woodberry, G. E. A New Defence of Poetry. In his The Heart of Man. New York, Macmillan. TEACHING OF LITERATURE. Ashmun, Margaret. The Essentials in Teaching Literature. Boston, Hough¬ ton Mifflin, 1913. (English Problems, No. 5, April, 1913.) Axson, Stockton. The Study of the History of English Literature. School Review, 14 : 164, March, 1906. Bates, Arlo. Talks on the Teaching of Literature. Boston, Houghton Mifflin, 1906. Bates, Herbert. How to Teach a Masterpiece. School Review, 11 : 655, October, 1903. Blakely, G. S. Teachers’ Outlines for Studies in English. New York, American Book Co., 1908. Bolenius, Emma Miller. Teaching Literature in the Grammar Grades and High School. Boston, Houghton Mifflin, 1915. Brumbaugh, M. G. Educational Principles Applied to the Teaching of Litera¬ ture. In National Education Association. Proceedings, 1900. p. 169. Butler, Nathaniel. Aims and Methods in the Study of Literature. Education, 16 : 529-89, May and June, 1896. Canby, H. S. The Teaching of English Literature. Education, 29 : 179, No¬ vember, 1908. Carpenter, G. R., Baker, F. T., and Scott, F. N. The Teaching of English. New York, Longmans, 1903. p. 350-82. Chandler, Frank W. A Creative Approach to Literature. English Journal, 4 : 281, May, 1915. Chubb, Percival. The Blight of Literary Bookishness. English Journal, 3 : 15, January, 1914. ■ — The Menace of Pedantry in the Teaching of English. School Review, 20 : 134, January, 1912. Cox, J. H. The Poem and the Printed Page. English Journal, 3 : 399, Septem¬ ber, 1914. Deem, Eleanora F. The Teaching of Versification in the High School. English Journal, 5:119-130, February, 1916. Eaton, H. A. Reading Poetry Aloud. English Journal, 2 : 151, March, 1913. Fairchild. A. H. R. Teaching Poetry in the High School. Boston, Houghton Mifflin, 1914. Firkins, O. W. The Teaching of Literature. Education, 28 : 306, January, 1908. Frank, Maud M. Dramatization of School Classics. English Journal, 1 : 476, October, 1912. Graves, Isabel. A Plan for Reading a Midsummer-Night's Dream. English Journal, 4:362, June, 1915. Hayward, Frank Herbert. The Lesson in Appreciation. New York, Macmillan, 1915. Hitchcock, Alfred M. The Relation of the Picture Play to Literature. Eng¬ lish Journal, 4 : 292, May, 1915. 164 ENGLISH IN SECONDARY SCHOOLS. Johnson, Gertrude E. Literature and Vocal Expression. English Journal, 3 : 533, November, 1914. Krug, Andrew H. Making Palgrave Palatable. English Journal, 4 : 254, April, 1915. Lang, Helen R. Lost Motion in the Teaching of Literature. English Journal, 3 : 631, December, 1914. Lewis, C. M. A Method of Teaching English Literature. School Review, 11 : 187, March, 1903. Meredith, A. B. On the Teaching of Literature. Educational Foundations, 27 : 22-31, September, 1915. Discusses the preparation of the class for a literature lesson, reading aloud, talking about a selection, memorizing, reproducing in one's own language, and the library. Parker, S. C. Methods of Teaching in High Schools. Boston, Ginn, 1915. See Chapters 2, 5, lb, 14, and 15. Paul, H. G. The Study of the Drama. Illinois Association of Teachers of English, Urbana, Ill. (Bulletin, Vol. VIII, No. 7. April 15, 1916.) • - The Study of the Novel. Illinois Association of Teachers of English. (Bulletin, November, 1913.) - The Teaching of Lyric Poetry. English Journal, 1 : 466-75, October, 1912, and 1 : 521-31, November, 1912. Prichard, Mary F. The Value of Story-Telling in the High-School Course. English Journal, 4 : 191, March, 1915. Schuyler, William. English as an Art Study. School Review, 12 : 716, No¬ vember, 1904. Seward, S. S., jr. How to Assist Pupils to Grow in Appreciation of Poetry. English Journal, 1 : 310, May, 1912. In light of advantage which the mature reader has, the writer suggests inquiries which will lead to familiarity through reading and comparison. Simons, S. E., and Orr, C. I. Dramatization of English Classics. Chicago, Scott, Foresman, 1913. Smith, C. A. Memory Work in Literature. School Review, 12 : 224, March, 1904. Stevens, Romiett. Stenographic Reports of High School Lessons. New York, 1912. (Columbia University. Publications, 1912.) Stevenson, O. J. The Old and the New in Literature Teaching. English Journal, 3 : 69-77, February, 1914. Thomas, Charles SwTain. Economy in the Teaching of English Literature. Boston, Houghton Mifflin, 1911. (English Problems, No. 1, Nov., 1911.) - Essential Principles in Teaching English. In National Education Association. Proceedings, 1910. p. 487. - How to Teacll English Classics. Boston, Houghton Mifflin, 1910. Thompson, Grace. High School Reading : The Newark Plan. School Review, 21 : 187, September, 1913. Thorn- Wright, Doris. Oral Reading in the Study of Literature. English Journal," November, 1912. Trent, W. P., Hanson, C. L., and Brewster, W. T. An Introduction to the Eng¬ lish Classics. Boston, Ginn, 1911, 1916. Van Dyke, Henry. Reading and Writing in the Teaching of English. School Review, 15 : 325, May, 1907. Venable, Emerson. Oral Reading as an Aid in the Interpretation of Literature in the High School. School Review, 13 : 337, April, 1905. BIBLIOGRAPHY. 165 Ward, Cornelia Carhart. The Use of Pictures in the Teaching of Literature. English Journal, 4 : 526-130, October, 1915. Webster, Edward Harlan. Verse Making in Our Schools. Pedagogical Semi¬ nary, 19 : 510-517, No. 4. TEACHING OF COMPOSITION. Ashmun, Margaret. Composition in the High School: The First and Second Years. (University of Wisconsin. Bulletin, No. 251: High School Series, No. 3.) Bridgman, Walter R. A Competition in Letter-Writing. English Journal, 2 : 647-657, December, 1913. Brown, Rollo Walter. How the French Boy Learns to Write. Cambridge, Harvard University Press, 1915. The result of a year’s residence in France. Highly important. Chiles, E. E. Oral Composition a Basis for Written. English Journal, 3 : 354-361, June, 1914. - Oral Exposition for Colleges and High Schools.. English Journal, 4:458-464, September, 1915. Chubb, Percival. The Teaching of English. New York, Macmillan, 1903. Clapp, J. M. Report of Experiment in Combining Oral and Written Composi¬ tion. Urbana, Ill. p. 14S-163. (University of Illinois. Bulletin No. 17.) Davis, J. B. Vocational and Moral Guidance. Boston, Ginn. — - Vocational and Moral Guidance through English Composition. Engr lish Journal, 1 : 457. De Long, Wahnita. The Use of the Conference Hour. English Journal, 4: 186-190, March, 1915. Duncan, C. S. The Content of Composition Courses. Education, 35 : 167-173, November, 1914. Earle, S. C. The Organization of Instruction in English Composition. English Journal, 2 :477, October, 1913. Gaston, C. R. Discovering Human Interests. English Journal, 2 : 122-124, Feb¬ ruary, 1913. * - The Notebook as an Aid to Efficiency in English Classes. English Journal, 4 : 215, April, 1915. Gerrish, Carolyn M. The Relation of Moving Pictures to English Composition. English Journal, 4 : 226-230, April, 1915. • - Secondary School Composition. Educational Review, 49 : 126-135, Feb¬ ruary, 1915. Writer states that the principal obstacles to the proper accomplishment of the purposes of composition are: “(1) A more or less prevalent belief in the futility of trying to concentrate on content per se ; (2) lack of time; (3) lack of equipment. Hitchcock, Alfred M. A Composition on Red Ink. English Journal, 1 : 273-277, May, 1912. Hodgson, Elizabeth. Orientation in English Composition. English Journal, 3:233-237, April, 1914. Illinois Association of Teachers of English. An Experimental Course in Fresh¬ man Composition for Illinois High Schools. Urbana, Ill., 1913. (Bulletin, No. 4, Vol. 5, Jan., 1913.) - Report on the Experiment in English Composition. Urbana, Ill. (Bul¬ letin, Vol. XI, No. 5, February 15, 1914.) Jones, Easley S. The Teaching of Description. Illinois Association of Teach¬ ers of English. Urbana, Ill., 1915. (Bulletin, Vol. VIII, No. 1, Oct. 15, 1915.) 166 ENGLISH IN SECONDARY SCHOOLS. Jones, Easley S. What to Write About. Illinois Association of Teachers of English. Urbana, Ill., 1915. (Bulletin, Vol. VII, No. IV, Jan. 1, 1915.) Leonard, Sterling A. In Praise of Prevision. English Journal, 4:500-507, October, 1915. • - English composition as a social problem. Boston, Houghton Mifflin, 1917. McComb, E. H. Kemper. Social Motives for Composition. English Journal, 3 : 408-415, September, 1914. McDonald, Lucy Ploltzclaw. Preparation for Assignment of Composition Sub¬ jects. English Journal, 5 : 233-236, April, 1916. McKinney, Isabel. Motives for Composition Work in the Upper Elementary Grades. English Journal, 2 : 299-304, May, 1913. McKi trick, May. The Adaptation of the Work in English to the Actual Needs and Interests of the Pupils. English Journal, 2 : 405-416, September, 1913. Miles, Dudley. Composition as a Training in Thought. English Journal, 2:362-65, June, 1913. Newton High School. English iflpartment. A New List of Theme Topics. Cambridge, Mass., 1916. (New England Association of Teachers. Leaflet, Yol. XVI, No. 134.) Nichols, Walter H. The High-School Play. English Journal, 3 : 620-30, De¬ cember, 1914. Orr, Clem Irwin. A Revolt and its Consequences. Being the Plain Tale of a Personal Experience in the Teaching of English Composition. English Journal, 3 : 546-552, November, 1914. Park, C. W. A Study in the Teaching of a Mother Tongue. English Journal, 5: 350-56, May, 1916. A review of Brown's How the French Boy Learns to Write. Parker, S. C. Methods of Teaching in High Schools. Chap. XI. Boston, Ginn, 1915. Percival, Mary. An Evolution of Oral Composition. English Journal, 3 : 315- 22, May, 1915. Reavis, W. C. An Experiment in the Teaching of High-School Composition. School Review, 21 : 538-41, October, 1913. Russell, Mrs. L. M. Some Experiments in Oral English in the High School. English Journal, 3 : 176-80, March, 1914. Simons, Sarah E. Devices for Vitalizing Composition Work. English Journal. 1 : 591-600, December, 1912. Smith, Jessie F. Report on English in Secondary Schools in England and Scot¬ land. Educational Review, 40 : 266. October, 1910. Smith, M. Ellwood. Those Long Themes. English Journal, 5 : 346-49, May, 1916. Thomas, Joseph M. Oral Composition in its Relation to Written. English Journal, 4:487-89, October, 1915. Tressler, Jacob C. The Efficiency of Student Correction of Composition. Eng¬ lish Journal, 1 : 405-411. September. 1912. Ward, C. H. English Apparatus. Education, 36: 172-81, November, 1915. - Intensive Spelling. English Journal, 3 : 484-89, October, 1914. - What is English. Scott. Foresman, 1917. Webster, Edward Harlan. The Teaching of English Composition, Past and Present. Education, 32 : 414-22, March, 1912. Woods, George B.. Carter, Henry, Holland, and Dow, Roland B. English Composition in the High School. Miami University. Bulletin, Series IX, No. 5, December, 1910. BIBLIOGRAPHY. 107 Wilson, H. B., and Wilson, G. M. The Motivation of School Work, Boston. Houghton, 1916. Young, Karl. Observations upon the Teaching of Composition in French Lycees. English Journal, 1 : 321-339, June, 1912. ORAL EXPRESSION. Bolenius, Emma Miller-. The Teaching of Oral English. Philadelphia, Lip- pincott, 1914. Breck, Emma. The Present Possibilities of Oral English in High Schools. English Journal, 3:28-37, January, 1914. Clark, S. H. Interpretation of the Printed Page. Chicago, Row, Peterson, 1915. Corson, Hiram. The Voice and Spiritual Education. New York, Macmillan, 1897. Davis, William Hawley. Vocal Training in the Secondary Schools. English Journal, 5:241-47, April, 1916. Fleagle, B. E. Oral English in the High School. English Journal, 1 : 611-18, December, 1912. Halliday, E. M. Report of the Committee on Public Speaking. Illinois Associ¬ ation of Teachers of English. Urbana, Ill. (Bulletin, Vol. Ill, No. 3, De¬ cember 30, 1910.) Lewis, Calvin L. The Neglected Side of English. English Journal, 3 : 282-89, May, 1914. - American Speech. Chicago, Scott, Foresman, 1916. Mitchell, Mary A. G. Wanted: A Higher Standard of Speech. English Jour¬ nal, 1 : 284-86, May, 1912. The writer thinks greater emphasis should he placed upon speech training, in¬ cluding ordinary grammatical correctness. Muckey, Floyd S. The Natural Method of Voice Production. English Jour¬ nal, 4 : 625-37, December, 1915. Phillips, A. E. Effective Speaking. Chicago, The Newton Co., 1911. Redmond, Daniel. A Study in the Correction of Dialectic English. English Journal, 3:480-83, October, 1914. Robinson, F. B. Effective Public Speaking. Chicago, La Salle Extension Uni¬ versity, 1916. Simons, Sarah E., and Orr, Clem Irwin. Dramatization. Chicago, Scott, Fores¬ man, 1913. Thorn-Wright, Doris. Oral Reading in Its Relation to the Study of Literature. English Journal, 1 : 557, November, 1912. Winans, J. A. Public Speaking. Ithaca, Sewell Publishing Co., 1916. Woolbert, C. H. What Can We Do to Improve the Teaching of Oral English in our High Schools? Illinois Association of Teachers of English. Urbana. Ill. (Bulletin, Vol. VI, No. 7, April 15, 1914.) SPELLING. Ayres, Leonard P. A Measuring Scale for Ability in Spelling. New York, Russell Sage Foundation, 1915. - -The Spelling Vocabularies of Personal and Business Letters. New York, Russell Sage Foundation. Charters, W. W. The Spelling Hospital in the High School. School Review, 18 : 192. Cook, W. A., and O’Shea, M. V. The Child and His Spelling. Indianapolis, Bobbs-Merrill. 168 ENGLISH IN SECONDARY SCHOOLS, Dixon, R. E. The Problem of Spelling in the Secondary School. Illinois Asso¬ ciation of Teachers of English. Bulletin, Yol. VIII, No. 2, November 15, 1915. Jones, W. Franklin. Concrete Investigation of the Material of English Spell¬ ing. Vermilion, S. Dak., University of South Dakota. Lester, John A. Teaching Freshmen to Spell. English Journal, 5 : 404-10, June, 1916. Pryor, W. H. Spelling. In National Society for the Study of Education. Yearbook, Vol. 14, p. 78. Suzzallo, Henry. The Teaching of Spelling. Boston, Houghton Mifflin, 1911. ENGLISH GRAMMAR. Banerji, Bepin B. The Place of Grammar in the Teaching of English. Educa¬ tional Review (Madras, India), Vol. 20, No. 4, April, 1914. Interesting as showing how widespread is the view that grammar should he taught in connection with the pupils’ own compositions and by an inductive method. Bean, C. Homer. How English Grammar has been Taught in America. Educa¬ tion, 84 : 301-311, January, 1914. Black, W. W. The Report of the Joint Committee on Grammatical Nomen¬ clature. Educator-Journal, Vol. 14, No. 8, April, 1914. The writer takes the extreme position that grammar should he logical in a formal sense and that it should he taught in the eighth grade as a training in the process of thinking. Briggs, Thomas H. Formal English Grammar as a Discipline. Teachers Col¬ lege Record, Vol. 14, No. 4, September, 1913. Seventh-grade classes carefully taught for three months showed no increase in any ability which could he attributed to the study of grammar. The author thinks the burden of proof is upon those who favor grammar because of its supposed value as mental discipline. Brown, Lemuel R. Some Needed Readjustments in the Teaching of English Grammar. English Journal, 2 : 81-92, February, 1913. The writer thinks a self-consistent plan of organization more needed than uniform terminology. Buck, Gertrude. Make-Believe Grammar. School Review, Vol. 17, January, 1909. Grammar should deal with the act of communication, not merely with the words on the printed page, the “ near-language ’ of the ingenious grammarian. - Some Preliminary Considerations in Planning the Revision of Gram¬ matical Terminology. English Journal, 2 : 11-17, January, 1913. Suggest three tests — necessity, accuracy, economy. A suggestive reclassification by A. D. Sheffield is included. Charters, W. W., and Miller, Edith. A Course of Study in Grammar. Colum¬ bia, Mo., University of Missouri. (Bulletin No. 2, Vol. 15.* Education Series 9.) Cross, E. A. The Functional Teaching of English Grammar. English Journal, 4 : 653-659, December, 1915. Hale, W. G. Uniform Grammatical Nomenclature. Report. Ann Arbor, Mich., National Education Association. Represents the efforts of a joint committee of three national organizations to provide for uniformity of terms in teaching the grammar of all languages. Holmes, Samuel F. A Grammarian’s Resurrection. New England Association of Teachers of English. Cambridge, Mass. (Leaflet, No. 106, March, 1913.) BIBLIOGRAPHY. 169 Houston, G. David. Formal English Grammar; Its Uses and Abuses. Educa¬ tion, 35 : 477-488, April, 1915. Hoyt, Franklin S. Studies in the Teaching of English Grammar. Teachers College Record, Yol. VII, No. 5, November, 1906. The writer found no correlation between ability in grammar and ability in com¬ position and literature. New York City Association of Teachers of English. Report of Committee on Grammar in the High School. Bulletin No. XVI, May, 1915. Rapeer, Louis W. The Problem of Formal Grammar in Elementary Education. Journal of Educational Psychology, 4 : 125-137, March, 1913. Rounds, Charles R. The Varying Systems of Nomenclature in Use in Our Texts in English Grammar. Educational Review, Vol. 11, No. 1, January, 1910. The terms used in twenty-two standard texts compared. - The Waste of Unlearning. English Journal, 1 : 214-20, April, 1912. A vigorous plea for uniform grammatical terminology and one way of spelling each word. Sheffield, A. D. Grammar and Thinking. New York, Putnam, 1913. Wannamaker, O. D. The Proposed Uniform Grammatical Nomenclature : A Criticism. English Journal, 4 : 82-89, February, 1915. The author points out a number of instances in which he thinks the report of the joint committee could be improved. Ward, C. H. A Platform of Grammar. School Review, 24 : 371-82, April, 1916. Wardlaw, Patterson. Simpler English Grammar. Columbia, S. C., 1914. (University of South Carolina. Bulletin No. 38, Part III.) GENERAL READING. Abbott, Allan. Reading Tastes of High-School Pupils. School Review, 10 : 585, October, 1912. Bates, Herbert. The School and Current Fiction. English Journal, 1 : 15, January, 1912. - Report of the Committee upon Home Reading. English Journal, 3 : 44-50, January, 1914. Coult, M. How Can We Best Direct the Reading of High-School Pupils. New York Libraries, 3 : 52-55, January, 1912. The author suggests various ways in which the teacher could stimulate an interest in books and guide the high-school students in their reading. Herzberg, Max J. Supplementary Reading for High-School Pupils. English Journal, 4 : 373-82, June, 1915. Huey, E. B. Reading as a Discipline, and as Training in the Effective Use of Books. In Ms Psychology and Pedagogy of Reading. Chapter XIX. New York, Macmillan, 1908. Johnston, W. Dawson. The Relation of the Library to the Teaching of English. English Journal, 4 : 21-27, January, 1915. Miner, Lilian B. Voluntary Reading in the English High School. School Re¬ view, 13 : 180, February, 1905. Tells what pupils were actually reading outside of school. National Council of Teachers of English. Committee on Home Reading. Report. November, 1913. Paul, IL. G. On Handling Supplementary Reading. English Journal, 3 : 212, 427, April and September, 1914. Reading for Pleasure and Profit, Newark, N. J., The Free Public Library, 1911. 170 ENGLISH IN SECONDARY SCHOOLS. Thurber, Samuel, jr. Voluntary Reading in the Classical High School. School Review, 13 : 168, February, 1905. Van Dyke, Henry, ed. Counsel upon the Reading of Books. Boston, Houghton Mifflin, 1900. Wallace, J. A. A Plan for Outside Reading. School Review, 21 : 478. THE LIBRARY AND OTHER EQUIPMENT. i Annotated Book List for Secondary School Libraries. Albany, N. Y., University of the State of New York, 1914. Boynton, Percy H. Suggestions for the English Literature Section of a High- School Library. School Review, 20 : 111-16, February, 1912. Breck, Emma J. The Efficient High-School Library. English Journal, 5 : 10-19, January, 1916. Coulter, V. C. Financial Support of English Teaching. English Journal, 1:24, January, 1912. Crawford, Mary. The Laboratory Equipment of the Teacher of English. English Journal, 4 : 145-151, March, 1915. Dracass, Carrie E. T. An Experiment in Library Training in the High School. English Journal, 1 : 221, April, 1912. English Equipment. A Report Presented to the National Council of Teachers of English. English Journal, 2 : 178-84, March, ' 1913. Fargo, Lucile F. The Place of the Library in High-School Education. Educa? tion, 33 : 473-76, April, 1913. Fletcher, Mabel. The Struggling High-School Library. English Journal, 4 : 357, June, 1915. Forbes, G. M. Place of the Library in the High School. New York Libraries, 3 : 170-74, November, 1912. Argues that the school librarian is in charge of one of the most important centers of the school plant and should understand the philosophy, methods, and ideals of modern education so that he may cooperate intelligently with those who are endeavor¬ ing to free education from outworn tradition and shape it to meet the needs of to-day. An excellent article. Greenman, E. D. Development of Secondary School Libraries. Library Journal, 38 : 183-89, April, 1913. Gives history of the growth of high-school libraries with statistics and full bibliography. Hall, M. E. The Possibilities of the High-School Library. American Library Association. Papers and Proceedings, 1912. p. 260-66. An inspiring paper in which the writer discusses : Creating right attitude toward the library ; use of study period ; library as a social center ; vocational guidance. - Suggestive List of References on High-School Libraries. New York Libraries. May, 1913. - Vocational Guidance Through the Library. Select Bibliography by John G. Moulton. Reprinted from the Massachusetts Library Club Bulletin, January, 1914. Chicago, American Library Association. Hopkins,’ F. Ms Is There Need for a Course in the Choice and Use of Books in Our High Schools? In National Education Association. Proceedings, 1912, p. 1285-88. Gives the outline of an experiment in the Central High School of Detroit, Mich., of a course in library economy for juniors and seniors. Hosic, J. F. Place of the Library in Modern Education. Bulletin of American Library Association, September, 1916. BIBLIOGRAPHY. 171 Kerr, Willis H. The Library as the English Laboratory. School and Society, 2 : 121-124, July 24, 1915. Keyes, Rowena K. How We Use Our High School Library. English Journal, 3 : 86, February, 1914. Koch, T. The High School Library. In High School Education. Chapter XXVI. New York, Scribner. Lantern Slides. Newton & Co., 37 King St., Covent Garden, London, W. C., England. Me Andrew, W. The High School Librarian. In National Education Associa¬ tion. Proceedings, 1910. p. 994-98. Shows the place and importance of high school librarians in the work of the high school. Madison, Elizabeth. A High-School Course in Library Use. English Journal, 5 : 196-207, March, 1916. New York Library Association. Committee on High School Libraries. Report. A Survey of Recent Library Progress in High Schools. New York Libraries, 3 : 182-84, November, 1912. A strong plea for the recognition of the educational power of the school library and for trained directors and supervisors in charge who shall also organize the teaching of library economy. Oregon State Library. List of Books for School Libraries of the State of Ore¬ gon. Part II, Books for High Schools. Salem, Oreg., 1914. Ovitz, Delia G. Course in Reference Work and Some Bibliographies of Spe¬ cial Interest to Teachers. Published by the Author at the State Normal School, Milwaukee, Wis. Rice, O. S. Lessons on the Use of the School Library. Madison, Wis., De¬ partment of Public Instruction, 1915. Simpson, Frances. Where Shall I Look? Illinois Association of Teachers of English. Urbana, Ill. (Bulletin, Vol. IV, No. 7, April 1, 1912.) Smith, W. M. Equipment for English Teaching. The Report of the Annual Investigation of the Illinois Association of Teachers of English for 1915. Illinois Association of Teachers of .English. Bulletin, Vol. VIII, No. 3, December 15, 1915. United States. Bureau of Education. A List of Books Suited to a High-School Library. Compiled by the University High School, Chicago, Ill. Washing¬ ton, Government Printing Office, 1913. (Bulletin, 1913, No. 35.) - One thousand Good Books for Children. Classified and Graded List Prepared by the National Congress of Mothers Literature Committee. (Home Education Circular No. 1.) Warren, Irene. Teaching the Use of Books and Libraries. Education, 35 : 157- 63, November, 1914. Training in the Use of Books. Library Journal, 38 : 189-92, April, 1913. Valuable suggestions for normal courses in library work by the chairman of the Committee on Normal School Libraries, N. E. A. Wilson, Martha. Books for High Schools. Chicago, American Library Asso¬ ciation Publishing Board, 1914. Young, Iva M. A New England High-School Library. English Journal, 4 : 571- 76, November, 1915. ARTICULATION WITH THE ELEMENTARY SCHOOL. Fish, Susan Anderson. What Should Pupils Know in English When They Enter the High School? English Journal, 3:166, March, 1914. Urges that a few fundamental habits be established and more ambitious work be left for the high school. 172 ENGLISH IN SECONDARY SCHOOLS. Fontaine, Mary B. Articulation of English Teaching in the Elementary and High Schools. English Journal, 3 : 416, September, 1914. Describes the progress made in Charleston, W. Va., by agreement upon essentials. Outline a course of study. Lyttle, Eugene W. Report of the Committee on the Six-Year Course of Study. In National Education Association. Proceedings, 1908. p. 625. Makes a trial statement of what should be expected at the end of the sixth school year. Noyes, E. C. The Articulation of the English Work of the Elementary School with the English Work of the High School. English Journal, 3:303, May, 1914. Summarizes the results of an extensive investigation carried on by a committee of the National Council of Teachers of English. Vandergraw, Ida. Elementary School Requirements in Composition. Califor¬ nia Association of Teachers of English. Leaflet No. 5, January, 1916. COOPERATION OF DEPARTMENTS. Briggs, Thomas H. Cooperation in English. English Journal, 5:157-63, March, 1916. Browne, G. H. Successful Combination against the Inert. New England As¬ sociation of Teachers of English. Leaflet No. 3, Oct., 1901. Secretary, F. W. C. Hersey, Cambridge, Mass. Brubacher, A. R. Cooperation of Departments to Secure Good Speech and Writing. English Journal, 3 : 331-34, June, 1914. California. State Board of Education. Cooperation in the Teaching of English. A Plan for Departmental Cooperation in the Securing of Correct English. Prepared by the Committee of the California Association of Teachers of English on Cooperation. Bulletin 7. Charters, W. W. A Spelling Hospital in the High School. School Review, 18:192, March, 1910. Congdon, Randolph T. Cooperation in the Oral and Written English of all Academic Classrooms. Extract ' from the Tenth Annual Report of the New York State Education Department. > — - Some Forms of Cooperation in English Composition Teaching. New York City Association of Teachers of English. Bulletin XVI, May, 1915. Gallagher, O. C. Cooperation in English. New England Association of Teach¬ ers of English. Leaflet, No. 67, January, 1909. Secretary, F. W. C. Hersey, Cambridge, Mass. Gardener, J. H. English in Relation to Other Studies. The Nation, 86 : 509. Grace, B. Some Successful Experiments in Cooperation. Report of a com¬ mittee of the New England Association of Teachers of English. Leaflet, No. 78, February, 1910. Cambridge, Mass. Herr, Charlotte B. Cooperation in the Teaching of English Composition. English Journal, 2 : 185-87, March, 1913. Hopkins, E. M. Can Good Work in Teaching Composition Be Done Under Present Conditions? English Journal, 1:1, January, 1912. Hosic, James F. Cooperation in Teaching English. School Review, 21 : 598-607. Also in National Education Association. Proceedings, 1913. Compare Johnston’s Social Administration of the High School, Chapter 25. New York City Association of Teachers of English. Report of the Committee on Cooperation. Bulletin, No. XVI, May, 1915. Thurber, Samuel. Five Axioms of Composition Teaching. School Review, 5 : 7. Webster, Edward Harlan. Cooperation of Departments in English Instruction and Practice. Education, 35 : 409-21. March, 1915. BIBLIOGRAPHY. 173 DISTRIBUTION OF PUPILS. Clapp, John M. The Amelioration of Conditions in the Teaching of Composi¬ tion. Illinois Association of Teachers of English. Bulletin, Vol. Y, No. 1, October 1, 1912. Modern Language Association of America and the National Council of Teachers of English. Committee. Report on the Cost and Labor of English Teaching. Neilson, William Allan. The Life of the Teacher of English. New England Association of Teachers of English. Leaflet, No. 65, January 1, 1912. EXTRA=CLASSROOM ACTIVITIES. Chubb, P. Duty of the School to Educate for the Right Use of Leisure. Re¬ ligious Education, 7 : 699-704, February, 1913. Presents forcefully the responsibility of developing the play side of education. Clay, Martha. The Hat Box in Literature. English Journal, October, 1916. Dorey, J. Milnor. A School Course in Dramatics. English Journal, 1 : 425, September, 1912. Gleason, Charles B., and Lynn, George I. The School Paper. New York, Hinds, Noble & Eldredge. Guild, Thacher H. Suggestions for the High-School Play. English Journal, 2 : 637-46, December, 1913. Herts, Alice M. The Children’s Educational Theater. New York, Harper, 1911. Hincliman, Walter S. English and a School Printing Plant. New England Association of Teachers of English. Leaflet, Vol. XIV, No. 118, May, 1914. Lee, Harriet A. Student Newspaper Work. English Journal, 5:164-71, March, 1916. A List of Plays for High School and College Production. Prepared by the Committee on Plays for Secondary Schools and Colleges of the Drama League of America and the Committee on Plays for Schools and Colleges of the National Council of Teachers of English. Loomis, Sarah A. High-School Dramatics. New England Association of Teachers of English. Leaflet, Yol. XY, No. 127, May, 1915. Lyon, Leverett S. Inter and Intra High School Contests. Education, 33 : 38-49, September, 1912. Mackay, Constance D’Arcy. How to Produce Children’s Plays. New York. Holt, 1915. Moe, Maurice W. Amateur Journalism and the English Teacher. English Journal, 4 : 113-115, February, 1915. Otis, Alvah T. The Appreciation and Management of High-School Debate. English Journal, 3 : 94-98, February, 1914. Perego, Ina M. The Little Theater in the High School. English Journal, 5 : — , September, 1916. Report of the Committee on Plays in Schools and Colleges. English Journal, 4 : 34-40, January, 1915. Simons, Sarah E., and Orr, Clem Irwin. Dramatization and the Festival in the School. New England Association of Teachers of English. Leaflet, No. 116, March, 1914. Sperlin, O. B. The Production of Plays in High Schools. English Journal, 5 : 172-80, March, 1916. Thomas, Charles S. Supplementary Aids to English Teaching. New England Association of Teachers of English. Leaflet, Yol. XY, No. 130, Novem¬ ber, 1915. 174 ENGLISH IN SECONDARY SCHOOLS. University of Wisconsin. The Principles of Effective Debating. (Bulletin, Serial No. 487. General Series, No. 321.) Watkins, Dwight Everett. Group Systems in Interscholastic Debating. Edu¬ cation, 34 : 416-20, March, 1914. PREPARATION OF TEACHERS. Avery, Elizabeth H. The Training of the English Teacher — One Experience. English Journal, 2 : 322, May, 1913. Bagley, W. C. On Training High-School Teachers. In National Education As¬ sociation. Proceedings, 1912. p. 686. Baker, Franklin T. The Teacher of English. English Journal, 2 : 335-43, June, 1913. Balliett, T. M. The Influence of Present Methods of Graduate Instruction on the Teaching in Secondary Schools. School Review, April, 1908. Brown, John F. The Training of Teachers for Secondary Schools. New York, 1911. Clapp, J. M. Summer Work in Voice Training for Teachers of English. English Journal, 4:404-6, June, 1915. Dunbar, A. M. The Training of a Teacher of English. Education, 29 : 97, October, 1908. Gaw, Allison. The Collegiate Training of the Teacher of High-School English. English Journal, 5 : 320-31, May, 1916. Holmes, Samuel Foss. The College Equipment for the English Teacher in Subjects other than English. New England Association of Teachers of English. Leaflet, Vol. XIV, No. 119, June, 1914. Idinois Association of Teachers of English. Report on the Preparation of Teachers of English. Bulletin, February 15, 1915. Linehan, William F. Courses in Education as a Preparation for English Teaching. New England Association of Teachers of English. Leaflet, Vol. XIV, No. 120, October, 1914. National Council of Teachers of English. Committee. Preparation of High: School Teachers of English. Report. English Journal, 4 : 323-32, May, 1915. New England Association of Teachers of English. The Training of English Teachers. Report of the Committee. Education, 34 : 473-90, April, 1914. Yocum, A. Duncan. The Compelling of Efficiency Through Teacher Training. School and Society, 1 : 469-77, April 3, 1915. STANDARDS AND MEASUREMENTS. Abbott, Allan. Scientific Standards in English Teaching. English Journal, Vol. 4, No. 1, January, 1915. A preliminary report of a committee of the National Council of Teachers of English, Presents remarkably comprehensive plan for making available from year to year all the work done in the scientific study of English teaching. Ayres, L. P. A Scale for Measuring Ability in Spelling. Russell Sage Founda¬ tion. Best Spelling Scale. Bagley, W. C. The Need of Standards for Measuring Progress and Results. In National Education Association. Proceedings, 1912. p. 634. Reviews the progress made and sounds a warning lest the intangible outcomes of education shall be overlooked. Ballou, Frank W. Scales for the Measurement of Composition. The Harvard- Newton Bulletins, No. 2, September, 1914. A series of compositions from eighth-grade children representing different degrees of excellence in each of the principal forms of discourse. BIBLIOGRAPHY. 175 Bidwell, Alice. The Young Teacher and Course Failures. Illinois Association of Teachers of English. Bulletin, Yol. VII, No. 7, April 15, 1915. Colvin, Stephen S. Marks and the Marking System as an Incentive. Educa¬ tion, 32 : 560-72, May, 1912. Courtis, S. A. Educational Diagnosis. Educational Administration and Super¬ vision, February, 1915. - — Objective Standards. School and Society, March 27, 1915. - Standards in Rates of Reading. In National Society for the Study of Education. Fourteenth Yearbook, Part I, 1915. p. 44-45. - Standard Tests in English. Elementary-School Teacher, Yol. 14, No. 8, April, 1914. Includes a few graphs of the results of the use of the author’s “ standard tests ” in composition. Davis, William R. A Survey of the Teaching of Composition in the Northwest. English Journal, 4 : 639-46, December, 1915. Dearborn, W. F. The Misuse of Standard Tests in Education. School and Society, April 1, 1916. - School and University Grades. Madison, 1910. 59 p. tables. 12°. (University of Wisconsin. Bulletin, No. 368. High School Series, No. 9.) Based on a study of grades in elementary and high schools and university. Faust, Wirt G. Standards of Descriptive Theme- Writing for Seniors in the High School. English Journal, 5 : 257-71, April, 1916. Gerrish, Carolyn M. The work of the Committee on Standards in English. Education, 36 : 95-101, October, 1915. Hillegas, Milo B. A Scale for the Measurement of Quality in English Com¬ position by Young People. Teachers College Record, Vol. 13, No. 4, Sep¬ tember, 1912. Based upon the theory that differences equally often noticed are equal. Humphries, Florence Y. Effort vs. Accomplishment. English Journal, 3:603- 11, December, 1914. Report of an experiment in marking. The author believes it wrong to deceive pupils into thinking that their work is better than it is. Inglis, A. Variability of Judgments in Grading. Educational Administration and Supervision, January, 1914. Johnson, Franklin W. The Hillegas-Thorndike Scale for Measurement of Qual¬ ity in English Composition by Young People. School Review, 21 : 39-49, January, 1913. Wide variation in marking was present even with the use of the scale. The author thinks two scales necessary, one for form and one for content. Judd, C. H. Measuring the Work of the Public Schools. Cleveland Educational Survey, 1916. Kayfetz, Isidore. A Critical Study of the Hillegas Composition Scale. Peda¬ gogical Seminary, Yol. XXI, No. 4, December, 1914. Theoretical in treatment but useful in defining the problem and showing what has been done. Kelly, F. J. The Kansas Silent-Reading Tests. No. 3. Studies by the Bureau of Educational Measurements and Standards. Emporia, Kansas State Normal School. - - The Kansas Silent-Reading Tests. Journal of Educational Psychology, 7 : 63-80, February, 1916. - Teachers’ Marks. Their Variability and Standardization. New York, 1914. (Columbia University, Teachers College. Contributions to Educa¬ tion, No. 66, 1914.) A careful scientific study in which work so far done is summarized and tested. The Hillegas scale is shown to be difficult to use with advantage. 176 ENGLISH IN SECONDARY SCHOOLS. Long, Percy W. Grades that Explain Themselves. English Journal, 2 : 488-93, October, 1913. Pittenger, E. F. Scientific Studies of the Marking System. American School¬ master, Yol. Till, No. 4, April, 1915. Reynolds, George Fullmer. For Minimum Standards in English. English Journal, 4 : 349-56, June, 1915. Rou th, James. A Method of Grading English Composition. English Journal, 5 : 341^5, May, 1916. Rugg, H. A. Teachers’ Marks and Marking Systems. Educational Administra¬ tion and Supervision, February, 1915. Excellent bibliography. Starch, D. Can Variability of Marks be Reduced? School and Society, Au¬ gust 17, 1915. - - Educational Measurements. New York, Macmillan, 1916. - - and Elliott, Edward C. Reliability in the Grading of Iligh-School Work in English. School Review, 20 : 7, September, 1912. Thomas, C. S. The Hillegas Scale. New England Association of Teachers of English. Leaflet, No. 104, January, 1913. Thorndike, Edward L. A Scale for Merit in English Writing. Journal of Educational Psychology, Yol. 2, No. 7, September, 1911. A preliminary account of the scale, with a plea for criticism. • - Notes on the Significance and Use of the Hillegas Scale for Measuring the Quality of English Composition. English Journal, 2 : 551-61, Novem¬ ber, 1913. An account of the attempt to direct a body of teachers at a meeting of the Illinois association in the use of the scale. ECONOMY OF TIME. Angell, J. R. The Duplication of School V/ork by the College. School Review, 21 : 1-10, January, 1913. Wholly needless waste could be avoided by intelligent collaboration of school and college teachers. Baker, James H. Economy of Time in Education. Washington, Government Printing Office, 1913. (U. S. Bureau of Education. Bulletin, 1913, No. 38.) A report to the National Council of Education. The committee think time can be saved by selecting the essentials of subject matter and by using methods appropriate to the nature of what is being taught. Dewey, John. Shortening the Years of Elementary Schooling. School Review, 11 : 17, January, 1903. Would secure a better type of work by differentiating clearly between elementary and secondary education ; thinks secondary education should begin with the seventh grade. Hosic, James F. Economy in Education. Journal of Education, July, 1914. Thompson, Frank E. Economy of Time in Education. In National Education Association. Proceedings, 1912. p. 513. See also Colorado School Journal, 38 : 10, November, 1912. Considers essentials in education in respect to aim, material, and method ; thinks the schools lay too much emphasis upon the mere symbol. Rounds, C. R. The Waste of Unlearning. English Journal, 1:214, April, 1912. MISCELLANEOUS. Baker, F. T. High-School Reading : Compulsory and Voluntary. English Journal, 4 : 1-8, January, 1915. Black, Mary E. A Consideration of High-School English in North Dakota. University of North Dakota. Bulletin No. 2, May, 1912. BIBLIOGRAPHY. 177 Brown, Stanley. Pictures in the High School. Illinois Association of Teachers of English. Bulletin, Vol. VII, No. 2, November 1, 1914. Browne, George H. Imagination, Concentration, and the Moving Picture. New England Association of Teachers of English. Leaflet, Vol. XV, No. 123, Jan¬ uary, 1915. Cohen, Helen Louise. The Foreigner in Our Schools : Some Aspects of the Problem in New York. English Journal, 2 : 618-29, December, 1913. Gallagher, Oscar C. The Teaching of English in Commercial Courses. Boston, Houghton Mifflin Co., 1914. (English Problems, No. 6, February, 1914.) Gaston, Charles R. Report of Committee on Method of Reading Books Quickly and Effectively. New York City Association of Teachers of English. Bulletin No. XVI, May, 1915. Lyons, Marion C. My Experience with Business English. English Journal, 2:312-17, May, 1913. Perry, Frances M. Dictionaries in the Schoolroom. English Journal, 4: 660-63, December, 1915. Scott. Fred Newton. The Undefended Gate. English Journal, 3 :1-14, Jan¬ uary, 1914. Ward, Cornelia Carhart. Teaching with Pictures. Boston, University Print, 1916. Webster, Edward Harlan. Preparation in English for Business. English Journal, 2 : 613-17, December. 1913. 75080°— 17 - 12 . > : ' INDEX. Abbott, Allan, on library classroom, 114. Administrative problems, 123-155. Articulation of high school and col¬ lege, 23-24, 26, Articulation of high school and the elementary school, 123-128. Ballou, F. W., scale for measurement of composition, 154. Bibliography, 156-177. Books, home reading, 177 ; effective working English, 116-117 ; study and reading, 76-84. See also Bibli¬ ography. Breathing, 87. Business English, 94-98. California Association of Teachers of English, and cooperation with other departments, 133-134. Charters, Pro/., course in grammar, 97. Classes, size, 140. Classroom activities, extra, 140-143 ; equipment, 150-152. Clippings, high-school libraries, 118. College admission requirements, Eng¬ lish, 12-17, 19-25. Commercial correspondence, 96. Commission of New England Col¬ leges on Admission Examinations, requirements in English, 12. Committee of Ten, report, 14-15. Committees, National joint, 8 ; review¬ ing committee of the commission, 9-10. See also National Education Association. Composition, classroom activities, 55-59 ; scales for measurement, 153-154 ; separation of teaching, and teaching of literature, 128-130; sev¬ enth, eighth, and ninth grades, 36-44; tenth, eleventh, and twelfth grades, senior high school, 54-62 ; vocational guidance, 143-147 ; writ¬ ten, 95-98. Congdon, R. T., on cooperation with other departments, 131-132. Conversation, 89. Cooperation with other departments, 130-139. Coulter, V. C., and library equipment, 106. Debating, 89, 142. Decatur, Ill., investigation of pupils’ reading in junior and senior high schools, 99-101. Declamation, 88. Degrees, graduate in education, 149. Descriptive writing, scale for measure¬ ment, 154. Dramatic clubs, 75-76. Dramatics, 74, 88, 141-142. Economy of time in education, 15F-155. Efficiency, English as training for, 27-28. Elementary schools, articulation with high schools, 123-128. Engleman, Supt., inquiry on reading of pupils, 99-102. English course, aims, 30-32; organiza¬ tion, 33-35; relative cost, 139. Examinations, recommendations, 136. Extemporaneous speech, 89. Farrand, Wilson, and English in pre¬ paratory schools, 1-12. Faust, W. G., scale for measurement of descriptive writing, 154. Fiction, study of, 73. Fletcher, Principal , on cooperation with other departments, 132-133. Fontaine, Mary B., on articulation of high school with the elementary school, 127. Formal discipline, dogma, 15. Franklin’s Academy, 11. Gallagher, G. C., on cooperation with other departments, 130-131. Grades, work by, 39-44, 59-62, 89-93, 143-147, 154. 179 180 INDEX. Grammar, course in elementary schools, 97. Grammar and rhetoric, topics sug¬ gested, seventh, eighth, and ninth grades, 36-38. Harvard College, early admission re¬ quirements in English, 11-12. High schools, cooperative relations with universities, 15-16. Hillegas scale for measurement of quality in composition, 153-154. History of the study, 11-16. Home reading, 99 ; importance, 74-75 ; means of encouraging and testing, 48-49. See also Books. Illinois Association of Teachers, and classroom equipment, 150-152. Illustrative material, high - school libraries, 119-120. Industrial subjects, readings, list of books, 102-105. Junior high schools, Decatur, Ill., in¬ vestigation of pupils’ reading, 99- 101 ; literature, 45-84. Kansas silent reading tests, 154. Kelly, P. J., on silent reading tests, 154. Kingsley, C. D., and reorganization of secondary education, 24 ; on need for State directors of high-school Eng¬ lish, 150. Lantern slides, use, 119. Latin-grammar schools, seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, 11. Law, F. H., on cooperation with other departments, 136-138. Letters, business, 96. Librarian, qualities desired, 107-108. Libraries (high school), classrooms, 113-115 ; clippings from magazines and newspapers, 118 ; cooperation, 49 ; illustrative material, 119-120 ; importance, 75 ; periodicals, 117-118 ; references on modern, 110-111 ; rooms, 112-118 ; State aid, 120-121 ; trained librarian giving part-time service, 110; under joint control of board of education and public li¬ brary, 109-110 ; work and equip¬ ment, 106-122. Libraries (public), cooperation with school libraries, 120; high-school branches, 112 ; use of resources, 120. Library administration, 108-112. Library instruction, 121-322. Library resources, outside school build¬ ings, 120-121. Library schools, 108. Literary forms, 34. Literary history, 34. Literary societies, value, 75, 143. Literature, definite means of studying, 73-75 ; methods of teaching, 71-73 ; principles underlying the grouping, 69-71 ; separation of the teaching of, and the teaching of composition, 128-130; seventh, eighth, and ninth grades, junior high school, 45-84; teaching, school activities as aids, 75-76; tenth, eleventh, and twelfth grades, senior high school, 63-84 ; views of teachers, 97. Long, P. W., on grades that explain themselves, 154. Memorizing, 74. National Conference on Uniform En¬ trance Requirements in English, ac¬ tivities, 13-14. National Council of Teachers of Eng¬ lish, articulation of high school with the elementary school, 123; college entrance requirements, 22 ; equip¬ ment of high schools, 152 ; prepara¬ tion of teachers, 148 ; school plays, 141-142 ; size of classes, 140. National Education Association, and reorganization of secondary English, 17-25 ; Committee of Ten, 15-16 ; committees, 17-18, 25. New York City, plan of cooperating with other departments, 134-138. New York State Association of Teach¬ ers of English, resolutions, 21. Noyes, E. C., report on articulation of high school with the elementary school, 123-127. Oral expression, 85-93. Oral work, suggestions for coopera¬ tion, 135. Oration, formal, 89. Periodicals, high-school libraries, 117- 118. Phonetics, 87. Pictures, mounted or unmounted, 119. Plays, school, 140-142 ; study of, 70- 73. INDEX. 181 Poetry, study of, 72-73. Post cards, use, 119-120. Posture and gesture, 87. Public libraries. See Libraries (pub¬ lic). Punctuation, instruction, seventh, eighth, and ninth grades, 88. Pupils, distribution, 139-140. Reading, investigation in junior and senior high schools of Decatur, Ill., 99-101 ; Kansas silent test, 154 ; methods, 74-75 ; oral, 88; suggestive list of books, 49-53. Recitation and declamation, 88. Reflectoscope, use in library class¬ room, 114. Reorganization, movement, 17-25. Scales for measurement of composi¬ tion, 153-154. School libraries. See Libraries (high school). School paper, value, 142. Senior high schools, composition, 54- 62 ; Decatur, Ill., investigation of pupils’ reading, 99-101 ; literature, 63-84. Shakespearean plays, importance of study, 70. Spelling, instruction, seventh, eighth, and ninth grades, 38. Stage, library classroom, 114. Standards and measures of attain¬ ment, 152-154. Supervisory officers, recommendations, 136. Teachers, New York City, recommenda¬ tions for cooperation, 134-136 ; train¬ ing, 29, 71-72, 147-149; training in service, 150. Thomas, C. S., on value of school pa¬ per, 142. Thorndike, E. L., on reading scale for children, 154. Types of organization, high-school English, 22. United States Bureau of Education, aid to schools, 120-121. University of Michigan, system of ac¬ crediting, 15. Victrola, use in library classroom, 114. Vocalization, 87. Vocational activities, preparation, 97. Vocational guidance, through composi¬ tion, 143-147. Vocational phases, business English, 94-95. Wall display, library classroom, 114. Wisconsin plan, high school library, 110. Written work, suggestions for coopera¬ tion, 135. Yale University, and knowledge of lit¬ erary masterpieces, 12. O