^mmll UttirMitg JiJrwg THE GIFT OF J/.,w^ .1 . VCr':/W'kfrifrt««rr- j^.m^if ^^'^I' ^jI^jj^^mhSJSSLw^ Cornell University Library LB1607 .N27 1893 Report of the Committee (of ten) on seco 3 1924 030 593 580 olin B Cornell University M Library The original of tiiis bool< is in tine Cornell University Library. There are no known copyright restrictions in the United States on the use of the text. http://www.archive.org/details/cu31924030593580 [ Whole Numlier 205 UNITED STATES BUREAU OF EDUCATION. HEPORT OF TUB COMMITTEE ON SECONDARY SCHOOL STUDIES APPOINTED AT THE MEETING OF THE National Educational Association July 9, 1892, WITH TOE EEPCIITS OF THE CDXFEREXCES arranged by this Oommittee and held Decemjier 28-30, 1S92. WASHINGTON s GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE. 1893. ' . [ Whole Niimhcr 205 UNITED STATES BUREAU OF EDUCATION. REPORT COMMITTEE ON SECONDARY SCHOOL STUDIES APPOINTED AT THE MEETING OF THE National Educational Association July 9, 1892, WITH THE EEPOKTS OF THE CONFBKEI^CBS arranged by this Oommittee and held December 28-30, 1892. WASHINGTON : GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE. 1893. K LETTER OF TRANSMITTAL. DePxVktmbnt op the Intbeiob, BtlRBATJ OP EDUCATIOIN', Washington, B. C, December t>, 1893. Sib : I have the honor to trausmit herewith the Eeport of the Committee on Secondary School Studies appointed at the meet- ing of the National Educational Association, July 9, 1892, together with the reports of the conferences arranged by the committee and held December 28 to 30, 1892. This is in accord- ance with your expressed wish that this most important report should b^ printed as one of the documents of the Bureau of Education. The ISTational Educational Association appropriated the sum of $2,500 to pay the expenses of the several conferences. Nine subcommittees were appointed by the chief Committee of Ten, one subcommittee being devoted to each subject of the course of study in secondary education. The ninety persons appointed on these subcommittees represented all sections of the United States. Dr. Eliot, President of Harvard University, accepted the chairmanship of the Committee oi Ten and took charge of the arrangement of the work of the subcommittees. The report herewith submitted presents the results of a careful discussion of the whole field of secondary education as con- ducted in private academies and public high schools. It has been agreed on all hands that the most defective part of the education in this country is that of secondary schools. There is a wide divergence in the course of study, and the difference of opinion regarding what constitutes a secondary II LETTER OF TRANSMITTAL. education works injury not only to the elementary schools by setting up an uncertain standard of admission, but also through a want of proper requirements for graduation prevents in thou- sands of cases the continuance of the course of education of youth in colleges and universities. The recommendations of this re- port will draw the attention of great numbers of teachers to the question of educational values, and this will lead to a better understanding of what the pupil should study to gain the most from his work in school. In this respect I consider this the most important educational document ever pubhshed in this country. Eespectfully submitted. W. T. Harris, Commissioner. Hon. Hoke Smith, Secretary of the Interior. EEPOKT OF THE COMMITTEE OF TElf. To THE Xatioxal Council of Education : The Committee of Ten appointed at the meeting of the National Educational Association at Saratoga on the 9th of July, 1892, have the honor to present the following report : — - At the meeting of the National Council of Education in 1891, a Committee appointed at ti previous meeting made a valuable report through their Chairman, INIr. James H. Baker, then Princij)al of the Denver High School, on the general subject of uniformity in school programmes and in requirements for admission to college. The Committee was continued, and was authorized to procure a Conference on the subject of uni- formity during the meeting of the National Council in 1^92, the Conference to consist of representatives of leading colleges and secondary schools in different parts of the country. This Conference was duly summoned, and held meetings at Saratoga on July 7th, 8th, and 9th, 1892. There were present between twenty and thirty delegates. Their discussions took a wide range, but resulted in the following specific recommendations, which the (.'onference sent to the National Council of Education then in session. 1. That it is expedient to hold a conference of school and college teachers of each principal subject which enters into the programmes of secondary schools in the United States and into the requirements for admission to college — as, for example, of Latin, of geometry, or of American history — each confer- ence to consider the proper limits of its subject, the best methods of instruction, the most desirable allotment of time for the subject, and the best methods of testing the pupils' attainments therein, and each conference to represent fairly the different parts of the country. 2. That a Committee be appointed with authority to select the members of these conferences and to arrange their meetings, the results of all the conferences to be reported to this Com- mittee for such action as it may deem appropriate, and to form 4 THE COAI,MITTKE OF TEN. the basis of a report to l)e presented to the Council by this Committee. 3. That this Committee consist of the following gentlemen : Charles W. Eliot, President of Harvard Universitj', Cambridge; Mass., Chairman. William T. Harris, Commissioner of Eduqation, 'Washington, D. C. James B. Angell, President of the University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Mich. John Tetlow, Head Master of the Girls' High School and the Girls' Latin School, Boston, Mass. James M. Taylor, President of Vassar College, Poughkeepsie, N. Y. Oscar D. Robinson, Principal of thePIigh School, Albalh^, N. Y. James H. Baker, President of the University of Colorado, Boulder, Colo. Richard H. Jesse, President of the University of Missouri, Columbia, Mo. James C. Mackenzie, Head Master of the Lawrenceville School, Law- rence ville, N. J. Henry C. King, Professor in Oberlin College, Oberlin, Ohio. These recommendations of the Conference were adopted by the National Council of Education on the 9th of July ; and the Council communicated the recomrbendations to the Directors oi the National Educational Association, with the further recom- mendation that an appropriation not exceeding $2500 be made by the Association towards the expenses of these conferences. On the 12th of July the Directors adopted a series of resolutions under which a sum not exceeding $2500 was made available for this undertaking during the academic year 1892-93. Every gentlemail named on the above Committee of Ten accepted his appointment ; and the Committee met, with every member present, at Columbia College, New York City, from the 9th to the 11th of November, 1892, inclusive. In preparation for this meeting, a table had been prepared by means of a prolonged correspondence with the principals. of selected secondary schools in various parts of the country, which showed the subjects taught in forty leading secondary schools in the United States, and the total number of recita- tions, or exercises, allotted to each subject. Nearly two hundred schools were applied to for this information; but it did not prove practicable to obtain within three months verified state- ments from more than forty schools. This table proved con- clusively, first, that the tcital number of subjects taught in these THE NINE CONFERENCES. 5 secondary schools was nearly forty, thirteen of which, however, were found in only a few schools ; secondly, that many of these subjects were taught for such short periods that little training could be derived from them ; and thirdly, that the time allotted to the same subject in the different schools varied widely. Even for the older subjects, like Latin and algebra, there appeared to be a wide diversity of practice Avith regard to the time allotted to them. Since this table was comparative in its nature, — that is, pei'mitted comparisons to be made between different schools, — and could be easily misunderstood and misapplied by persons who had small acquaintance with school programmes, it was treated as a confidential document ; and was issued at first only to the members of the Committed of Ten and the principals of the schools mentioned in the table. Later, it was sent — still as a confidential paper — to the mem- bers of the several conferences organized by the Committee of Ten. The Committee of Ten, after a preliminary discussion on November 9th, decided on November 10th to organize confer- ences on the following subjects: — 1. Latin; 2. Greek; 3. English; 4. Other Mo'dern Languages; 5. Mathematics; 6. Physics, Astronomy, and Chemistry; 7. Natural History (Biology, including Botany, Zoology, and Physiology) ; 8. History, Civil Government, and Political Economy; 9. Geography (Physical Geography, Geology, and Meteorol- ogy) . They also decided that each Conference should consist of ten members. They then proceeded to select the members of each of these Conferences, having regard in the selection ,to the scholarship and- experience of the gentlemen named, to the fair division of the members between colleges on the one hand and schools on the other, and to the proper geo- graphical distribution of the total membership,. After select- ing ninety members for the nine Conferences, the Committee decided on an additional numbei^ of names to be used as sub- stitutes for persons originally chosen who should decline to serve, from two to four substitutes being selected for each Conference. In the selection of substitutes the Committee o found it difficult to regard the geographical distribution of the persons selected with as much strictness as in the original b QUESTION'S FOR THK ClONKEKKNCES. selection ; and, accordingly, when it became ue(5essary to call on a considerable number of substitutes, the accurate geo- graphical disti'ibution of membership was somewhat impaired. The lists of the members of the several Conferences Avere finally adopted at a meeting" of the Committee on November 11th; and th^ Chairman and Secretary of the Committee were then empowered to fill any vacancies which might occur. The Committee next adopted the following list of questions as a guide for the discussions of all the Conferences, and directed that the Conferences be called tos:ether on the 28th of December : -^ 1'. In the school course of study extending approximateljt from the age of six years to eighteen j'ears — a course including the periods of both elementary and secondarj" instruction — at what age should the study which is the subject of the Conference be first introduced? 2. After it -is introduced, bow many hours a week for how many j^ears should be devoted to it? 3. How many hours a week for how many years should be deAoted to it during the last four years of the complete course ; that is, during the ordinary high school period ? 4. What topics, or parts, of the subject may reasonably be covered during the whole course? 5. What topics, or parts, of the subject may best be reserved for the last four years ? 6. In what form and to what extent should the subject enter into college requirements for admission ? Such questions as the sufficiency of translation at sight as a test of knowledge of a language, or the superiority of a laboratory examination in a scientific subject to a written examination on a text-book, are intended to be suggested under • .this head by the phrase "in what form." 7. Should the subject be treated differently for pupils who are going to college, for those who are going to a scientific school, and for those who, presumablj-, are going to neither? 8. At what stage should this differentiation begin, if any be recom- mended ? 9. Can any description be given of the best method of teaching this subject throughout the school course? o 10. Can any description be given of the best mode of testing attain- ments in this subject at college admission examinations ? COrMPOSITION OF THE CONFEREXCF.>. 7 11. For those cases iu which colleges and universities permit a division of the admission examination into a preliminary and a final examination, separated by at least a year, can the best limit between the preliminary and final examinations be approximately defined? The Committee further voted that it was expedient tjjat the Conferences on Latin and Greek meet at the same place. Finally, all further questions of detail with regard to the calling and the instruction of the Conferences were referred to the Chairman with full power. During the ensuing six weeks, the composition of the nine Conferences was determined in accordance with the measures adopted by the Committee of Ten. Seventy persons originally selected by the Committee accepted the invitation of the Committee, and sixty-nine of these persons were present at the meetings of their respective Conferences on the 28th of December. Twenty substitutes accepted service, of whom twelve were persons selected by the Committee of Ten, and eight were selected under the authority granted to the Chair- man and Secretary of the Committee in emergencies. One of these eight gentlemen was selected bv a Conference at its first meeting. Two gentlemen who accepted service — one of the original members and one substitute — absented themselves from the meetings of their respective Conferences without gi\'ing any notice to the Chairman of the Committee of Ten, who was therefore unable to fill their places,. "With these two exceptions, all the Conferences met on December 28th with full membership. The places of meeting were as follows : — for the Latin and Greek Conferences, the University of ^Michigan, Ann Arbor, Mich. ; for the English Conference, Vassar College, Pough- keepsie, X. Y. ; for the Conference on Other ^lodern Lan- guages, the Bureau of Education, "Washington, D. C. ; for the Conference on Mathematics, Harvard University, Cam- brido-e, iMass. ; for the Conferences on Physics, Astronomy, and Chemistry, and on Natural History, the University of Chicago, CMcago, 111.; for the Conference on History, Civil Govern- ment, and Political Economy-, the University of "Wisconsin, Madison, "Wis. ; for the Conference on Geography, the Cook 8 MEMBERS OP THE CONFERENCES. County Normal School, Englewood, 111. The Committee ( Ten and all the Conferences enjoyed the hospitality of the severs institutions at which they met, and the members were mad welcome at private houses during the sessions. Through th exertions of Mr. N. A. Calkins, Chairman of the Trustees ( the National Educational Association, important reductions ( railroad fares were procured for some members of the Commi tee and of the Confei'ences ; but the reductions obtainable wei less numerous and considerable than the National Council < Education had hoped. In filling a few vacancies of whic notice was received shortly before December 28th, it wf necessaiy to regard as one qualification nearness of resident to the appointed places of meeting ; but on the whole th weight and eflectiveness of the several Conferences were nc impaired by the necessary replacement of twenty of the men bers originally selected by the Committee of Ten. The list ( the members of the Conferences on the 28th of December w£ as follows : — 1. Latin. Professor Charles E. Bennett, Cornell University, Ithaca', IST. Y. Frederick L. Bliss, Principal of the Detroit Pligh School, Detroit, Miol Jno. T. Buchanan, Pcincipal of the Kansas City High School, Kansi City, Mo. William C. Collar, Head Master of the Roxbury Latin School, Ro: bury, Mass. John S. Cromuie, Principal of the Adelphl Academy, Brooklyn, N. Y. Professor -James H. Dillard, Tulane University, New Orleans, La. Rev. William Gallagher, Principal of Williston Seminary, Eas hampton, Mass. Professor William G. Hale, University of Chicago, Chicago, 111. Professor John C.' Rolfe, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Mich. Julius Sachs, Principal of the Collegiate Institute for Boys, 38 West 691 Street, New York City. 2. Greek. E. W. Coy, Principal of the Hughes High School, Cincinnati, O. Professor Martin L. D'Ooge, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Micl A. F. Fleet, Superintendent of the Missouri Military Academy, Mexio Mo. Ashley D. Hurt, Head Master of the High School, Tulane Universit- New Orleans, La. MEMBEKS OF THE COJJFEEENCES. 9 ROBEKT D. Keep, Principal of the Free Academj-, Norwich, Conn. Professor Abby Leach, Vassar College, Poughkeepsie, N. Y. Clifford H. Moore, Phillips Academy, Andover, Mass. William H. Smlley, Principal of the High School, Denver, Colo. Professor Charles F. Smith, Vanderbilt University. Nashville, Tenn. Professor Bexjamix I. Wheeler, Cornell University, Ithaca, N. Y. 3. English. Professor Edward A. Allen, University of Missouri, Columbia, Mo. F. A. Barbour, Michigan State Normal School, Ypsilanti, Mich. Professor Frank A. Blackburn, University of Chicago, Chicago, 111. Professor Cornelius B. Bradley, University of California, Berkeley, Calif. Professor Francis B. Gummere, Haverford College, Pa. Professor Edward E. Hale, Jr., University of Iowa, Iowa City, Iowa. Professor George L. Kittredge, Harvard University, Cambridge, Mass, Charles L. Loos, Jr., High School, Dayton, Ohio. W. H. INlAXWELL, Superintendent of Schools, Brooklyn, N. Y. Samuel Thuebek, Master in the Girls' High School, Boston, Mass. 4. Other Modern Languages. " Professor Joseph L. Armstrong, Trinity College, Durham, N. C. Thomas B. Broxson, Lawrenceville School, Lawrenceville, N. J. Professor Alphonse N. van Daell, Massachusetts Institute of Tech- nology, Boston, Mass. Charles H. Graxdgext, Director of Modem Language Instruction, in the Public Schools, Boston, Mass. Professor Charles Harris, Oberlin College, Oberlin, Ohio. William T. Peck, High School, Providence, R. I. Professor Sylvester Primer, University of Texas, Austin, Texas. John J. -Schobinger, Principal of a Private School for Boys, Chicago, 111. Isidore H. B. Spiers, William Penn Charter School, Philadelphia, Pa. Professor Walter D. Toy, University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, N. C. 5. Mathematics. Professor William E. Byerly, Harvard University, Cambridge, Mass. Professor Floeian Cajori, Colorado College, Colorado Springs, Colo. Arthur H. Cutler, Principal of a Private School for Boys, New York City. Professor Henry B. Fine, College of New Jersey, Princeton, N. J. W. A. Geeeson, Principal of the High School, Grand Rapids, Mioh. Andrew Ingeaham, Swain Free School, New Bedford, Mass. Professor Simon Newcomb, Johns Hopkins University, and Washington, D. C. 10 MEMBERS OF THE CONFERENCES. Professor George D. Olds, Amherst College, Amherst, Mass. James L. Patterson, Lawrenoeville School, Lawrenceville, N. J. Professor T. H. Saffoed, Williams College, Williamstown, Mass. 6. Physics, Astronomy, and Chemistry. Professor Brown Ayers, Tulane University, New Orleans, La. Irving W. Fay, The Belmont School, Belmont, Calif. Alfred P. Gage, English High School, Boston, Mass. George Warren Krall, Manual Training School, Washington Uni- versity, St. Louis, Mo. Professor William W. Payne, Carleton College, Northfield, Minn. William McPherson, Jr,, 2901 Collinwood Avenue, Toledo, Ohio. Professor Ira Remsen, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, Md. Professor James H. Shepard, South Dakota Agricultural College, Brook- ings, So. Dak. Professor William J. Waggener, University of Colorado, Boulder, Colo. George R. White, Phillips Exeter Academy, Exeter, N. H. 7. Natural History (Biology, including Botany, Zoology, and Physiology). Professor Charles E. Bessey, University of Nebraska, Lincoln, Neb. Arthur C. Boyden, Normal School,, Bridgewater, Mass. Professor Samuel F. Clarke, Williams College, Williamstown, Mass. Professor Douglas H. Campbell, Leland Stanford Jr. University, Palo Alto, Calif. President John M. Coulter, Indiana University, Bloomington, Ind. Principal S. A. Merritt, Helena, Montana. W. B. Powell, Superintendent of Schools, Washington, D. C. Charles B. Scott, High School, St. Paul, Minn. Professor Albert H. Tuttle, University of Virginia, Charlottesville, Va, O. S. Westcott, Principal of the North Division High School, Chicago, 111. 8. History, Civil Government, and Political Economy. President Charles K. Adams, University of Wisconsin, Madison, Wis. Professor Edward G. Bourne, Adelbert College, Cleveland, Ohio. Abram Brown, Principal of the Central High School, Columbus,- Ohio. Professor A. B. Hart, Harvard University, Cambridge, Mass. Ray Greene Huling, Principal of the High School, New Bedford, Mass. Professor Jesse Macy, Iowa College, Grinnell, Iowa. Professor James Harvey Robinson, University of Pennsylvania. Phila- delphia, Pa. Professor William- A. Scott, University of Wisconsin, Madison, Wis. Henry P. Warren, Head Master of the Albany Academy, Albany, N. Y. Professor Woodeow Wilson, College of New Jersey, Priiiceton, N. J. C^OMPOSmON OF THE (CONFERENCES. 11 9. Geogkaphv (Pin'SK.'AL Geography, Geology, ani> I\Ieteorology). Professor Thomas C. Ciiambeklin, Uiiiversit\- of tUiicago, Chicago, 111. Professor George L. Collie, Beloit College, Beloit, Wis. Professor W. M. Davis, Harvard University, Cambridge, Mass. Delwin a. Hamlin, Master of the Rice Training School, Boston, Mass. Professor Edwin .T. Houston, Central High School, Philadelphia, Pa. Professor Mark W. Harrington, The Weather Bureau, Washington, D. C. Charles F. King, Dearborn School, Boston, Mass. Francis W. Parker, Principal of the Cook County Normal School, Englewood, 111. G. M. Philips, Principal of the State Normal School, West Chester, Pa. Professor Israel C. Russell, University of ^Michigan, Ann Arbor, Mich. The ninety members of the Conferences were divided as follows, — forty-seven were in the service of colleges or univer- sities, forty-two in the service of schools, and one was a government official formerly in the service of a university. A considerable number of the college men, however, had also had experience in schools. Each Conference, in accordance with a recommendation of the Committee of Ten, chose its own Chairman and Secretary ; and theSe two officers prepared the report of each Conference. Six of the Chairmen were college men, and three were school men ; while of the Secretaries, two were,college men and seven school men. The Committee of Ten requested that the reports of the Conferences should be sent to their Chairman by the 1st of April, 1893 — three months being thus allowed for the preparation of the reports. Seven Conferences substantially conformed to this request of the Committee ; but the reports from the Conferences on Natural History and Geogi'aphy were delayed until the second week in July. The Committee of Ten, being of course unable to prepare their own report until all the reports of the Decem))er Conferences had been received, were prevented from presenting their report, as they had intended, at the Education Congress which met at Chicago July 27th-29th. All the Conferences sat for three days ; their discussions were frank, earnest, and thorough ; but in every Conference an extraordinary unity of opinion was arrived at. The nine reports are characterized by an amount of agreement which 12 UNANIMITY OF THE CONFEBENOES. quite surpasses the most sanguine anticipations. Only two ■ Conferences present minority reports, namely, the Conference on Physics, Astronomy, and Chemistry, and the Conference on "Geography ; and in the first case, the dissenting opinions touch only two points in the report of the majority, one of wbich is unimportant. In the great majority of matters brought before each Conference, the decision of the Conference was unanimous. When one considers the different localities, insti- tutions, professional experiences, and personalities represented in each of the Conferences, the unanimity developed is very striking, and should carry great weight. Before the 1st of October, 1893, the reports of the Confer- ences had all been printed, after revision in proof by the chair- men of the Conferences respectively, and had been distributed to the members of the Committee of Ten, together with ,a preliminary draft of a report for the Committee. With the aid of comments and suggestions received from members of the Committee a second draft of this report was made ready in print to serve as the ground-work of the deliberations of the- Committee at their final rrteeting. This meeting was held at Columbia College from the 8th to the 11th of November, 1893, ' inclusive, every member being present except Professor King, who is spending the current academic year in Europe. The points of view and the fields of work of the different members of the Committee being fortunately various, the discussions at - this prolonged meeting were vigorous and comprehensive, and resulted in a thorough revision of the preliminary report. This , third revise having been submitted to the members of the Committee, a cordial agreement on both the form and the sub^ stance of the present report, with the exceptions stated in the minority report of President Baker, was arrived at after a correspondence which extended over three weeks. The report itself embodies the numerous votes and resolutions adopted by the Committee. Professor King, having received in Europe the Conference reports, the two preliminary drafts of the Committee's report, and the third revise, desired to have his name signed to tbe . final report. ?:UMBER AND VAE,IETY OF CHANGES URGED. 13 The Council and the public will doubtless be impressed, at first sight, with the great number and varic^iy of important changes urged by the Conferences ; but on a careful reading of the appended reports it ^vill appear that the spirit of the Con- ferences was distinctly conservative and moderate, although many of their recommendations are of a radical nature. The Conferences which found their tasks the most difficult were the Conferences on Physics, Astronomy, and Chemistry ; Natural History ; History, Civil Government, and Political Economy ; and Geography ; and these four Conferences make the longest and most elaborate reports, for the reason that these subjects are to-day more imperfectly dealt with in primary and second- ary schools than are the subjects of the first five Conferences. -The experts who met to confer together concerning the teaching, of the last four subjects in the list of Conferences all felt the need of setting forth in an ample way what ought to Ije taught, in what order, and by what method. They ardently desired to have their respective subjects made equal to Latin, Greek, and Mathematics in weight and influence in the schools ; but they knew that educational tradition was adverse to this desire, and that many teachers and directors of education felt no confi- dence in these subjects as disciplinary material. Hence the length and elaboration of these reports. In less degree, the Conferences on English and Other Modern Languages felt the same difiiculties, these subjects being relatively new as sub- stantial elements in school programmes. The Committee of Ten requested the Conferences to make their reports and recommendations as specific as possilile. This request was generally complied with ; but, very naturally, the reports and recommendations are more specific concerning the selection of topics in each subject, the best methods of instruction, and the desirable appliances or apparatus, than concerning the allotment of time to each subject. The allot- ment of time is a very important matter of administrative detail ; but iLpresents great difiiculties, requires a comprehensive sur- vey of the comparative claims of many subjects, and in difierent parts of the country is necessarily aff"ected by the various local conditions and historical developments. Nevertheless, there will be found in the Conference reports recommendations of a 14 TIME-vALLOTMENT BY SUBJECT. fundamental and far-reaching character concerning the allotment of programme time to each subject. It might have been expected that every Conference vp^ould have demanded for its subject a larger proportion of time than is now commonly assigned to it in primary and secondary schools ; but, as a matter of fact, the reports are noteworthy for their moderation in this respect, — especially the reports on the old and well-established subjects. The Latin Conference declares that, — " In view of the just demand for more and better work in several other subjects of the preparatory course, it seemed clear to the Conference that no increase in the quantity of the preparation in Latin should be asked for." Among the votes passed by the Greek Conference will be noticed the following : — " That in making the following recommendations, this Conference desires that the average- age at which pupils now enter college should be lowered rather than raised; and the Conference urges that no addition be ma,de in the advanced requirements in Greek for admission to college." The Mathematical Conference recommends that the course in arithmetic in elementary schools should be abridged, and recommends only a moderate assignment of time to algebra and geometry. , The Conference on Geography says of the present assignment of time to geography in primary and and secondary schools that "it is the judgment of the Conference that too much time is given to the subject in proportion to the results secured. It is not their judgment that more time is given to the subject than it merits, but that either more should be accomplished, or less time taken to attain it." Anyone who reads these nine reports consecutively will be struck with the fact that all these bodies of experts desire to- have the elements of their several subjects taught earlier than they now are ; and that the Conferences on all the subjects except the languages desire to have given in the elementary schools what may be called perspective views, or broad surveys, of their respective subjects — expecting that in later years of the school course parts of these same subjects will be taken up with more amplitude and detail. The Conferences on Latin, Greek, and the Modern Languages agree in desiring to have EARLIER INTRODUCTION OF SUBJECTS. 15 the study of foreign languages begin at a much earlier age than now, — the Latin Conference suggesting by a reference to European usage that Latin be begun from three to five .years earlier than it commonly is now. The Conference on Mathe- matics wish to have given in elementary schools not only a general survey of arithmetic, but also the elements of algebra, and concrete geometry in connection with drawing. The Conference on Physics, Chemistry, and Astronomy urge that nature studies should constitute an important part of the elementary school course from the very beginning. The Conference on Natural History wish the elements of botany and zoology to be taught in the primary schools. The Conference on History wish the systematic study of history to begin as early as the tenth year of age, and the first two years of study to be devoted to m3thology and to biography for the illusti-ation of general history- as well as of American history. Finally, the Conference on Geography recommend that the earlier course treat broadly of the earth, its environment and inhabitants, extending freely into fields which in later years of study are recognized as belonging to separate sciences. ^ In thus claiming entrance for their subjects into the earlier years of school attendance, the Conferences on the newer subjects are only seeking an advantage which the oldest subjects have long posseted. The elements of language, number, and geography have long been imparted to young children. As things now are, the high school teacher finds in the pupils fresh from the grammar schools no foundation of elementary mathematical conceptions outside of arithmetic ; no acquaintance with algebraic language ; and no accurate knowledge of geometrical forms. As to botany, zoology, chemistry, and physics, the minds of pupils entering the high school are ordinarily blank on these subjects. When college professors endeavor to teach chemistry, physics, botany, » zoology, meteorology, or geology to persons of eighteen or twenty years of age, they discover that in most instances new habits of observing, reflecting, and recording have to be painfully acquired by the students, — habits which they should have acquired in early childhood. The college teacher of history finds in like manner that his subject has never taken 16 CORRELATION OF SUBJECTS. any serious hold on the minds of pupils fresh from the secondary schools. He finds that they have devoted astonishingly little time to the subject ; and that they have acquired no habit of historical investigation, or of the comparative examination oX different historical narratives concerning the same periods or events. It is inevitable, thei-efore, that specialists in any one of the subjects which are pursued in the high schools or colleges should earnestly desire that the minds of young children be stored with some of the elementary facts arid principles of their subject; and that all the mental habits, which the adult student will surely need, begin to be formed in the child's mind before the age of fourteen. It follows, as a matter of course, that all the Conferences except the Conference on Greek, make strong suggestions concerning the programmes of primary and grammar schools, — generally with some reference to the subsequent programmes of secondary schools. They- desire important changes in the elementary grades ; and the changes recommended are all in the direction of increasing simultaneously the interest and the substantial training quality of primai'y and grammar school studies. If anyone feels dismayed at the number and variety of the subjects to be opened to children of tender age, let him observe that while these nine Conferences desire each their own subject to be brought into the courses of elementary schools, they ^11 agree that these different subjects should be correlated and associated one with another by the programme and by the actual teaching. If the nine Conferences had sat all together as a single body, instead of sitting as detached and even isolated bodies, they could not have more forcibly expressed their conviction that every subject recommended for intro- duction into elementary and secondary schools should help_ every other ; and that the teacher of each single subject should feel responsible for the advancement of the pupils in all subjects, and should distinctly contribute to this advancement. On one very important question of general policy which affects profoundly the preparation of all school programmes,' the Committee of Ten and all the Conferences are absolutely unanimous. Among the questions suggested for discussion in each Conference were the following : — A SIMPLinCATION Of PROGRAMMES. 17 7. Should the subject be treated differently for pupils who are going to college, for those who are going to a scientific school, and for those who, presumably, are going to neither? 8. At what age should this differentiation begin, if any be -recommended ? The: 7th question is answered unanimously in the negative by the Conference^, and the 8th therefore needs no answer. The Committee -of Ten unanimously agree with the Conferences. , Ninety-eight teachers, intimately concerned either with the actual work of American secondary schools, or with the results of that work as they appear in students who come to college, unanimously declare that 'every subject which is taught at all in a secondary school should be taught in the same way and to the same extent to every pupik so long as he pursues it, no matter what the probable destination of the pupil may l)e, or at what point his education is to cease. Thus, for all pupib who study Latin, or history, or algebra, for example, the allotment of time and ,the method of instruction in a given school should be the same year by year. Not that all the pupils should pursue every subject for the same numbei- of years ; but so long as they do pursue it, they should all be treated alike. It has been a very general custom in American high schools and academies to make up separate courses of study fAr pupils of supposed different destinations, the pi-opor- tions of the several studies in the different courses being various. The principle laid down by the Conferences will, if logically carried out, make a great simplification in secondary school programmes. It will lead to each subject's being treated by the school in the same, Avay l)y the year for all pupils, and this, whether the individual piipil be required to choose between courses which run through several years, or be allowed some choice among subjects year by year. Persons who read all the appended repoi'ts will obseiwe the frequent occurrence of the statement that, in order to introduce the changes recommended, teachers more highly trained Avill be needed in both the elementary and the secondary schools. There are frequent expressions to the effect that a higher grade of scholarship is needed in teachers of the lower classes, or that the general adoption of some method urged by a Conference 2 18 TEACHEES MORE HIGHLY TRAINED. must depend upon the Better preparation of teachers in the high schools, model schools, normal schools, or colleges in which they are trained. , The experienced principal or superin- tendent in reading the reports will be apt to say to himself, — " This recommendation is sound, but cannot be carried out without teachers who have received a training superior to that of the teachers now at my command." It must be remembered, in connection with these admissions, or expressions- of anxiety, that the Conferences were urged by the Committee of Ten to, advise the Committee concerning the best possible — almostthe ideal — treatment of each subject taught in a secondary school course, without, however, losing sight of tlie actual condition of American schools, or pushing their recommendations beyond what might reasonably be considered attainable in a moderate number of years. The Cominittee believe that the Conferences have carried out wisely the desire of the Committee, in that they have recommended improvements, which, though great and seldom to be made at once and simultaneously, are by no means unattainable. The existing agencies for giving instruc- tion to teachers already in service are numerous ; and the normal schools and the colleges are capable of making prompt and successful efforts to supply the better trained and equipped teachers for whom the reports of the Conferences, call. Many recommendations will be found to be made by more than one Conference. Thus, all the Conferences- on foreiga languages seem to agree that the introduction of two foreign languages in the same year is inexpedient; and all of them insist on practice in reading the foreign language' aloud, on the use of good English in' translating, and on practice in translating the foreign language at* sight, and in writing it. Again, all the Conferences on scientific subjects dwell on laboratory work by the pupils as the, best means of instruction, and on the great utility of the genuine laboratory note-book ; and they all protest that teachers of science need at least as thorough a special training as teachers, of languages or mathe- matics receive. In reading the reports, many instances will be.' noticed in which different Conferences have reached similar conclusions without any consultation, or have followed a common line of thought. LATIX. GKEEK. 19 Your Committee now proceed to give summaries of the most important recommendations made by the Conferences as regards topics and methods, reserving the subject of time-allotment. But in so. doing, they desire to say that the reading of these summaries should not absolve anyone interested in the general subject from reading with care the entire report of every Con- ference. The several reports are so full of suggestions and recommendations concisely and fogently stated that it is im- possible to present adequate abstracts of them. 1. Latin. An important recommendation of the Latin Conference is the recommendation that the study of Latin Ije introduced into American schools earlier than it now is. They recommend that translation at sight foi'm a constant and increasing part of the examintttions for admission to college and of the work of preparation. They next urge that practice in writing Latin should not be dissociated from practice Jn reading and translat- ing ; but, on the contrary, that the two should be carried on with equal steps. The Conference desire the schools to adopt a greater variety of Latin authors for beginners, and they give good reasons against the exclusive use of Caesar's Gallic "War. They object to the common practice of putting the teachfaig of beginners into the hands of the youngest teachers, who have the slenderest equipment of knowledge and experience. They dwell on the importance of attending to pronunciation and reading aloud, to forms, vocabulary, syntax, and order, and to the means of learning to understand the Latin before translating it : arrd they describe and urge the importance of a higher ideal in translation than now prevails in secondary schools. The formal recommendations of the Conference, fourteen in number, will be found concisely stated in numbered paragraphs at the close of their report. 2. Greek. The Conference on Greek agree with the Conference on Latin in recommending the cultivation of reading at sight in schools, and in recommending that practice in translation into the foreign 20 GREEK. ENGLISH. language should be continued throughout the school course. They urge that three years be the minimum time for the study of Greek in schools ; provided that Latin be studied four years. They would not have a pupil begin the study of Greek without a knowledge of the elements of Latin. They recommend the substitution of portions of the Hellenica for two books of the Anabasis in the requirements-for admission to college, and the use of some narrative portions of Thucydides in schools. They urge that Homer should continue to be studied in all schools which provide instruction in Greek through three years, and they suggest that the Odyssey is to be preferred to the Iliad. They regret " that so few colleges through their admission examinations encoiwage reading at sight in schools." Like the Latin Conference, the Greek Conference urge that the reading of, the text be constantly practiced by both teacher and pupil, "and that teachers require from their pupils no less intelligent reading of the text • than accurate translation of the same." The Greek ^Conference also adopted a vote " to concur with the Latin Conference as to the age at which the study of Latin should be begun." The speciiic -recommenda- tions of the Conference will be found in brief form in the paragraphs at the head of the eleven numbered sections into which their report is divided. 3. English. The Conference on -English fouad it necessary to deal with the study of English in scliools below the high school grade as well as in the high school. Their opening recommendations deal with the very first years of school, and one of the most interesting and admirable parts of their report relates, to Eng- lish in the primary and the grammar schools. - The Conference are of the opinion that English should be pursued in the high school during the entire course of four years ; but in making this recommendation the Conference have in mind both study of literature and training in the expression of thought. To the study of rhetoric they assign one hour a week in the third year of the high school course. To the subject of historical and systematic grammar they assign one hour a week KNGLISH. 21 in the fourth year of the high school course. The intelligent reader of the report of this Conference will find described in it the means by which the study of English in secondary schools is to be made the equal of any other study in disciplinary or developing power. The Conference claim for English as much time as the Latin Conference claim for Latin in secondary schools ; and it is clear that they intend that the study shall be in all respects as serious and informing as the study of Latin. One of the most interesting opinions expressed tay_the Confer- ence is ' ' that the best results in the teaching of English in high schools cannot be secured without the aid given by the study of some other language ; and that Latin and Geriiiari, by reason' of their fuller inflectional system, are especially suited to this end." In the case of high schools, as well as in schools of lower grade, the Conference declare that every teacher, whatever his department, should feel responsible for the use of good English, on the part of his pupils. In several passages of this report the idea recurs that training in English must go hand in hand with the study of other subjects. Thus the Conference hope for the study of the history and geography of the English- speaking people, so far as these illustrate the development of the English language. They mentioii that "the extent to which the study of the sources of English words can be carried in any school or class will depend x)n the acquaintance the pupils possess with Latin, French, and German." They say that the study of words should be so pursued as to illus- trate the political, social, intellectual, and religious develop- ment pf the English race ; and they urge that the admission of a student to college should be made to depend largely on his ability to write English, as shown in his examination books on other subjects. It is a fundamental idea in this report that the study of every other subject should contribute to the pupil's traimng in English ; and that the pupil's capacity to write English should be made available, and be developed, in every other department. The very specific recommendations of the Conference as to English requirements for admission to colleges and scientific schools are especially wise and valuable. 22 other modern languages. 4. Other Modern Languages. The most novel and striking recommendation made by the Conference on Modern Languages is that an elective course in German or Fi-ench be provided in the grammar school, the instruction to be open to children at about ten yeaa's of age. The Conference made this recommendation "in the firm belief that the educational efi'ects of modern language study will be of immense benefit to all who are able to pursue it under proper ' guidance." They admit that the study of Latin presents the same advantages ; but living languages seem to them better adapted to grammar school work. The recommendations of this Conference with regard to the number of lessons a week are specific. They even construct a table showing the time which should be devoted to modern languages in each of the last four years of the elementary schools and in each year of the high school. They plead that "all pupils of the -Same intelligence and the same degree of maturit}^ be instructed alike, no matter irhether they are subsequently to enter a college or scientific school, or intend to pursue their studies no farther." The Conference also state with great precision what in their judgment may be expected of pupils in German and French at the various stages of their progress. An important passage of the report treats of the best way to facilitate the pro- gress of beginners ; — pupils should be lifted over hard place's ; frequent reviews are not to be recommended ; new texts stimu- late interest and enlarge the vocabulary. Their recommenda- tions concerning translation into English, reading aloud-, habituating the ear to the sounds of the foreign language, and translating into the foreign language, closely resemble the recommendations of the Conferences on Latin, Greek, and English regarding the best methods of instruction in those languages. In regard to college requirements, the Conference agree with several other Conferences in stating ' ' that college requirements for admission should coincide with the high school requirements for graduation." Finally, they declare that "the worst obstacle to modern language study is the lack of properly equijjped instructors ; and that it is the duty of universities, - states, and cities to_ provide opportunities for the special preparation of modern language teachers." MATHEMATICS. 28 5. ^Mathematics. The form of the report of the Conference on Mathematics differs somewhat from that of the other reports. This report is subdivided under five headings : — 1st, General Conclusions. 2nd, The Teaching, of Arithmetic. 3rd, The Teaching of Con- crete Geometry. 4th, The Teaching of Algebra. 5th, The Teaching of Formal or ^demonstrative Geometry. The first general conclusion of .the Conference was arrived at unanimously. The Conference consisted of one government official and university professor, five professors of mathematics in as many colleges, one principal of a high school, two teachers of mathematics in endowed schools, and one proprietor of a private school for boys. The professional experience of these gentlemen and their several fields of work were various, and they came from widely separated parts of the country ; yet they were unanimously of opinion "that a radical change in the teaching of arithmetic was necessary." They recommend "that the course in arithmetic be at once abridged and enriched ; abridged by omitting entirely those subjects which perplex and exhaust the pupil without affording any really valuable mental discipline, and enriched by a greater number of exercises in simple calculation, and in the solution of concrete problems." They. specify in detail the~subjects which they think should be curtailed, or entirely omitted ; and they give in their special report on the teaching of arithmetic a full statement of the reasons on which their conclusion is based. They map out a course in arithmetic which, in their judgment, should begin about the age of six years, and be completed at about the thirteenth year of age. The Conference next recommend that a course of instruction in concrete geometry with numerous exercises be introduced into the grammar schools ; and that this instruction should, during the earlier years, be given in connection with drawing. They recommend that the study of systematic algebra should be begun at the age of fourteen ; but that, in connection with the study of arithmetic, the pupils should earlier be made familiar with algebraic expressions and symbols, including the method of solving simple equations. "The Conference 24 GEOM^JtY'. ALGEB=RA. believe that the stud}' of demonstrative geometry should begin at the end of the first year's study of algebra, and be carried on by the side of algebra for the next two years, occupying about two hours and a half a week." They are also of opinion "that if the introductory course in concrete geometry has been well" taught, both plane and solid geometry can be mastered at this time." Most of the improvements in teaching arithnxetic which the Conference suggest "can be summed up under the two heads of giving the teaching i^ more concrete form, and paying more attention to facility and correctness in work. The con- crete system should not be confined to principles, but be extended to practical applications in measuring and in physics." In regard to the teaching of concrete geometiy, the Confer- ence urse that while the student's seometrical education should begin in the kindergarten, or at the latest in the primary school, systematic instruction in concrete or experimental geometry should begin at about the age of ten for the average student, and should occupy about one school hour a week for at least three years. From the outset of this course, the pupil should be required to express himself verbally as well as by drawing and modelling. He should learn to estimate by the eye, and to measure with some degree of accuracy, lengths, angular magnitudes, and areas ; to make accurate plans from his own measurerrients and estimates ; and to make models of simple geometrical solids. The whole work in concrete geometry will connect itself on the one side with the work in arithnietic, and on the other with elementary instruction in physics. With the study of arithmetic is therefore to be intimately associated the study of algebraic signs and forms, of conci-ete~ geometiy, and of elementary johysics. Here is a striking instance of the inter- lacing of subjects which seems so desirable to every one of the nine Conferences. Under the head of teaching algebra, the Conference set forth in detail the method of familiarizing the pupil with the use of algebraic language during the study of arithmetic. This part of the report also deals clearly with the question of the time required for the thorough mastery of algebra through quadratic equations. The report on the teaching of demonstrative geom- etry is a clear and concise statement of the best method of , , PHYSICS, CHEMISTRY, AND ASTRONOMY. 25 teaching this subject. It insists on the importance of elegance and finish in geometrical demonstration, for the reason that thg discipline for which geometrical demonstration is to be chiefly prized is a discipline in complete, exact, and logical statement. If slovenliness of expression, or awkwardness of form, is toler- ated, this admirable discipline is lost. The Conference therefore recommend an abundance of oral exercises in geometry — for which there is no proper substitute — and the rejection of all demonstrations which are not exact and formally perfect. Indeed throughout all the teaching of mathematics the Con- . ference deem it important that great stress be laid by the teacher- on accuracy of statement and elegance of form as well as on clear and rigorous reasoning. Another very important ^recommendation in this part of the report is to be found in the following passage, — "As soon as the student has acquired the art of rigorous demonstration, his work should cease to be merely receptive. He should begin to devise constructions and demonstrations for himself. Geometry cannot be mastered by reading the demonstrations of a text-book ; and while there is no branch of elementary mathematics in which purely recep- tive work, if continued too long, may lose its interest more completely, there is also none in which independent work can be made more attractive and stimulating." These observations are entirely in accordance with the recent practice of some colleges in setting admission examination papers in geometry which demand of the candidates some capacity to solve new problems, or rather to make new application of familiar principles. 6. Physics, Chemistry, and Astronomy. The Conference on this subject were urgent that the study of simple natural phenomena be introduced into elementary schools ; and ,it was the sense of the Conference that at least one period a day from the first year of the primary school should be given to such study. Apparently the Conference entertained the opinion that the present teachers in elementary schools are ill prepared to teach children how to observe simple natural phenomena ; for their second recommendation was that special science teachers or superintendents be appointed to 26 LABORATORY TEACHINCi. , instruct the teachers of elementary schools in the methods of teaching natural phenomena. The Conference was clearly of opinion that from the l)eginning this study should be^pursued by the pupil chiefly, though^" not exclusively, by means of experiments and by practice in the use of simple instruments for making physical measurements. The report dwells re- peatedly on the importance of the study of things and phenom- ena by direct contact. It emphasizes the necessity of a large proportion of laboratory work in the study of physics and chemistry, and advocates the keeping of laboratory note-books by the pupils, and the use of such note-books as part of the test for admission to college. At the same time the report points out that laboratory work must be conjoined with the study of a text-book and with attendance at lectures or demon- strations ; and that intelligent direction by a good teacher is as necessary in a laboratory as it is in the ordinary recitation or lecture room . The great utility of the laboratory note-book is emphatically stated. To the objection that the kind of instruction described requires much time and effort on the part of the teacher, the Conference reply that to give good instruc- tion in the sciences requires of the teacher more work than to give good instruction in mathematics or the languages ; and that the sooner -this fact is recognized by those who have the management of schools the better for all concerned. The science teacher must regularly spend much time in collecting materials, preparing experiments, and keeping collections in order ; and this indispensable labor should be allowed for in programmes and salaries. As regards the means of testing the progress of the pupils in physics and chemistry, the Conference were unanimously of opinion that a laboratory examination should always be combined with an oral or written examination, neither test taken singly being sufficient. There was a difference of opinion in the Conference on the question whether physics should precede chemistry, or chemistry physics. The logical order would place physics first ; but all the members of the Conference but one advised that chemistry be put first for practical reasons which are stated in the majority report. A sub-committee of the. Conference has prepared lists of experiments in physics and chemistry for the use of second- NATURAL HISTORY. 27 ary schools, — not, of course, as a prescription, but only as a suggestion, and a somewhat precise indication of the topics which the Conference had in mind, and of the limits of the instruction. 7. >sATURAL History. The Conference on Natural History unanimously agreed that the study of botany and zoology ought to be introduced into the primary schools at the vei-y beginning of the school course, and be pursued steadily, with not less than two periods a week, throughout the whole course below the high school. In the next place they agreed that in these early lessons in natural science no text-book should be used ; but that the study should constantly be associated with the study of literature, lan- guage, and drawing. It was their opinion that the gtudy of physiology should be postponed to the later years of the high school course ; but that in the high school, some branch of natural history proper should be pursued every day throughout at least one year. Like the report on Physics, Chemistry, and Astronomy, the report, on Natural ' History emphasizes the absolute necessity of laboratory work by the pupils on plants and animals ; and would have careful drawing insisted on from the beginning of the instruction. As the laboratory note-book is recommended by the Conference on Physics, so the Confer- ence on Natural History recommends that the pupils should be made to express themselves clearly and exactly in words, or by drawings, in describing the objects which they observe ; and they believe that this practice will be found a valuable aid in training the pupils in the art of expression. They agree with the Conference on. Physics, Chemistry, and Astronomy that science examinations should include both a written and a laboratory test, and that the laboratory note-books of tlie pupils should be produced at the examination. The recom- mendations of this Conference are therefore very similar to those of the sixth Conference, so far as methods go ; but there are appended to the general report of the Conference on Natural History sub-reports which describe the proper topics, the Jjest order of topics, and the right methods of instruction inljotany for schools below the high school, and for the high 28 HISTORY, AND CIVIL GOVERNMENT. school itseJf, and in zoology for the secondary schools Inasmuch as both the subject matter and the methods o: instruction in natural history are much less familiar to ordinar} school teachers than the matter and the methods in the lan- guages and mathematics, the Conference believed that descrip- tive details were necessary in order to give a clear view 6i the intentions of the Conference. In another sub-report th{ Conference give their reasons for recommending the postpone- ment to the latest possible time of the study of physiology and hygiene. Like the sixth Conference, the Conference on Natural History protest that no person should be regarded as qualified to teach natural science who has not had special training foi this work, — a preparation at least as thorough as that of theii fellow teachers of mathematics and the languages. 8. History, Civil Government, and Political Economy. The Conference on History, Civil Government, and Political Economy had a task different in some respects from those oi other Conferences. It is' now-a-days admitted that language, natural science, and mathematics should each make a substan- tial part of education ; but the function of history in educatior is still very imperfectly apprehended. Accordingly, the eighth Conference were at pains to declare their conception of the object of studying history and -civil government in schools, and their' belief in the efficiency of these studies in .training the judgment, and in preparing children for intellectual enjoyments in after years, and for the exercise at maturity of a salutarj influence upon national affairs. They believed that the tim'e devoted in schools to history and the allied subjects should b< materially increased ; and they have therefore presented argu- ments in favor of that increase. At the same time, they staff strongly their conviction that' they have recommended " nothii)^ that was not already being done in some good schools, and tha might not reasonably be attained wherever there is an efficieri system of graded schools." This Conference state quite ai strongly as any other their desire to associate the study of thei: pa:rticular subject with that of other subjects which enter int( every school programme. They declare that the teachino- o HISTORY WITH ENGLISH AND GEOGRAPHY. 29 history should be intimately connected with the teaching of English ; that pupils should be encouraged to avail themselves of their knowledge of ancient and modern languages ; and that their' study of history should be associated with the study of topography and political geography, and should be supple- mented by the study of historical and commercial geography, and the drawing of historical maps. They, desire tJiat historical works should be used for reading in schools, and that subjects of English (Jomposition* should" be drawn from the lessons in history. They would have historical poems committed to -memory, and the reading of biographies and historical novels encouraged. While they are of opinion that political economy should not be taught in secondary schools, they urge that, in connection with United States history, civil government, and commercial geography, instruction should be given in the most important economic topics. The Conference would therefore have the instruction in history made coutributary to the work inlhree other school departments, namely, English, geography, and drawing. The subject of civil government they would associate with both history and geography. They would intro- duce it into the grammar school by means of oral lessons, and into the high school by means of a text-book with collateral reading and oral lessons. In the high school they believe that the study of civil government may be made comparative, — that is, that the American mefhod may be compared with foreign systems. Although the Conference was made up of very diverse elenients, every member of the Conference was heartily in favor of every vote adopted. This remarkable unanimity Was not obtained by the silence of dissentients, or the withdrawal of opposition on disputed points. It was the natural result of the strong conviction of all the members, that history, when taught by the methods ad\ocated in their report, deserves a position in school programmes which would give it equal dignity and importance with any of the most favored subjects, and that the advantages for all children of the rational study of history ought to be diffused as widely as possible. On one point they made a clearer declaration than any other Con- ference; although several other Conferences indicate similar 30 TIME TO BE GIVEN TO HISTORY. . opinionsr They declared that their interest was chiefly " in the school children who have no expectation of going to' college, the larger number of whom will not even enter a hio-h school," and that their " recommendations are in no way- directed to building up the colleges, or increasing the number of- college students." Like every other Conference, they Mi anxious about the qualifications of the teachers who are to be entrusted with the teaching of history, and they urged that only teachers who have had adequate special trainifig should be employed to teach history and civil government. In their specific recommendations they strongly urge that the historical- course be made' continuous from year to year, and extend' through eight years, and in this respect be placed upon the same footing with other substantial subjects. The answers of this Conference to the questions contained in the memoranditm sent to the Conferences by the Committee of Ten were specific and clear. They will be found in an appendix to the report of the Conference. In regard to the time to be devoted to history in school programnaes, this Conference ask for not less than( three periods a week throughout a course of eig'ht years ; and they suggest that some of this time can be found by contracting the course in arithmetic, and using for history a part of the time now given to political geography and to language study. Of these'eight years they suggest that four_ should be in the high school and four in the grammar school. They " especially recommend such a choice of subjects as will give pupils in the grammar schools an opportunity of stud^dng the history of other countries, and to the high schools one year's study on the intensive method." A large portion of the report is necessarily taken up with the description of what the Conference consider the most suitable historical topics and the ' best methods of -teachincr history. This portion of the report does not admit of any useful presentation in outline ; it must be read in full. • With regard to examinations in history for admission, to college, the Conference protest "against the present lax arid inefficient system," and seem to sum up their own desires on this subject in the statement that "the requirements for college" GEOUKAPHY. 31 ought to be so framed that the methods of teaching best adapted to meet them will also be best for all pupils." Like the Conferences on scientific subjects the Conference on History insist on nOte-books, abstracts, special reports, and other written -^xork, as desirable means of teaching. If the recommendations of the nine Conferences should be carried out in grammar and high schools, there would certainly be at least one M'ritten exercise a day for every pupil, — a result which persons interested in training children to write English deem it important to accomplish. The observations af the Conference on geographical training in connection with history are interesting and suggestive, as are also the recurring remarks on the need of proper apparatus for teaching history, such as maps, reference-libraries, histori- cal pictures, and photographs. It is not the natural sciences alone which need school apparatus. 9. Geogeaphv. Considering that geography has been a subject of recognized value in elemeijtary schools for many generations, and that a considerable portion of the whole school time of children has long been devoted to a study called by this name, it is some- what startling to $nd that the report of the Conference on Oleography deals with more novelties than any other report ; exhibits more dissatisfaction with prevailing methods ; and makes, on the whole, the most revolutionary suggestions. This Conference had but nine members pi-esent at its sessions ; and before the final revision of its report had been accomplished, one of the most valued of its members died. Seven members sign the majority report, and the minority report is presented by one member. The dissenting member, however, while protesting against the views of the majority on many points, ^ concurs with the majority in some of the most important conclusions arrived at by the Conference. It is obvious on even a cursory reading of the majority and minority reports that geography means for all the members ,of this Conference something entirely different from the term .geography as generally used in school programmes. Their definition of the word makes it embrace not only a description - 32 . COMPREHENSIVENESS OF GEOGRAPHY. of the surface of the earth, but also the elements of botany, zoology, astronomy, and meteorology, as well as many con- siderations pertaining to commerce, government, slnd ethnology. " The physical environment of man" expresses as well as any single phrase can the Conference's conception of the principal subject which they wish to have taught.. No one can read the reports without perceiving that the advanced instruction in geography which the Conference conceive to be desirable and feasible in high schools cannot be given until the pupils have mastered many of the elementary facts of botany, zoology, geometry, and physics. It is noteworthy also that tliis ninth Conference, liiie'the seventh, dealt avowedly and unreservedly with the whole range of instruction in primary and secondary schools. They did not pretend to treat chiefly instruction' in secondary schools, and incidentally instruction in the lower schools ; but, on the contrary, grasped at once the whole pi'ob- lem, and described the topics, methods, and apparatus appropri^ ate to the entire course of twelve years. They recognized that complete descriptions would be necessary in all«three branches" of the subject, — topics, methods, and equipnjent; and they have given these descriptions with an amplitude and force which leave little to be desired. More distinctly than, any .'other Conference, they recognized that they were presenting an ideal course, which could not be carried into effect everywhere or inJmediately. Indeed at several points they frankly state that the means of carrying out their recommendations are not at present readily accessible ; and they exhibit the same anxiety which is felt by several other Conferences about training teachers for the liind of work which the Conference believe to be desirable. After the full and interesting descriptionb of the relations and divisions of geographical science, as the Confer- ^ ehce define it, the most important sections of their report relate to the methods and means of 'i)resenting the subject in schools, ' and to the right order in developing it. The methods which they advocate require not only better equipped teachers, but be,tter means^of illustrating geographical facts in the school- room, such as charts, maps, globes,' photographs, models,- lantern slides, and lanterns. .Like all the other Conferences on scientific subjects, Jihe ninth Conference dwell on the'im- METEOROLOGY. 33 portance of forming from the start good habits of observing correctly and stating accuratel}^ the facts observed. They -also wish that the instruction in. geography may be connected with the instruction in drawing, history, and English. They believe that meteorology may l)e taught as an observational study in the earliest years of the grammar school, the scholars being even then made familiar with the use of the thermometer, the wind-vane, and the rain-gauge ; and that it may be carried much farther in the high school years, after physics has been studied, so that the pupils may then attain a general understanding of topographical maps, of pressure and wind charts, of iso- thermal charts, and of such complicated subjects as -weather prediction, rainfall and the distribution of rain, storms, and the seasonal variations of the atmosphere. Their conception of physiography is a very comprehensive one. In short, they recommend a study of physical geography which would em- brace in its scope the elements of half-a-dozen natural sciences, and would bind together in one sheaf the various gleanings which the pupils would have gathered from widely separated fields. There can be no doubt that the study would be interest- ing, infoi-ming, and developing, or that it would be difficult and in every sense substantial. It, already appears that the nine Conferences have attended carefully to three out of the five subjects which it was the intention of the National Council of Education that they should examine. They have discussed fully the proper limits of the several subjects of instruction in secondary schools, the best methods of instruction, and the best methods of testing pupils' attainments. The Conferences were equally faithful in dis- cussing the other two subjects committed to them by the Council, namely, the most desirable allotment of time for each subject, and the requirements for admission to college. The next subject which the Committee of Ten, following the guidance of the Conferences, desire to present to the Council is, -therefore, the allotment of school time among the various subjects of study. It is the obvious duty of the Committee, in the first place, to group together in tabular form the numer- ous suggestions on this subject made by the Conferences. 3 34 TIME DEMANDS OF THE CONFERENCES. H 9 tS V ^ 4 ^ 2 £ '^ C.2 "^ S * i! do'" dfi a g 54 ^C sS O 5! C> ^ S +^ — ^ - g„0 .-.pjr-. Sao* 3mU ^ do *^ d 2Sgo ■B ^ si O) '.!' alSUf b'^SS 2 _. -B S " St It" 3 ■Ss H^ a2S "f-C" fc-S.si upils Uy stc nvent be Ob (l4 «•- S Sou c; T- ^ ^ ec ^ -, J £S^ o a ed >i -a S rid S 5 iS --= 11 5|^. -5 1 s t-i i3 b-^ _s c §>. °>s^ 1 'o O -i-J > o ^ ^ O C > -u N So-- c ■- C-rl^ tr O -^ IP- .2 "H.^^ g.iii:?£^ -S.^ 1 ^- JT l"''|-s- t- ■ esC^ O ^j ■^ "^ ^ o *j s -^ •: o >.^ >»'= X^ C ■" ^ CO U P «3 rt" g ^ O ? -^ (3 cl 1 S >■ o ^ fcDS P "i*! ^-5 "'ii " -3 trf-" =1.9 o o i^lj Vt ■=* « ^ oO '^ fcC ^ o ^ 3 o 5 CJ^ o ■s «=« 2 3 d*^ p'"^ to U-3° ■S-2 i" s 3 -u ■•^'^ ■"1 Ir ■|li C rf o •§.ll 2 -2 Ho ill 1 Arithmeti braic expres tions— no s ommended. - ^ 1 s -=.r o p to K-l5 (H o .- Q s 5 ^ K t. o t^ -< "5 M 2 1— ( i /< s -^ ^ -: /-< N g PM 121 a O lo- •0 t^ ■» oJ §6 PROPER SECONDARY SCHOOL SUBJECTS. Having exhibited the programme-time suggestions of the Con- ferences, it will remain for the Committee to construct a flexible and comprehensive schedule of studie:i, based on the recommendations of the Conferences. The preceding table exhibits the demands for programme time made by all the Conferences. It will be seen at once that' this table does not yield,' without modification., a practical programme. The nine Conferences acted separately, and were studying each its own needs, and not the comparative needs of all the subjects. It was not for them to balance the difierent- interests, but for each to present strongly one interest. It will further be noticed that some of their demands are not specific, — that is, they do not call for any specified number of recitation periods for a definite number of weeks during a stated number of years. The Conferences on Languages and History are the most definite in their recommendations, the Conferences on Mathematics, and the Sciences being much less definite. Table I. is therefore not a programme, but the materials from which serviceable programmes may be constructed. The Committee of Ten deliberately placed in this one table the recommendations of the Conferences for the elementary -grades and the recommendations for secondary schools, in order that the sequence of the recommendations for each subject might be clearly brought out. The recommendations made for the secondary schools presuppose in many cases that the recom- mendations made for the elementary schools have been ful- filled; or, at least, in many cases the Conferences would have, made diflerent recommendations for the secondary schools, if they had been compelled to act on the assumption that things must remain just as they are in the elementary schools. At this point it is well to call attention to the list of subjects which the Conferences deal with as proper for secondary schools. They are: 1. languages — Latin, Greek, English, German, and French, (and locally Spanish) ; 2. mathematics — algebra, geometry, and trigonometry;' 3. general history, and the intensive study of special epochs; 4. natural history— in- cluding descriptive astronomy, meteorology, botany, zoology, physiology, geology, and ethnology, most of which subjects may be conveniently grouped under the title of physical TOTAL INSTRUCTION ItECOM.AlENDED. 37 geography; and "). physics and chemistry. The Committee of Ten assent to this list, both for what it includes and for what it excludes, with some practical qualifications to be mentioned below. Table II. exhibits the total amount of instruction (estimated l)y the numl)er of wei^kly periods assiuiiod to each subject) to be given in a secondary school during each year of a four j^ears' course, on the supposition that the recommendations of the Conferences are all carried out. Table II. 1st Secondary School Yeak. 2nd Secondary School Year. Liitin 5 p.^ Latin . . 5 p. English Literaluix', 3 [j. ( ^ " Composition, '2 p. i (ireek .... . . 5 p. English Literature, 3 p. | . 5 p. . German or French . . . . + p. " Composition, 2 p. ' Algebra .... . .J p. tierman . .* . . 4 p. History 3 p. French . 4 p. Algebra,* 24 p. I _ . •, 5 p. _ . . 22 p. OeometiT, 24 p. ' Astronomy (12 weeks) . . . . . & p. Botany or Zoology . 6 p. History 3 p., • 3"ip. * Option of book-keeping and commercial arithmetic. 3rd Secondary School Year. 4th Secondary School i'EAR. Latin 5 p. Latin . . 5 p. Greek ...... i V- (ireek ... . . 4 p. English Litcratnre, 3 p. \ English Literature, 3 p. . IT- ' 1 " Composition, 1 p. > u p- " Composition. 1 p. | . . 5 p. Blietorio, 1 p. ' '* Gramjnar, 1 p. ^ German . 4 p. German . . . •. . 4 p. French . . ■ . 4 p. French . ... . 4 p. Trigonometry, 2 p. 4 yr. j 2 p. Algebra* ,24 p. Higher Algebra, 2 p. 4 yr. • Geometry . . 2^ p. Phyics . . r> p. Chemistry ;'• P- Anatomy, Pliy^iolo^^y, and Hy- History 3 p. giene, 4 3'r. . ■ . . 6 p. 33 p. History . . 3 p. ficol. or Phj --lography, 3 p. 4 . ■'■■] 3 p. Meteorology, 3 p. 4 yr. — * Option of book-keeping and commercial Arithmetic. 374 p. « 38 TVUSIHEK OI' WEEKLY RECITATION I'ERIODS. The iDctliod of estimating the amount of instruction offered in any sul)jec( by the number of recitation periods assigned to it each woeli for a given number of years or half years is in some respects an inadequate one, for it talics no account of the scope and intensity of the instruction given during the periods ; but so far as it goes, it is trustworthy and in- structive. It represents with tolerable accuracy the j)ropor- tional expenditui-e which a school is making on a given subject, and therefore the proportional importance which the school attaches to that subject. . It also represents roughly the proportion f)f the pupil's entire school time which he can devote to a given subject, provided he is free to take all the instruction offered in that subject. All experience shows that subjects deemed important get a large number of weekly periods, while those deemed unimportant get a small number. Moreover, if the programme time assigned to a given subject be insufficient, the value of that subject as training cannot be got, no matter how good the quality of the instruction. Every one of these years, except the first, contains much more instructipn than any one pupil can follow; but, looking at the bearing of the table on the important question of educa- tional expenditure, it is encouraging to observe that there are already many secondary schools in this country in which quite as many subjects are taught as are mentioned in this table, and in which there are more weekly periods of instruc- tion provided for separate classes than are found in any year of the table. In some uriian high schools which provide from five to nine different courses of three to five years each, and in some endowed secondary schools which maintain two or three separate courses called Classical, Latin-scientific, and English, or designated by similar titles, the total number of weekly periods of unrepeated instruction given to distinct classes is e\'en now larger than the largest total of Aveekly periods found in Table II. The annual expenditure in such schools is suflScient to provide all the instruction called /or by Table II. The suggestions of the Conferences presuppose that all the pupils of like intelligence and maturity in any subject study it in the same way and" to the same extent, so long as they study it at all, — this being a point on which all the ONK QtAHTkK Ob' SCHOOL tLmE FOU SCIENCE. .')iJ Conferences insist strongly. No provision is nuidc, tluTctoic,- for teaching Latin, or algebra, or history to one portion of a class four times a week, and to another portion of the same class only thrice or twice a week, ^uch provisions are very common in American schools ; but the recommendations of the Conferences, if put into effect, would do away with all exjiend.- itures of this sort. It clearly appears from Table 11. that the recommendations of the Conferences on scientific subjects have been moderate so far as the proposed allotment of time to them is concerned. The Conferences on Physics, Chemistry and Astronomy, Natural History, and Geography held one combined session in Chicago, and passed a resolution that one-fourth of the ^vhole high school course ought to be devoted to natural science, their intention doubtless being that each pupil should devote one quarter of his time to science ; yet if all the time asked for in secondary schools by the- scientific Conferences be added together, it will appear, first, that the rare pupil who should tiUvC all the scientific iTIstruction provided would need for it only one quarter of his time, and secondly, that less than one-sixth of the whole instruction to be gl^'o^ in accordance with the combined recommendations of all the Conferences is devoted to subjects of natural science. The first year of the secondary school course according to Tal)le II. will contain no science at all ; and it is only in the last year of the secondary school that the proportion of natural science teaching rises to one- fourth of the whole instruction. In studying these two tables ^vhich result fr(mi the recom- mendations of the Conferences, the Committee of Ten perceived at once, that if the recommendations arc to be carried out, so far as offering the instruction projjosed is concerned, a selection of studies for the individual pupil must be made in the second, third, and fourth years of the secondary school course. This selection will obviously be made in different ways in different schools. .Vny school principal may say, — " AV'lth the staff at my command I can teach only fi\'e sul)jects out of those proposed by the Conferences in the manner proposcnl. My school shall therefore be limited to these five." Another school may be al)le to teach in the thorough manner proposed five subjects, but 40 AN ADJUSTMENT OF THE TIME DEMANDS. some'or all of these five may be different from these selected by the first school. A larsjer or richer school may be able to teach all the subjects mentioned, and by the methods and with the apparatus descrilicd. In the last case, each pupil, under the supervision of the teachers, and with the advice of parents or friends, may make choice l)etwcen several different four-years' courses arranged by the school ; or, if tiie school authorities prefer, the i)upil may be allowed to make j'ear by year a care- fully guided choice among a limited number of subjects ; or these two methods may be combined. Selection for the indi- vidual is necessary to thoroughness, and to the imparting of power as distinguished from information ; for any large subject whatever, to yield its training value, must ))e pursued through several years ^nd be studied fi'onl three to five times a week, and if each subject studied is thus to claim a considerable fraction of the pupil's school time, -then clearly the individual pupil can give attention to only a moderate number of subjects. In Table II. the number of weekly periods assigned to a single subject varies from two to five, about half of the assignments being made for five periods a week. There is an obvious con- venience in the number five because it ordinarily gives one period a da}- for five days in the week ; but there is also an obvious disadvantage in making too free use of the number five. It practically limits to three or, at most, four, the number of subjects which the individual pupil may pursue simultaneou.sly ; and this limit is inexpedient in a four years' programme. The Committee have therefore prepared the following modi- fication of Table II., using four as the standard number of weekly periods, except in the first year of a new language, and in the few cases in which the Conferences advise a number smaller than four. By this means the total number of periods is some- what reduced, except in the first year, and the numbers of periods allotted to different subjects are made more consonant, each with the others. The result is only a correlation and adjustment of the recommendations of the Conferences, no judg- ment or recommendation of the Committee being expressed in it. RECOMMENDATIONS OF THE CONFERENCES MODIFIED. 41 Table III. 3ST Secondary Sciiooi, Yeah 2ni) Secondary School Year. Lntin . . . . 5 p. Latin . . . ... 4 p. Englisli Literature, ip.-^ 4 p. iMV.'k o p. " Compopition, 2 p. ^ * ' Knglisli Literature, 2 p. 1 nenniin [orTrencli] •. p. " Composition, 2 p. * 4 p. Algebra 4 p. German, continued .... 4 p. History of Italy, Spaiu, and Fr:iii(.e 3 p. French, begun . 5 p. Applied Geo^aphy (Europejin po- Algebra,* 2 p. \ litical — continental and oceanic fieometry, 2 p. ^ 4 p. flora jind fauna) 4 p. Botany or Zuiilogy 4 p. 2.j ].. English Histoi-j- to 1688 3 p. 33 p. * Option of book-keeping and commer- | - cial arithmetic. 1 . 3rd Secoxdaet School Year 4th Secondary School Year Latin 4 p. Latin .... 4 p. Greek . 4 p. Greek. . . . . 4 p. Engli-^li Literature, 2 p. English Literature, 2 p. " Composition, 1 p. . . 4 p. ** Composition, 1 p. 4 p. Rhetoric, 1 p. *' Grammar, 1 p. German . . .... 4 p. German . . ... 4 p. French . . 4 p. French . .' '. 4 p. Algebra,* 2 p. 1 Geometiy, 2 p. ' 4- n Trigonometry, ) Higher Algebra, | • • • • 2 p. * 1>. Physics 4 p. Chemistry 4 p. History, English and American . 3 p. History (intensive) and Civil Govern- Astronomy, S p. 1st i yr. 1 Meteorology, 3 p. 2n(l i yr. ' 3 p. ment 3 p. Geology or Physiography, 4 p. 1st ^ yr. 34 p. Anatomy, Physiology, and Hj'gieue, 4 p. 4 p. 2nd i yr. * Option of book-keeping and commer- cial arithmetic. 33 p. The adoption of the number four as the standard number of weekly periods will not make it impossible to carry into effect the fundamental conception of all the Conferences, namely, - — that all the subjects which make part of the secondary school course should be taught consecutively enough and extensively enough to make every subject yield that training which it is best fitted to yield, — provided that the proposed corre- lation and association of subjects are carried out in practice. ^A'ith regard to the arrangement or sequence of sulijects, the Committee follow in this table the recommendations of the Conferences with onlj^ slight modifications. They insert in the first year ajDplied geography, using the term in the sense in which it is used b}' the Conference on Geography ; and they 42 THE SOURCE OF VAEIOTIS PKOGKAMMES. nialvc this insertion in order that natural science may ))c repre- sented in the programme of that year; and that a complete break of continuity, as regards science subjects, between the eighth grade and the second year of the secondary school may be avoided. They haA'c felt obliged to put physics into the third year, and chemistry into the fourth, in order that the subject of physics may precede meteorology and physiography ; and they have slightly increased the number of lessons in astronomy. With regard to the proportions of school time to l)e devoted to the different subjects, Table III. reduces somewhat the propor- tional time devoted tq Latin, English, and mathematics, and .increases the pi'oportional time to be devoted to natural science. In a secondary school which teaches all the subjects recom- mended by the Conferences, and to the extent contemplated in Table III., nearly one-fifth of the whole instruction given will be devoted to natural science. The Committee regard Table III. not, of course, as a feasible programme, but as the possible source of a gres.t variety of good secondary school programmes. It would be difficult to make a bad , programme out of the materials contained in this table, unless indeed the fundamental principles advocated bj' the Conferences should he neglected. With some reference to Table I., excellent six years' and five years' programmes for secondary schools can readily be constructed by spreading the subjects contained in Table III. over six or five years instead of four, — of course with some changes in the time-allotment. The details of the time-allotment for the several studies which enter into the secondary school programme may seem to some persons mechanical, or even trivial — a technical matter to be dealt with by each superintendent of schools, or by each principal of a secondary school, acting on his own individual , experience and judgment ; but such is not the opinion of the Committee of Ten. The Committee believe that to establish just pi'oportions between the several subjects, or groups of allied subjects, on which the Conferences were held, it is essential that each principal sijbject shall be taught thoroughly and extensively, and therefore for an adequate number of periods a Aveek on the school programme. If twice as much time is given in a school to Latin ,;s is given to mathematics, ADEQUATE TIME ALLOTMENTS 43 the attainments of the pupils in Latin ought to l)c twico ;is great as they are in nmtheniatics, provided that equally good work is done in the two subjects ; and Latin will have twice the educational value of mathematics. Again, if in a secondary school Latin is steadily pursued for four years with four or five hours a week devoted to it, that subject will be worth more to the pupil than the sum of half a dozen other subjects, each of which has one sixth of the time allotted to Latin. The good effects of continuous study in one subject will be won for the pupil through the La,tin, and they will not be won through the six other subjects among which only so much time as is devoted to the single language has been divided. If every subject studied at all is to be studied thoroughly and consecu- tively, every subject must receive an adequate time-allotment. If every subject is to provide a substantial mental training, it must have a time-allotment sufficient to produce that fruit. Finally, since selection must be exercised by or on behalf of the individual pupil, all the subjects between which choice is allowed should be approximately equivalent to each other in seriousness, dignit}', and efficacy. Therefore they should have approxi- mately equal time-allotments. The Conferences have abun- dantly shown how every subject which they recommend can be made a serious subject of instruction, well- fitted to train the pupil's powei's of observation, expression, and reasoning. It remains for makers of school programmes to give every subject the chance of developing a good training capacity by giving it an adequate time-allotment. The schedule of studies contained in Table III. permits flexi- bility and variety in three respects. First, it is not necessary that any school should teach all the subjects which it contains, or any particular set of subjects. Secondly, it is not necessary that the individual pupil should everywhere and always have the same number of periods of instruction per week. In one school the pupils might have but sixteen periods a week, in another twenty ; or in some years of the course the pupils might ha^e more periods a week than in other years. Within the schedule many particular arrangements for the convenience of a sjhool, or for the welfare of an individual pupil would be possible. Thirdly, it is not necessary that every secondary school should 44 SPECIMEN PROGRAMMES. begin its worii at the level which is assumed as the starting point of secondary instruction in Tables I., II., and III. If in any , community the high school has no such grammar school found- ation beneath it as is imagined in Table I. it will simply have to begin its work lower down in the table. The sequence of studies recommended by the Conferences would still serve as a guide; but the demarcation between the elementary schools and the high school would occur in that community at a lower point. From this point of view, Tables I., II., and III. may be consid- ered to set a standard towards which secondary schools should tend ; and not a standard to which they can at once conform. The adoption of a programme based on Table III. would not necessarily change at all the relation of a school to the colleges or universities to which it habitually sends pupils. Any such programme would lend itself either to the examination method of admission to college, or to the certificate method ; and it could be slightly modified in such a way as to meet the present admission requirements of any college in the country. Future changes in admission requirements might fairly be made with a view to the capabilities of programmes based on Table III. As samples of school programmes constructed within the schedules of Table III., the Committee present the following working programmes, which they recommend for trial wherever the secondary school period is limited to four years. All four combined might, of course, be tabulated as one programme with options by subject. These four programmes taken together use all the subjects mentioned in Table III., and usually, but not always, to about the amounts there indicated. History and English suffer serious contraction in the Classical programme. All four programmes conform to the general recommendations of the Conferences, that is, — they treat each -subject in the same way for all pupils with trifling exceptions ; they give time enough to each subject to win from it the kind of mental training it is fitted to supply ; they put the different principal subjects on an approximate equality so far as time-allotment is concerned ; they omit all short information courses ; and they make sufficiently continuous the instruction in each of the main PROLONGING THE SECONDARY SCHOOL PERIOD. 45 lines, namely, language, science, history and mathematics. With slight moditications, they would prepare the pupils for admission to appropriate couises in an}- American college or university on the existing requirements ; and they would also meet the new college requirements which are suggested below. In preparing these programmes, the Committee were perfectly aware that it is impossible to make a satisfactorj- secondary school programme, limited to a period of four 3'ears, and founded on the present elementary school subjects and methods. In the opinion of the Committee, several subjects now reserved for high schools, — such as algebra, geometry, natural science, and foreign languages, — should be begun earlier than now, and therefore within the schools classified as elementary j or, as an alternative, the secondary school period should be made to begin two years earlier than at present, leaving six years instead of eight for the elementary school period. Under the present organization, elementary subjects and elementary methods are, in the judgment of the Committee, kept in use too long. The most striking diflerenees in the four programmes will be found, as is intimated in the headings, in the relative amounts of time given to foreign languages. In the Classical pro- gramme the foreign languages get a large share of time ; in the English programme a small share. In compensation, English and history are more developed in the English programme than in the Classical. jNIany teachers will say, at first sight, that physics comes too early in these programmes and Greek too late. One member of Ihe Committee is firmly of the opinion that Greek comes too late. The explanation of the positions assigned to these sub- jects is that the Committee of Ten attached great importance to two general principles in programme making: — In the first place they endeavored to postpone till the third year the grave choice between the Classical course and the Latin-Scientific. They believed that this bifurcation should occur as late as pos- sible, since the choice between these two roads often determines for life the youth's career. ^Moreover , they believed that it is pos- sible to make this important decision for a boy on good grounds, only when he has had opportunity to exhibit his quality and 4(; POSTPONING BIFUECATION. discover his tastes by making excursions into all the principal fields of knowledge. The youth who has never studied any but his native language cannot know his own capacity for linguistic acquisition ; and the youth who has never made a chemical or physical experiment cannot know whether or not Table IV. Classical. Three foreign languages (one modern). Latin dp. English 4 p. Algebra 4 p. History 4 p. Physical Geography 3 p. 20 p. Latin . . 5 p. English 2 p. ♦German [or Erench] begun . . . 4 p. Geometry ... . .... 3 p. Physics 3 p. Histbry ^ . ' >- . . 3 p. 20 p. Latin . . 4 p. *Greek .' . . . 5 p. English 3 p. German [or French] 4 p. Mathematics I Alsebra 2) _ ^^ I Geometiy 2 ' 20 p. Lati n-Scientific . Two foreign languages (one modern). Latin 5 p English 4 p, Algebra 4 p, Histoi-y 4 p, Phj'sical Geography 3 p, 20 p, Latin . . 5 p, English . . . . . . , . . 2 p, German [(??• French] begun . . . . 4 p. Geometry 3 p, Physics ... . . . . 3 p. Botany or Zoology 3 p, 20 p, Latin . ... 4 p, English 3p, Gennan [or French] 4 p, Mathematics ! ^^^eb'"^ 2) . . 4p, ' Geometry 2 ) ^ Astronomy 4 yr. & Meteorology ^ yr. 3 p. ^listory . . .... 2 p, 20 p. II. III. Latin .... 4 p. Greek 5 p. English ■ ... 2 p. German [or French] .... 3 p. Chemistry 3 p. Trigonometry & Higher Algebra \ or [ ■ 3p, Histoiy ) 20 p. Latin . . 4 p. . 4p. English \ "^ '" Classiciil 2 I I acklitional 2 i German [or French] 3 p. Chemistry 3 p. Trigonometry & Higher Algebra •. <"■ I 3p- Plistoiy ) Geology ov Physiogi-apby i yr. \ and J 3 p. Anatomy, Physiology, &Hygiene J yr.) 20 p. * In any school in which Greek can be better taught than a modern language," or in whicli local public opinion or the history of the school makes it desirable to teach Greek in an ample way, Greek may be substituted for German or Preach in the second year of the Classical programme. . REPRESENTATIVE SUBJECTS IN THE FIRST TWO YEAIiS. 47 he has a taste for exact science. The wisest teacher, or the most observant parent, can hardly predict with confidence a boy's gift for a subject whicli he has never touched. In these considerations the Committee found strong reasons for post- poning bifurcation, and making the subjects of the first two Table IV. (continued) . < Modern Languages. English. ^ Two foreign langniages (both modern). One foreign language (ancient or modem). French \pr German] begun . . . 6 p. Latin, or Gennan, or French . . 6p. English . ... 4 p. Engli'^h . 4 p. Algebra 4 p. Algebra . 4 p. 1. History 4 p. History 4p. Physical Geography 3 p. 20 p. Physical Geography .... . . 3p. 20 p. French [or German] 4 p. Latin, or German, or French . 5or^ p. English .... 2 p. English . . . 3 or 4.p. Gemiaii [or French] begun . 5 p. Geometry . 3 p. II. Geometry 3 p. Physics . . ... . 3 p. Physics . .... 3 p. History- . 3 p. Botany or Zoology . . 3 p. 20 p. Botany or Zo51ogy .... . 3 p. 20 p. French [or German] . . 4 p. Latin, or German, or French . . 4p. English 3 p. English 1 '' '" <"'"=" ^ 1 Sp. German [or French] 4 p. 1 additional 2 ( " Mathematics ! A'g^'"-» H ' Geometry 2 ' 4 p. Mathematics |^l8«l"» ^l 4 p. ill. I Geometry' 2 ' Astronomy \ jr. & Meteorology 2 yi' 3 p. Astronomy i yr. & Meteorolog} •iyr. 3 p. History . 2 p. Histoiy S ■■'^ '" t^e Latiu-Scienti£c 2 J ^ ^ | 20 p. ' additional 20 p. French [or German] ...... 3 p. Latin, or German, or French . . 4p. English 1*^*" Classical 2) _ _ ^ ' additiotial 2 ) 4 p. English 1^5° Classical 2 1 _ " 1 additional 2 ) . . 4p. German [or French] 4.p. Chemistry . . 3p. Chemistry .... . ... 3 p. Trigonometry & Higher Algebra . . 3 p. j IV Trigonometi-y & Higher Algebra 3 History . . 3p. or 3 p. Geology or Physiography iyr.) Histoiy >- and 3 p. Geology or Physiography J yr. 1 Anatomy, Physiologj', & Hygiene J jt. ' | and 3 p. ■ Anatomy, Physiologj'.&Hygiene iyr. ) 20 p. years as truly representative as possible. Secondly, inasmuch as many boys and girls who begin the secondary school course 48 EXPLANATION OF THE SAMPLE PEOGKAJL^IES. do not stay in school more than two years, the Committee thought it important to select the studies of the first two years in such :i way that linguistic, historical, matlicniatical, and Bcientitic sul)jects should all he properly re])rosented. Natural history being represented l)y physical geography, the Commit- tee wished physics to represent the inorganic sciences of precision. The first two years of any one of the four pro- grammes presented aljove will, in the judgment of the Com- mittee, be highly profitable by themselves to children who can go no farther. Although the Committee thought it expedient to include among the four programmes, one Avhich included neither Latin nor Greek, and one which included only one foreign language (which might be either ancient or modern), they desired to afiirm explicitly their unanimous opinion that, under existing conditions in the United States as to the training of teachers and the provision of necessary means of instruction, the two ^programmes called respectively Modern Languages and English must in practice be distinctly inferior to the other two. In the construction of the sample programmes the Committee adopted twenty as the maximum number of weekly periods, but with two qualifications, namely, that at least five of the twenty periods should be given to unprepared work, and that laboratory subjects should have double periods whenever that prolongation should be possible. The omission of music, drawing, and elocution froin the programmes offered by the Committee was not intended to imply that these subjects ought to receive no systematic attention. It was merely thought best to leave it to local school authorities to determine, without suggestions from the Committee, how these subjects should be introduced into the programmes in addition to the subjects reported on by the Conferences. The Committee were governed in the construction »f the first three programmes by the rule laid down by the language Conferences, namely, that two foreign languages should not be begun at the same time. To obey this rule is to accept strict limitations in the construction of a four years' Classical pro- gramme. A five years' or six years' programme can be made ECONOMY OF THE PROGRAMMES MISSING SUBJECTS. 49 much more easily under this restriction. The Committee were anxious to give five weekly periods to every foreign language in the year when it -was first attacked ; but did not find it possible to do so in every ease. The four programmes can be carried out economically in a -single school ; because, with a few inevitable exceptions, the - several subjects occur simultaneously in at least three pro- grammes and with the same number of weekly periods. Numerous possible transpositions of subjects will occur to every experienced teacher who examines these specimen pro- grammes. Thus, in some localities it would be better to trans- pose French and German ; the selection and order of science subjects might be varied considerably to suit the needs or cir- cumstances of different schools ; and the selection and order of historical subjects admit of large variety. Many subjects now familiar in secondary school courses of study do not appear in Table III. or in the specimen pro- grammes given above ; but it must not be supposed that the omitted subjects are necessarily to be neglected. If the reeoin- mendations of the Conference were carried out, some of the omitted subjects would be better dealt with under any one of the above programmes than they are now under familiar high school and academy programmes in which they figure as se{)ar- atc subjects. Thus, drawing does not appear us a separate sub- ject in the specimen programmes ; but the cai-eful reader of the Conference reports will notice that drawing, both mediauical and free-hand, is to be used in the study of history, botany, zoology, astrf)nomy, meteorology, physics, geography, and physiography, and that the kind of drawing reconmiended 1)\' the Conferences is the nmst useful kind, — namely, that which is applied to recording, describing, and discussing o])ser\a- tions. This almndant use of drawing might not prevent the need of some special instruction in drawing, Imt it ought to diminish the number of periods devoted exclusively to drawing. xViiain, neither ethics nor economics, neither metaphysics nor aesthetics appear in the programmes ; but in the large numjjer of periods devoted to English and history there would be some time for incidental instruction in the elements of these subjects. It is through the reading and writing required of pupils, or 4 ;m) SATURDAY WORK ASSISTANTS. rccouujiended to them, that the fundamental ideas on these important to})ic8 are to )»! inculcated. Again, the industrial ■■lud commercial subjects do not appear in these programmes ; hut hook-keeping and commercial ai-ithmetic are provided for by the option for algebra designated in Table III. ; and if it were desired to provide more amply for subjects thought to have pi'actical importance in trade or the useful arts, it would be easy to provide options in such subjects for some of the science contained in the third and fourth years of the "English" programme. The Committee of Ten think much would be gained if, in addition to the usual progranmie hours, a portion of Satui'day morningTshould be regularly used for laboratoiy work in the scientific subjects. Laboratory ^vork requires moi'e consecutive time than the ordinary period of recitation affords ; so that an hour and a half is about the shortest advantageous period for a laboratory exercise. The Committee venture to suggest further that, in addition to the regular . school sessions in the morning, one afternoon in every week should be used for out-of-door instruction in geography, botany, zoology, and geology, these afternoon and Saturday morning exercises being counted as regular work for the teachers who conduct them. In all laboratory and field work, the Committee believe that it will be found profitable to employ as assistants to the regular teachers, — particularly at the beginning of laboratory and field work in each subject, — recent graduates of the secondaiy schools who have themselves followed the laboratory and field courses ; for at the beginning the pupil will need a large amount of individual instruction in the manipulation of specimens, the use of instruments, and the prompt recording of observations. One teacher without assistants cannot supervise effectively the work of thirty or forty pupils, either in the laboratory or in thfe field. The laboratory work on Saturday mornings could be maintained throughout the school year ; the afternoon excursions would of course be difficult, or impossible, for perhaps a third of the school year. In general, the Committee of Ten have endeavored to empha- size the principles which should govern all secondary school programmes, and to show how the main recommendations of- REQUIREMENTS FOR ADMISiSlOX TO COLLEGE. 51 the several Conferences may be carried out in a variety of feasible programmes. One of the subjects which the Committee of Ten were directed to consider was requirements for admission to college ; and particularly they were expected to report on uniform require- ments for admission to colleges, as well as on a. uniform secondary school programme. Almost all the Conferences have something to say about the best mode of testing the attainments of candidates at college admission examinations ; and some of them, notably the Conferences on History and Geography, make very explicit declarations concerning the nature of college examinations. The improvements desired in the mode of testing the attainments of pupils who have pursued in the secondary schools the various subjects which enter into the course will be found clearly described under each subject in the several Conference reports ; l)ut there is a general principle concerning the relation of the secondary schools to colleges which the Committee of Ten, inspired and guided by the Conferences, feel it their duty to set forth with all possible distinctness. The secondary schools of the United States, taken as a whole, do not exist for the purpose of preparing boys and girls for colleges. Only an insignificant percentage of the graduates of these schools go to colleges or scientific schools. Their main function is to prepare for the duties of life that small proportion • of all the children in the country — a proportion small in number, 'but very important to the welfare of the nation — who show themselves able to profit by an education prolonged to -the eighteenth year, and whose parents are able to support them while they remain so long at school. There are, to be sure, a few private or endowed secondary' schools in the country, which make it their principal object to prepare students for the colleges and universities ; but the number of these schools is relatively small. A secondary school programme in- tended for national use must therefore be made for those children whose education is not to be pursued beyond the seccjndary school. The preparation of a few pupils for college or scientific school should in the ordinary secondary school be the 52 THE PASSAGE JFEOM SCHOOL TO COLLEGE. incidental, and not the principal object. At the same time, it is obviously desirable that the colleges and scientific schools should be accessible to all boys or girls who have completed creditably the secondary school course. Their parents often do not decide for them, four years before the college age, that they shall go to college, and they themselves may not, perhaps, feel the desire to continue their education until near the end of their school course. In order that any successful graduate of a^good secondary school should be free to present himself at the gates of the college or scientific school of his choice, it is necessary that the colleges and scientific schools of the country should accept for admission to appropriate courses of their instruction the attainments of any youth who has passed creditably through a good secondary school course, no matter to what group of subjects he may have mainly "devoted himself in the secondary school. As secondary school coui'ses are now tpo often i^rranged, this is not a reasonable request to prefer to. the colleges and scientific schools ; because the pupil may now go through a secondary school course of a very feeble and scrappy nature — studying a little of many subjects and not much of- any one, getting, perhaps, a little information in a variety of fields,, but nothing which can be called a thorough training. Now the recommendations of the nine Conferences, if well carried out, might fairly be held to make all the main subjects taught in the secondary schools of equal rank for the purposes of admission to college or scientific school. They would all be taught consecu- tively and thoroughly, and would all be carried on in the same spirit ; they would all be used for training the powers of obser- vation, memory, expression, and reasoning ; and they would all be good to that end, although differing among themselves in quality and substance. In preparing the programmes of Table' IV., the Committee had in mind that the requirements for admission to colleges might, for schools which adopted a pro- gramme derived from that table, be simplified to a considerable extent, though not reduced. A college might say, — We will accept for admission any groups of studies taken from the sccoudary school programme, provided th.at the sum of the stu- dies in each of the four years amounts to sixteen, or eighteen, or twenty periods a week, — as may be' thought best, — and ARTICULATING SCHOOLS AND COLLEGES. 53 provided, further, that in each year at least four of the subjects presented shall have been pursued at least three periods a week, and that at least three of the subjects shall have been pursued three years or more. For the purposes of this reckoning, natural history, geography, meteorology, and astronomy might be grouped . together as one subject. Every youth who entered college would have spent four years in studying a few subjects thoroughly ; and, on the theory that all the subjects are to be considered equivalent in educational rank for the pur- poses of admission to college, it would make no difference which subjects he had chosen from the programme — he would have had four years of strong and effective mental training. The Conferences on Geography and Modern Languages make the most explicit statement to the effect that college require- ments for admission should coincide with high-school require- ments for graduation. The Conference on English is of opinion ' ' that no student should be admitted to college who shows in his English examination and his other examinations that he is very deficient in ability to write good English." This recom- mendation suggests that an ample English course in the sec- ondary school should be required of all persons who intend to enter college. It would of course be possible for any college to require for admissiron any one subject, or any group of subjects, in the table, and the requirements of different colleges, while all kept within the table, might differ in many respects ; but the Committee are of opinion that the satisfactory completion of any one of the four years' courses of study embodied in the foregoing programmes should admit to corresponding courses in colleges and scientific schools. The}**' believe that this close articulation between the secondaiy schools and the higher institutions would be advantageous alike for the schools, the colleges, and the country. Eviery reader of this report and of the reports of the nine Conferences will be satisfied that to carry out the improve- ments proposed more highly trained teachers will be needed than -are now ordinarily to be found for the service of the elementary and secondary schools. The Committee of Ten desire to point out some of the means of procuring these better 54 GETTING TEACHERS MOKE HIGHLY TRAINED. trained teachers. For the further instruction of teachers in actual service, three agencies already in existence may be much better utilized than they now are. The Summer Schools which many universities now maintain might be resorted to by much larger numbers of teachers, particularly if some aid, such as the payment of tuition fees and travelling expenses, should be given to teachers who are willing to devote half of their vacations to study, by the cities and towns which these teachers serve. Secondly, in all the towns and cities in which colleges and universities are planted, these colleges or univer- sities may usefully give stated courses of instruction inj;he main subjects used in the elementary and secondary schools to teachers employed in those towns and cities. This is a reasonable service which the colleges and universities may render to their own communities. Thirdly, a superintendent who has himself become familar with the best mode of teaching any one of the subjects which enter into the school course can always be a very useful instructor for the whole body of teachers under his charge. A real master of an}' one subject will always have many suggestions to make to teachers of other subjects. The same is true of the principal of a high school, or other leading teacher in a town or city. In every considerable city school system the best teacher in each depart- ment of instruction' should be enabled to give pai-t of his time to helping the other teachers by inspecting and criticising their work, and showing them, both by precept and example, how to do it better. In regard to preparing young men and women for the business of teaching, the country has a right to expect much, more than it has yet obtained from the colleges and normal schools. The common expectation of attainment for pupils of the normal schools has been altogether too low the country over. The normal schools, as a class, themselves need better apparatus, libraries, programmes, and teachers. As' to the colleges, it is quite as much an enlargement of sympathies as an improvement of apparatus or of teaching that they need. They ought to take more interest than they have heretofore done, not only in the secondary, but in the elementary schools ; and they ought to take pains to tit men well for the duties UNIFOKM DATES FOR ADMISSION EXA.MI.N ATKJXS. .")5 of a school superintendent. * They ah-eady train a considerable number of the best principals of high schools and academies ; but this is not sufficient. They should take an active interest, through their pi-esidents, professors, and other teachers, in improving the schools in their respective localities, and in con- tributing to the thorough discussion of all questions affecting the ^velfare of both the elementary and the secondary schools. Finally, the Committee venture to suggest, in the interest of secondary schools, that uniform dates — such as the last Thursday, Friday, and Saturday, or the third ^Monday, Tuesday, and Wednesday of June and September — l>c established for the admission examinations of colleges and scientific schools throughout the United States. It is a serious inconvenience for secondary schools which habitually prepaic candidates for several different colleges or scientific schools that the admission examinations of different institutions are apt to occur on different dates, sometimes rather widely separated. The Committee also wish to call attention to the service which Schools of Law, IMedicine, Engineering, and Technology, whether connected with universities or not, can render to secondary education by arranging their requirements for ad- mission, as regards selection and range of subjects, in con- formity Avith the courses of study recommended by the Com- mittee. By bringing their entrance requirements into close relation with any or all- of the programmes recommended for secondary schools, these professional schools can give valuable support to high schools, academies, and preparatory schools. CHARLP:S W. ELIOT, willia:m r. harpjs, .TAMES B. AXGELL, J(JHX TETLOW, .lAilES M. TAYLOR, OSCAR D. ROBINSON, JAMES H. BAKER, RICHARD H. JESSE, JAMES C. MACKENZIE, HENRY C. KING. 4 December, 1893. 56 MINORITY REPORT. President Baker signs the above report, but adds the following statement : — To THE National Council of Education: I beg leave to note some exceptions taken to parts of the Eeport of the Committee of Ten. Had the Committee not been limited in time, doubtless fuller discussion would have resulted in modifying some statements embodied in the report. The great value of the reports of the Conferences upon the subjects referred to them, as to matter, place, time, methods, adequate and continuous work for each subject, and identity of w6rk in different courses, and the masterly summary and tabu- lation of their recommendations, made by the Chairman of the Committee of Ten, can but invite cordial commendation. Objections are raised to parts of the special work of- the Committee. 1. I cannot endorse expressions that appear to sanction the idea that the choice of subjects in secondary schools may be a matter of comparative indifference. I note especially the fol- lowing sentences, referring the reader to their context for accurate interpretation. "Any school principal may say: — 'With the staff at my command I can teach only five subjects out of those proposed by the Conferences in the manner proposed. My school shall, therefore, be limited to these five.' Another school may be able to teach in the thorough manner proposed five subjects, but some or all of these five may be different from those selected by the first school." ^ " If twice as much time is given in a school to Latin as is given to mathematics, the attainments of the pupils in Latin ought to be twice as great as they are in mathematics, provided that equally good work is done in the two subjects ; and Latin will have twice the educational value of mathematics." ' ' The schedule of studies contained in Table III. permits flexibility and variety in three respects. First, it is not neces- sary that any school should teach all the subjects which it contains, or any particular set of subjects." MINOEITV REPORT. 57 " Every youth who entered college would have spent four years in studying a few suhjects thoroughly ; and on the theory that all the subjects are to be considered equivalent in educa- tional rank for the purpose of admission to college, it would make no difference which subjects he had chosen from the programme — he would have had four years of strong and effective mental training." All such statements are based upon the theory that, for the purposes of general education, one study is as good as another, — a theory which appears to me to ignore Philosophy', Psychology and Science of Education. It is a theory which makes education formal arid does not consider the nature and value of the content. Power comes through knowledge ; we can not conceive of observation and memory in the abstract. The W'orld which offers to the human mind several distinct views is the world in which our power that comes through knowledge is to be used, the world which we are to understand and enjoy. The relation between the subjective power and the objective — or subjective — knowledge is insepai'able and vital. On an}^ other theory, for general education, we might well consider the study of Egyptian hieroglyphics as valuable as that of physics, and Choctaw as important as Latin. Second- ary school programmes can not well omit mathematics, or science, or history, or literature, or the culture of the ancient classics. An education which gives a view in all directions is the work of elementary and secondary schools. Such an education is the necessary preparation for the special work of the university student. K I rightly understood, the majority of the Committee rejected the theory of equivalence of studies for general education. Studies vary in value for the training of the different powers, and for this additional reason the choice can not be regarded as a matter of indifference. The training of " obseiwation, memory, expression and reasoning" (inductive) is a very important part of education, but is not all of education. The imagination, deductive reason- ing, the rich possibilities of emotional life, the education of the will through ethical ideas and con-ect habit, all are to be con- 58 MINOKITY REPOirr. sidered in a scheme of learning. Ideals are to be added to the scientific method. The dilemma which appears on an examination of the time demands of the various conferences offers to the programme maker the alternatives of omitting essential subjects and of a rational adjustment of the time element, while retaining all essential subjects. Reason and experience point toward the latter alternative. By wise selection of matter within the lines of study adequate and consecutive time can be given to each. 2. The language of the second paragraph following Table II. might be misconstrued to mean that the Committee favor the multiplication of courses with a loss of the thoroughness attain- able when the teaching force is devoted to one or two courses. Intension rather than extension of effort, both in respect to the number of courses and in respect to the number of studies or topics under each principal subject, is to be strongly recommended. 3. It may seem trivial to offer criticism of the specimen programmes made by the Committee, and yet I believe that each member felt that with ample deliberation results somewhat different would have been reached. Note for instance that in some of the programmes history is entirely omitted in the SjBcond year, and physics is given only three hours per week, — no more time than is allowed for botany or zoology. There are many symmetrical secondary school programmes in actual operation today which furnish continuous instruction in all important subjects throughout the four years, allowing to each an amount of time adequate to goo'd results. For most high schools the first, the Classical programme, and the last pro- gramme, the one offering one foreign language, will commend themselves because they are economical, and they combine a good finishing course with adequate college preparation. 4. On the basis of the tabulatetl results of the Conferences I believe that by earnest scientific examination a scheme of work can be formulated that Avill meet the views of the mem- bers of the Committee and pf most educators. As an after- thought it may be an occasion for regret that the strength of the discussion was not devoted to Table III. Instead of con- MINOIMTV REI'ORT. 59 sidering the work of the Committee as ended, I would recommend that the National Council hold itself responsible for further examination of the data furnished by the Conferences. I have not presumed to offer a substitute report, because I believe that the importance of the work demands further eifort of an entire Committee. Respectfully submitted, JAMES H. BAKEK. EEPOETS OF THE CONFEREl^CES. LATIN. President Charles W. Eliot, Chairman of the Committee of Ten OF THE National Council of Education : — • The Conference upon the subject of Latin respectfully submits the following report : — In seven sessions of nearly three hours each the Conference dis- cussed all the questions suggested in the circular of instructions, except the last, respecting the proper limit between the preliminary and the final examination for admission to college ; and on most of the points presented, as well as on several not suggested in the circular, arrived at unanimous or nearly unanimous conclusions, which will be found expressed in the Recommendations appended to this Eeport. The first question considered was whether the requirements in Latin for admission to college ought to be increased. It would be a very desirable gain to the study of Latin in our universities and colleges if the present standard of admission requirements could be raised ; and the experience of other countries would seem to indicate that a higher standard' is feasible. But, in view of the just demands for more and better work in several other subjects of the preparatory course, it seemed clear to the Conference that no increase in the quantity of the preparation in Latin should be asked for. It is fully believed, however, that, through the careful choice of teachers, and the employment of better methods, a gain in the quality of the preparation can be secured without the expenditure of more time than is now generally given in the better schools. See Recommendations 1, 6, 11, and 14, at the end of this Report. Upon the subject first suggested in the memorandum of the Com- mittee of Ten, — namely, the question of the age at which the study of Latin should be begun, — a comparison of the customs existing in Europe and in this country will be suggestive. In the United States, the average age is about fifteen years, and probably above that number rather than below it.^ In England and on the Continent the ' At some private and endowed public schools in this country, however, the age 'is not far from twelve. In Michigan, successful experiments have been made in introducing the study of Latin into the gi-aramar-school ; and the trial is also being made in certain grammar-schools in Massachusetts. LATIX. 61 study is seldom begun so late as at the age of twelve, and much oftener between the ages of nine and eleven ; in other words, from four to sis years earlier than with us. The reasons in favor of an earlj- age are not far to seek. (1) Latin is a difBcult language, and long study is needed to make it yield its best fruits. (2) The rudi- ments of the subject, and in pai-ticular the forms, can be more easilj- and quickly mastered at an early age ; and, conversely, the study of these things constitutes a less agreeable and less suitable discipline for a mind that is becoming conscious of its powers. A radical change cannot be brought about in this country at once^ but it is hoped that such a modification of grammar-school courses can be made without delay as to render it possible that the high-school course, — and with it the subject of Latin, — may be begun not later than at the age of fourteen. See Recommendations 2 and 3. With regard to the number of years and the number of hours a week devoted to the study of Latin, the actual practice of the schools in this country varies gi-eatl}'. In twentj"-six representative schools having a four-year course, the aggregate of hours ranges from 580 to 1,009 ; and, in fourteen schools having a course of five or six years, from 740 to 1,92.5.^ In the opinion of the C onference, Latin should claim about one-fifth of each school day, or five hours a week. This means a total of about 800 periods of fort3'-five or fiftj- minutes of actual work. If the course were to be one of five or six jears, instead of four, the Conference would not recommend any diminution of the weekly allotment, Th^e aggregate of 1,000 to 1,200 "hours" thus obtained, which might to some observers seem excessive, is much below the maximum amount ah-eady given in the fourteen representa- tive schools having a course of five or six years, while it is identical with, or but little above, the average in those schools (viz., 1000 hours), and much below the average in the schools of England, France and German}-. The explanation of the undeniable fact that, in the countries just named, Latin has been more successfully em- ployed than with us '• as an instrument for training the mind to habits of intellectual conscientiousness, patience, discrimination, accuracy, and thoroughness, — in a word, to> habits of clear and sound think->' ing," doubtless lies partly in the more liberal allowance of time. See Recommendations 3, 4. and 5. The answer to the tenth question ^ut before the Conference, with regard to the best method of testing attainments at the college examinations for admission, must turn mainlj' upon the general ' From statistics of forty representative scliools gathered liy tlie Committee of Ten. tj^ . LATIN. character of the requirements held up before the schools. Up to the present time, the commoner form of requirement may be said to insist strongl^f upon the quantitative side. A certain number of books of certain authors are to be read, or certain defined substitutes, supposed to be equal in quantity ; a certain number of lessons in some manual of Latin composition must be studied ; and a certain amount of Latin grammar must be learned. After a preparation controlled hj this quantitative conception, the test applied by colleges that do not use the certificate system must necessarily be directed to ascer- taining what familiarity has been gained with the ground gone over. On the other hand, if the requirement be ability to, translate "at sight" from Latin into English and from English into Latin, the test- must necssarily be one of power. Its object is to show what the stu- dent is now capable of doing ; and it may therefore fajrly be called a qualitative test. It has distinct and great advantages. What the student knows and what he%ari do l^mtdS' m'ariiTest^ diSce' to the practised eye, and, on the other hand, ignorance and feebleness emerge with fatal clearness. " Cramming" is made nearly useless by it, and the steady gain of power becomes the student's necessary aim and sole means of salv&tion. Still, many shrink from adopting it as the sole test. The examination, they urge, may, especially in view of the fact that there are many students of mediocre natural gifts, but of faithfulness and staying powerSj properly take account of the amount of work which the candrdate has covered, and of the thoroughness with which he has performed a fixed task, as a means of judging, in the rough, of his fitness for higher study. Yet the importance of devoting a good deal of attention to translation at sight is now universally acknowledged among the best teachers in school and college, and the recommendation (included in No. 6) that transla- tion at sight form a constant and increasing part of the examination for admission and Of the work of preparation, is therefore regarded by the Conference as of especial moment. Intimately connected with the same subject is the question of the writing of Latin, —its place in the study of the language, the subject- matter to be employed, and the method of development to be adopted. The object is not the acquirement of the power for its own sake ; for this power, while once indispensable, is not to-day a necessity, nor even, for most men, an especially desirable accomplishment. The practice should be employed as a means, — as a powerful instrument for gaining a penetrating insight into the structure, idiom, and spirit of the Latin language, both in its agreement with, and in its differ- ences from, the mother tongue. It is admitted, for example, that in order to be able to read Latin, one must have a firm grasp of the principles of Latin syntax. But the experience of many teachers has shown that this grasp is to be gained with much more certainty through writing Latin than in any other way ; and in this field, too, the stu- dent himself clearly sees the reasonableness and immediate utility of the same instruction which, when applied to a Latin text, often seems to him, and often is, needless and barren. Here, then, should fall the principal part of the syntactical instruction. And, for similar reasons, the writing of Latin affords the best field for the mastery of forms, of vocabulary, of idiom, and of order. The majority of the Conference is of the belief that, instead of being dissociated from practice in reading and translating, as it still so commonly is, practice in writing should be regarded as the obverse and counterpart of reading, and therefore should be carried on pari passu with it. In no other way can direct advantage be taken of the threads of association woven in the mind b3' the reading of an author, and in no other waj' can the subject-matter, in the earlier stages, be' made so interesting and so practical. It follows that the basis of all sentences and passages set for translation into English in the pre- paratory schools should be found in the Latin texts read. And it is also evidently desirable that the portions of the text chosen should be limited, — -so limited, in fact, that thej^can gradually be committed to memorj', and preserved as a permanent store. "This small treatise alone" saj's George Long, in the preface to his edition of the Calo Major. " if thoroughly mastered, . . . would make a man a good Latin scholar." The use of manuals of composition based upon a plan of exer- cises having no connection with the tests read, and arranged in arti- ficial sequence to illustrate syntactical rules, ought accordingly to be discouraged. See Recommendation 11. The summoning of the Conference afforded a fortunate opportunity for the discussion of an important question not included in the mem- orandum, namely, what authors, and what parts of authors, should constitute the reading of the preparatory schools? Thus far, the colleges have in general left the schools very little liberty of choice. Three authors have been named by every college that prescribes set work. Of these three the easiest, or, as one should perhaps say, the least difficult, is Caesar. Hence it has come abont that the Gallic War is ver}' commonly used as the first reading-book in Latin. Our American schools are probablj' the onl}^ ones in the world of which this is true. The choice is an unfortunate one. The book is altogether too difficult for beginners ; it is too exclusively military iii contents to be generally interesting ;- its vocabulary is too largelj' restricted, from the nature of the subject, to marches, sieges, and 64 LATIN. battles, to afford the best introduction to subsequent reading ; and, finally, it touches human life at too few points to be m6rally helpful and significant. The Conference therefore makes two recommenda- tions : first, that some easy reading, such as Gradatim, Eutropius, or the Viri Romae, be used as a transition from the introductory work of the beginner's book to the regular reading of a classic ; and second, that at least a portion of the time now usually given to Cajsar be taken from him and given to Nepos. Against the " Lives" not one of the reasons urged against the use, or exclusive use, of the Gallic War can be brought. The objection that the Latinity of Nepos is inferior to that of Caesar would be of weight only in case the chief object in the earlier years of the study of Latin were the imiliediate production of writers of an elegant Latin style. No such fear is felt by German, French, and English school-masters, who have found, as have also various experimenters in this country, that the use of the books men- tioned above as bridges to and substitutes for Csesar contributes to the pleasure and progress of the student. See Recommendation 9. The Bucolics of Virgil constitute the least original, and, to the school-boy, least interesting, and most difficult, part of the poet's works. Their proper place is in an elective course for university students, in connection with the reading of Theocritus. It is advised that they be discontinued in the requirements for admission to college. See Recommendation 7. Some teachers of learning, experience, and skill have believed that, in what is called the inductive method, they have found a shorter and better way of learning Latin than has heretofore been devised. The saving of time and the attainment of a more exact scholarship, which are the ends they have set themselves to bring about, are certainly greatly to be desired. Perhaps some good has been done by the pub- lication of books calling attention strongly to a side of linguistic study which, even in the earlier years, should not be entirely ignored. But the Conference is of the opinion that it is an error to erect ii^to the sole controlling principle what should, in the nature of things, be subordinate. On this subject, therefore, a word of caution seemed to nearly all its members to be desirable. See Recommendation 13. In the judgment of the Conference, the greatest defects now exist- ing in the instruction given in Latin in the schools are to be found in the elementary stages. It is a common practice to put the teaching of beginners into the hands of the youngest tind most poorly paid teachers, that is to say, of those who have the slenderest equipment of knowledge and experience. The same thing is true in other sub- jects ; but the danger seems to be especially great in Latin, partly because the field is so vast, covering as it does a great nuniber and LATI.V. 65 variety of topics, and partly because it is so difficult to determine practically the best distribution and appropriation of time along the several lines of study. To competent knowledge tliL- teacher n)ust add the clearest and most definite conceptions of the relative import- ance and the logical sequence of topics, of the end:, to l)e reached in each stage, and of the best methods of arriving at tliese ends. If, then, the results of the study of Latin often seem absurdly meagre iu proportion to the time spent upon the subject, we must look for the cause very largely in the fact that, at the most critical point in his study, the student is given over to an instructor of the least experience and knowledge. To describe in full the best method of teaching Latin throughout the course, as was suggested in the memorandum of your Committee, would require the conversion of this Report into a treatise. But a brief summary may be ma(ie of the things to do and the things to avoid, and a few definite suggestions may be offered under each of the former heads. The teacher of elementary Latin need not concern himself too much with the remoter ends of the study. To him the question should be : What knowledge is of prime importance, as the foundation for subsequent work? Stated generally, it may be gaid that the work of the first period should be (1) learning to pronounce accuratel}' and to read fluently and intelligently the Latin text of what has been studied ; (2) the mastery of inflection, so tliat number, case, person, mode, tense, etc., can be instantly recognized, and, conversely, can be formed without much hesitation bj- the student himself ; ( 3 ) the acqui- sition of a working vocabulary of from one to two thousand words ; (t) the mastery of the order of the Latin sentence ; (5) the masterj- of the simpler principles of syntax, regarded as a means of expres- sion ; (6) learning how to understand simple narrative in Latin ; and (7) learning how to trauslftte such narrative into true English. In necessary connection with the pursuit of these aims, a good deal of training of the ear should be employed, through listening to the reading or speaking of the teacher ; and, in addition, a certain amount of practice in turning English into Latin will be necessary, as an indispensable instrument for fixing forms in the memor\' and establishing" a feeling for their syntactical powers. On the other hand, the things to be avoided are (1) a dispersion of effort in con- sequence of the attempt to include too many parts of the study in the first stage ; (2) an undue prominence of rules, and the treat- ment of syntax as an end in itself, rather than as an auxiliary to the penetration of the sense; and (3) the use of "translation English." 5 6(! L\Tr\. The more detailed suggestions tliat follow, under the head of the things to be done, apply in part, as will be seen, to the work of the later years of the 'preparatoi'v course, as well as to the earlier. 1. Pkoni N(:iATio>f AND Readinc; Aloud. The Conference desires to emphasize the importance of a correct pronunciation of Latin from the very beginning of the study. A student who acquires the hal)it of pronouncing accurately in reading Latin prose will find little difliculty, and a genuine pleasure, in reading Latin verse. As practical aids to this end, the following suggestions are made vi'ith regard to certain peculiarities of the pronunciation of the Romans : — (a) The long vowels received full length, not only in ultimas and penults, but in every syllable. (So, for example, the second a in amabamus should occupj' about as much time in the utterance as the second in araabam) . (b) An obstructed consonant (i.e., a consonant made more, difficult to articulate fulh", through being immediately followed l)y another, either in the same word or at the beginning of the next) was pronounced with a clearness and distinctness not known in similar cases in English, so that it occupied about as much time in the utterance as a short vowel. [A mute followed by a liquid, on the other hand, made a combination easy to pronounce both fully and rapidly, and so occupied no appreciable time in ordinary speech. In poetry, however, the first consonant was occasionallj- treated as obstructed, being ptonounced as a distinct sound, out of combination]. (c) In verse, as in daily speech, a final vowel, before an initial vowel or vowel with h, was run as a glide into the next vowel. Without a knowledge of quantities (and, of course, not merely in penults and ultimas, but in all syllables), correct reading is, in the nature of things, impossible. Yet to acquire this knowledge by look- ing up every word in the dictionary is, to the 3'oung student, a labo- rious, and, relatively, an unprofitable task. He should learn his quantities by the easiest and most direct way, namely, by the guid- ance of eye and ear. Hence books prepared for the first two j-ears of a four-year course should, in the text proper, as well as in the paradigms, notes, and vocabulary, have the vowels long by nature^ marked (the unmarked ones being understood to be short) . And the teacher, from whom, by unconscious imitation, class after class will largely take it pronunciation, should not feel at liberty to be careless in his own practice. He will find rules to be of little value, and example to be all-important. LATTX. Il7 P'or the sounds of the letters, the t'ollovving scheme is reroin- mended : — a as in father. a like first a in aha (same quality as second but short), first ai)\m,'1 in aHisiic (of course with no r sound). e like the English S-sound as heard in skein, cave, Cain, but without tlie van- ishing ee-element which ends the English sound. e as in net, bed. ' i as in machine. i as in jji». 6 like the English o-sound heard in ?iote, but without the vanishing oo-element which ends the English sound. o as in the first syllable of obey and the second of melody. The sound is not the same as in not, dot. 11 as in rule. u as in pull. y like i'rench «, German- w. ao like ai in aisle. oe like oi in oil. au like ow in how. eu by pronouncing both elements in rapid succession, — a cunibination not occurring in English. ei as in skein (jciih the vanishing «e-element). i consonantal (sometimes printed/) like y in yet. ui occurs chiefly in huic and cui, which should be pronounced wheel,-, kwee. b, d, f, h, k, 1, m (not final), m, p, q, as in English, excy])t that bs aud bt should be pronounced ps and pt. c always like k. g always as in get ; gu like gw, when preceded by n and followed by a vowel ; ng like English ng in anger. qu like English qu in quick, queen. T trilled with the tip of the tongue, s always as in sin , su like sw in suacis, suadeo, suesco, and in compounds and derivatives of these words, z like z. (The evidence is as yet conflicting with regard to the sound of this consonant — probably zd, or dz, though possibly z — and for these reasons the English sound of z is for the present recommended). t always as in ten (never with the sound of sh', as in English creation). V like w. X like ks. ph, th, and oh not as in English, but nearly like p, t, and k (strictly with a slight explosive sound, as heard at the end of English words, e. g., hop. hot, hock). Final m preceding an initial vowel (or vowel with h) should be pronounced as a faint nasal sound, the lips approaching the ordinary »re-position, but not touch- ing. The pronunciation before a consonant is doubtful, and, for the present, a change from the sound of English m is not recommended. CM LATIN. It is strongly recommended that abundant practice be given in tlie reading aloud of a continuous text already studied, which should be assigned in advance for the purpose, and carefully prepared. IS'ot only is this an excellent literary exercise, which will add much to the interest and sense of reality of the subject-matter, but it will also contribute greatly to a feeling for forms (since in Latin .so much depends upon word endings), and to a feeling for Latin order. In this reading, while care should of course be taken with the individual sounds, it must not be supposed that pronunciation is the only or even the chief thing to aim at. The meaning of the text must not be subordinated to the sounds of the letters. The reader should endeavor to bring out the thought and literary art of his author, not only by a clear and full and easilj'-moving utterance, but by the grouping of words that constitute a phrase, by the suggestion of balance or antithesis wherever they are found, by a hint to the ear where the thought of the writer points back to something that has been said, or forward to something that is about to be said, and by emphasis in the expression wherever there is emphasis in the thought. In this exercise the teacher liimself (of course after careful prepa- ration) should from time to time take part. And, whether it be the teacher or one of their own number who is reading, the pupils should be encouraged to try always to follow the sense by the ear alone, without the help of the book. 2. Forms. The masterj' of forms is indispensable as a basis of any sound knowledge and of any progress, and, if not acquired in the first year, is verj' rarely acquired later. The method must, in the main, be two-fold translation ; first of .single words, then of common combinations of adjective and noun, or pronoun and noun, or of all three; then of short phrases, as, e. g., a verb and its object, an adjective, preposition, and noun, forming a phrase, etc. Particularly should dependence not be made wholly or chiellj' on the repetitien of tabulated forms. 3. Vocabulary. The mastery of the vocabularj- of the language is a prodigious task. It confronts the learner at the outset, and it remains the last obstacle to be overcome. The fact seems not to be appreciated in elementary instruction, aqd accordingly many teachers think that text-books for the use of beginners should not contain more than a few hundred words, an error almost as great as to sup- pose that the words chosen should be largely taken from Caesar's Gallic War. It has already been said that this book is of too technical a character to constitute a good introduction to the reading of Latin ; and to plan the elementary work with especial reference to f.ATIX. flp it is. therefore, to heap mistake upon mistake. Copiousness and vaiietj- should characterize the vocabulary of the iuti'oduetor^- book, not only for the sake of subsequent reading, but because both are a necessary condition of anj' human interest in the exercises, oral and written, which are indispensable for practice in elementary study. Some suggestions for the easing of the young learner's task maj- be gathered from books that have appeared within a few years, "(a) Special vocabularies attached to separate exercises or selections should in no ca-:e be committed to memory before the stud}' of such pKiisii. but should be used for reference first, and memorized last of all ; that is, words should be studied in a sentence before they are studied in isolation. Xot only is the immediate tax upon the memory in this way lightened, but the impression made is more lasting. (6) Related words should be grouped together as fast as thej' occur. Five words obvioush- related in form and meaning can more easily be learned and remembered than one word in isolation, (o) The comparison and discrimination of nearly sj-nonj-mous words (to be made, however, onlj' as thej- occur in the learner's actual experience in reading) aids by giving deflniteness and individuality to each. (d) And, finally, the greatest auxiliary is the habit of constant observation of the ditfereut applications of the same word. Students seldom know more than one English rendering for a Latin word, or more than one Latin rendering for an English word, — a state of things due in part to the want of the liabit just referred to, but in part also to an undue insistence, at the earliest stage of study, on the memorizing of the one particular meaning that happens to be given in tlie text-book. This memorizing of one meaning is, in fact, what many teachers mean by "mastering" a vocabulary. 4. Syxtax. The study of syntax may well, in university work, be dealt with as a matter of special interest to the advanced student, and be offered iu courses bj' itself. But for the student who is preparing for college it is merely an indispensable means to an end. naraeh', the power to read. This statement by no means implies that it is to be treated carelessly and superficially bj' the teacher (for, if tliat be done, no real power to read can possibh- be gained), but onlj- that it will be taught by him in the most helpful manner, if he will do the greater part of his syntactical questioning in connection with exercises in which the student is trying to get at the meaning of a new sentence {i. e., in translation at sight or at hearing) and in connection with the writing of Latin (see 5 and 0 below) . Xo attemfrt should be made, however, to master the entire apparatus at the outset. A further suggestion of considerable importance may be offered. "Where, ;is is constantly happening, a mistake in translation is due to a mistake in 7(1 T.ATIN'. syntax, the teaclier should not be (-(.mteiit with giving a correct trans- lation himself, or with asking some pupil to do it, but should always himself state, or ask some one in the class to state, what the Latin would be for the English actually given. If this is done, syntax is seen in its true light, as one of the means by which the writer ex- presses his thought : if it is not done, the syntax of a given passage seetns a matter of indifference.^ 5. Ohder. The importance of a genuine familiarity with Latin order can hardl}' be over-estimated. No one can really read Latin unless, whether consciously or instinctivelj-, be is so familiar with the way in which the Roman arranged his sentences that it seems as natural to him as the English order. It will be a help if the teacher will frequently point out whatever in this respect is noteworthj-, and particularly if he will always, in working with his classes at the exer- cise of translation at sight, hold to the Latin order until he thinks that the thought has been grasped, — not pass 'from one part of the sentence to another, to make out an English order. Much help will also be found in the exercise described under 6 below (at the end of the section) , and in the exercise of listening, without looking at the book, to the reading of a prepared text by the teacher or fellow-pupil. And students should also be encouraged to read over and over by themselves, without translating, Latin with which they have become familiar in the class-room. It is obvious that a proper Latin order should be insisted upon from the outset in all Latin written bj' the student. "English-Latin" should be as carefully avoided as the hybrid ' ' Latin-English " too often accepted as translation. Equally important is it that the editors of elementary text-books should put before the student no Latin arranged in jyiy other than a Latin order. 6. Learning to Understand the Latin. The success of the student in one of the points most essential to the attainment of power to read, namely, in learning to understand his author in his author's tongue, will depend in a large degree upon the attitude of mind of his teacher. Tlie latter should, from the very beginning, hold up the idea that the highest aim of Latin scholarship, on the literary side, is to be able to read Latin, as every competent scholar, learns to read French and German, with a direct comprehension and enjoyment of the very words written by the author, not of an English substitute made by the reader. The student should be taught to re- gard translation, not as a means of finding out what his author has said, but as, on the one hand, a way of making it clear to his instructor that he has understood, and, on the other, an exercise in expression, — a literary exercise, — in his own tongue. And finally, it should be ^ * I,ATIN. I i shown liiui that, uveii on the most iiniL-lical grounds, to uttenipt to find out the meaning of a Latin sentence through translating it (as the common way is) is an operation almost sure to miscarrj' ; that the Latin, as in the case of a gui-ckiuse, an j(i-elause, a cwm-clause, etc., often uses a single word as connective, where the English would employ one or another out of a large group (e. g., for the «f-elause, "when," "just as," "although," "in order to," "so that"), and that to translate by anything whatsoever, before the complete evi- dence of the entire sentence has been had and the relation of part to part seen, is to run a very largo risk of going astray at this point, and of being led still further afield in other points in the unconscious attempt to make them consistent with the first mistake. But the stu- dent, dealing with a language in which the form of the sentence is entirely new to him, is naturally prone to go astray in precisely this way. He should therefore constantly receive practical help. Practice in translating at sight, or more exactly, in understandiufj at sight, under the instructor's eye and then translating, ought to be given dailj-, or at least very frequently. In general, the best passage for the pur- pose will be the passage immediately following the lesson of the day, for the double reason that the student is familiar with the context, and that, when the additional exercise carries him straight on to his end, he feels the reality of his progress. The Latin should always be read aloud, sometimes by a student, sometimes by the master, before any translation is ventured upon. The master should stop the student here and there, if his way of reading shows that his grouping is wrong, or if any other indication proves that he has not understood ; and other pupils should be asked to correct him. Where a word is employed to give notice in advance that something is coming, this should be made clear by the way of reading. Where a Latin .word calls for some construction yet to come, to complete its meaning, and either of several constructions may be employed aeeeirding to the exact shade of the author's thought (as, e. ;/. , dko may be followed by the interroga- tive subjunctive clause, or by the infinitive, or by an at- or ne-clause, according as the idea is of asking a question, or stating a fact, or giving a direction), this range of possibilities should be pointed out (unless it has already been pointed out so frequently that the class has become familiar with it) ; after which nothing further need be said when the completing construction, thus already foreseen as a possi- bilitj- or certainty, is actually reached. AVhere there is danger of going astray through misapprehension of the syntax of a word, the construction (;". e., the force of the case, the mode, or the tense) should be asked for. No question upon construction should be put except as a means of guiding the class to an understanding «i the 72 LATIN. meaning of the Latin ; and consequently every question of tliis sort should precede the translation. When a sentence is manifestly easy, and has probably been understood by the class, it is well to pass straight on without translating it. The greater part of what is read will, however, require translation. The habit of trying to understand a sentence in the original, before translating , will be more easil}' acquired, if the teacher will from time to time put a new passage upon the board, a word or phrase at a time, or, better 3-et, read it- aloud, calling attention as he goes along, by comment or question, to indications of meaning which would have guided a Roman, but asking for no translation until the whole pas- sage has been written or read. In the preparation of .his dailj- lesson by himself, the student should bo urged to study the Latin, in entire faithfulness to the aims stated above, in the order in which it is written, without any skipi^ing about. The sentence should be read through once, twice, or, if necessary, tlu'ee times in the Latin, with no reference to the making of a trans- lation, but with the mind fixed upon grasping the meaning directlj'. If the effort has in part failed, the student may then help himself by making a rough rendering of the sentence, word for word, still in the Latin order, and with great suspense of mind in the case of words that are capable of corresponding to a variety of phrases in English. This rough rendering, however, must be regarded as a mere tem- porary expedient, at the last resort, for getting at the meaning, not, of course, as translation into English. The preparation for the trans- lation to be given in the class-room is an entirelj- different exercise, and should be the last act of the preparation of the lesson. 7. Learning to Translate into English. There is probably no better exercise in English expression than the rendering of the thought of a Greek or Roman author into Tilnglish idiom. The very difference of the two idioms increases the value of the exercise. But great loss is sustained by the student when, as is much too frequently the case, he is allowed to translate into a diction and idiom which have no exis- tence in actual English speech or English literature. Such phrases, e. g, as " this one, that one " (hie, ille) , which .ire never heard outside the class-room, ought not be tolerated in it. For the sake of the clearer exhibition of the grammatical manner of expression in the Latin , it is well that the translation should correspond to the original where the two idoms are identical, but no farther. Especial care should be taken to render the order of development of the thought in the Latin, as shown by the order of the original,- and the student should unhesitatingly, where English idiom demands it, change the T.ATtN. il, active voice to the passive, and break a Latin sentence into as many English sentences as may be desirable. A higher ideal of translation than it is easy to attain by oral worls alone may be set up in the minds of students, if a passage is occasion- ally assigned for carefully studied written translation, and if a number of the compositions thus produced are then read aloud, criticisms of style being asked for from the class, and special excellencies pointed out by the teacher. It is also a great help, if the teacher makes a practice of giving the best version of "which he is capable, after the lesson has been translated by the class, not allowing himself to inter- pose remarks, but translating fluently from the beginning to the end. In what has been said thus far, stress has been laid upon the mas- tery of the mechanism of expression in Latin, — the words, their forms and syntactical constructions, and the order in which they stand in the sentence. But, at the very outset, the student should be made to understand that these things are not ends but tools, and that the end is to gain, through the reading of Latin, an insight into the thought and feeling of a people who have contributed very largely to make the life of the civilized world of to-da3' what it is. The Com- mentaries of Cfesar, the Epic of Virgil, and the Orations of Cicero, — commonlj- spoken of as subjects required for admission to college, — are in reality masterpieces of literary style, and historical documents of first-rate importance. The teacher, from whose attitude of mind his pupils are likely to take their own attitude, will do well not to allow the burden of daily work and yearly rSpetition to lead him to set up a mechanical conception of Latin as a field for intellectual gymnastics, in place of the true conception of a vital literature, cap- able of exerting a strong attraction upon the young student (for the most part possessed as yet of but a very slight ^-ision of any world except that which is immediately about him), and of becoming a powerful influence for the training of his taste and the awakening of his intellectual ambitions. As a help to this true conception, it is recommended that a few books, dealing with the authors studied solely from the point of view of their human and literarj' interest, be, if possible, made accessible to the student, — -such books, for example, as Fronde's Caesar (Harper & Urothers), a book of perverted elo- quence, but helpful if corrected bj' the next to be mentioned, For- syth's Cicero (Charles Scribner's Sons), TroUope's Cicero (Mac- millan), and Sellar's Virgil (Macmillan) ; to which should be added the articles on Cjesar, Cicero, and Virgil in the Encyclopaedia Britan- nica, too-ether with Sellar's article on Roman Literature in the same place, and Wilkins's'Primer of Roman Literature (Macmillan). ti . r.ATlX. The text of the t'onmil expressions of opinion of the Conference follows : — Recommendations of the Conference upon the subject of Latin. (1) The formal requirements in Latin at present prevailing for" admission to representative colleges ought not, so far as quantity is concerned, to be increased. (2) Education below the high school course should be so organized that students may be prepared to enter upon that course at least a year earlier than, in most places, the}' now do. (3) The study of Latin should be begun, in a four-year cours&, not later than at the age of fourteen years, and at a correspondingly earlier age when the course is of five or six years' duration. (4) At least four years of study, with five recitation periods a week, of not less than forty-five minutes each, should be given to the stud}' of Latin. (5) In case the course extends through five or six years, there should, in the interests of more thorough work, be no diminution of the time which has been suggested as a proper weekly allotment for a four-year course. (6) While the Conference does not find itself yet prepared to declare that translation at sight from Latin into English, and from English into Latin, without exaniination upon the ground previously gone over, constitutes a complete and satisfactory test of the stu- dent's knowledge, as well as of the power he has gained, it stronglj' recommends that such twofold translation at sight form a constant and increasing part of the examination for admission and of the work of preparation. (7) The Bucolics of Virgil ought henceforth to form no part of the requirements for admission. (8) In a four-year course, four books of Caesar's G-allic War, or an equivalent, should be completed by the end of the second year, and six orations of Cicero and six books of the Aeueid during the third and fourth years. The Conference makes no recommendation upon the question whether Cicero should precede Virgil, or Virgil Cicero ; but suggests that, if Cicero precede, four orations be read, then six books of Virgil, followed by the remaining two orations. (9) A portion of the Lives of Cornelius Nepos should be substi- tuted for a part or the whole of Caesar's Gallic War, and, as an introduction to the reading of these authors, such books as the Breviary of Eutropius, Gradatim, and Viri Roniae, are strongly recommended. LATIN. 75 (10) The subject of Latin should be treated in the same way, whether students intend to go to college, to a scientific school, or to neither. (11) The writing of Latin should be carried on, throughout the preparatorj' course, concurrently with the reading of prose. The main training in syntax should be given in connection with worli in writing Latin ; and, during the reading of the text, questions upon syntax should generall3' be confined to points in which a dear recog- nition of the nature of the construction is essential to the under- standing of the passage. Tlie basis of the exercises in Latin composition should be limited portions of the text of authors read, — perhaps not more than forty or fift}' pages. And, finally, the tests in writing Latin at admission examinations should be limited to the subject-matter of the authors studied in the preparatory course. (12) Elementary books for the study of Latin should contain no sentences written in an un-Latin order. (13) Except in unusually skilful hands, the so-called Inductive Method of teaching Latin should be used with extreme caution.^ (14) The importance of the elementary instruction in Latin should be emphasized, and the necessity- of a high grade of scholarship in teachers of the lower, classes should be strongly insisted upon. ' Note. — On the general question here involve J the chairman reserves his opinion, waiting for fuller experimental evidence from the schools, and from examinations for admission. WM. GARDNER HALE, Professor of Latin in the Vniversity of Chicago, Chairman. WM. C. COLLAR, Head-Master of the Rozbury Latin School, Secretary. CHARLES E. BENNETT, Professor of Latin in Cornell University. FREDERICK L. V.IAH^, Principal of the Detroit High School. •TNG. T. BUCHANAN, Principal of the Kansas City High School. *JOHN S. CROMBIE, Principal of the Adelphi Academy. JAMES H. DILLARD, Professor of Latin in Tulane University. WM. GALLAGHER, Principal of the Williston Seminary. JOHN. C. ROLFE, Acting Professor of Latin in the University of Michigan. JULIUS SACHS, Principal of the Collegiate In- stitute for Boys, Xew York City. * Mr. Crombie took an active part in the deliljerations of the Conference, and later gave his assent to the Report as it here stands. His official connection with it was therefore concluded. His associates, however, desire to append a record of his untimely death on the IGth of April, 1893; and to express their deep regret at the loss of a colleague of singular thoughtfulness, tact, and charm. (I KEEK. To THE (lOMiMITTKIC OK J'jOX : The Conference on Greek wet with every member present at Ann Arbor, Michigan, December 28th, 29t'h, and 30th, W.)2. In its discussions and recommendations the Conference has been guided bj- the existing conditions of the study of Greek in the schools and by the admission requirements of colleges, as well as by its desire to recommend some ideal plan of stud}-. It is well known that the time and attention given to Greek vary greatly in different sec- tions of the country, so that a recommendation that is simply a state- ment of the existing conditions for schools in some sections may be for a school* in a less favored community — for the time — an unattainable ideal. However unfortunate it may be thought, the fact remains that few schools will do more for their pupils in preparation for college than the college requirements for admission demand, so that the col- lege determines in large measure the amount of work done in the school, as well as controls to some extent by the rigor or laxity of its entrance examinations the quality of the preparatory instruction. Influenced then b}' these considerations, the Conference has aimed . to make recommendations that may tend to unify methods of the study of Greek in the different sections of the country. The Confer- ence would not have its recommendations regarded as restrictive in any sense ; it believes that under favorable conditions more can be accomplished than the amount proposed below (sees. II., III.) — many schools are doing more to-day ; but the Conference recommends an amount of work that every school can do in the time proposed. Schools that are favored in the early training of their pupils and in other ways, can accomplish more.^ The follo'njing votes and recommendations were made hj the Con- ference : — Voted : That in making the following recommendations this Conference desires that the average age at which pupils now enter college be lowered rather than raised, and the Conference urges that no addition be made to the more advanced requirements in Greek* now prescribed for admission to college. ' The statement of a headmaster of long experience will not be without interest, as showing the possibilities of increase in the amount of work done, without extra time or a sacrifice of thorough teaching.- He says that some years ago his classes read three books of Homer in the senior year ; as he received pupils better trained and secured better instruction, the amount read was increased to five books ; then to eight ; and he hopes in the same way to increase the amount read still further. GREEK. I. Period (ik Study. The Conference recommend- that the study lif (ireek be begim at lea,-t- tiiree years before the close of the course preparatory to college, and that to the subject be given five recitations per week, of at least forty-five minutes each, the first year, four recitations per week th'e second year, and four recitations per week the third year. It will be seen that the Conference recommends as a minimum school course in Greek about 490 recitation periods. Most schools in which Greek is studied during two years only, give 360-400 recitation periods to the study, so that for such schools the time recommended amounts to an increase of little more than a half-year's work. It is believed by the Conference that this increase can be made in many cases without serious difficult}-. On the other hand this amount of time recommended as a minimum is less than the time already given in most schools where Greek is studied three years. Of twenty-five representative schools having three-year courses in Greek, two only give less than the minimum number o*" hours pro- posed (490), while twelve devote to Greek .')'jO hours or more, one school giving 658 hours in three years. While the Conference recommends three 3-ears as the minimum time for the study of Greek in schools, it would not have a pupil begin to study the language without a knowledge of the elements of Latin ; so that the Conference would limit the study of Greek to two years in a school in which Latin is studied but three. II. Course in AttIc Greek. The Conference recommends that the course in Attic Oreek consist of four books of the Anabasis or of two books of the Anabasis and an amount of the Hellenica, or of other Attic Greek, equivalent to two other books of the ^Ajiabasis. The members of the Conference urge that the Anabasis be no longer retained in our schools as the only text-book in Attic Greek ; they feel that as the events chronicled in the Anabasis had little effect on subsequent history, it is well for pupils to read more impor- tant works. The Hellenica, especially Books I. and II., has more historic value than the Anabasis, and the narrative portions of Thuey- dides may well be read in schools. The Conference believes that by such substitution of portions of the Hellenica and of Thucydides the pupil's interest in his work will be increased, and that better results can be obtained. . 7(S _ GREEK. III. HuMJSK. The ConferBUC-e recommends that three books of the Iliad, or its equiva- lent, four books of the Odyssey, be the prescribed work in Homer, sug- gesting that the Odyssey be preferred. The demand is being made in some quarters that Homer be no longer studied in schools, thus limiting the study of Greek to the Attic dialect. While the Conference cannot favor this plan for schools in which Greek is studied during three years, and believes that the withdrawal of Homer from such schools would be a misfor- tune, it advises that schools which limit their courses in Greek to two j-ears, pake no attempt to teach Homer. The charge that Homer is poorly taught in the schools seems to the Conference an argument against poor teaching, not against the subject taught. No one proposes to remove English Composition from the list of school studies, — and yet, if we can judge from current educational literature, men have great differences of opinion as to the best methods of teaching English Composition, as well as believe that there is much poor teaching of this subject. Poor instruction should be made the basis of attack upon the individual teacher who is at fault, or upon the wrong methods employed, not against the subject in which poor instruction is given. The Con- ference does recognize, however, that as a result of poor teaching a pupil may leave the preparatory school with neither the definite knowledge of Attic Greek that he can be expected to have, nor a clear understanding of the relation of the Epic to the later Classical language. Tliis may come .from an attempt to teach the pupil two dialects, whereas all instruction in Greek grammar and language should aim to fix in the pupil's mind by .repetition and comparison some fundamental knowledge of Attic Greek. Homeric grammar, in the opinion of the Conference, is a subject for study in the College or University, not in the Preparatory School ; the Iliad and Odyssey of all books must be studied as literature ; sufficient instruction in the grammatical peculiarities of their language, however, should be given to insure a correct understanding of the text. (By continuing com- - position and the reading of Attic texts throughout the course the Conference seeks to avoid neglect of the Attic dialect during the study of Homer. — Sections IV. and VII.) It appears from the experience of members of the Conference, and of others, that the prospect of reading Homer is no small inducement to pupils to study Greek ; in schools where children have been en- couraged to read translations of Homer, the number beginning Greek has befen considerably increased. The Homeric poems appeal to the «KEEK. 7;) pupil's imaginatiou and arouse his interest in the life and thought of the Greeks. It does not seem wise to the Conference to remove these works from the schools and thereby delay the time when pupils can begin their real acquaintance with the two greatest poems the Greeks have left us. If the studj- of Homer is relegated to the college, many graduates of our scliools, both those who do not go to college and those who fail to continue their Greek after entrance, will know nothing of Homer in the original — and probably little through translation. The Conference holds that the Odyssey is much to be preferred to the Iliad for school boys and girls. The Odyssey deals with fairy land, enchantment, and human effort : it is a story of the same class with, and can be compared to, the Arabian Nights and Robinson Crusoe. The Iliad, on the other hand, treats of deeds that belong to Gods and heroes, the conflicts seem far from us, and lack the human interest that Odysseus' adventures have. Young ciiildren read trans- lations of the whole Odyssey^ eagerly, but are interested in scattered episodes only of the Iliad. IV. Translation ixtu Greek. The Conference recommends that instruction in the translation of Eng- lish into Greek be based upon the Attic prose Greek read, and that simple exercises of this nature, both oral .and written, based upon the lesson of the day, be frequently given ; that some manual of "Greek Composition," in which connected discourse is employed and the subject of syntax is topically treated, be used ; and the Conference urges that the exercises in translation into Greek be continuous throughout the preparatory course. It is well agreed, in theory, that Greek Composition is valuable as a means to secure the better understanding of the texts read, and there is no wide ditference of opinion as to the desirability of basing exer- cises for translation on the Attic prose read, and of holding frequent exercises in re-translation. There is, however, great variety of practice : in some schools no exercises in re-translation are given after the first book ; in many schools pupils are required to use text books in which the sentences and longer exercises are based solely on the author's ingenuity and fancy ; and, furthermore, exercises in Greek Composition are neither taught by tiie instructor nor regarded by the pupil as a regular part of the school work but as an unfortu- nate and useless task devised by college teachers and inflicted by coUege entrance requirements. The Conference, therefore, wishes to emphasise the importance of.Greek Composition, and urges that it be a part of each week's work. Each teacher must decide whether a portion of each recitation hour, or a separate hour each week, shall be given to such exercises. HO • GHEKK . V. Geography, History, Etc. The Conference reeommends that in the rcudinii; of the classical texts, the (Jeography, History, Mythology, and Anticjuities connected with the svibject matter read, receive proper attention. VI. Sight Examinations. The Conference recommends that pupils be prepared for an entrance examination in reading simple Attic prose at sight, and the Conference suggests that as a substitute for an examination on a jiresoribed portion of Homer, an examination in Homer at sight, with questions on the passage set for examination, may be given. The Confereuce regrets that so few colleges through their entrance examinations encourage "reading at sight" in schools. Twenty-nine colleges only offer or require sight examinations for entrance ; but nine have sight examinations in Homer ; in two sight tests are the only ones required. As school work is little better than college requirements compel, the amount of sight reading done in schools can be readily estimated. In most schools, it is true, spasmodic exer- cises are held, but comparatively few schools seem to regard " sight work" as an exercise to be constantly practised. It is quite evident that pupils who have read only 1500 verses of Homer are not prepared for examination ii} Homer at sight ; but those who have studied 2500 or 3000 verses, and have been steadily trained in sight reading, should be allowed to take a sight examina- tion in place of an examination on a prescribed portion of the text, or as a supplement to it. (In recommending entrance examinations at sight and thereby the practice of sight reading in schools, the Conference wishes to avoid an overestimate of the value of such exercise, and does not urge its practice to the exclusion of carefully prepared work. A fuller state- ment of the views of the Conference on this subject will be found under section X.) VII. Division of Entrance Examinations. The Conference recommends that tlie preliminary examination for col- lege be upon the essentials of grammar (forms and syntax) and four books of the Anabasis or its equivalent; the tinal examination to be iqjon Attic jirose at sight. Homer, and Greek Composition. The Confereuce does not favor any examination upon grammar apart from questions suggested by the text set for translation, and urges that the questions asked aim to determiue the applicant',? GREEK. 81 knowledge of the regular aud more lommon inflections ap.d construc- tion's. It is recommended that the examination in Greek Composition form part of the final examination, as the Conference believes that practice in translation into Greek should be continued throughout the school course. Since Attic Greek must be the basis of all gram- matical study of Greek in schools, it follows that the reading of Attic prose ought to be continued parallel with the work in Homer aud in connection with the composition exercises. By this means a model for composition is secured by the pupil, and his knowledge of" Attic Greek is increased both by tlic reading aud bj- the comparisons drawn between the Homeric aud Attic dialects. VIII. DiFi'ERKNT Classed oi' Students. The C'oiifereuee recouimeiul.s thai no difference be made iu the tn^atnipiil of Greek for the three r-hisses of students named in the seventh question suggested by the Committee of Ten. Before making any recommendations as to methods of teaching Greek in the preparatorj' course, the Conference adopted the follow- ing statement as a definition of its conception of the purpose of the study of Greek in that course : The suggestions which the Conference has to make eonci-niing methods of instruction in the preparsitorv course are primarily determined b}- its conception of what constitutes tlie distinctive work of this course. This work it conceives to be the teaching of the language of standard Attic prose through instruction in Attic grammar and reading of ,\ttic te\ts, and the awakening of interest in the literature and thouglit of thi' Greeks througli the reading of Homer. IX. IXTRODUCTIJKY WoRK. The Conferi^ncc rccoiumends that the wcirk in (ircck, preceding the reading of connected discourse, aim to secure for the student a nia.Ntcry of the common forms of the language, facibtv in the use of as full a vocabu- lary as possible, and an acquaintance witli the simpler principles of syntax. In the opinion of the Conference a thorough knowledge of the ordi- nary forms of Greek words can best be obtained Ijy the use of .some manual containing the more common paradigms, short and simple sentences for translation from Greek into English and from English into Greek, and also statements of the simpler principles of Greek 6 82 riREEK. syntax. Tlic Conference urges that written as well as oral work be constantly required in the class room that both the eye and the ear may be appealed to in fixing flrml3- in the pupil's mind the forms of the language ; and that in all exercises special attention be paid to correct pronunciation of the Greek. This Conference cannot give its approval to any scheme for imparting a knowledge of Greek inflec- _ tions which contemplates the learning of them from isolated examples as they chance to occur in the connected text of a classical author. It believes that any such attempt involves unnecessary difficulties that can be easily avoided by requiring pupils to memorise together those forms that are closely connected fu form and meaning, as exhibited in the paradigms usually given in text books. The Confer- ence feels that as the time for fixing forms by repetition is limited, a logical and systematic order should be followed in their acquisition ; and while the Conference believes in the use of the reasoning powers and of inductive methods in teaching language, it cannot view with favor any effort to introduce into our schools Greek text books based exclusively on the so-called " Inclucti\e Method."" The Conference cannot urge too strongly that special attention be given to the acquisition of a vocabulary, and suggests that this ma3' best be accomplished by a careful memorising of the vocabularies connected with the exercises and liy a systematic study of groups of allied words. Bj' a judicious selection of "root-words" and the mastery of the meaning of terminations, a vocabularj', adequate to the student's needs at this stage, may be acquired without much difficulty. Thus a necessary foundation for easy and rapid transla- tion will be laid, and the habit — in the opinion of the Conference a very important habit — will be established of associating related words in groups, instead of regarding them as isolated and discon- nected elements of the language. This introductory work in Greek should include also a study of the simpler and more common usages of syntax. While the Con- ference would not have grammatical knowledge considered in any sense as an end in the study of Greek, yet "it does regard such knowledge as an essential means to an end, and therefore urges that it be not neglected during the introductory period of the study. The simpler constructions of the cases of nouns and of the moods and tenses of verbs should be stated in the manival placed in the hands of the pupil. These constructions should be made familiar by repeated reference to them ; but whatever is unusual, exceptional, or abstruse may well be postponed to a later period of the study. In all this work the pupil should be encouraged to draw upon his knowledge of Latin syntax for illustration and comparison. GKEEK. Ki X. Reading, Translation at Sight, and Tkanslaiion Propek. The Conference recommends that intelligent reading of the Greek text in class be regarded as an indisjiensable jsart of the work, and that for this careful preparation on the part of the student be required ; that reading aloud in the class hj the teacher, as well as by the pupil, be employed as a means of training the ear, and of gaining ability to grasp readily the thought of a passage ; that from the outset sight translation go hand in hand with the prepared translation, and that for this purpose the text of the succeeding lesson, or lessons be preferred to that of a separate work ; that there be also some translation from hearing, of both prepared and jmprepared work ; that there be frequent practice in the reading at sight of easy passages -of Greek without translation, and that, in order to be sure that the meaning of the passage is grasped, the pupil be required to state the substance of the j)assage read ; that translation of the Anabasis, or its equivalent, be begun, at latest, in the last half of the first year, idiomatic Englis,h being demanded, and the questions on the text being asked before or after the connected translation of the whole passage, preferably before. Reading of the Greek text is too often neglected in schools with the result that the average student on entering college cannot read a half-page of text intelligently. The reader's attention is so fully absorbed in his effort to pronounce the separate words that he gives little or no thought to the relation of the words in a sentence, or of the sentences in a paragraph. Indeed, it is not too strong a state- ment to say that the average pupil does not associate the reading of a sentence in Greek with the determination of the meaning of the same sentence ; to his mind these are two separate processes, whereas he should regard the reading of the text as a necessary means to the understanding of the passage read. Therefore the Conference urges that reading of the text be constantly practiced bj- both teacher and pupil; that no attempt to translate any Greek " in advance " be made until the passage has beep caref ullj' read ; and that teachers require from their pupils no less intelligent reading of the text than accurate translation of the same. Without underestimating the discipline which is gained from the study of Greek, or disregarding the training in English obtained by careful and studied translation, the Conference conceives that one of the chief objects in the study of any language is to secure for the student the power to appreciate the form and substance of that lan- guage- The facts of a literature can be translated, but the form, the something that makes every translation of Homer or Pante inadequate, cannot be alienated from its proper language. In the opinion of the Conference, therefore, the teaching of Greek from the 84 GREEK. first should aim to give the pupil, so far as possible, the ability to read and understaod simple Greek as lie reads. To obtain this power the student must, first of all, be supplied with a thorough knowledge of the common inflections and sj'ntactical constructions of the language, and, secondly, he must gain skill in using this know- ledge by reading as large amounts of text as possible.. Two exer- cises should be constantly employed : careful preparation of text by the pupil outside the class-room and reading and translation at sight in the class. The first increases the pupil's knowledge of the language and secures to him independence in working, while " sight work" in the class gives him a free opportunity to use the knowledge he has gained, stimulates his interest, and quickens his perceptive faculties, at the same time allowing the instructor to teach the best methods of approach and imparting to the learner a sense of increasing power, — which last seems to the Conference a most important rfesult. As stated above, the Conference believes that reading of the text should precede any ..attempt at translation, and it would have a Clear distinction made between the determination of the meaning of a passage and its translation. If from repeated readings of the text the meaning of the passage in hand is not clear, the pupil should be taught to approach the passage in the order of the original, and to determine its meaning word b}' word by noticing the inflectional end- ings, the force of compounds, and the relation of ideas implied in the position of words and phrases. Only when the meaning of a passage has been fully grasped, should the pupil be allowed to attempt a translation, and tlien idiomatic English should be required. The Conference believes that if translation be kept distinct from the earlier process of ascertaining the meaning of a passage, and if in translation only the best Eng-lish of which the pupil is capable is accepted, the translation dialect, with its injury to the mother-tongue, can be made to disappear. While reading at sight may fix knowledge already gained -and gives skill in using such knowledge, it adds few new facts to the pupil's fund of knowledge. The meanings of words, new constructions and forms must be dwelt upon to be fixed in his memory. Therefore it is recommended that this sight practice be given on the passages which follow the day's lesson, and that the text read thus hastily form part of the succeeding day's work ; by this method the new facts presented during the sight reading can be fixed in the pupil's mind by his own study. As the teacher's main purpose in asking questions on the text is to obtain proof that the pupil understands the passage in hand and is prepared to translate it intelligently, the Conference advises that CiKEEK. X't such questions be asked before translation is begun, and, since notli- ing can be devised to destroy all interest in the subject matter read more thoroughly than the habit of having a lesson translated in small portions of a few lines each, the translations interrupted with questions, with no uninterrupted translation of tlie whole, the Con- ference urges that during some part of each recitation hour a connected translation of the whole lesson be made. XI. Pi;RE. Phillips Academy, A,i- dover. Muss., Secretary. E. W. COY, Principal of the Hughes High School, Cincinnati, 0. A. F. FLEET, Superintendent of the .Vissonri .Military Aco.derny, Mexico, Mo. ASHLEY D. HURT, Head Master of the High School, Tulane Vniversity, Xew Orleans, La. ROBERT P. KEEP. Principal -of the Free Acad- emy, Xorwich, Conn. ABBY LEACH, Professor, Vassar College, Povgh- keepsie, X. V. WILLIAM H. SMILEY', Principal of the High School, Denver, Colo. CHARLES FORSTER SJIITH, Professor, Van- derhilt University, Xashville, Tenn. BEXJ. IDE' WHEELER, Professor, Cornell Uni- versHij, Ithaca, X. Y. ENrxT.lSII. To THE Committee op Ten : — The Conference on the Study of English has the honor to submit the following Report : — The Conference was called to order on Wednesday, December 28th, 1892, at quarter of eleven a.m., by Professor Allen. Principal Thnrber was elected Chairman and Professor Kittredge, Secretary. Tlie Conference remained in session till half past three o'clock Fri- day, December SOth, when it adjourned sive die. Every member was present at the deliberations and .took part in debate. The results embodied in the present Report were arrived at after much discus- sion, and represent in all but a few points of minor importance the unanimous opinion of the Conference. The subjects which the Con- . ference thouglit were included in jts commission are those nsually taught in schools under the names of English Language, English Grammar, Composition, Rhetoric, and English- Literature. Elocution appeared to lie outside of the subjects which the meeting was con- vened to discuss. The main direct objects of the teaching of English in schools seem to be two: (1) to enable tlie pupil to understand the expressed thoughts of others and to give expression to thoughts of his own ; and (2) to cultivate a taste for reading, to give the pupil some acquaintance with good literature, and to furnish him with the means of extending that acquaintance. Incidentally, no doubt, a variety of other ends may be subserved by English study, but such subsidiary interests should never be allowed to encroach on the two main pur- poses just indicated. Further, though ij; may be necessary to consider these main purposes separately in the Report or even to separate them formally in the statement of a programme, yet in practice they should never be dissociated in the mind of the teacher and their mutual dependence should be kept constantly present to the mind of the pupils. The recommendations of the Conference should all be interpreted in accordance with these general principles, which were never lost sight of in its debates. The recommendations of the Conference fall naturally into two divisions: (1) English in schools below the high-school grade, and (''•I English in the high-school. KXGLISFl. 87 I. The Study op English im Schools below the High-School Gradk. If the pupil is to secure control of the language as an instrument for the expression of his thoughts, it is necessar}' (1) that, during the period of life when imitation is the chief motive principle in edu- cation, he should be kept so far as possible away from the influence of bad models and under the influence of good models, and (2) that every thought which he expresses, whether orally or on paper, should be regarded as a proper subject for criticism :is to language. Thus every lesson in geography or physics or mathematics may and should become a 'part of the pupil's training in English. There can be no more appropriate moment for a brief lesson in expression than the moment when the pupil has something which he is trying to. express. If this principle is not regarded, a recitation in history or in botany, for example, may easily undo all that a set exercise in English has accomplished. In order that both teacher and pupil may attach due importance to this incidental instruction in Englisli, the pupil's stand- ing in any subject should depend in part on his use of clear and correct English. In addition to this incidental training, appropriate special instruc- tion in English should form a part of the curriculum from the begin- ning. For convenience this special instruction may be considered under three heads : (a) "language" and composition, {b) formal or systematic grammar, (c) reading, or lessons in literature. A. ^^ Language" and composition. — During the Jirst tivo years at school, children may acquire some fluency of expression by reprodu- cing orally in their own words stories told them by their teachers and by inventing stories about objects and pictures. Not later than the first term of the third school-year children should begin to compose in writing. To assist them in overcoming mechan- ical difficulties (as of punctuation, the use of capitals, etc.), they should be required to copy and to write from dictation and from memory short and easy passages of prose and verse. From the beginning of the third to the end of the sixth school-year, " language- work " should be of three kinds : 1. Oral and written exercises in the correct qmployment of the forms of the so-called " irregular " verbs, of pronominal forms, and of words and phrases frequently misused. 2. Oral and written exercises in the most elementary form of com- position, that is, in the construction of sentences of various kinds. The matter out of which the sentences are to be constructed may, if necessary, be supplied by the teacher ; but the pupil should, from his 88 ENGLISH. earliest years, be encouraged to furnish his own material, expressing his own thoughts in a natural way. The greatest care should be taken to make these exercises practical rather than" technical and to avoid the errors of the old-fashioned routine method of instruction in grammar. 8. The writing of narratives and descriptions. — These exercises should begin with the 'third school-year aud should be continued throughout the course. The subjects assigned should gradually in- crease in difficulty : in the seventh and eighth school-years, if not earlier, they may often be suggested by the pupil's observation or personal experience. The paraphrasing of poehy is not to be com- mended as an exercise in prose composition : it is often of value to require the pupil to tell or write, in his own words, the story of some narrative poem ; but the reducing of lyric poetry to jjrose is hardly to be defended. Pains sliould be taken, from the outset, to enlarge and improve the child's vocabulary by suggesting to him, for the expres- sion of Jiis thoughts, better words than those he may him&elf have chosen. He should be trained to recognize when a senteDce natur- ally closes, and should be warned against running distinct sentences together. He should also be trained to pevceive the larger divisions of thought which are con\'entionally indicated by paragraphs. The teacher should bear in mind that the necessity of correctness in the formation of sentences and paragraphs is like the necessity of accu- rate addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division in mathe- matical work, and that composition proper, — the grouping of sentences and paragraphs, — as well as development of a central idea, should never be taught until this basis of correct sentences is attained. Spelling should be learned incidentally, in connection with every subject studied, and not from a spelling-book. Compositions and all other written exercises should receive careful and appropriate criticism, and the staff of instructors should be large enough to protect every teacher from an excess of this peculiarly exacting and fatiguing work. B. Formal or systematic grammar. — Not earlier than the thirteenth year of the pupil's age the study of formal grammar, with drill in fundamental analysis, may be taken up. It should not be pursued as a separate study longer than is necessary to familiarize the pupil with the main principles. Probably a single year (not more than three hours a week) will be sufficient. Subsequently, although gram- matical analysis (as an instrument of interpretation and of criticism) may properly accompany reading and the study of composition, it should not be regarded as a separate subject in the curriculum. ENGLTSri. Sit The teaching of formal graiTimav should aim prineipallj- to enable the pupil (1) to recogDize the parts of speech, and (2) to analyze sentences both as to structure and as to syntax. Routine parsing should be avoided, and exercises in the correction of false syntax should be sparingly resorted to. The study of word-analysis (et3-mologj') , — including the subjects of root-words, prefixes, and terminations — should not form a sepa- rate subject in the grammar-school conrse. All instruction in these matters should be incidental. With regard to the study of formal grammar the Conference wishes to lay stress on three points : (1) a student may be taught to speak and write good English without receiving unj' special instruction in formal grammar ;- (2) the study of formal grammar is valuable as training in thought, but has only an indirect bearing on the art of writing and speaking ; and (3) the teaching of formal grammar should be as far as possible incidental and should be brought into close connection with the pupil's work in reading and composition. These principles explain the considerable reduction recommended by the Conference in the amount of time allowed to this stud}'. C. Reading, or Lessons in Literature. — Eeading-books should be of a literary character and should not attempt to teach phj-sical science or natural history. They should make verj' sparing use of sentimental poetry. From the beginning of the third year at school, the pupil should be required to supplement his regular reading-book with other reading- matter of a distinctly literary kind. At tlie beginning of the seventh, school-year the reading-book may be discarded, and the pupil should henceforth read literature, — prose and narrative poetry in about equal parts. Complete works should usually be studied. When extracts must be resorted to, these should be long enough to possess a unity of their own and to serve as a fair specimen of an author's style and method. Children should be taught to read distinctly and with expression, but without exaggeration or mannerisms. They should be taught to comprehend the subject-matter as a whole and to grasp the significance of parts, as well as to discover and appreciate beauties of thouglit and expression. Due attention should be paid to what are sometimes thoughtlessly regarded as points of pedantic detail, such as the elucidation of involved sentences, the expansion of metaphors into similes and the compression of similes into meta- phors, the tracing of historical and other references, and a study of the denotation and connotation of single words. Such details are necessary if the pupil is to be brought to anything but the vaguest understanding of what he reads, and there is no danger that an intel- 90 KN«LISII. ligent teacher will allow himself to be dominated by them- It should not b« forgotten that in these early years of his training the pupil is forming habits of reading and of thought which will either aid him for the rest of his life, or of which he will by-and-by have to cure himself with painful effort. In the opinion of the Conference it is expedient that the English work during the last two j-cars of the grammar-school course (includ- ing formal grammar, reading, and composition) should be in the hands of a special teacher or teachers. But the appointment of such teacher or teachers siiould not be held to excuse the instructors in other subjects from the oversight of the English of their pupils. It is onlj' bj' cordial cooperation in all departments that satisfactory results in this direction can be obtained. To the lack of such joint effort the present unsatisfactory condition of English study in the schools and colleges may be in great part ascribed. II. The Study of English in the High-School. The Conference is of opinion that the study of English should be pursued in the high-school for five hours a week during the entire course of four years. This would make the total amount of available time not far from eight hundred hours (or periods^) . The study of literature and training in the expression of thought,' taken together, are the fundamental elements in any proper high- school course in English, and demand not merely the largest share of time and attention but continuous and concurrent treatment through- out the four years. The Conference therefore recommends the assignment of three hours a week for four years (ol- 480 hours in the total) to the study of literature, and the assignment of two hours a week for the first two years, and one hour a week for the last two years (or 240 hours in the total) to training in composition. By the study of literature the Conference means the study of the works of good authors, net the study of a manual of literary history. Rhetoric, during the earlier part of the high-school course, connects itself directly, on the one hand, with the study of literature, furnish- ing the student with apparatus for analysis and criticism, and, on the other hand, with practice in composition, acquainting the student, with principles and maxims relating to effective discourse. For this earlier stage, therefore, extending through the first two years, no assignment of hours to rhetoric has been deemed advisable, and an assignment of one hour a wedv in the third year (a total of 40 hours) , is thought sufficient for any systematic view of rhetoric -that should be attempted in the high school. It will be observed, however, that E>(;Lisif. 91 if the teacher has borne in mind the practical uses of rhetoric in the first two 3'ears, he will have convcj'ed tiie essentials of the art (with or without references to a text-boolc) before the sj'stematic view begins, so that- this view will be a kind of codification of prinicples ah-eady applied in practice. The history of English literature should be taught incidentallj^, in connection with the pupil's study of particular authors and works ; the mechanical use of "'manuals of literature" should be avoided, and the committing to meniorj' of names and dates should. not be mistaken for culture. In the .fourth j'ear, however, an attempt may be made, by means of lectures or otherwise, to give the pupil a view of our literature as a whole and to acquaint him with the relations between periods. This instruction should accompany, — not super- sede, — a chronologically aiTanged sequence of authore. In connec- tion with it a syllabus or brief primer may be used. To the subject of Historical and Systematic (or Formal) Grammar, one hour a week in the fourth year (a total of 40 hours) may be assigned. In the present state of text-books and teachers, the stud}- of tlie History of English Language cannot, perhaps, be generally or even extensively introduced into the high schools. It is the opinion of the Conference, however, that certain parts of that study may be profit- ably undertaken during the last 3-ear of the high-school course, and that some sj'stematic knowledge of the historj- of the language is of value to the student who goes no farther than the high school, as well as to the student preparing for college. It is obvious that without a knowledge of Anglo-Saxon and Middle- English nothing can be accomplished hy a study of the history of sound change as exemplified in derivation, word-composition, - and inflections, nor can anj- great good come from an illustration of modern syntax through the sj-ntax of stages of the language with which the, student is unfamiliar ; but, although these important branches of the subject must necessarily be reserved to a later period, it appears evident that certain otiier branches of the study might be pursued to advantage e\en by pupils who have no knowledge either of the earlier stages of English or of any foreign tongue. The Conference has in mind the following topics : — ■ 1. The History and Geography of the English speaking people, so far as these illustrate the development of the English language. ■2. Phonetics. - — Though we do not recommend any study of details in the historical development of English spelling, we think it essential that every high school scholar should possess a clear idea of the general causes which have given English the peculiar value of its vowe! symbols, and made them essentially different from the system 9 '2 ENGLISH. of other languages. Siicli study would prevent, for example, acquies- cencu ill the comniou error of regarding the vowels in rid and ride as the short and the long of the same sound. 3. Word-Composilion. — The historical study of inflections and of word-composition should not be included in this scheme. But some elementary treatment of prefixes and suffixes and of word-composition may come in incidentallj'. The purpose of including it, however, is rather to illustrate principles of historical development than to acquaint the pupil with a body of details. 4. Elements of the English Vocabulary, — This branch of English study is alreadj- pursued in some secondary schools as an independent- subject, with the aid, perhaps, of suqh a book as Trench's "On the Study of Words " ; but the view of the Conference is that it would be better to include it as a part of a systematic treatment of the history of the language. The extent to which the stud}' of the sources of English words can be carried in any school or class will depend on the acquaintance the pupils possess with Latin, French, and German. This subject should be so pursued as to illustrate tlie political, social, intellectual, and religious development of the English race ; and the knowledge thus obtained will be profitable to youth only in proper- , tion as it links itself with other knowledge derived from their general reading or from their other school work. ;"). Changes in the meaning of words. — A systematic study of development in the meaning of words should not come in as a distinct part of this plan. Such study should however, of course, be included incidentally in the interpretation of literature. The teacher must of course be familiar with the more important facts of historical Englisji gi-ammar, and be able to use them in con- nection with the study of any branch of English, whenever they serve to explain difficulties or to fix grammatical principles. In addition to those parts of historical grammar that have been more specifically mentioned above, the following may be noted, as illustrations of the •topics of this subject that may receive attention in high schools, so far as the advancement of the pupils iii general linguistic study rend- ers it advisable, and so far as time and opportunity can be found "for snch work: —dialects and literary language, authority and usage, decay of inflections. It is the opinion of the Conference that the best results in the teaching of EngUsh in high schools cannot be secured without the aid given by the study of some other language, and that Latin and German, by reason of their fuller inflectional system are especially suited to this end. ENGLISH. 9'T The Conference wishes also lo emphasize in the case of high-schools what has been aJrSady said with regard to schools of lower grade : that every teacher, whatever his department, should feel responsible for the use of good English on the part of his pupils. The question of requirements for admission to college was carefully considered by the Conference and a definite scheme of examinations devised for recommendation to American colleges. These recom- mendations concern all scholars in high-schools, for the Conference is of opinion that the high-school course in English should be identical for students who intend to go to college or to a scientific school, and for those who do not, and that the requirements in English for admis- sion to college or to a scientific school should be so adjusted as jiot to contravene this principle. The practice now too prevalent of main- tainhig one course in English for pupils who intend to go to college, another for candidates for admission to a scientific or technical school, and a third for pupils whose schooling ends with their graduation from the high-school, cannot be defended on any reasonable grounds. There is no good reason why one of these three classes of students should receive a training in their mother tongue different either in kind or in amount from that received bj' eitlier of the other two classes. The Conference is also convinced that the cause of secondary education would be materially helped if the requirements for admission to college, in English as in other subject^, were to be made uniform in kind throughout the countrj'. Uniformity in amount is certainly not practicable and probablj' not desirable. The specific recommendations of the Conference as to English requirements for admissiop to colleges and scientific schools are the following : — 1. That the reading of certain masterpieces of Einglish literature, not fewer in number than those at present assigned bj' the Commission of New England Colleges, should be required. 2. Each of these should be so far as possible representative of some period, tendency, or type of literature, in order that alternative questions like those suggested in § 5 (below) may be provided. The whole number of these works selected for any year should represent with as few gaps as possible the course of English literature from thfe Elizabethan period to the present time. 3. Of these books a considerable number should be of a kind to be read bj' the student cursorily and by himself. A limited number, however, may be read in the class-room under the immediate direction of the teacher. 4. In connection with the reading of ,all these required books the teacher should encourage parallel or subsidiary reading and tlie '.)4 lONflLISll. iiivestigatiou of pertinent quustions in litenii'y history and criticism. Tlie faitlifulness with which such auxiliary work is 'carried on should be constantly tested by means of written and oral reports aind class- room discussion, and the same tests should be applied to the required books read cursorily (see § 3). 5. The Conference doubts the wisdom of requiring, for admission to college, set essays (e. g., on the books prescribed, as above, §1), — essays whose chief purpose is to test the pupil's ability to write English. It believes that there are serious theoretical and practical objections to estimating a student's power to write a language on the basis of a theme composed not for the sake of expounding something that he knows or thinks, Isut merely for the sake of showing his ability to write. Therefore, so long as the formal essay remains a part of the admis- sion examination, it is recomrpended that questions on topics of literary history or criticism, or on passages cited from prescribed works, be set as an alternative. These topics and passages should be such as (1) to bring out the knowledge of the pupil with regard to the subjepts suggested in § 4, and (2) to test his ability to methodize his knowledge and to write clearly and concisely. The questions set should be so framed as to require answers of some length.'' 6. The Conference is of opinion that in the hands of any but a highly intelligent teacher exercises in the correction of bad English may do more harm than good. And therefore the Conference believes that the correction of specimens of bad English should not form a considerable part of the admission examination,^ though it is not prepared to recommend the exclusion of such specimens. Care should be taken that those selected are really offences against good English (not merclj- against good style) and, further, that they are such offences as experience has shown young writers are prone to commit. Obscure sentences and nonsensical or puzzling combina- tions of words should be avoided. 7. The admission of a student to college so far as English is con- cerned, should -be made to depeud'largely on his ability to write Eng- lish as shown in his examination-books on other subjects (such as history). If the candidate's translations from foreign languages are used for this purpose, the examiner should remember that vagheness and absurdity in such translations often result from ignorance of the foreign language rather than from incompetent knowledge of one's mother tongue, and that, further, the art of translation is a very difficult art even to a writer who is at home in both the languages ' Not k'ss than a page of tlic exaniinatidii-book. ° Say not more tlian one-flftli. KMilJMI. '•'■> couceined. A student wlio in general writes well enough ma^", from eitlier or both of these causes, appear to very poor advantage in an exercise in translation. 8. Though it is clear that the power to write a language caii be ob- tained ouly bj- unremitting practice, yet, in the opinion of the Con- ference, such practice may properly be accompanied and illustrated by a course iii elementarj' rhetoric. This course should include not only the principles of clearness, force, and good taste, but the princi- ples of the arrangement of clauses in the sentence and of sentences in the paragraph. The teacher should bear in mind tiiat an}- body of written English, of whatever length, is an organic unit, with prin- ciples that apply as well to the arrangement of the minor elements as to the grouping of the larger divisions of essay or book. Especial care should be taken that rhetoric is not studied by itself or for its own sake. Its connection with the pupil's actual written or spoken exercises should be kept constantly in view. The Conference there- fore does not contemplate an examination in formal rhetoric as a requirement for admission to college. 9. There should be no division of the admission examination in English. When a college or scientific school allows a division of admission requirements into "preliminary" and "final," English should be a " final" subject. 10. The relative importance of the English language and literature as a subject among other requirements for admission to college is about one in six ; but the Conference feels strongh- that no student should be admitted to college who shows in his English examination and in his other examinations (as in § 7) that he is verj' deficient in ability to write good English. Jlav 13th, 1893. SA.MUEL THURBEE, Mastei- of the Girls' High School, Boston, Mass., Chairman. GEORGE LYM.4>' KITTREDGE, Professor, Har- vard University, Cambridge, Mass.. Secretary. EDW. A. ALLEN, Professor, University of Missouri. Columbia, Mo. F. A. BARBOUR, Principal Michigan State Xormal School, Ypsilanti. Mich. F. A. BLACKBUKX, Professor, University of Chicago, Chicago, III. C. B. BRADLEY, Professor, University of Cali- fornia, Berkeley, Cal. FRANCIS B. GUMMERE, Professor, Haverford College, Pa. EDW.ARD E. HALE, JR., Professor, University of Iowa, loua City, la. CHARLES L. L(l(:)S. JR.. High School.JMyton, 0. \VM. H. MAXWELL, Superintendent of Schools, , Brooklyn, X. Y. OTHER MODERN LANGUAGES. . Cajibkidgk, March 11, 1893. To THE Committee of Ten : Gentlemen, — The Conference on Modern Languages, which met in Washington on" the 28th. 29th, and 30th of December, 1892, submits the following report. C. H. GuANDGENT, Chairman. A. Time uf Introduction. 1. Wherever thoroughly competent teachers can be secured, we are of the opinion that there should be introduced into the grammar schools an elective course in German or French, open to all pupils who have arrived at the fourth year from the end." It is supposed that the average bo}' or girl -will reach this stage at the age of ten. We raalce the above recommendation, not with a view to separating, at such an early period, the scholars who are lilcely to enter a high school or college from those who are to receive only elementary in- struction, but in the firm belief that the educational effects of modern language study will be of immense benefit to all who are able to pursue it under proper guidance. It will train their memory and develop their sense of accurac}' ; it will quiclcen and strengthen their reasoning powers by offering them, at every step, problems that must be immediately solved by the correct application of the results of their own observation ; it will help .them to understand the structure of the English sentence and the real meaning of English words ; it will broaden their minds by revealing to them modes of thought and expression different from those to which they have been accustomed. ' The study of Latin appears, it is true, to present these same ad- \antages ; but living languages seem to, us better adapted to grammar school work, both on account of the greater ease with which they can be taught and learned, and because of their closer relation to the interests, and ideas of to-day. 2. We believe that children should, if possible^ begin their study of G-erman or French by the time they are ten years old. At that age their perceptions are acute, their vocal organs are still flexible, and they are comparatively free from that morbid fear of ridicule which impedes their progress in later years ; consequently tliey are able to acquire a tolerably correct pronunciation and make some headway in the practical use of the language. Moreover, their interest is Sasily kindled, and they are -eager to imbibe the life and OTHER 5IODERN LANGUAGES. 97 spirit of a foreign tougue. We do uot on the other iiaud, recouiinend the introduction of German or French earlier than the fifth school year, because we fear that if it were begun sooner, it would necessa- rily be broken off before the end of the grammar school course ; and any interruption of the modern language study should, in our opinion, , be carefully avoided. 3. In places whero it is as yet impossible, through lack of teachers or of money, to include a modern language in the grammar school curriculum, we believe that French or German should form, from the very first, a part of the high school course ; it is essential that pupils should study at least one language long enough to reach some degree of maturity in it. If, however, classes are obliged, for any reason!, to begin Latin or Greek on entering the secondar}- school, we recom- mend that the study of French or German be postponed a twelve- month ; for we regard as entirely inexpedient the introduction of two foreign languages in the same year. When a minimum of French or German is offered as a supplement to a curriculum comprising two other foreign languages, the last language should be taken up in the third year. B. Number of Lessons per Week. 4. In the grammar grade we recommend that during the first year five recitation periods per week be given to the modern language ; during the second, at least four ; and during each of the other two years, at least three. To be successful, the study of a new language should present a sufficient number of weekly exercises to .enlist and hold the full interest of the pupils. In the case of j'oung children, especially, it is found that more is accomplished by short but frequent lessons than by longer ones at greater intervals. 5. For the high school wc make the following recommendations, which refer, of course, onl}- to modern languages : (aj the first foj'eign language studied should be taken up at once and carried on,, with four recitations a week, through all four years ; (b) the second foreign language studied — whether the first be ancient or modern — should be begun the second year and continued, with four exercises per week, through the rest of the course ; (c) the third foreign lan- guage studied — whatever be the natinv of the other two — should be introduced in Uie third ye;ir and pursued, with three les5.ons weekly, during the last two years. In the third casr the suggestion of , three hours a week for two j'ears, rather than five recitations weekly for one year-, is made with a view to avoiding too much pressure during the last year, when the pupil is most likely to be overworked, and a new subject is in greatest danger of being slighted ; under 7 l8t. 2d. 3d. 4i/t. 4 i i 4 4 4 4 3 3 98 OTHEK MODERN LANGUAGES. different circumstances five exercises per week for one year might, in our opinion, give somewhat better results than three hours weekly for two. 6. It will be seen that we take for granted a high school course of ' four years and a primary and "grammar school course extending ovei' at least eight j-ears. The following table shows at a glance the pro- posed number of modern language recitations per week during the different years mentioned in the preceding paragraphs : • — • School Ybab; 1st. 3J. 3d. 4th. 6th. eih. 7lh. Sth. Elementary Schools — First Language : ' 5 4 3 3 . ScHoofj Year : |- Maximum { First Language : Seooni.akv Schools i; •■ Becon.l Language i Minimum, — Third Language : In general the two maximum courses in secondary schools are sup- posed to cover the same ground : it is thought that the facility gained b}- the previous study of another language will compensate for the ' loss of one year. But where the elementary schools offer a German or a French course, we intend that the first language studied in the high school shall be the same one that was begun in the grammar grade ; and in this case the first maximum will comprise more than the second. G. CouE'SB OF Study. 7. According to our best judgment, all pupils of the same intelli- gence and lhe":same degree of maturity should be instructed alike, no matter whether thej- are subsequentl)' to enter a college or scien- tific school, or intend to pursue their studies no further. I. Grammar Schools. 8. It is expected that during the first two years the lessons will consist of interesting but systematic oral exercises, combined with the use of pictures and the reading of very elementary texts. , The mass of knowledge thus acquired will, in the other two years, be classified, extended, and fixed in the memory by means of a larger amount of reading and a more formal study of grammatical principles. It is hoped, however, that oral work will not be neglected during any part of the course. The objects to be attained in these four years are : (a) a good pronunciation ; •(&) ability to understand very' easy (xerman or French when it is spoken ; (c) ability to read, without painful effort, simple stories in the foreign language ; {d) ability to construct short German or French sentences, applying the elementary OTHER MODERN LANGUAGES. 99 rules of grainmar. It is the opinion of the Conference that such a course as we have outlined ivould, iu the hands of a competent teacher, produce results of permanent value, whether the study be considered as a meaus of mental training or as a foundation for further work in the same line. II. High Schools. 0. In the following paragraphs the term "elementary" will be applied to the first half of the maximum courses and to the entire minimum course (see § 6) ; the second half of the maximum courses will be called "advanced." The numbers of pages specified beloir are intended to include not only prepared work but all sight reading done in the class. Our recommendations are practical!}' the same as those of the Commission of Colleges iu New England on Admission Examinations. "V\'e are in favor of a course of study that will pro- duce the following results : — 10. In Elementary German. — (a) Familiarity with the rudiments of grammar, and especially with these topics : the declension of arti- cles, adjectives, pronouns, and such nouns as are readily classified ; the conjugation of weak and of the more usual strong verbs; the com- moner prepositions ; the simpler uses of the modal auxiliaries ; the elementary rules of syntax and word order. (&) Abilitj' to translate at sight a passage of easy prose containing no rare words. It is believed that the requisite facilitj' can be acquired by reading not less than two hundred duodecimo pages of simple German, (c) Abilit}- to pronounce German and to recognize German words and easy sentences when they are uttered. * 11. In Advanced German. — (a) Proficienc}' iu more advanced grammar. In addition to a thorough knowledge of accidence, of the elements of word-formation, and of the principal values of prepo- sitions and conjunctions, the scholars must be familiar with the essentials of German Syntax, and particularly with the uses of modal auxiliaries and the subjunctive and infinitive modes. (6) Abilitj- to translate ordinary German. It is thought that pupils can acquire this ability by reading, in all, not less than seven hundred duodecimo pages, (c) Ability to write in German a paragraph upon an assigned subject chosen from the works studied in class, (d) Ability to follow a recitation conducted *in German and to answer in that language questions asked by the instructor. 12. In Elementary French. — (a) Familiarity with the rudiments of grammar, and especially with these topics : the conjugation of regular and the more usual irregular verbs, such as dire, faire, and the classes represented by ouvrir, dorwir, connaltre, conduire, and 100 OTHER MODERN LANGUAGESr craindre ; the forms and positions of personal pionouns ; the use of other pronouns and pronominal adjectives; the inflection of nouns and adjectives for 'gender and number, excepting rare cases ; the partitive constructions. (6) Ability to translate simple prose at sight. It is believed that the requisite facility can be acquired by reading not less than four hundred duodecimo pages from at least three dissimilar works. (o) Ability to j^ronounce French and to recognize French words and easy sentences when they are uttered. .13. In Advanced French. — (a) Proficiency in more advanced grammar. In addition to a thorough knowledge of accidence and of the values of prepositious and conjunctions, the scholars must be familiar with the essentials of French syntax — especially, the use of modes and tenses — and with the more frequently recurring idiomatic phrases. (6) Ability to translate standard French. It is thought that pupils can acquire this ability b3' reading, in all, not less than one thousand duodecimo pages, (c) Ability to write in French a paragraph upon an assigned subject chosen froni the works studied in class, (d) Ability to follow a recitation conducted in French and to answer in that language questions asked by the instructor. 14. The ability to translate at sight expected in each grade of French is greater than that )-equired in the corresponding grade of German. The texts used in the elementary courses should consist of ordinary nineteenth centurj^ prose, judiciously varied with such short pieces of poetrj' as the teacher may select. In the advanced courses all the reading matter should be of high literarj value. The study of classical works should be reserved until the pupil can read with ease ^svery-day modem prose. If, however, the language has been taken up in the grammar school, the high school standard can be considerably raised, and some classical authors should be introduced at an early stage. D. Method of Instruction. 15. The" following recommendations are borrowed, in the main, from "the Synopsis of French and Gernians Instruction for '1890 in the high schools of Boston, Mass. : — 16. In modern language courses the efforts of teachers are naturally directed mainly toward enabling pupils to translate French and Ger- man at sight, and, ultimately, to read these languages without the in- terposition of English. In order to gain the necessary vocabulary, a great deal of ground must be covered : reading must, therefore, be rapid. A mistaken idea of" thoroughness" may cause the waste of much valuable time. Sight translation should begin at the very out- OTFIKU MODKKN J.ANdlAfiES. 101 set of the flisl year's course, and should always form an important part of the work ; it should proceed as brisklj' as possible, the teaciier lifting beginners over hard places, and showing them how to find their own way through the rest. All passages of an abstruse or technical nature should be skipped, or translated by the instructor: not a moment should be lost in contending with difficulties that have no necessary connection with the language. Frequent reviews of reading-matter are not to be recommended : the students' time can nearly alwaj's be spent much more profitably on new texts, which have the advantage of stimulating fresh interest and of enlarging the vocabularj'. As long as English versions are made, teachers should insist upon idiomatic English. Pupils often think that their foreign author is " sill}' : " this opinion is generally due to the fact that they see him only through the medium of their own stilted or meaningless prose. Every endeavor should be made to interest scholars in the subject-matter, to make them regard their text-books as literature, not as language-mills ; if a story or play moves in an unfamiliar sphere, the surroundings (including the influence of foreign customs and ideas) should be briefly but intelligibly explained beforehand ; references to things unknown to the class should be made clear ; the beginnings and ends of lessons should coincide with natural breaks in the narrative. ] 7. The chief object of our modern language courses is, as has been said, the ability to read French and German ; but to do this reading intelligently, the student must know more than the definitions of the words he sees ; he must be able to imagine the phrases coming ^ from the lips of a Frenchman or a German — he must know how they^ sound to a native hearer, and how thej- put themselves together in the mind of a native speaker. Something that approaches this knowledge can be acquired by practice in pronunciation, conversation, and composition. The translation into the foreign language of carefuUj- graded sentences, based on the texts read, should be carried on from the very beginning ; and as early as possible connected passages should be used, in order to cultivate good habits in the choice of connectives and the construction of sentences. Aside from set con- versational exereises, the foreign language should be used as much as possible in the class-room. In the first j'car the pupil can catch bj' ear the names of familiar things and many common phrases ; during the second, he ought to form sentences himself ; and in the third the recitations should, if the instructor has,a practical command of French or German, be conducted mainly in that language. In teaching foreign sounds great care must be taken lest the scholar confirm him- self in bad habits : uncorrected pronouncing is as bad as none. As 102 OTHER MODERN LANGUAGES. often as may be, the beginners should speak the sentences immedi- atelj- after the teacher ; a ver}' little careful practice of this kind will do more good than any amount of original pronunciation by the pupil. The reading aloud of the French or German text should, in the lower classes, follow rather than precede the translation ; otherwise it will be done blindlj'. 18. A thorough acquaintance with the leading facts of grammar is, of course, a necessary element in the acquisition of a foreign tongue. Grammatical abstractions should, however, not be forced upon the pupil too early. Difficulties can best bq overcome by taking them one at a time. In studying language the three enemies that the novice must encounter are pronunciation and spelling, vocabulary, and grammar: singly they can be mastered; united they are likely to prove too strong. High school teachers are, therefore, advised, during the first third of the beginners' 3'ear, to devote the recitation hour mainly to sight reading, calling attention to the most important points of grammar as they occur. For his prepared lessons the scholar would meanwhile be learning by heart the inflections of the language, and repeating the translations made in the class. The rules of grammar and the exercises illustrating them should not be formally studied until the pupil has, by some three months' reading, gained a little insight into hi^ French or German. Grammar exercises consisting of German or French sentences to be translated into Eng- lish are to be done with the books cldsed, the scholar repeating the original sentence after the teacher, and then turning it into English. 19. In recommending the above .course, we do not wish to be understood as implying disapproval of the so-called " natural method," which has, under favorable conditions, been pursued with marked success by teachers peculiarly adapted to that kind of instraction. "We do not believe, however, that such methods can Jse generally applied. E. College Requikements. 20. It is our opinion that college requirements for admission should coincide with the high school requirements for graduation, as de- scribed in §§ 10-13. If the college examination is. divided, we re- commend that the preliminary test cover our elementary, and the final our advanced course. 21. An examination in elementary French or German ought, in our judgment, to consist of : (a) the translation at sight of a passage of ordinary difficulty from the foreign language into English ; and (6) the turning into French or German of simple English sentences immediately illustrative of the first principles of grammar, the vocab- OTHER irODERX LAXGIAGES. lOo iilarv of these sentences to be taken, as far as possible, from the foreign text set for translation. 22. As a test in advanced French or German we suggest : (a) the translation at sight of a passage of high literary quality from the foreign language into English ; and (6) the turning into French or German of a connected passage of 'simple English prose. F. Spanish. 23. The recommendations we have made for French and German apply also to Spanish and to any other modern language that maj- be introduced into high or grammar schools. G. Prepabatiox of Teachers. 24. The worst obstacle to the progress of modern langu^e studj' is the lack of properly equipped instructors. There seems to be at present no institution where persons intending to teach German. French, or Spanish in our elementarj- or secondary schools can I'e- ceive the special preparation they need. It is the sense of the Con- ference that universities, states, or cities should provide opportunities for such training. CHAJRLES H. GRXSTiG^IsT: , Director of Modern Language Instruction in the Public SchoolSy Boston, Mass., Chairman. WILLIAJI T. PECK, Principal of Latin School, Providence, R. /., Secretary. JOSEPH L. ARJISTROXG, Professor, Trinitij College, Durham, -V. C. T. B. BEOXSON. Lawrenceville School, Lawrence- ville, X. J. ALPHOXSE X. VAX DAELL, Professor, Massa- chusetts Institute of Technology, Boston, Mass. CHARLES HARRIS. Professor. Oberlin College, Oberlin, Ohio. SYLVESTER PRIMER, Professor, University of Texas, Austin, Texas. JOHN J. SCHOBIX^GER, Principal of Harvard School, 2101 Indiana, Avenue, Chicago, III. I. H. B. SPIERS, William Penn Charter School, 8 South 12th Street, Philadelphia, Pa. WALTER D. TOY, Professor, University of Xo)ih Carolina, Chapel Hill, N. C. MATHEMATICS. March, 1B93. To President Charles W. Eoot, Chairman Committee of Ten, Nationai, Council op Education : — Sir, — The undersigned, having been appointed by your Committee to hold a Conference on the subject of secondary instruction in Mathe- matics, have the honor to report that such Conference was held on the 28th, 29th, and 30th of December, 1892, in Cambridge, Mass. On mapping out its work, the Conference found that the general subject of secondary mathematics might be convenienth' considered under four different heads. It is deemed advisable to preface the separate reports on each of these heads with a general statement of the conclusions reached bj' the Conference. The following five reports are , therefore submitted: I. General statement of conclusions. II. Special report on theteaching of arithmetic. III. Sjiecial report on the teaching of concrete geometry. IV. Special report on the teaching of algebra. V. Speci.al report on the teaching of form.il geometry. Very respectfully, SIMON NEWCOMB, Professor, Johns Hopkins UniuersUy, Baltimore, Md., Chairman. WILLIAM E. BYERLY, Professor, Harvard University, Cambridge, Mass., Vice Chairman.. ARTHUR H. CUTLER, Principal of a Private School for Boys, 20 East 50th Street, New York City, Secretary. FLORIAN CAJORI, Professor, Colorado College, Colorado Springs, Colo. HENRY B. FINE, Professor, College of New Jersey ^ Princeton, N. J. W. A. GREESON, Principal of the High School, Qrand Rapids, Mich. ANDREW INGRAHAM, Swain Free School, New Bedford, Mass. GEORGE D. OLDS, Professor, Amherst College, Amherst, Mass. JAMES L. PATTERSON, iawmce««e School, Lawrenceviile, N. J. T. H. SAFFORD, Professor, Williams College, William,.'itown . Mass. MATHEMATICS. 105 I. General Statement of Conclusions. The Conference was, from the beginning of its delib«rations, unani- mously of opinion that a radical change in the teaching of arithmetic ■was necessarj'. Referring to the special report on that subject for a statement of the reasons on which its conclusion is based, the confer- ence recommends that the course in arithmetic be at the same time abridged , and enriched ; abridged by omitting entirely those subjects which perplex and exhaust the pupil without affording any really valuable mental discipline, and enriched by a greater number of exercises in simple calculation and in the solution of concrete problems. Among the subjects which should be curtailed, or entirely omitted, are compound proportion, cube root, abstract mensuration, obsolete denominate quantities, and the greater part of commercial arithmetic. Percentage shoulcT be rigidlj"^ reduced to the needs of actual life. In such subjects as profit and loss, bank discount, and simple and com- pound interest, examples not easily made intelligible to the pupil should be omitted. Such complications as result from fractional periods of time in compound interest' are useless and undesirable. The metric system should be taught in applications to actual measure- ments to be executed by the pupil himself; the measures and weights being actually shown to, and handled by, the pupil. This system finds its proper application in the course which the Conference recom- mends in concrete geometry. The method of teaching should be throughout objective, and such as to call into exercise the pupil's mental activity. The text-books should be subordinate to the living teacher. The illustrations and problems should, so far as possible, be drawn from familiar objects ; and the scholar himself should be encouraged to devise as many as he can. So far as possible, rules should be derived inductively, instead of being stated dogmatically. On this system the rules will come at the end, rather than at the beginning, of a subject. The Conference at the same time insists upon the importance of practice in quick and accurate reckoning. The scholar should be thoroughly trained in performing correctly and rapidly the four fundamental operations with integers, vulgar fractions and decimals. The course in arithmetic thus mapped out should begin about the age of six years, and be completed at the end of the grammar school course, say about the thirteenth year of age. The conference does not feel competent to decide how many hours a week should be devoted to it, and therefore leaves this question to teachers and other school authorities. lOf) MATHEMATICS. The second recommendation of the Conference is that a course of instruction in concrete geometry, with numerous exercises, be intro- duced into the gj-ammar scliool. The object of this course would be to familiarize the pupil with the facts of plane and solid geometry- ,- and with those geometrical conceptions to be subsequently employed in abstract reasoning. During the early years the instruction might be given informally, in connection with drawing, and without a separate appointment in the school calendar ; after the age of ten years, one hour per week should be devoted to it. While the systematic study of algebra should not begin until the completion of the course in arithmetic, the Conference deems it necessary that some familiarity with algebraic expressions and sj'm- bols, including the methods of solving simple equations, should be acquired in connection with the course in arithmetic. From the age of fourteen', systematic algebra should be 'commenced, and should be studied for five hours a week during the first year, aKid for about two hours and a half a week during the two years next succeeding. The Conference is of opinion that the subject of reckoning in algebra should receive more attention than it actually does, and that the same skill and accuracy should be required in dealing with literal as witli numerical coefficients and exponents. It gtrongly urges that when, as must sometimes be the case, the scholar has occasion to learn and use propositions before he is prepared to understand their rigorous demonstration, he should be convinced of their truth by abundant concrete illustrations and examples, instead of being allowed to accept them as empirical conclusions, or to found them on demonstrations that lack rigor. The Conference believes that the study of demonstrative geometry should begin at the end of the first year's study of algebra, and -be carried on by the side of algebra for the next two years, occupying about two hours and a half a week. It believes that it the introduc- tory course in geometry has been well taught, both plane and solid geometry can be mastered at this time. Exercises in constructing demonstrations of theorems in plane geometry will naturally occupy much of the attention of teacher and pupil. The Conference deems it very important that great stress be laid by the teacher upon accuracy of statement and elegance of form in such demonstrations, as well as on clear and rigorous reasoning. ' Special attention should be given to the oral statement of demon- strations. It is very desirable that colleges should supplement their written admission examinations in geometry by oral ones ; and a substantial part of the examination, whether written or oral, should be devoted MATHEMATICS. 107 to testing the ability of the candidate to construct original demon- strations. Finally, the Conference is of opinion that up to the completion of the first year's worli in algebra, the course should be the same, whether the pupils are preparing for college, for scientific schools, or intend their systematic education to end with the high school. In the case of those who do not intend to go to college, but to pursue a business career, the remainder of the term which has been allotted to algebra might well be devoted to book-keeping, and the technical parts of commercial arithmetic. Boj's going to a scientific school might profitably spend a year on trigonometry and some of the higher parts of algebra, after completing the regular course in algebra and geometry. II. Special Eeport i, Exp. 29. Remsen, Exp. 37. Eliot & Storer, p. 25, Exp. 12. 19. Properties of hydrogen. (Inflammability.) Eliot & Storer, p. 27, Exp. 14. Remsen, Exp. 39. Shepard, Art. 36. 20. Combustion of hydrogen, forming wati^r. Cooke, J). 61, Exp. 27. Shepard, p. 40, Art. 40. Eliot & Storer, p. 28, Exp. 15. 21. Decomposition of water Ijj' the electric current. (Lecture Exp.) • Eliot & Storer, p. 16. _ Remsen's Elements, -p. 43, Exp. 34. Shepard, Exp. 22. 22. Preparation of nitric acid. Shepard, I'l ILITICAL l:( l_L\()MV. IBo 10. Resolved, That to Aniericau historj' iu the first group of studies be added the elements of civil government. [Eesolulions 2S, 29 ; Report. §§ 10, !>;.] Programs. 11. Resolced. That the eight-year course be consecutive. \^Resolu- tion 14 ; Report, §§ 10, 10. J 1"-'. Resolced. That the first three years of study be devoted to mythology and biography based on general history and on American history. [Resoluivrn H : Report, §§ 16, SO.] 13. Resolced. That the point at which the program should be divided into two groups be fixed at the beginning of the high school course. \_Resol"t!ons 1-t. 10 ; Report, §§ 0. 10.] 14. Resolved. That the Conference adopt the following as the pro- gram for a proper historical course, [ifepojf, §§ 10, 13, 14, 16. J 1st year. Biography and m3-thology. 2d year. Biography and mythology. 3d year. .American history ; and elements of civil govern- ment. 4th year. Greek and Roman history, with their Oriental con- nections. [At this point tiie pupil would naturallj cuter the high school.] 5th vear. French history. (To be so taught as to elucidate the general movement of mediaeval and modern history.) 6th year. English history. ( To be so taught as to elucidate the general movement of mediaeval and modern history.) 7th year. American historj'. 8th year. A special period, studied in an intensive manner ; and civil government. 15. Resolced, That the Conference frame an alternative six-year program. \_Report. § 17. J 16. Resolced. That the following program be recommended for schools which are not able to adopt the longer program. ^Report, § 17.] l.st year. Biography and mythology. 2d year. Biography and mj'thology. [In the mtei-Fcniiig year or years, if any, lii-tcriciil reading should he pursued a' a part of language ptndy.] 3d j-ear. American history, aud civil government. [At this point the pupil would naturally enter the high m-IiooI.] 4th vear. Gireek and Roman historj-, with their Oriental con- nections. 164 insTOin-, civil government, and political economy. 5th year. English historj-. (To be so taught as to elucidate the general movement of mediaeval and modern historj'.) 6th year. American history and civil government. 17. Resolved, That in no year of either course ought the time devoted to these subjects to be less than the equivalent of three forty-minute periods per week throughout the year. {^Report, §§ 7-9.] Methods in History. 18. Resolved, That it is desirable that in all schools history should be taught by teachers who not only have a fondness for historical study but who also have paid special attention to effective methods of imparting instruction. {^Report, §§2.5, 26. J 19. Resolved, That in the first two years oral instruction in biog- raphy and mythology should be supplemented by the reading of simple biographies and mythological stories. \_Report, §§ 16, 17, 30. J 20. Resolved, That after the first two years a suitable text-book or text-books should be used, but only as a basis of fact and sequence of events, to be supplemented by other methods. [^RepoH, §§ 27-29. J 21. Resolved, That pupils should be required to read or learn one other account besides that of the text-book, on each lesson. \^Repoi-t, §§27-29.J 22. Resolved, That the method of study by topics be strongly recommended, as tending to stimulate pupils and to encourage inde- pendence of judgment. [^Report, § 33.] 23. Resolved, That the teaching of history should be intimately connected with the teaching of English: first, by using historical woiks or extracts for reading in schools ; second, liy tlie wilting of English compositions (.)U sulijecls drawn from tlie histoileal lessons ; third, by committing to memory historical poems and other short pieces ; fourth, by reading historical sketches, biographies and novels, outside of class work. \_Report, §§ 30-34. J 24. Resolved, That, so far as practicable, pupils should be encour- aged to avail themselves of their knowledge of ancient and modern languages, in their study ~ of history. \_Report, §§30, 32, 34. J 25. Resolv'ed, That the study of history should be constantly associated with the studj' of topography and political geography, and should be supplemented bj- the studj- of historical and commercial geography, and the drawing of historical maps. \^Report, § 35. J 26. Resolved, That in all practicable waj's an effort should be made to teach the pupils in the later years to discriminate between authorities, and especially between original sources and secoo^ary works. [Report, §§15, 33. J HI^;T0R1-, CIA'IL e:OAEKXMEXT, AXU POLITICAL ECONOMY. 165 27. Eesolved, That a collection of reference hooks, as large as the means of the school allow, should be provided for every school, suita- ble foruse in conuectiou with -all the historical work done in that school. IBejwrt, §§23, 24, 30, 31.] Civil Government and Political Economy. 28. Resolved^ That civil government in the grammar schools should be taught 1)V oral lessons, with the use of collateral text-books, and in connection with United States history aud local geograph}'. ^Report, § 18.J 29. Resolved, That civil government in the high schools should be taught by using a text-book as a basis, with collateral reading and topical work, and observation and instruction in the government of the city, or town, and State in which the pupils live, and with com- parisons between American and foreign systems of government. [Rejxjrt, §18. J 30. Resolved, That no formal instruction in political economy be given in the secondary schools, but that, in connection particularly with United States history, civil government, and commercial geog- raphy, instruction be given in those economic topics, a knowledge of which is essential to the understanding of our economic life and development. [JResohUion 9 ; Report, § 19. J Relations with Colleges. 31. Resolved, That the instruction in history and related subject^ ought to be precisely the same for pupils on their wa}' to college or th& scientific school, as for those who expect to stop at the end of the grammar school, or at the end of the high school. [Report, §§ 2, 11.] 32. Resolved, That the examinations in history for entrance to college ought to be so framed as to require comparisoii and the use of judgment on the pupil's part, rather than the mere use of memory. [Report, §§20, 21. j 33. Resolved, That satisfactory written work done in the prepara- tory school ought to be accepted as a considerable part of the evidence of proficiency required by the college. [Report, §21. J 34. Resolved, That, wliere a division is permitted, the entrance examinations in history ought usuallj' to be a part of the final exami- nations for college rather than of the preliminary examination. [Re- port, §22.] Resolution of Thanks. 35. Resolved, That the Conference extend its thanks to the University of Wisconsin and citizens of ^Madison for their gracious hospitality. [Tleport, S^l.\ ](i(i IIISTOUV, CIVIL (iOVMKNMHNT, AM) r(_)LlTJCAI. KCWNOMY. II. PUKI.TMINAKY. 1 . Basis of the Discussion' in the Conference. Bj' the politeness of the University of Wisconsin and of the citizens of Madison, your Conference was invited to hold its sessions in that city. The convenient rooms of the Seminary of Political Science were placed at our disposal, and the courtesy and hospitalitj' of the people of the city did much to make our stay agreeable and to facilitate the work. We held two prolonged sessions on each of three days. At the lirst session steps were taken to prepare a program, and on the adjournment of the sixth session all the subjects of that program had been examined and our conclusions formulated in definite resolutions. It was our effort to examine the ground thoroughly, to find out what was being done b}' the schools on the subjects assighed, and to suggest an harmonious and comprehensive scheme of historical stud}*. Of the ten members one was a college president ; one the principal of an academy including primary as well as secondary grades ; two were high school principals ; and six were college professors of history, civil government, or political economy. Several members had had experience in other grades of schools, as teachers, superin- tendents, or members of school governing boards. The Conference was further materially assisted bj' the advice of Professors Frederick J. Turner and Charles H. Haskius of the University of Wisconsin, and of Mr. Wells, State Superintendent of Education for Wisconsin. At least twelve states in the Union, extending from Maine to Virginia, and west as far as Iowa, were represented by men who had lived in them, and who knew something of their system of schools. Without assuming to speak for the great body of teachers of history and kindred branches throughout the Union, we believe that we are acquainted with, and fully represent, the opinions of many thoughtful individuals in widely distributed parts of the country. It may be further stated that upon each of the thirty-five resolu- tions which were framed, the Conference voted unanimously. This does not mean that, for the sake of harmony, members withdrew strongly-felt opposition to some of the resolutions ; but that in each vote, as finally formulated, every member of the Conference heartily concurred. Besides their natural desire to see the instruction in their favorite study improved, it is the mature conviction of the members of the Conference, as teachers, that the subjects in question, especially when IIISTUUY, CI\[L (iOVEIiNMEJST, A\U POLITICAL ]:C(i.N( ).>! V. 167 taught by the iiewiT methods herein advocated, serve to broaden and cultivate the miud ; that the.y counteract a narrow and provincial spirit ; that they prepare the pupil in an eminent degree for enlight- ened and intellectual enjoyment in after years ; and that they assist him to exercise a salutary influence upon the affairs of his country. Hence it is the especial desire of the Conference to see these advantages as widely iliffused as possible. 2. Fundamental Questions. Four fundamental questions confronted the members of the Con- ference upon assembling. They were : how far they should make recommendations which could be applied only in favored parts of the country; whether they should recommend an ideal program, or a simpler program practicable in good schools with their present means and apparatus ; how far they sliould insist on a uniform pro- gram ; and what relations they sliould suggest between the schools and the colleges. On the first point we agreed that the recommendations should be the same for all. (§ 10.) Upon the second point, the reeomuienda- tion of an ideal program, the Conference was unanimously of the opinion that it would suggest nothing that was not alreadj' being done bv some good schools, and that might not reasonablj- be attained wherever there is an efficient system of graded schools. (§9.) Upon the third question we especially trust that we may not be misunderstood. It would not be our purpose, if we had the power, to reduce the teaching of histor}' to one uniform program carried out on a uniform method. \Ve believe that the time devoted to history and allied subjects should be increased ; that the subjects treated should not be confined to our own country ; and that the diy and lifeless system of instruction by text-book should give way lo a more rational kind of work ; but our recommendations will have little effect unless they are carried out in an intelligent and disiriminating spirit, which will allrv the details afcording to local neci^ssities and difficulties. As to the fourth question, we believe tliat the colleges can take care of themselves ; our interest is in the school children who have no expectation of going to college, the larger number of whom will not enter even a high school. This feeling is strengthened li}' the consideration that proportionally a much smaller inimber of the girls go to college than of the boys, and it is important that both sexes shall be well grounded on these subjects. An additional responsi- bility is thrown upon the American system of education by the great number of children of foreigners, children who must depend on the 1()8 HISTORY, CIVIL tJOVKKNMlONT, AND POLITICAL ECONOMY. schools for their notions of American institutions, or of anything outside their contracted circle. Hence our recommendations are in no way directed to building up the colleges, increasing the number of college students, or taking out of the hands of the colleges the historical work which they are especially fitted to do. (§§ 10, 11, 20-22.) 3. Usual Objects of Historical and kindred Studies. At the outset a clear statement of the objects of historical training is necessary. The result which is popularly supposed to be gained from history, and which most teachers aim to reach, is the acquire- ment of a bodj' of useful facts. In our judgment this is in itself the most difBcnlt and the least important outcome of historical study. Facts of themselves are hard to learn, even when supported by artificial systems of memorizing, and the value of detached historical facts is small in proportion to the effort necessary to acquire and retain them. When the facts are chosen with as little discrimination as in many school text-books, when they are mere lists of lifeless dates, details of military movements, or unexplained genealogies, they are repellant. To know them is hardly better worth while than to remember, as a curious character in Ohio was able to do some years ago, what one has had for dinner every day for the last thirty years. It cannot be. too strongly emphasized that facts in history are like digits in arithmetic ; they are learned only as a means to an end. 4. Training of the Mind. The principal end of all education is training. In this respect history has a value different from, but in no way inferior to, that of language, mathematics, and science. The mind is chiefly developed in three ways : by cultivating the powers of discriminating observa- tion ; by strengthening the logical faculty of following an argument from point to point; and by improving tlie process of comparison, that is, the judgment. As studies in language and in the natural sciences are best adapted to cultivate the habits of observation ; as mathematics are the tradi- tional training of the reasoning faculties : so historj' and its allied branches are better adapted than any other studies to promote the invaluable mental power which we call the judgment. Hence states- men have usually been careful students of historj-. History is a subject unequalled for its opportunities of comparison, for it is pre- eminently a study of the relation between cause and effect. History combines the advantages of a philosophical and a scientific subject : upon the one side, it is a study of the human mind, of character, and HISTORY, CIVIL GOVEENMEXT, AND POLITICAL ECONOMY. 169 motives; upon the other hand, historical records form a body of material which, in the demand its analysis makes upon the mind, may be compared with that of chemistry or geology. Indeed it has some practical advantages over science ; for the examples in a geological or mineralogical museum fill many shelves, while in his- tory thej' may be brought within the covers of a few books. Tlie value of history is increased if it is looked upon in part as a labor- atory science, in which pupils learn to assemble material and from it to make generalizations. (§§ 31-33.) " Since grappling with history is grappling with life," says an able teacher, " the main aim in teaching history is to develop those powers in the pupil which will best serve him in life." In almost everj' other subject taught in the grammar schools the basis of knowledge is fixed ; the child meets axioms in mathematics, and takes in his reading and geography without reasoning upon them ; history prop- erly taught offers the first opportunity for a growth of discriminative judgment ; it should train the pupil to throw away the unimportant or unessential, and to select the paramount and cogent. It may be so taught, also, as to lead him in some degree to compare and weigh evidence ; that is, through history a child should be taught to exercise those qualities of common-sense comparison, and plain, everyday judg- ment which he needs for the conduct of his own life. Historical material is-as abundant and familiq,r as geological ; books, or at least newspapers, are to be found in evofy home ; and the methods of his- torical criticism may be applied constantly to the news or gossip of the household. 5. Other Advantages. History has long been commended as a part of the education of a good citizen. Locke said: " History is the great mistress of pru- dence and national knowledge." Milton said that children ought all to know the beginning, the end, and reasons of political societies. "History," says Bacon, " supplies examples." " History," says an English writer, " furnishes the best training in patriotism, and it enlarges the sympathies and interests." This is particularly the case with the history of one's own country, and America needs the train- ing because we Americans know that our country is great, better than we know why it is great. A significant advantage of history is that, intelligently taught, it maybe a medium for the literary expression of the pupils (§32). Where but in a school in which history is well considered, could one hear a child sum up her judgment of the character of the English race in so cogent a phrase as this: "The English have such a stickino- quality " ? History is the source of a great number of con- 170 HISTORY, CIVIL (lOVKRN.ME.NT, y\M> POLITICAL ECONOMY. vciitional metaphors and allusions. Eveiy intelligent child knows what is meant by crossing the Rubicon, by meeting a Waterloo, bj' ringing out lilie a liberty bell. History abounds in literary material. Another very important object of historical teaching is moral train- ing. History is the study of human character. " Perhaps the most valuable part of our work" says a teacher, " is that we are all made — teacher as well as pupil — to learn personal lessons from historj', to watch the course of humanity as we would that of an individual, to shun its errors, and make use of its excellencies " ; and it is a study in which the mistakes and failures of national life, like those of priv- ate life, become suggestive warnings. To sum up, one object of historical study is the acquirement of useful facts; but the chief object is the training of the juiigment, in selecting the grounds of an opinion, in accumulating materials for an opinion, in putting things together, in generalizing upon facts, in estimating character, in applung the lessons of history to current events, and in accustoming children to state their conclusions in their own words. III. Arrangement of Studies. 6. Time to begin historical and kindred Studies. With these general objects in view, your Conference has attempted to settle how much time may reasonably be devoted to the subjects which it has been asked to discuss. First of all comes the prelim- inary question, at what time may children profitably begin to study history ? Upon this subject there seems to be a general concurrence of opinion among the persons whom we have consulted. An interest in the stories and adventures in which history abounds may be culti- vated as soon as children begin to read at all. On the question where the formal and systematic study of history is to be begin, there is more divergence ; two of the most eminent New England superin- tendents say, at ten years ; others would begin at about twelve. In the opinion of your Conference children from nine to eleven may well begin by reading historical selections from standard authors, and the careful study of historj' ought not to be delayed beyond the eleventh, or at the latest, the twelfth year ; our recommendations (Resolutions 12, 14) provide for at least two years of methodical study of history in the grammar school. 7. Question of consecutive Study. Next comes the question, over how many years ought the study of history to be distributed? At present the average seems to be one year in the grammar schools, and two years in the high schools. A HISTOliY, CIVIL GOVEKN-MKN T, AM) POLITICAL Ki().N(jMV. ITl few cases have been found in \vhieh history is systematically taught in each of four or five years of a high school course. The inquiry involves the question of consecutive stud}-. Shall we recommend a course in which the instruction shall lie massed in a few years, a considerable number of recitation periods being appropriated in each ; or shall we recommend that the study be pursued in a few exercises through a long succession of years? The German plan of education certainly turns out boys who are acquainted with details of history, and are able to make generalizations ; that system calls for recitations in history and geography twice a week during the first two years, and three times a week during tire following eight years of the course.' The Germans believe, as the result of careful thought and observation, that the system of short courses with many exercises is pernicious ; they find that the student educated in this way acquires a temporary interest only ; and that the knowledge obtained, even though at the moment it may be more thoroughly comprehended, and may make a more vivid impression on the mind, is not so assimilated and made a part of the intellectual bone and sinew of the future man, as it is when, even once or twice a week, the subject is continued through a considerable number of years. In American schools the tendency is to compress the subject into a short period. The result is that history and kindred subjects assume an entirely different position in the minds of pupils, from that of studies continuously pursued. They get a notion that history ends and then begins again ; the histories of different countries seem to them disconnected ; and the value of historical training is almost lost by interruption and want of practice. AVe strenuously recommend, therefore, (Resolution 1) that '-History and kindred subjects ought to be a substantial study in each of at least eight years" ; and (Resolution 11) that "The eight-vear course be consecutive." 8. Time now devoted to the Subjects. In this, as in all these recommendations, it is not our purpose to lay down a hard and fast system for all seliools under all conditions ; but we do consider it essential that history be made a substantial sub- ject for a fair number of hours during a considerable number of years. The actual time now devoted to these subjects is in most schools less than the importance of the subject demands. The smallest allowance observed in any school which pretends to teach history is twice a week for a term of twelve weeks. A very common allowance is once a week for a year in Ancient History, — manifestly a cram for entrance to coUeo-e. A study of the reports of four hundred students, seems to show that two hundred recitation periods, or five periods a 172 HISTORY, CIVIL GOVERNMENT, AND POLITICAL ECONOMY. week for a j'ear, is a little above the average in the grammar schools ; but in about three per cent of the cases as manj' as six hundred recitation periods are given in the grammar schools. The secondary schools show a similar lack of uniformity. The smallest allowance observed is seventy-two exercises — apparently twice a week for a year — in two of the best known endowed acade- mies of New England. In some cases history and kindred subjects reach seven hundred exercises in all ; the largest allowance seems to be about nine hundred and fiftj' exercises during the secondary course. Perhaps the most thorough course which has come under our observation is that of a New England academy : three hours a week throughout the four years, or about four hundred and eighty exercises ; but these are full hours with very thorough collateral work. The present average in higli schools would seem to be two hundred to two hundred and forty periods in all. Upon the question of the proper allowance for history, experienced persons differ ; but two of the best known school superintendents in the country agree that it should continue during eight or nine years. The head of an excellent normal school suggests three hours a week through the whole course of study. g. Time recommended. Your Conference has considered these fundamental questions with due seriousness, and recommends (Resolutions 14, 16, 17) that the actual time devoted to history be not less than three forty-minute periods per week throughout the course of eight years, — a total of about nine hundred exercises in all. This is no more than is being done by some favored schools, and it has the support of many prac- tical educators acquainted with the details of schools. It is, in the judgment of the Conference, a reasonable time to be devoted to the group of subjects — history, civil government, and political economy.. It is about one-eighth of the school time of the child during two-thirds of his whole course, extending to the end of the high school. Where is this time to be found? We respectfully ask you to consider whether there are not some subjects in the grammar school curriculum which may reasonably give up part of their time to history. We particularly suggest that, in accordance with Resolu- tion 25, the time given to political geography be so applied as to connect that subject with the study of history. To history may be assigned part of the time saved by a rational rearrangement of arith- metic. Finally, in view of the probable improvement in the study of English through the proper teaching of historj-, (Report, §§ 5, 32; HISTORY, CIVIL GO\El;NiME]S'T,. AND POLITICAL ECONOMY. 173 Resolutions 22, 23) we ask for a share of the time now devoted to language study. It is not our expectation that such radical changes can be brought about in a moment ; nor would the recommendation be made, but for the belief that the communit}- expects a new provision for those subjects. AVe believe that the program which we suggest might at once be put into operation in the whole system of schools in some large cities ; and that once established, it would gradually extend to schools where the conditions are less favorable. ro. Distribution of Time. How shall the time thus suggested be distributed among the years of the school course? It has seemed to us desirable to introduce about one-half of the consecutive study of history into the grammar schools. The reasons for this arrangement hardly need be stated. Tiie great majoritj- of our children never pass beyond the grammar schools, and if these subjects are interesting, stimulating, and edu- cating, they ought to be introduced earlj- enough to accord their advantages to the child who does not enter the high school. (§ 2.) If the course is to be consecutive, distinct historical instruction would therefore begin four j'ears before the pupil enters the high schools, and would end onlj- with the high school course. II. Question of Discrimination for those preparing for College. The questions sent down bj' the Committee of Ten for our consid- eration include the following: '-Should the subjects be treated differently for pupils who arc i;oing- to cuUegi-, for tliose who are going to a scientific school, uml for llioru- uLo, presumablj', are going to neither ? " Several educational authorities advise such a separation. One New England superintendent thinks that a difference should be made "for the sake of its reflex effect on the secondary and primary schools" ; others urge a more liberal provision for those who are not to go to college than for those who will have a later opportunity to study history ; others think that the differentiation is made liecessary by the preparation for college examinations ; but no one seems to defend the system unhappily prevailing in some institutions, by which those who are to get most training hereafter are the only ones who have any training in history in the schools. The Conference believes that such a distinction, especially in schools provided for the children by public taxation, is bad for all classes of pupils. It is the duty of the schools to furnish a well 174 mSTOUY, CIVIL COVJOKNMJiJ^iX, AKD rOLITICAL, KCONOMY. grounded and complete edaciition for the child ; it is the duty of higher institutions to accept a well grounded and complete education as a suitable preparation for entrance upon their courses. Whatever improves the schools must improve the colleges ; but our function seems to be simply to recommend the best system -which we can devise for the schools, without taking into account any subdivision of pupils. (Resolution 30.) IV. Subjects and Peogbams. 12. Usual Subjects. It appears from a comparison of the statements of college students that of one hundred and fifty-four who have studied historj' in the schools, seventeen have studied general historj-, twenty-two ancient histoiy, and thirty-seven English history. In the high schools ancient history is far more common because manj'' colleges require it as a subject for entrance. The next subject in favor is English history. American history is studied in only about one-third as many instances in high schools as ancient history, and in one-half as many schools as is English history. General histoiy is about as common as American historj'. Our most enlightened advisers favor a considerable variety of subjects, and an enlargement of the histori- cal curriculum of the grammar schools. Man}' of them urge the introduction of English history, European history, and, in a few cases, French history. In the state of Wisconsin a recent effort has been made to induce high schools to offer at least one half-year of ancient history and one-half j-ear of English history. A course in general history is frequentl}- suggested ' ' because the general outline is necessary to secure a true idea of historical per- spective. . . . Get the outline at the very start, and then keep filling it in." The opinion of the Conference is decidedly against single courses in general historj', because it is almost impossible to carry them on without the study degenerating into a mere assemblage of dates and names. Most text-books used in such courses are dry and lifeless ; better books do not give a sufficiently clear and exact picture. We admit the advantage of a broad outlook, but contend that it is not to be had by gathering together a mass of details with no oppor- tunity to show their relations. The outlook can better be obtained by connecting the general course of events with the history of one or more countries. (§ 16 ; Resolution 14.) Fortunately the subject of history, like that of natural science, is one in which the educational advantages may be Illt^TOUY, CIVIL GOVEKNMEM-, AM) I'oLITUAl. i:ctl.\( iMy . 175 obtained without covering the whole flekl. It is important to look at the histoiy of several countries side b}- side, and to notice the general movement of history, but that advantage may be gained indirectly in connection with specific subjects. (§§14. 15.) 13. Subjects recommended. Out of the specific subjects we recommend Greek, Roman, Eng- lish. American, and French history ; and European history taught in connection with English and French history or in the year of intensive study. (Resolutions 2-7, 14. IG.) For the first three of these sub- jects the argument cannot be better stated than in the words of a practical teacher of history: "History is a unity. . . . The past lives in the present. I have no time for dry facts. I can give mj' children only life. Xow what people of old times live most in the nineteenth century ? ■ . Tlie ta*ks that press upon us to-dav were first recognized in Greece. Here man put before himself in definite shape the specific problems that he wills to solve. Here he marked out the bounds of government, art, philosophy, literature, science ; formulated and tested their principles ; saw and stated clearly their problems. The work of the European world was mapped out in Greece, and here direction was given to human effort perhaps forever. So the study of historj- must begin with Greece, for in Greece all history is found in a nut-shell. . . . " Roman history is the great central ganglion by which the historj' of the world is connected ; Rome handed to us the civilization of Greece, gave us community of thought and ideals, rules us to-day in civil and ecclesiastical law. Hence Roman history lives in the pre- sent and must be taught. . . . "English history has solved the problem of preserving local authorit}', selfish devotion to which wrecked Greece, and yet organ- izing it as efficiently as Rome did her empire. England teaches the world tlie secret of coubtitutional governtnent and li\ es in every free state to-day. Hence English history must be taught." American history needs no argument ; if" is alread}- widely intro- duced ; and the danger is not that it will be neglected, but that the schools may think it sufficient in itself. French history also com- mends itself to the Conference, because from the twelfth to the eighteenth centuries France was the leading nation of Europe, and her history is in a sense the historj' of civilization. General Euro- pean historj- has the advantages of offering subjects capable of detailed and intensive study, and of furnishing a contrast to that development of the Anglo-Saxon race which is the main thought of English and American history. (§ 15.) 17() llISTORy, CIVIL GOVERNMENT, AND I'OLITICAI, ECONOMY. 14. Inter-relation of Subjects. In arranging these various subjects we recognize the desirabilitj' of offering a small number of subjects thoroughly taught, rather than of breaking up the courses into many detached parts. (§7.) At the same time there should be a logical relation between the i^arts, and a use of the comparative method. As the teacher quoted above says : "To impress the unity of history upon my children ... I must feel it myself in its every detail. ... I must feel the points of similar- ity and difference between the Athenian dikasteries and the Anglican jury system. . . . Constant comparison, cross references, the show- ing of the past in the present is the ver}- substance of my teaching." Hence the importance of choosing a suggestive point of view from which comparison is easj'. "The proper organization and govern- ment of a State is the highest task presented to man. Hence the greatest emphasis in class work should be placed on political and constitutional history. ... I And that my pupils turn with the greatest interest to the constitutional problems of history ; thej" feel their political importance as bearing upon the issues of to-day. One of my girls said to me not long ago : ' I am just as much interested in watching the growth of the House of Commons as in watching the plants in mj' window.' " The opportunity for comparison and the training gained from a study of other systems are both lost if the study of history is confined to that of our own country. The details of that history are to a cer- tain dfegree "absorbed through the pores"; for it is constantly discussed in periodicals and newspapers. On the other hand our own history is liest understood in tlic light thi'own uiwin it by other history. " AVe are nil Americans; that is to say wt- have all been surrouudeil by a given political and social atmosphere from our birth. We are thus in no position to understand our institutions. The more vitally important these are, the more inherent the peculiarities of our civiliza- tion, the less apt we are to become conscious of them." While including American history as a considerable part of the work, we urge that in all schools the history of some other country in addition to that of the United States be pursued. 15. Intensive Study. The history of any great country is so extensive that the schools cau hardly expect to teach more than an outline. Another system which has in it many elements of highly valuable training is to select a brief period and put intensive study upon it. This is the practice in one of the best schools for girls to be found in New England : " The mSTIJltY, CIVIL tiOVEUNMENT, A.MJ rdLlTICAL KCIINOMY. 177 fourth year of the course is devoted to a special stud}- of the period of American history extending from 1700 to 179ii. The method is purely topical, no text-book being used." The importance of this intensive study was so strongly presented to the Conference that, after mature deliberation, it was voted that provision should be made for one year of such studj^. (Eesolution 6.) This will offer an oppor- tunity to apply, on a small scale, the kind of training furnished by the best colleges ; it will teach careful, painstaking examination and comparison of sources ; it will illuminate other broader fields of history ; and it will give the pupil a practical power to collect and use historical jnateiial, which will serve him and the community through- out all his after life. By vote of the Conference (Resolution S) the following list of topics suitable for a year's intensive study is submitted, in accordance with Resolution 6 : 1. The Struggle between France and England for Xortli America. 2. Spain in the Xew World. 3. The French Revolution and the Napoleonic Period. 4. Some Phase of the Renaissance. 5. The Puritan Movement in the Seventeenth Century. 6. The Commerce of the American f'olonies during the Seventeenth and Eighteenth Centuries. 7. American political Leaders from 1783 to 1830. 8. The Territorial Expansion of the United States. 9. American Politics from 1763 to 1830. 10. The Mohammedans in Europe. 11. The Influence of Greece upon modern Life. 12. Some Phase of the Reorganization of Europe since 1832. 13. Some Phase of the Reformation. li. Some considerable Phase of local History. It will be noticed that the list gives no preference to the history of one countiy over that of another. In any case, these subjects are only suggestive and many intelligent teachers will be able to find topics which the interest of their students and the resources of their libraries may make more suitable. i6. Distribution of Subjects and Eight-Year Program. Perhaps the most difficult task of the Conference was to draw up a program in which a proper selection of subjects should be properly distributed. The result of our labors is set forth in Resolutions 12 and 14. ' That the work of history should begin with elementary studies in biography and mythology, reenforced bj' good historical reading, needs no argument. The interest of the pupil is thus stimulated and he is 12 178 Hl.STOny, CJVJL GOVKUNiMlOWT, AiND I'OLITICAL ECONOJIV. prepared to take up more serious study wheu the tirne comes. After two years of this kind of study in the grammar schools, a year of American history is next suggested because that is the subject in "vvliich local interest is most readily aroused, in which good parallel reading is easiest to find, and with which it is easiest to connect some ■ study of civil government. For the fourth year we recommend '•Greek and Roman history, with their Oriental connections." This order of subjects was strenuously urged in the Conference by profess- ors and teacliers of American historj-, upon the express ground that the large number of pupils who leave the schools at the end of the grammar school course should not be deprived of the opportunit}' of learning something of other civilizations. Classical history is now usually taught as a perfuuctor}- subject in connection with studies in the Greek and Latin languages, and is rarely studied except by those who expect to go to college. This is an entirely wrong con- ception of the value of ancient history ; it ought to be pursued for the sake of broadening the pupil's mind, widening his horizon, and bring- ing him into contact with a civilization so different from our own that it will suggest points of difference and comparison. No part of our recommendations seems to us more important than this, that some- thing in addition to American history be taught ifi the grammar schools. It will be noticed, however, that in the six-j'ear alternate course it has been found necessary to shift the Greek and Roman historj'' to the first j'ear in the high school (Resolution 16). In the fifth and sixth years of historical study (the first and second years in the high school) we recommend French history and English history ; here it is believed that the advantages of general history can be obtained without its drawbacks (§ 12). The intention of the rec- ommendation is, that French history shall be considered as the central or leading^iistory of Europe, about which shall be grouped the history of other countries. The subject, by its contrast, is an excellent means of bringing out the peculiarities of the following subject, English histoi-y, which the teacher should make the center of the great political and constitutional movement which England best exemplifies. In the seventh year it seems fitting that American history should again be taken up, this time with more reference to the development of the government and the character of statesmen. It seems particularly desirable to bring this phase of American history late in the course, when the students are more mature. Finally, in the eighth year, a subject is to be taken up for intensive or detailed study (§15). In this 3-ear we have desired to give the schools an opportunity to arrange a course each according to its own materials. In this program we have not adopted either of two common ideas HlSTOliY, CIVIL GOVEItXME^T, A,\U PC-LITICAL ECONOMY. 179 as to the proper arrangement and relation of courses. The subjects as recommended do not follow one another in chronological order, although from the fifth to the seventh year they form a logically connected series. Nor has it seemed desirable to recommend a method not uncommon in Germany, by which the student begins with the history of Lis own city and widens out to his nation, to Europe, and perhaps eventually to the rest of the world. The effect of this process in suggesting the relative importance of countries is perhaps shown b3- the name of a hotel in Paris : "H6tel de I'Univers et des Etats Unis." AVhat is most distant geographically is most distant also in thought ; if this process is at any point interrupted the child is left with the feeling that the world stops where his study has ceased. 17. Alternative Six-Year Program. Although strongly of the opinion that a minimum of three exercises a week during eight years is no more than good schools ought to pro- vide, and that time may be found for it without sacrifice of other interests of the pupils (§9), we nevertheless recognize the practical difliculties which in many schools would prevent the introduction of so elaborate a system. We have therefore drawn up an alternative program for a six-year course (Kesolution 16). The principal differ- ences are the omission of French history as a separate subject, and the omission of the intensive study of a special period ; there is the fur- ther defect of leaving the grammar schools with no other formal study than American history. Nevertheless the Ccjnfereuce believes this course to occupy no more time than is already given in a considerable number of schools, and to be an improvement upon most of the present programs, particularly if it is properly connected with the study of historical literature. (§§ 30-32.) 18. Civil Government. Civil Government is pursued at present in very few grammar schools, — certainly in not more than one-sixth of those which have • come under our observation. It is, however, rather a frequent sub- ject in high schools, about one-third offering some sort of instruction in it. In actual teaching it seems little associated with history ; it is usually simply a text-book study during a part of one year ; and very few of the teachers seem to be familiar with the subject. Among experienced teachers there seems to be a difference of opinion as to the proper place of the sublect. Some ivould introduce it early in elementary form, on general topics ; others would make it an elaborate study late in the high school course. The Conference in 180 HISTOKY, CIVIL, GOVEIt;\:MENT, AND POLITICAL ECONOMY. Resolutions 10, 14 and 16 has attempted to recoucfle these two priu- ciples by introducing the study in two places, but always in connec- tion with histor}', and as an adjunct to that subject. While recognizing the importance of the study of government as a discipline and as an education for American citizens, we do not feel justified in recommending more time for the subject than is now employed by the best schools. We expect that it will occupj^, includ- ing the elements of political economy (§ I'J), about one-half the time devoted to the group of historical and kindred studies in each of the two years recommended ; and we believe that this distiibution is much better than the more common system of giving the subject a considerable number of hours during a few weeks onlj-. But it is expected that good teachers in dealing with history throughout, and especially with American history, will constantly refer to the forms and functions of government with which the children are most familiar. The question what subjects should be taught and what ground covered in the study of civil government is one which we have not thought it necessary precisely to determine. One sj'stem begins with the local government, as nearest to the child, and thence leads up through the State to the national government. Another method takes up first that which is most likely to attract the imagination of the child, the great machinery of the national government and its more striking functions, such as the postofHce, the army, the navy, and the collection of customs. Another principle is to associate with government" practical ethics and rules of conduct. Each one of these systems, properly taught, has its value and may come within a program of history and kindred branches. Your "Conference would, however, express the belief that the theoretical questions of government, such as the origin and nature of the state, the doctrine of sovereignty, the theory of the separation of powers, etc., are verj- difficult to teach to children ; and further, that a system of ethics can better be taught by e-xamplo and by appealing to common sense and to accepted standards of conduct, than by formal lessons. On the other hand the simple principles underlying the laws which regulate the relations of individ- • uals with the state, may be taught by specific instances and illustra- tion ; and the machinery of government, such as systems of voting, may be constantly illustrated by the practice of the communities in which the children live (§ 31). In Resolutions 28 and 29 the methods of study approved by the Conference are distinctly set forth. In the grammar schools the instruction ought to be simple and practical, using books and familiar institutions only as illustrations and collateral material ; the studv of nisToKV, CIVIL c;OVEi!N:\iKN'r, and ioliikai, kconomv. ISI civil government and tliat of liistory ought coiisUiutly to woric into each otlier and to support each other. In the high schools civil government maj- be taught more elaboratel}' ; and here is an oppor- tunity of which also some use may be made in the grammar schools : that of sending children to study their own local and state government in operation. A teacher of exi)erience, a member of the Conference, has for years been in the habit of taking his high school class in civil government to the local courts, to the city councils in session, and to the capital of the state, fifty-six miles away, to see the legis- lature in session (§34). Other helpful methods are debates, mock town meetings, mock legislatures, reports of proceedings of legislatures and of Congress. At this stage the study lends itself to the topical method (§33), and pupils may be encouraged to prepare papers on the local institutions about them. The subject of government is so diflicult and requires so much practical illustration that the Conference would not recommend for schools an elaborate study of foreign systems. They believe, how- ever, that constant reference to pai'allels or divergences in foreign politics will be interesting and helpful (Resolution 29). They com- mend, especially, reference to the German and Swiss governments, as suggesting different methods pursued by nations governing them- selves under systems similar to ours ; study of the English govern- ment, as presenting the contrast between the parliamentary and the committee systems, and stud}" of the French government as a tj'pe of highly centralized systems, in which local government is entirely subordinated. 19. Political Economy. The subject of political economy appears to be taught in onl}' about one-twentieth of the high schools, and, in most cases, even there is confined to routine study and recitation from a text-book. Here, as in civil government, we believe that the essential principles are not above the reach of high school pupils ; but that an attempt to master the whole subject will result in tlie understanding of onlv a small part. Few schools have teachers sufficientlj' trained to discuss and illustrate the general subject ; nor are there .proper text-books for high school use. It is believed that the subject is not attempted in schools of other countries corresponding in grade to our high school. Upon no question which the Conference has considered is there greater difference of opinion among the persons consulted. Some eminent superintendents and principals would introduce or continue political economj' in the. last year of the high school course, or at least, in the last half-year. '■ Dailj* lessons for about twelve weeks 182 HISTOUV, CIVIL (iOVICKiNMENX, AND l-OLITICAL ECONOMY. would be ample," says oue. On the other hand several teachers assert that political economy " has no place in secondary schools." " It is not proved that the subject can be advantageonslj' taught in secondary schools, nor is the contrary proved." In this difference of opinion it has seemed to the Conference wise, to recommend that there be no formal instruction in political economy, but that the general principles be taught ' ' in connection particularly with United States liistory, civil government, and commercial geographj' " (Resolutions 9, 30). The subject would, therefore, appear in its most elementary form in the third year of the grammar school, and would be revived in the last two j-ears of the high school. In both places the subject should not be introduced as a distinct and separate science ; but as illustrating government and political questions. In connection with Resolution 30 the Conference adopted the following memorandum : " It is suggested, for example, that when the tariff historj' of the United States is being studied, the law.s of value, the conditions of production, and the principles of exchange, especially as relating to international trade, be explained ; that in connection with the study of the development of means of transportation, such topics as the concentration of population and of industry, the organic character of society, the corporate organization of industry, the capitalistic mode of production, the process of distribution, monopolies, labor organ- izations, etc., be discussed ; that in connection with a study of Jack- son's administration, the subjects of crises, banks and their functions, the functions of money, the laws of its circulation, bimetallism, paper money, and kindred topics be presented ; that in connection with the study of our great wars, certain topics in finance be introduced, as for example, the principles of war finances, the history of our debt, the process of debt conversion, and the methods of paying public debts ; that in connection with the study of civil government, such topics as the assessment and collection of taxes, the principles of taxation, the kinds of taxes, the functions of government, the forma- tion and vote of the budget, the expenses of government, etc., be studied. " In making these recommendations the Conference does not intend to suggest that less time than is customar3^ be given to political economy, or that less emphasis be given to its importance as a study in the high schools ; but rather that emphasis be laid on vital topics, and that less time be devoted to controverted subjects and unsettled questions." It is desirable to avoid the impression that political economy is an abstruse science of which no part can be understood without the mastery of the system ; teachers ought to set forth the principles of finance, commerce, and business, as a part of the ever3'day life of the community. The methods of teaching the economic principles thus indicated must be left to the discretion of the teacher. It is a subject lU.sTOKV, CIVIL GOVEltN.MKNT, AM) I'OLITICIAL ^Xl)^(>MV. tSo in which text-book work is particularly inefticient, and no teacher ought to undertake the work who has not had some training in economic reasoning. The onlj- methods which can possibly be suc- cessful are tliose which call upon the class for independent thought and suggestion. V. College Examixatioxs. 20. Present Requirements. The usual requirement in history, where the subject appears at all in the conditions of entrance to college, is an elementary knowledge of the history of one country, or at most of two countries. The usual subjects are Greek and Roman history, — -which are supposed to be taken up with classical stud}-, — or American history ; in a few cases English history is also, or may be, a subject for examination. These requirements differ in amount and in application, and it would undoubtedh" be a reform of much value if they could be made simpler and more uniform. The present subjects are very unsatisfactory, not because they are uninteresting in themselves, but because in many schools thej' are studied with a view only to the college examina- tions, and without reference to any preparation for life. In one of the schools in which preparation in history is best and most system- atic for other pupils, boys and girls who are going to college are habitually deprived of that instruction, and are systematically cramm"ied during a few weeks preceeding examinations. It is com- plained that " at present, examinations compel the teaclier to accept bad methods for college preparation." We have not felt called upon to make any recommendations on the general subject of entrance to college ; but we desire to enter a protest against the present lax and inefficient system of historical examinations, and to urge a change by which schools which use proper methods shall have some advantage. 21. Suggestions of Improvement. The dissatisfaction with the present system is shown by many pro- tests from teachers. -'The requirements for college ought to be so framed," says a high school teacher, " that the methods of teaching best adapted to meet them will also be best for all pupils." Exami- nations ' • should be such as test the powers of the pupil and the methods of the teacher : analysis of subjects should be demanded ; . . . statements from analysis required. Tlie pupil should be asked to state what books he has used iu his course of study, and wluxt JS4 HISTOliV, CIVIL (lOVEHN'AIENT, AND POLITICAL ECONOMY. service each book has done him ; what methods are employed in his school ; what work he has done in libraries. ... In short, the mental training, alertness, and intelligence of the pupil Khould be tested rather than inemorj- onlj-." A very ingenious snggestion, ■vv^'ich deserves the attention of college authorities, is that the colleges accept any combination of two historical studies, — as Greek and American, French and English, — as a proper preparation for college, allowing additional historical subjects as advanced requirements. This method if adopted would go a long way to increase the number of historical subjects taught, and would facilitate the adoption of the reforms suggested by this report (§§13, 15). Between the system of examinations and that of certificates the Conference has no recommendation to make, believing it to be a general subject which lies outside the present discussion. Where certificated are accepted, it is the duty of the colleges to take them only from schools which have suitable libraries and pursue intelligent methods. Where a college accepts no tests but its own, a proper written examination seems as fair a system as can be devised ; but examinations may be so framed as to throw more weight upon general knowledge, and less on memorj-. In Resolution 32 we have decidedly expressed the opinion that less attention be paid to detail and more to a power of comparison and judgment. Schools which adopt an improved general system of teaching history will give to their pupils a training in some respects of the same nature as that gained from science. Although it is impossible in history to simplify and vary the phenomena which are observed, it may nevertheless be made in part a laboratory subject. In some colleges the entrance requirements in physics call for an examination, but the pupils also submit note-books as evidence that they have pursued their previous work in a systematic and scien- tific fashion. We believe that a similar system may be applied with good eflfeet to historical examinations. Besides the regular written tests, papers prepared in the schools may be submitted as a part of the evidence of preparation (Resolntion 33) . The effect would be that schools which had properly used collateral reading and other material would be more successful in getting their boys into college than those which depended solely on text-books ; and that the colleges would be greatly improved by receiving into historical courses boys and girls who had had preliminary training of a proper kind. The time has come for the colleges to set their faces against perfunctory text-book methods in history, in the same manner as in classics and natural science. IIISTORV, CIVIL CiOVEKNirENT, AND POUTICVL, KCONOMY. 185 22. Time of Examinations. The question with reference to a division of examinations is answered in our ResoUition 34, whicli agites with the majority of the opinions collected from historical teachers upon this subject. With a proper S3stem of examinations the eighth or intensive jear would do most to prepare for entrance to college, and the examination would therefore naturally come at the end of the course. Hence history should be a "final" subject and not a "preliminary." VI. Methods of Historical Teai hing. 23. Present Methods. The last question submitted to the Conference is : " Can any description be given of the best method of teaching throughout the school course ? " In our judgment the selection and arrangement of studies in the schools, imperfect as they now are, need reform less than the methods of teaching. In the grammar schools very few teachers know any other system than simple recitation liy rote from text-books ; and this is particularly the ease in large city schools. The text-books are frequently poor and antiquated, and often have made so little impression upon the pupils" minds that their very names are forgotten. Outside reading and topical work does not appear in more than one fifth of the grammar schools, and is imper- fect even in these. Not much better is the condition of the high schools and academies ; in one hundre~d and thirty-five cases exam- ined, all had recitations ; sixty-nine used some kind of outside reference books ; twenty-six used oral topics ; forty-seven used written topics ; in fifty-five there were written lessons ; in eighty-two appears some kind of geographical instruction ; but only in fifty-eight any form of map drawing. The apparatus for outside reading is usually small, although some high schools have large reference libraries. The present methods throw entirely too much stress on a few brief text-books; and comparatively few teachers have the spirit or the apparatus to carry their classes outside those narrow limits. Hence at least one experienced member of the Conference was at first inclined to think that possibly history should be omitted alto- gether from school programs, because, he said, teaching by rote from text-books made the subject disagreeable ; and because it led to indefinite ideas, whicli were in many cases worse than none. The first necessity, he thought, was an improvement in the teachers. 18G HTWTORY, CIVJL GOVEliNMENT, AND POLITICAL ECONOMY. 24. Improved Methods. Nevertheless the Conference had before it detailed accounts of at least three widely separated j'et highly successful schools, in which history is taught in a common-sense and efficient manner ; and they were greatly encouraged by the interest shown by pupils in those schools. The first is an academj' in a State capital, in which historj' begins for very small children, with stories of heroic characters ; then United States history and Cox's Mythology are taken up side by side ; in the third year English history is begun ; then American history, including the htstory of French and Spanish America as collateral with that of the English settlements. In the later j^ears the pupils use the large and well, appointed State Library. The master makes it his object to present history to them as a basis of enjoj'ment of art and literature ; thus, he teaches American litera- ture in connection with colonial history. There are constant references and comparisons from one field of historj- to another. Throughout the course he has in mind an ethical purpose — to suggest the causes of personal and national greatness and weak- ness ; and his boys alwa3's elect history after they get into college (§34). The second of these schools is a high school in a prosperous New England town ; here note-books are used in the classes, and there are special topics for investigation, supplementary talks by the instructor and by members of the class, assignments and reports of collateral reading in history and literature, and debates on points upon which opinions or authorities diffei-. The third school, an endowed acad- emy of a high grade, presents a systematic four-years program, covering successively Greek, Eoman, English, and American history, with extensive parallel reading and much written work throughout. These accounts, and those of similar schools, seem to show that good teaching of history is obtainable under present conditions, and that it is safe to recommend extended and systematic teaching of history with the expectation that some schools can at once adopt it in its entirety, and that it may gradually work its way into the system of American education. 25. Training of Teachers. " Above all, the teacher must keep up with the times in books, methods, lines of thought, and interest ... she must realize that the world is always passing on, and that, like Alice in Wonderland, she must run as fast as she can to keep where she is. . . . She must IIISTUKV, CIVIL GCJVKKNJIE.XT, AM) i'l )1,ITI( Al, ECONOMY. IS? keep herself in eonuectiou with the great teachers of her time." That this ideal is not reached is shown by the lack of preparation on the part of most teachers of histor}-. , In Germany such teachers are almost invariably specialists. Such subdivision is not uncommon in our large city high schools and academies ; but at present the work is very frequently divided up among teachers of other subjects, none of whom has any real interest in history. The opportunities of getting good historical training both by men and women are now such that, in the judgment of the Conference, all high schools and academies able to paj' good salaries ought to insist that the teacher of history should have " a knowledge of illuminating methods of teaching history." Even under unfavora- ble conditions we believe that too high a standard is not set up by Kesolutiou ID : •• Tliat in all schools it is desirable that history should be taught b\- teachers who have not only a fondness for historical study, but who also have paid special attention to effective methods of imparting instruction." In other woids it would be as sensible for schools to emplov a deaf and dumb person to teach read- ing, or to ask a Cherokee to teach Latin, as to depend for the teaching of history on persons who have not had special training in history. The supply of suitable candidates is now, or soon will be, such that no School Board need put up with incompetent teachers of history. What is to be done with the teachers alread}' iu service who cannot take even a year of special study ? Some sj'stem of special teachers' courses must be devised, with practical work going on during the school jear. When it is established there will doubtless still be some bad teaching, but it will be without excuse. In the smaller high schools the problem is more difficult, because the teachers are fewer and must divide their time among several subjects ; in such cases the first step is to employ teachers with a good all-round train- ing, with some preparation on each suliject the}' undertake, in preference to those who have a smattering of man}' subjects. In the grammar schools the subjects are simpler, the collateral reading and illustrations easy to apply, and the necessary training is corres- pondingly less. , Perhaps the introduction of the '• departmental method " would improve the status of history in schools of that grade. Here, also, fair dealing requires that tiie teachers now in service have some opportunity to improve themselves. Is it not the duty of the universities in or near large cities to cooperate with the schools in establishing training courses.' IS,S ms'tOin , CIVIL GoVKIfXAFKNT, .\M> POLITICAL EGOMoJO'. 26. Lectures. What shall be the teflchef's method of imparting his superior knowledge? Shall it be by lectures? It is the general opinion of experienced teachers that history should begin with simple stories told to the child ; a little later the}' may read in books like Haw- thorne's Wonder Book, or Bulfinch's Age of Fable, or from the collections of stories on American and English historj'. It is onh"^ in the later stages of the course, if at all, that formal lectures are applicable to school instruction. One form of lecture is, however, both admissible and desirable ; it is well in a brief talk to present the substance of the next or of ap- proaching lessons, so as to suggest to the scholar the relations of the facts he is about to study. "In my presentation of a subject," writes a teacher, "I alwaj^s work from circumference to center. I sketch, first, the barest outlines of the whole, so that the pupils may see the bearing and feel the relative importance of the subject in hand. P^or instance, if we are studying the Hannibalic Wars, the pupils know that this is one of the seven or eight great wars by which Rome conquered the world, that the period of conquest is one of the four periods of the Roman republic, and that the republic is one of the three forms of development which the oijvernment of Rome assumed." Set lectures on the lesson, while ver}- suitable for colleges, ai'e not so well adapted to schools. To be useful they require elaborate note-taking, — a severe strain if well done, and if ill done produc- tive of mental dissipation. We incline to recommend only infor- mal talks which will explain the cause and effect of events, and which ma}- add interesting ilhistrations and comparisons to the lesson of the day, as it appears in the text-book. In the advanced grades, an interesting and profitable exercise is to call upon pupils to prepare lectures under the direction of the teacher ; on these, notes should be taken by the other pupils. If the subject is then reviewed at another exercise bj' the teacher, both the pupil, lecturer, and hearers will be quickened. 27. Text-Books. In Resolution 20 we recommend : " That after the first two years a suitable text-book or text-books should be used, but only as a basis of fact and arrangement, to be supplemented by other methods." Since the text-book is, and ought to Jje, the center of the study of history in schools, a good text-book is essential. This simple and HISTORY, CIVIL GOVEEX.MENT, AND POLITICAL KCO.NOMV. LSII self-evident principle is not carefully observed. A rougli analysis of tlie books nsed in one hundred and forty-nine high schools hcems to show tliat seventy-six have poor books. Tke criteria of a good text- book are : first, that it should be written by an expert in the subject, who knows what to save and what to throw away ; second, that it should be arranged in a convenient form, with running headings, tables of contents, indexes, and other aids ; third, that it should deal with the essentials of history, avoiding acconnts of military events, or the mere outline of political discussions ; fourth, that it should be embellished with numerous and correct maps to which repeated refer- ence should be made in the text ; fifth, tliat it should be interesting to the average reader, and lightened by suitable illustratious and quota- tions from contemporary authorities. A few text-books possess most of these characteristics, but the present system of selecting or of placing text-books in the schools does not seem to give suitable jne- ference to the better books. In tlie judgment of the Conference a text-book ought to be something more than the mere development -of a "story," it ought to include something on the social ana economic side, as well as on the political ; and it ought to refer to, and facilitate, ouiside reading and the preparation of topics. We recommend further that a practice be established in the schools of using two, three, or four parallel text-books at a time. (Resolu- tion 21). By preparing in different books, or, by using more than one book on a lesson, pupils will acquire the habit of comparison, and tlie no less important habit of doubting whether any one book covers the ground. The practical difficulties are few ; where school lioards buj- text-books four sets of ten books each cost no more than one set of forty books ; where pupils buy their own books classes may be divided into three or four groups, the members of each group provid- ing themselves with the same book. 28. Recitations. What is learned in the text-books ought in most cases to be brought home to the mind in recitations, which should be less a test of faith- fulness than a supplement to the reading. It is better to omit history altogether than to teach it in the old-fashioned way, by setting pupils painfully to reproduce the words of a text-book, without comment or suggestion on the teacher's part. The first duty of the teacher is to emphasize the essential points in the book, to show, if possible, what is the main thing worth remembering in the lesson of the day. It is also a dutj- to point out thing|^ which the writer of the text-book has inserted, but which, in the teacher's judgment, may safely be 190 HISTORY, CIVIL GOVERNMENT, AND POLITICAL ECONOMY. neglected. Few teachers have the courage to do what a member of the Conference recently saw done in class : to tell the children to "pass over Appius Claudius and the sacred chickens because they were of little account." The teacher may have underestimated the historical value of legend ; but she sent home to the minds of her pupils the wholsomee thought that not all is essential that appears in print. Again, the questions in a recitation ought not to demand from the pupils a bald repetition of the jjhrases or ideas of the book, but ought to call for comparison and comment. The questions ought constantly to go forward and backward, to bring up points of com-" parison from previous lessons, and to bring in illustrations from other parallel subjects. A course in American history ma}' be made doubly interesting bj' frequent cross references to previously studied Greek and Roman history ; and a course in English historj' is enriched by illnstrations from English literature. Here is the place where the teacher's superior knowledge and trainings tells ; here is the place also for stirring up the minds of the pupils. How far should pupils be expected to memorize? " A few things should be learned by heart and, when forgotten, learned again, to serve as a firm ground work upon which to group one's knowledge : without knowing the succession of dynasties, or of sovereigns, or of presi- dents, or the dates of the great constitutional events, the pupil's stock of information wijl have no more form than a jelly-fish." But those few necessary facts ought to be clearly defined as only a framework to assist the meniorj". The pupil's stock of material is to be kept in mind not by calling for it in glib recitations devoid of thought, but by constantly framing questions which will require for an answer a knowledge of the necessary facts ; thus, a comparison between Henry VIII and Charles I requires a pupil to remember the essential dates and events of both reigns, and their relations of cause and effect. 29. Further Suggestions as to Recitations. An excellent suggestion is that of "open text-book recitations," in which with their books before them, pupils are asked questions on cause and effect, on relations with previous lessons, etc. ; answers, may, if necessary, be written out and corrected in class. Such an exercise trains pupils to take in the thought of a printed page, and to grasp the essential jDoints. Such a system tends to encourage the habit of applying what one knows to a new problem. Still more helpfnl in the same direction are the oflf-hand discussions and impromptu debates which spring up HISTOKV, CIVIL (iOVEKN.MENT, AND POLITICAL ECONOMY. 191 in an eager class and which should be encouraged b}- every good teacher. In man} .schools there are systems of review, too often perfunctory repetitions of what was dull when first recited. Some system is per- haps necessary to recall the attention to the relations of the parts of the subject. Two Jielpful substitutes for the ordinary review may be mentioned. The first is that of '-fluent recitations." "The pupil is given the entire subject, for instance the Homeric Age, the Conquest of Italy by Eome, the Early Xorman Kings, the New England Colonies. To recite these 'fluents* are the special glory of the class ; the brilliant recitation that holds the interest of all the pupils, although the subject is familiar, is one that is espeeiall}- prized. After the ' fluent' is finished it is criticised as to matter aud manner ; the English, the attitude, and intonation of the reciter all coming under fire, as well as the historical matter." The second device is thus described. " But a very important part of the work yet remains — the fixing of the whole indelibly on the mind. This is attempted bj- what .... are called ' cards' /. e. a raking fire of short, sharp questions every morning to which a prompt direct answer is required, or the dread ' next,' ' next,' ' next ' is heard. To fail in cards is thought a great disgrace, for they are taken up onl}- when the subject has been most carefullj- explained, and failure in them is an evidence of unfaithfulness on the part of the pupil." .... These systems are admirable if applied so as to teach pupils to combine what they know, and to bring their knowledge to bear on unforeseen problems. Another form of recitation is the written exercise repeated at fre- quent intervals : a single, properlj' framed question given at the begin- ning or end of each recitation, with ten minutes to answer it in writing, will train pupils in the habit of combining and applying their own information. For such an exercise questions involving comparison are well adapted. A good question would be, to make up a list of the sovereigns of England who were born out of the realm ; or, after a lesson on the English in India, might come the question whether the occupation of India had been a good thing for the English nation. The blackboard is used in some schools ; the recitation begins with an analysis of the subject for the daj-, prepared by the teacher, and written out beforehand, or written by a pupil in the presence of the class. This, of course, emphasizes the teacher's own subdivision of the subject, as contrasted with that of the text-book, and breaks up the feeling that facts in order to be accurate can be stated in onlj' one order. A few test-books have been prepared with topical 192 HLSTOKV, CIVIL GOVEKNMEIST, AND I'OLITIOAL ECONOMY. analyses of this kind, and in a good school pupils are sometimes called upon themselves to prepare a suitable analysis for the criticism of the teacher and of the class (§ 32). To sum up their recommendations on this point, the Conference is of the opinion that text-books must continue to be used, but that they should be carefully selected, and that the pupil should have the constant use of at least two different books ; that the recitations upon them should not consist of an historical catechism, but should be made up of suggesti-we questions requiring a comparison and com- bination of different parts of the pupil's material; and that the proper relations and proportions of that material may be promoted by some system of rapid recitation, with criticism by teacher and class. 30. Reading. Recitations alone, however, cannot possibly make up proper teach- ing of history. It is absolutely necessary, from the earliest to the last grades, that there should be parallel reading of some kind. In Resolution 19 we recommend: "That in the first two j'ears oral instruction in biography and mythology should be supplemented by the reading of simple biographies and mythological stories." The numerous historical readers and selections of stories and poems now offer a large amount of suitable introductory matter ; when regular text-book work begins, this system of parallel reading should be con- tinued. "The sooner we can get a boy into touch with something else than a hand book, the better." This principle is expressed in Resolution 21. " That pupils should be required to read or learn one other account besides that of the text-book, on each lesson." Such parallel reading must necessarily take two forms : in the first place, the use of distinct historical literature bearing immediately on the subject in hand; and, secondly, the use of miscellaneous literature, poems, historical novels, and biographies. The system of more elaborate reading is well describee}, as follows : " The class work should be as elastic as possible, that it maj' adapt itself to the different kinds of minds. I must surely give my brightest pupils food enough, for a teacher's greatest fault is starving her children, yet I must not crowd the weaker ones. . . . Certain books bearing upon the subject in hand are designated to the pupils ; every one is required to read something outside her daily work, and the better scholars are expected to read more. A special report of the work done is handed in Monday^ morning, with the private vote-books containing a topical analj'sis of what has been read and original remarks upon it. The reports and note-books are examined and commented upon by the teacher." HISTORY, CIVIL GOVEKNMENT, AND POLITICAL ECOMiAIV. 193 31. Material for Reading. Such a system, of course, requires a cousiderable school library. Out of one hundred and fifty-one high schools whose methods have been examined, only about fifty appear to have a good library of ordinary reference books, and only about forty a general library of comparative historical literature. Yet to provide a collection of books suitable for school work is not an expensive process : one hundred dollars, or fifty dollars, or even twenty dollars properly applied, will furnish a reserve of historical literature for the use of the pupil. In addition, of course, every special subject ought to have a little galaxy of standard books grouped about it. Kesolutiou 27 reads : " That a collection of reference books, as laige as the means of the school allow, should be provided for every sT, AM> I'l lUTICAL KCo.NdMY. I'.j.j file and may be inferred to for later reportb. The method tends to train pupils to use bibliographical aids, the short-eiits to historical material. The second general system of ^vi-itteu work in connection with history is set forth in Resolution 23 : " That the teaching of history should be intimately connected with the teaching; of English . . . Ijy writing English compositions on subjects drawn from the historical lessons." In few schools has this connection between the two Ivindred branches been established. The necessary work of reading parallel references may thus be made to serve a double turn, and the amount of reading may be correspondingly increafccil. Your Con- ference need not dwell npon the importance of such a connection, as developing both tlie power of exprcbsiun. and the power of dealing with historical material. 33. The Topical Method. The third general system of written work is the preparation of topics; Resolution •>2 reads: -'That the method of study by topics be strongly recommended, as tending to stimulate pupils and to en- courage independence of judgment." Resolution 20 adds: "That in all practicable ways, an effort should be made to teach the pupils in the later years to discriminate between authorities, and especiallj- between original sources and secondary works." It is not expected that pupils in grammar or high schools are to be historical writers, or that they are to suppose that thej- are carrying out historical investi- gation to its widest extent ; but we confidently and urgently recom- mend the use of this historical method because of its peculiar educational value. It is the sj'stem in use in German schools of a corresponding grade, and sfccounts in part for the development of historical investigation in that country. One year of the eight-year cour.-,e has been set apart for what has been called "'the intensive study of history," i. e., the more minute and careful stud}' of some limited period, with as much use of the sources as is practicable. (§15.) The topical system can, of course, be applied in that j'ear, but it is applicable throughout the course, especially in the latter half. The first point to notice is. that the topical method requires the pupils to do part of the work, and, in well advanced courses, it may very sensibly' relieve the teacher from the necessity of minute investigation of the whole ground for himself. In the next place, the topical method may be so emploj-ed as to introduce the pupil to the sources, which are the life of history. Two sorts of work are combined under the single title of the t»pical method . In the first place it may be nsed as a system of 196 HISTORY, CIVIL GOVERNMENT, AND R()LITICAL ECONO:Mr. division of labor, the topics taken togetl}er covering substantially the whole ground of the course ; and recitations may then be held upon the topics, taking advantage of the special prei)aratiou of one student on each topic. "In selecting topics, care should be taken to make them ro\er only one simple subject. Questions should not be assigned about which no definite information is to be had. . . . Biography Ifends itself easily to this method ; any number of subjects of about equal difficulty may be found, and it is easy to secure a lucid, well arranged report. Where the topics are numerous, the teacher owes it to his pupils to give them a good outfit of specific directions and specific references ; for an occasional theme it is an excellent plan to turn a pupil loose into a library ; but where he is expected to learn something valuable about his topic in a short time, he must not be discouraged bj' the mass of books ; he must have his clue. . . . The return of the work in the precise outward form required should be insisted upon, because it is of much importance to be able to put information into a shape useful to another person, and the labor of handling the papers is thus greatlj^ reduced, There is plenty of room for personalitj' in the choice of books and the selec- tion and arrangement of facts, (xreat care must be taken to prevent the pupil from simply reproducing what he finds in one or several books. From the very outset the pupil should be taught always to append a brief bibliographic-il note, setting forth the source of his information and giving exact references to volume and page. Bright scholars may criticize each other's work ; and the selection of the best papers to be read in class will be a reward." The method thus described in general terms is widely applicable to schools of almost every grade in which history can be taught at all. Perhaps the principal objection is the necessary correction of the written work ; here, as in other written exercises, a great deal may be done by exchanging papers among the pupils and calling for criticism of pupil upon pupil ; or by taking up topical exercises and criticising them in class with the help of the class. The second purpose of the topical method is the study of sources. Says a member of the Conference : "The original sources are often more delightful reading than the most striking descriptions of Gibbon, or Taiue, or Macaulay, and in many cases quite as ready at hand. The real short-cut which leaves hundreds of volumes of formal history at one side, if we are really intent upon getting the greatest good from our work, lies through the study of the sources. Unconsciously moulded as these are by the spirit of the time in which they were written, every line gives by innuendo an insight into the period which tlie author certiiiuly never intended, and which volumes HISTORY, CIVIL GO\EKN JIKXT, AMi roi.lTICAL KCOMIMV. 1!»7 of analysis can never reproduce. The mere information, too, comes in a form which we cannot forget if we try." Xo part of historical education does so much to train the pupil as the search for material, the weighing of evidence, and the combining of the results thus obtained in a statement put into a form useful to other persons. Collections of suitable material are already numerous, and" are rapidly increasing. To make such a system successful it is necessary that no two members of a given class shall have the same topic ; this precaution gives to the pupil the agreeable sense of a separate and independent piece of investigation. Of course the topics must be very limited in scope ; the writing of elaborate theses and mono- graphs in the schools is not to be commended ; all the good results can be had by a succession of brief pieces. The material to be used may comprise the local records, which, in the towns possess- ing them, have seldom been carefully used. Occasionally families have a little store of manuscripts ; or such collections are to be found in local libraries. The main dependence, however, must alwaj's be on printed records such as the Colonial Records of the older States of the Union ; the calendars of British State papers ; the State and national statutes ; the United States printed collections of documents ; the correspondence and other writings of statesmen ; elaborate biographies and reminiscences, town and county histories ; periodicals and old newspapers. The work is within the reach of good teachers, without very elaborate or expensive apparatus. 34. Illustrative Methods. All methods of teaching history maj' be made more effective by having the proper surroundings, and bj' making use of illustrations drawn from the experience of the community. An attractive class- room is an incentive to historical study. In many schools something may be done by encouraging the pupils to bring in historical pic- tures ; these may be of every degree of value from rough wood-cuts taken out of daily papers to portraits and engravings of historical scenes, and photographs of famous places or buildings. In one school the teacher has a large collection of pictures cut from illus- trated newspapers and pasted on cards. In choosing text-books care ought always to be taken to see that its illustrations, if there are any, represent something real ; pupils are sometimes quick to see historical inconsistencies. A picture in a well known historical text- book purports to represent Braddock's headquarters ; but in the foreground is a flag-staff with the stars and stripes displayed. Tlie use of the magic lantern is becoming more and more common as a 198 iiis'coifv, (wviL (jovei;naii:\t, am) j-oLiircAL KcOiXO.Aiv. means of instruction, ana where scliools have not the opportunity to maite a collection of slides for themselves, they may often call in lecturers for occasional illustrated talks, or may avail themselves of University Extension or other eoui-ses of lectures. Next in importance come accounts of historical places from those ■who have visited them. Any class may be intei-ested in an account of the city of Washington and of the Houses of Congress in session, especially if illustrated by graphic aids. In many places, however, the historic scenes are at hand, and all that is necessary is to point them out to the class, although not every city is so fortunate as that which possesses the Washington elm, the Longfellow house, and the James Russell Lowell mansion. The study of history may also be made a means for those rambling excursions which should do much for the health of the children. Where historical places are lacking there are often interesting collections ; the larger cities have art museums, which are invaluable for the light they throw upon ancient history ; and many cities have libraries with rare and interesting books. Everywhere there is the opportunity of illustrating history and particularly civil government, by the local government of the place (§ 18). Another means of illustration is to set debates on subjects which occur in the lessons. School debating societies are very common, and might be made still more instructive, if pains were taken always to set questions which permitted the debaters to use their own judg- ment and knowledge. An excellent device iu such debates is to require each side to submit prelirainarj' written briefs, with arguments arranged iu logical form and provided with specific reference to authorities. Of a similar value are mock legislatures, parliaments, conventions, and diplomatic congresses, — an interesting form of object lessons. (§ 1^.) Finally, history ought constantly to be illustrated by reference to the lives of great men. This is the opportunity for ethical training. Boys who cannot understand the development of the Athenian con- stitution, and who painfully learn and easily forget the military details of the Greek wars, may be animated with interest over Themistocles, or Cicero, or Charlemagne, or Luther, or John Wilkes, or John C. Calhoun, or Abraham Lincoln. In Germany, the pupil " goes over universal history three times in as many different ways. The first time, all history is encompassed by what may be called the biographical method." Biography is not all of history, because even the incidents of great lives arc important chiefly in their relations to each other ; but biography clings to the memory, and a later, more sys- tematic study will show the connection with national development. IILSTOKV, CIVIL «UM;K.\31E-NT, A.NU I'OLITICAL KCUNOMV. VJ'J 35. Historical Geography. " Geographj', tbe twin sister of history, has, as j'et, had but a cold reception in the historical familj- ; only about one half the schools make the stud}' what it should be, an essential and integral part of the study of ever}- period." Our recommendation on this subject is set forth in Resolution 2.j, " That the study of history should be con- stantly associated with tlie study of topography and political geog- raphy, and should be supplemented by the study of historical and commercial geography, and the drawing of historical maps." This resolution suggests three directions in which the study of geography may be made a helpful adjunct to history. In the first place, from the beginning of geographical study, attention should be paid to the physical outline of each country, not oolj' with reference to its productions, but to the movement of races, the progress of settle- ment, and the establishment of centres of population. For instance, it should be shown how the commercial greatness of Chicago and of New York depend on a simple fact in American physical geographj' — -their position at the head and foot of a system of water communi- cation ; the indented coast of Xew England should suggest how thrifty little sea-ports came to be established there ; the relation of the Yosges Mountains to the Alps is a guide to the successive migra- tions of nations across Europe. From the beginning, the teacher should attempt to connect physical geography with the present political condition of the world ; and, in like manner, the study of political geography should constantly bring in the physical features. The second geographical method consists in putting before pupils for constant use wall-maps and historical atlases. So little is this necessity understood that in no other civilized country are good and cheap maps so rare ; and onr school atlases are notoriously inferior to those of France and Gennany. In the use of maps, good or bad, there is an opportunity for the use of judgment; a mere reference to a place on a map on which the surface shows no physical relief does little to impr^s its position. Fof instance, the important geographical fact about the city of Rome is not that it lay in Latiiim, rather than in Etruria, but that it could control the trade of the Tiber valley, and, at the same time, was so far inland as to be free from attacks of pirates. The reason for its growth once learned, the site will never be forgotten. An excellent system in class is for a pupil to follow the recitation, pointing out on the wall-map the places as they are mentioned b}' the reciter. A third and very efficient method of geographical training is the use of outline maps. " "U"e buy outlines." says a teacher, " and strive 200 HlSTOliY, CIVIL GOVEUNMENT,.ANU POLITICAL ECOXOMY. to set forth upon them as many subjects as lend themselves to such modes of representation. I should be at loss, without them, to make attractive the geography of Greece with its multitude of new names so hard to the junior mind, the migrations, the different eras of colon- ization, etc. But with maps it becomes very pleasant work. Maps are also especially interesting in showing the development and decay of tlie Roman empire, and the rise and growth of modern nations. . . . In everj' recitation in historj' eveiy child has an open atlas upon his desk, and not only are all the places carefuU}' looked np, but the effects of physical environments are constantly noted." B3' outline maps is not here meant the exasperating system of skewering the boundaries of countries upon an artificial geometrical scaffolding; but the use of maps having printed upon them tlie simple outlines of the country, the pupil to insert important places in their proper relations. This system is not unreasonably expensive, and pupils should be taught to feel that maps thus made are not simplj- exercises to be thrown away, but that by preserving them they may bring together a little special geographical atlas of their own. Mere copying from larger maps is an exercise without discipline, and is of no aid to the memory ; in order to get the advantage of the geographical study each^child must make up his map from a variety of sources. Map making thus becomes a kind of topical work, but a sort in which most children find a peculiar delight and stimulus. VII. Summary. In conclusion, your Conference begs to recapitulate a few of the points in the above report which we wish especially to emphasize. We believe that the subjects upon which we have reported ought to receive at least as much attention as they now receive in the best and most carefully taught schools, and considerably more than in the present average schools. A part of the time necessary for this change can be had by bringing the study of English and of geography into closer relations with the study of history, ^ye strongly. urge that the historical course be continuous from year to year, and in this respect be placed upon the same footing as other substantial subjects. We urge a closer co-ordination of the work in civil government and political economy with that in history. We especially recommend such a choice of subjects as will give pupils in the grammar schools an opportunity to study tlie history of other countries, and to the high schools one year's study on the intensive method. As to methods, we have to suggest only the use of the methods which, in good schools, are now accustoming pupils to think for them- HISTORY, CIVIL GO\'EKNMEXT, AND POLITICAL ECONIJMV. 201 selves, to put together their own materials, to state their results, to compare one series of events with another series and the historj- of one country with that of another. Finally, we urge that only teachers who have had adequate special training shall be employed to teach these important subjects. Respectfullj- submitted, CHARLES KENDAiL ADAMS, President of Ihe University of Wisconsin, Chairman. EDWARD O. BOURNE, Professor of History, AJeibert College. ABRAM BROWN, Principal of the Central High School, Columbus, Ohio. RAY GREENE IIULING, Principal of the High School, New Bedford, Mass. JESSE JIACY, Professor of Political Science, loira College. JAMES HARVEY ROBINSON, Associate Profes- sor of European History, University of Penn- sylvania. WILLIA:M a. SCOTT, Assistant Professor of Political Economy, University of Wisconsin. HENRY P. WARREN, Head Master of The Albany Academy. WOODROW WILSON, Professor of Jurisprudence and Political Economy, Princeton College. ALBERT BUSHNELL HART, Assistant Professor of History, Harvard University, Secretary. 202 IIISTOKY, CIVIL CiOVKUNMENT, AND I'OLlTKiAL ECONOiVIY. APPENDIX. ANSWERS TO THE QUESTIONS OF THE COMMITTEE OF TEN. Specilie answers to the nine questions may be found by referring to the report and accompanying resohitions as follows : 1. In the school course of study extending approximately from the age of six years to eighteen years — a course including the periods of both elementary and secondary instruction — at what age should the study which is the subject of the Conference be first introduced? At about nine or ten j-ears : Resolutions 13, 14 ; Report, § G. 2. After it is introduced, how many hours a weeli for how many years should be devoted to it? Not less than three exercises per week during eight j'ears ; or, under special circumstances, during six j'ears : Resolutions 14-17; Report, §§7-9. 3. How manj- hours a week for how man}"^ years should be devoted to it during the last four years of the complete course ; that is, during the ordinary high school period? Three hours per weeli during four years of the higli school course ; or, in special circumstances, three years : Resolutions 14-16 ; Report, §§ 8-10. 4. What topics, or parts, of the subject may reasonabl3- be covered during the whole course ? This question is answered in the proposed curriculum : Resolu- tions 2-10, 14, 16 ; Report, §§ 10, 10-19. 5. What topics, or parts, of the subject may best be reserved for the last four years? The opinion of the Conference is shown by the curriculum proposed : Resolutions IP., 14, IG, 28-30 ; Report, §§ 12-19. 6. In what form and to what extent should the subject- enter into college requirements for admission? Such questions as the suffi- ciency of translations at sight as a test of knowledge of a language, or the superiority of a laboratory examination in a scientific subject to a written examination on a text-book, are intended to be sug- gested under this head by the phrase "in what form?" Methods of college examinations are suggested in Resohitions 32, 33; Report, §§20, 21. HISJOKY, CIVIL G<>\ KKNMEN I , AM) I'OHTKAL i:r()X(>MV. ^iV. 7. Should the subject be treated differeutlj- for pupils who an going to college, for those wlio aie going to a scientific school, ane for those who, presumably, are going to neither? We are unanimously against making such a distinction : Reaolu Hon 31 ; Bepnrt. §§ -2. 11. 8. At what age should this differentiation begin, if any bi recommended? There should be no differentiation : Ji insolation 31 ; Report, §§ 2, 11 9. Can an}- description be given of the best method of teaching thi; subject throughout the school course? The subject is discussed in HcS'ilutions 18-30 ; Jlcport, §§ 23-3.') The essentials are : trained tea<'hers : good text-books ; suggestive recitations ; outside reading ; written work, especiall}' in eonnectioi with English composition ; topical stud}' ; suitable illustrative material and historical geography intelligently taught. 10. Can any description be given of the best mode of testin; attainments in this subject at college admission examinations? A recommendation of examination questions requiring thought an( the acceptance of satisfactory written work as a part of the evidenc of preparation appears in Resohdions 32, 33 ; Report, §§ 20, 21. 11. For those cases in which colleges and universities permit division of the admission examination into a preliminarj' and a finfi examination, separated by at least a year, can the best limit bet wee: the preliminarj' and the final examinations be approximatelj' defined The Conference suggests that history be reserved for the fin.i examinations : Rpsolutiou 34 ; Ri'iiort, § 22. GEOGTIAPHY. President Chari.es W. Eliot, Chairman of Committee of Ten, Nationat, EuucATiONAr, Association: — Dear Sir, — The members of the Conference on geography (embrac- ing geology and meteorology) appointed by 3-our committee, held sessions on December 28th, 29th and 30th, at the Cook County Normal School, as designated by j'ou, and gave careful consideration to the questions submitted to them. They beg leave to submit the following report : — Relations of the Subject. It was found difficult to define strictly the scope of geography on account of its intimate relations with, and gradations into, geological, meteorological, zoological, botanical, historical, political, and other sciences. Geography is an important factor in all these, and thej^ in turn enter as factors into a comprehensive study of it. It is impos- sible to draw any sharp divisional lines, and the Conference have found it practicable to indicate in a limited degree onlj', by sugges- tions, how far these several associated subjects should be brought into the study of geography, as such, and how far, on the other hand, the geographical element in each of these should be left to be taught in connection with them, as separate sciences. While it did not seem to the Conference advisable to greatly modify the range of subjects usually embraced under the term geography, thej' recommend a more distinct recognition of its different phases and some modifications of treatment for the purpose of giving these greater emphasis and more advantageous relations to other work, as indicated below. Fok:mal Divisions and Distribution op the Subject. General Elementary Geography. There are important reasons for devoting the work of the earlier and intermediate years to those features of geography which will be most serviceable to the majority of pupils without regard to any sharp classification, because these are the only j'ears during which many pupils remain in school. The earlier courses should, therefore, treat broadly of the earth and its environment and inhabitants. Tne instruction should extend freely into fields which' are recognized as belonging to separate sciences in later years of study. It should deal not only with the face of the earth but with elementary considerations in astronomy, meteorology, zoology, botany, history, commerce, governments, races, religions. (,EO(iU*r)IY. 2(K") etc., so far as these are eiuinected with geography. I'nless this admixture of subjects i,, iiichided iindm- the elementarj' courses of geography many scholars will not gain a knowledge of even the outlines of these imiiortaut subjects. AiipUed' Geor/i-'iplii/. But when this enmnion groundwork is laid, there is a distinct advautay;e in a gradual differeiitiatiuu of the sub- ject. Si line of its [iliases may be best disconnected from the formal study of geography and taken up in connection with the subjects to which they are most intimatel}' related. For example, the geograph- ical element in history is best understood, appreciated, and retained in memory when taken in connection with historical studj-. The distribution of plants and animals will ouly have its fullest meaning when studied in connection with the nature of the plants and animals themselves : that is. as a phase of botany or zoology. L'ufortunatelj- our works in botany and zoolog}- are very defective in this respect. The Conference would urge that this serious fault be remedied. In general, all forms of applied geography are most advantageously taken in connection with their applications, provided that a general knowledge of elemeutarj- geography has been previously acquired, as indicated above. Physical Geor/rrqjJnj and Physi'igraphy. On the other hand, the special subject of geography should take on a more advanced form and should relate more speciflcalh- to the features of the earth's sur- face, the agencies that produce and deslro}' them, the environing conditions under which tliese act, and the physical influences bv which man and all the creatures of the earth are so j^rufoundh' affected. This has usually been designated physical geugi:ipliy. There is an advanceil and modernized phase of it. however, which the majority of the committee prefer to designate physiograiihy, not because the name is important, Init because it emphasizes a special and important phase of the subject and of its treatment. The scientilic investigations (jf the last decade have made ver\' important additions to physiographic knowledge and methods of study. These are indeed so radical as to be properly regaided, perhaps, as revolutiouar}'. Unfortunately they are not j-et incorporated in textbooks, in any large degree, nor are thev, even in scientific treatises, collected into a form readily available for the use of the teacher. As yet they are widely scatti;red through various scientific publications, lint this condition will doubt- less bfe improved at an early date. ^leanwhile, it is thought best that phj-sical geography should be taught, by tlie aid of the best eleraen- tarj' textbooks now available, as the last geographic course previous to the high school, and that there should be introduced into tlie high- 2()(i (iEfXJRAPHY. school course either physiography, geology, or meteorology as the representative of the geographic line of studies, which may be broadly characterized as that which relates to the physical environment of man. Possibly more than one of these may be practicable in some high schools, when alternative or elective studies are offered. As this line of study develops into better form and expression, .physical geography will probably come to signify a stage of differen- tiation and a method of treatment intermediate between that of common geography and that of physiography, and the latter will represent that more advanced treatment which belongs to the higher courses. But without regard to what may be the terminology of the future (which is not very important in itself), the majority of the Conference wish to impress upon the attention of teachers the fact that there has been developed within the past decade a new and most important phase of the subject, and to urge that they hasten to acquaint themselves with it and bring it into the work of the school- room and of the field. The ground to be covered by physiography, when introduced as a high school study, may be indicated by the following topics : ^ The wasting of the land surfaces, the transportation of the waste to the sea, and its deposition on the marginal sea bottoms ; a brief account of the more common minerals and rocks in their relation to wasting ; the changes of river action during the progress of land denudation ; the relations of lakes, waterfalls, divides and their migration, flood- plains, deltas, etc., to the stage of river-development in which they are observed ; the development of shore lines and the variation of their features under the long continued action of the shore waves ; the interruptions of the normal progress of denudation and shore action by depression, elevation, or deformation; and by volcanic actiou or by climatic change, including briefly the effects of glacial action. The various kinds of land forms, as plains, plateaus, moun- tains, volcanoes, should be considered in accordance with the con- structional processes involved in their origin and with the system of development above outlined ; and their distribution over the earth should be briefly sketched. The better known land areas, and espe- cially our home country, should be described in accordance with the development of the various geographical elements of which they are constituted. Xo attempt should be made to describe the whole world in this way, because the subject is too large for high-school treatment ; but the conviction that all land areas are constituted of geographical elements in various stages of development should be ' Tlie subject will be further developed under tlie head of method. (;e(Jgkai'hv. -207 enforced by frequent mention of examples of different kinds in various parts of the world. Sufficient account of climate should be given to introduce an intelligent consideration of the conditions that determine the distribution of life ; but this should be made relatively subordinate to the main theme, namely, the geography of the lands. The associated study of tlie oceans should be relatively brief. It should give a condensed account of the ocean basins, recognizing the deep continuous basins of the great oceans, the enclosed mediterra- neans, and the continental shelves ; of the conditions of the ocean bottoms ; of the composition and deep currents of the sea, and of the tides. The relation of these conditions to the distribution of oceanic life may be briefly introduced. Unless an additional course on meteorology is offered, a sufficient practical use of the weather ]uaps should be introduced into the course of physiographj' to furnish the scholars with a knowledge of tlie general principles of weather changes and forecasts. Meteorology. Since the establishment of the national Weather Bureau, meteorology has not only been greatlj- advanced as a system- atic science, but it has become a subject of wide popular interest. This, together with its importance as a factor of geographj-, moves the committee to recommend that meteorology be introduced as an elective study for half a year in the third or fourth year of the high- school course, when practicable. Elementary phj-sics should precede it. It should be opened bj' local observations of the passing weather changes, accompanied by a studj' of a series of dail}- weather maps, and the application of j^hysical principles to explain the general phenomena of the atmosphere should follow. Local observations should be carried further in this course than the}' extended in earlier years, especially regarding the sequence of phenomena in Ihe atmos- phere and the correlation of various weather elements. The studj- of weather maps, already familiar objects from the less systematic study of earlier years, should now reach to the clear understanding and description of the distribution of temperature and jjressure, flow of the winds, and occurrence of clear, cloudy, rainy or snowy areas ; and to a careful induction of generalizations by which various phe- nomena are connected ; for example, the correlation of the direction and velocity of the winds with the value of the barometric gradient ; or of areas of high or low pressure with the spiral outflowing or in- flowing winds and the areas of clear or cloudy and rainy skj'. The effect of the progression of these areas of high and low pressure on local weather changes and their value in weather prediction should be made clear ; practical exercises should be given in this connection, as will be more fully explained in a later section. During the advance 208 GEOGRAPHY. of local observation and study of the weather maps, instruction should be given on the more general relations of the science, in which the following headings are the most important: Composition and offices of the atmosphere ; arrangement of the atmosphere around the earth under the action of gravity ; the nature of solar energy and its distribution over the earth and through the year ; the different action of solar energy on air, land, and water ; the mean annual and seasonal distribution of temperature over the earth ; the processes of local and general convection ; evaporation, humidity, clouds, rainfall ; the dis- tribution of atmospheric pressure, and the general circulation of the atmosphere, as modified by the annual march of the sun north and south, and by the influences of the continents ; storms, both cyclonic and local ; weather changes and their prediction ; climate, zones, and their relation to habitation. Oeology. So soon as it shall be practicable to introduce an eflfec- tive course in modern physiography into the high school, it will probably not be advisable to give a course in geology also, except in special cases where the teacher is unusualh' well prepared to teach the subject and the locality affords special advantages. At present, however, the material and the methods of geology are better known to teachers than those of either physiography (in the modern sense) or meteorology, and its literature is in better form :for school use. Until, therefore, physiography and meteorology are developed into good working forms and teachers are adequately trained in them, the Conference recommend that geologj- be offered as an elective study for a half year in the last j'ear of .the high school. Unless either physiog- rapliy or geology is retained in the high school and given vitality and efficiency, a serious danger tlireatcns the whole geographic line of study in the lower schools, for the great mass of teachers of geography have not taken courses beyond the high schools, and in the immediate future are not likely to go farther with their education, and if they are not taught the elementary processes and principles of these sciences there, they will have little real strength as teachers of geograplij". They cannot go much beyond mere facts and formalities. The high school must teach those things that are necessarj- to give efficiency to teaching in the lower grades or that teaching will suffer, for, great as is tlie work of the normal schools (and it should be greatlj' increased and its value urged by every iufluence at command) they cannot supply the great mass of teachers for tlic primary, intermediate, and grammar schools. Temporarily, therefore, the Conference recommend that geology be offered as an elective, in tlie hope that soon physiography and 'meteorology may take its place, leaving it to be transferred to normal schools and colleges. geoitEaphy. 209 As there must be a selection of topics, the committee recommend that the nature of the processes involved in the formation and modi- fication of the earth's surface, essentially as indicated under the head of physiography, be regarded as having the most vital importance both to the general student and the prospective teacher. Practical instruction in the field on surface forms, on the formation and natural occurrence of rocks, and on fossils should form a part of the work. Especial attention should be given to an intelligent interpretation of the textbook, which is liable to be meaningless to the scholars with- out it, however well it may be written. This can be done best by local illustrations, carefully examined by the class, for the purpose of giving typical conceptions and by the study of cabinet specimens. The result of the course should be as apparent in an increased appre- ciation of the facts of geology as exhibited in the neighborhood of the school, as in a knowledge of the general truths of the science of world-wide application. If, however, schools are not prepared to treat the subject with real intelligence and effectiveness, it is better not to oSei it at all. The natural order of geographic subjects seems, therefore, to be the foUowing : 1. Elementary Geography, a broad treatment of the earth and its inhabitants and institutions, to be pursued in the primary, inter- mediate, and lower grammar grades. 2. Physical Geography, a more special but still broad treatment of the phj-sical features of the earth, atmosphere and ocean, and of the foiTss of life and -their physical relations, to be pursued in later grammar grades. 3. Physiography, a more advanced treatment of our physical envi- ronment in which the agencies and processes involved, the origin, development, and decadence of the forms presented, and the signifi- cance of the features of the earth's face are the leading themes, to be pursued in the later high-school or early college years. 4. Meteorology, a specialized study of atmospheric phenomena, to be offered by schools that are prepared to do so properly, as an elective in the later high-school years. 5. Geology, a study of the earth's structure and its past histor}-, to be offered by schools prepared to do so properly, as an elective in the last year of the high-school course. The precise distribirtion of these divisions of the subject through the several grades of our schools can best be left to the judgment and discretion of those who have immediate charge of them, for their best 210 GEOGRAPHY. distribution depends, in a large degree, upon the preparation and ability of the teachers, the character of the school, the advancement and intelligence of the community (which greatly aids or retards the work of scholars) the local geographic surroundings, and the facilities for advantageous study both within and without the school. Each step should be satisfactorily taken before the next is A,ttempted. A rigid system which forces a class over a given ground in a given time without regard to their ability to cover it properly will not be helpful to the best results. In general, however, it is the judgment of the Conference that too much time is given to the subject in proportion to to the results secured. It is not their judgment that more time is given to the subject than it merits, but that either more should be accomplished or less time taken to attain it. In general, they believe the progress of the work is too slow, and that it will be both more interesting to the scholars and more successfully done if pushed with greater vigor. The work should move on earnestly and at a pace that makes the progress obvious to the scholars. Interest lags when the advance is too slow. Dawdling and dwelling on trivialities are among the great mistakes of the schoolroom. They are especially vicious when mistaken for thoroughness. The committee believe that the real acquisitions of pupils may be increased twofold, or threefold, or fourfold, by right methods and by earnest judicious pressing of the work, and hence, that the time given to geography may be somewhat shortened and yet higher attainments secured, and that a portion of the time thus saved, may be devoted to natural and human history, wherein, if they are properly treated, the geographic factor will be brought into its natural place and functions, and the pupils taught that most important of lessons, the utilization of their geographic knowledge. The Conference regard the subject of geography of equal importance with arithmetic in the primary and secondary schools, and entitled to equal time, but they think that a like remark concern- ing greater results in less time is applicable to the mathematical work. Okder op Treatment Based on Mental Processes. The foregoing suggestions relate to the succession of the formal divisions of the geographic line of studies and bear rather upon the arrangement of the school curriculum than upon the treatment of the topics involved. These formal divisions are based largely upon practical considerations and natural relationships, and take little account of the intellectual processes involved and their proper sequences. These latter, however, are the chief considerations in the mund of the conscientious and intelligent teacher, for the^' control the specific treatment of the subjects embraced in the study and GEOGEAPHT. 211 determine the habits of thought, and the modes of the work of the pupils. The teacher, therefore, needs for his own use (not to give his pupils nor to put in the curriculum) a more analj'tieal view of the subject based on the intellectual processes involved, a -view which may be an ever-present guide in the arrangement of details and the treatment of the special points of the subject. The Conference offer, by way of suggestion, the following scheme. The appended remarks bear in part upon the educational philosoph}- entertained, in part upon the purpose of the work, and part upon the methods of execution. Eeduced to a sentence the scheme is first, see ; next, reproduce ; then study the productions of others, and, meanwhile, ponder and reason on all. 1. Observational Geography. In the judgment of the Conference, observation should go before all other forms of geographical study and prepare the wa)' for them; its object being (1) to develop. the power and habit of geographic observation, (2) to give the pupils true and vivid basal ideas, and (3) to arouse a spirit of inquiry and a thirst for geographical knowledge. This work of observation should begin with those features that lie immediately about the pupils and so fall easih' within the reach of their direct study and ready comprehen- , sion. In rural districts, the natural features of the surface will obviously form a large part of the study, while in cities, the artificial features must largely take the place of these. In the one instance, natural geograplij-, as seen in the forms of the land, the 'hills, valleys, plains, meadows, divides, streams, lakes, etc., will predominate, while in the other artificial or humanistic geography will receive lead- ing attention, as streets, railways, whanes, harbors, parks, plots, wards, etc. ; but something of both these groups of subjects maj' be found and utilized in both localities. Neither should be neglected, for the pupils need not only to acquire clear ideas of the things by which they are chiefly surrounded but type ideas of the things which characterize other localities and /)f which thej- need to form correct ideas without being able to see them. Observation, however, should not be confined simply to the passive fixed features by which pupils are suiTOunded. They should observe the agencies that produce sur- face changes, such as winds, rains, floods, thawing, freezing, culti- vation, etc. The temporary streams that follow heavy rains represent on a small scale many of the natural processes by which sui-face features are produced. From these immediate agencies, the observa- tions should extend to the phenomena of the weather and theclimate, such as temperature, winds, clouds, seasons, etc. As a step toward the understanding of mathematical geography, so-called, the children should be led to observe the shifting of the sun north and south with 212 GEOGKAPHT. the seasons and to measure the amount of this by the length of shadows at noonday in the different months of the year. They should compare these by means of a record kept for the purpose. In like manner, they should observe the movements of the stars and other heavenly bodies. As a step toward the study of the distribu- tion of plants and animals and an insight into their dependence upon temperature, soil, food, etc., the pupils should be encouraged to observe the differences of plants on uplands, lowlands, marshes, etc., and upon sandy, clayej-, gravelly or stony ground, and to note the habitual dispersal of animals and insects in the neighborhood, and also their relations to each other, as in forming or frequenting forests, prairies, meadows, etc. As a step toward the study of the human elements in geography, observations should be made upon the popu- lation and its distribution, upon home occupations and productions, upon local political boundaries, as wards, school districts, city or town limits, etc., and upon the location of cities, villages, railways, canals,*etc. Thus, by a little ingenuity and industry, a large part of the features that make up the substance of geography in the large sense may be found illustrated close at home, and, if suitably studied, the basis may be laid for clear conceptions of those features which lie beyond the range of the child's observation. Observation should not only begin the work in geography but should continue throughout the entire course and beyond. If scholars are not educated so as to continually observe geographic features and note their significance whenever they are brought in contact with them, whether during school daj's or afterwards, the school work fails^of its most important possibilities. The pupils' first observational work is necessarily of the simpler and more superficial kind. As knowledge and insight increase, they should see more and more of the geographic phenomena that come before them and see deeper and deeper into their significance and receive increasing pleasure and profit from them*. To this end, every opportunity for observational work in geography should be eagerly embraced. Excursions for the special purpose should be made as frequently as practicable, formally or in- formally, in school hours and out of school hours, by classes and by individuals. Advantage should be taken of incidental excursions in which the class or any of its members participate. The little trips and longer travels of members of the class should be taken advantage of. Late in the course, special studies of certain geographic features maj^ be taken up with success and profit. 2. Representative Geography. Immediately after the making of observations should come their reproduction in the form of descrip- tions, sketches, maps, models, etc. The instruction of the teacher fiEOGRAPHY. 21? falls far short of its highest efflciencj- if the earlj- work is merelj observational and receptive. The great end of education is to create productive abilitj-. One important form of this is representative production. Besides having value in itself, the description oi features that have been seen and their representation bj' sicetches. •maps, or models reacts upon the observational work and induces s clearness, -sharpness, and definiteness that it would not otlierwise be likely to take. Not onlj' this, but it leads the scholars to realize wha1 maps, descriptions, etc.. reallj' mean. By this means, pupils are lead up naturally to an ability to read with vividness, ease, and ful understanding, the maps and descriptions which constitute the medium of the larger part of their later studies, and such ability tc read is of supreme importance in all subsequent work. 3. Derivative or Descriptive Geography. When pupils have gainec true and vivid basal ideas by observation and have, by reproducing these, acquired a realistic sense of the meaning of maps and an abil- ity to read them, in the full and proper sense of the term, they are prepared to pass on to a formal study of descriptive geography. Ir this, the observational and representative work of others than them- selves is made the basis of study. The pupils are not now studying the earth's surface but " a description of the earth's surface." The work is not direct and immediate, but derivative and secondary. The pupils cannot carr}' their own observations over more than a verj small fraction of the earth's surface and their work upon even this small portion must, in the nature of the case, be very imperfect- Their great dependence must, therefore, be upon the work of others, the work of geographical experts, and hence descriptive geography must embrace much the- largest portion of their attention. The qom- mon mistake is that it embraces too nearly all of it, and the observa- tional and reproductive efforts which are necessary to give the studj of descriptions its greatest serviceability are neglected. These shoulc be continued throughout the course running parallel with the descrip tive study and supplementing and vivifying it. 4. Rational Geography. It has already been urged that th( pupils should be induced to observe changes and processes as well ai the simple passive facts of geography, and that there should therebi be laid the foundation for an understanding of the origin, the devel opment, and the future history of geographic features. This is thi introduction of rational geography, as distinguished from the men noting and memorizing of facts. This phase of the subject whicl leads the pupils into the reason of things, should be assiduously cul tivated, for it is the soul of the science. It should, however, b carefully adapted to the capabilities of the pupils, particularly in tb 214 GEOGRAPHY. earlier stages of the study. They should not be forced beyond their capacity to comprehend the nature of the agencies that have rendered geography what it is. On the other hand, there is an equal danger of underestiraating the capacities of pupils to see into the reasons for natural operations. It is as dangerous to allow their capacities to lie undeveloped as it is to overload them with reasonings they cannot, understand, and to force them to carry these in. a mere verbal form by an effort of memory. The reasonings should be such as they can follow understandingly, if not work out themselves. If they merely commit thera to memory, they are as dead as other things simply memorized and lose entirely the rational element. It may not be wholly with- out value in some cases to give to children a statement of the causes of phenomena even though they are unable to understand the methods, of their operation, but it should be, clearly understood that this is not teaching the scholars to reason concerning phenomena, or even to follow reasonings concerning phenomena, but merelj' to memorize the reasons of phenomena. It is not recomrfiended that rational geography be disassociated from observational and descriptive geography, but rather, on the contrary, that it be intimately connected with these and that it be introduced so as to give them life and significance. To do this, sliill and discretion must be used respecting the way in which the rational element is introduced and the extent to which it is carried. Treatment in Relation to Mental Discipline. It is an advantage to the teacher to carry the analysis and classifi- cation of the work in geography a step further in the direction of its psychological effects so as to make the poiht of view more exclusively and definitely the mental powers to be exercised and developed'. But this should be understood as having reference solely to the teacher's aid and guidance in the arrangement and conduct of the work, and not as a formal division of the subject nor as a matter to be taught pupils. Clear and definite views of the cultural purposes of the work cannot be too strongly urged upon the teacher. Such views will not only be a guide to the proper method of treatment of the subject but will be constantly suggestive of the difficulties the scholars encounter,' of the defects of their modes of thinking, and of the ways and means of obviating these. While various activities of the mind are called into exercise in geographical work, the committee would advise that the systematic development of three classes of these should largely contrQl the arrangement of the work, viz., (1) the powers of observa- tion, (2) the powers of scientific imagination, and (3) the powers of reasoning. The cultivation of the powers of observation is necessary GEOGRAPHY. 215 to furnish clear, accurate, and realistic fundamental ideas and modes of thought. These, in turn, are uecessarj' as a oruiind work for the training of the scientific imagination, for clear images are not likely to be formed of things not seen unless clear impressions are formed of things seen. The image-producing power is the only means by which the larger part of the matter of geography can be presented to the mind, and no effort should te spared to give it strength and vividness. Both clearness of observation and strength of imagination are essential as a basis for safe reasoning; for recourse must be had to both for the ground-work upon-whieh reasoning proceeds. Much that fiills under this head has been implied in the foregoing discussion but, at the risk of some repetition, the following classes of topics are cited as suggesting the means of cultivating advantageously these powers. The first class may seem too obvious and familiar to need naming, even in outline, but the second is not so generally recognized as calling into exercise the imagination. The definite concrete recognition by the teacher of the necessar}' function of the imagination in the study of these topics and the specific application _ of methods suited to the development of clear and strong powers of image-production in the scholars is important to best results. A. Under the head of resources for the culture of the observational powers will obviously fall (1) study of surface forms, such as hills, valleys, plains, plateaus, streams, lakes, shores, and all similai phenomena within the pupils' horizon. These may be approached, as already indicated, by observations on miniature forms of like nature, such as may be found in gutters, gullies, ravines, brooklets, ponds, "bottoms," etc.; (2j observations on the temperature anc its relations to the direction of tiie sun's rays, the apparent motion ol the heavenly bodies, as their circling round the poles, the rising anc setting of some stars and not of others, the shifting north and soutl of the sun, moon, etc. ; (3) movements of the atmosphere and'theii effects, rain and its eflfects, snow and its effects, fogs, clouds, etc. (4) plant life and its dependence on heat, moisture, sunlight, etc. the influence of soil, slope, etc. ; (n) observations on animal life, o similar nature ; (6) observations on man in the family, in educational church, social, and business organizations, in city and town organiz ations, and so on up towards the larger human organizations and tin forms of government. So also, observations on city'and town plot with their street systems, railways, canals, harbors, their wards school districts, etc. B. Under work involving the culture of the imagination will fal the formation of concepts of all the larger features of geography am of all features beyond the range .of observation ; as (1) the rive 216 GEOGRAPHY. basins, the great relief systems, the continental divisions and sub-, divisions, the ocean bottoms, the distribution of land and water, and, in a less pronounced way, the picturing of all geographical features not actually observed ; (2) modifications of apparent motions due to imagined changes of position of the observer on the earth's surface, such as the position at the pole, on the equator, on the different parallels, etc. ; (3) distribution of the meteorological agencies over the globe, as moisture, winds, climate ; the mental picturing of the great wind movements, the cyclonic circulation, the zones, etc. ; (4) distribution of plant life developed in the form of a mental picture in its relations to the earth's surface, to land and water, to altitude and climatic conditions, as distinguished from a- mere memorizing of the facts of distribution without any such pictorial conception; (5) distribution of animal life in like manner ; (6) distribution of races of men, forms of government, national territory, etc. G. Both of the foregoing lists of topics furnish the ground-work for the culture of the reasoning powers if the question of causes and ao-eucies is raised in connection with them. Why do the several features take the forms they do? By what agencies were they caused, and why did these agencies work in such ways? How did these forms originate? What are the causes of the winds, the clouds, the changes of temperature? Why are the animals and plants distributed as they are ? Why were these cities located as they are ? Why are these large and those small ? Why do these railways take this course rather than another? And so on. The Conference do not advise the disassociation of these processes for the specific development of these mental powers from each other in the practice of the schoolroom, but they do urge that teachers clearly recognize them as they are involved in their work and fully appreciate their importance. They should definitely associate the topics they are endeavoring to teach with the mental powers they bring into exercise, so that there shall be ever present in the mind as an object of endeavor not only the mastery of the subject-matter but the acquisition of Irnproved mental powers. This is not matter to be put before pupils, as they are not presumed to be studying psychology. Its value lies in its guidance of the teacher's conduct of the work. Methods op Presentation. In the discussion of the previous topics, we have necessarily touched upon some of the most vital considerations that bear upon methods of teaching. This is especially true of those that relate to the order of arrangement of the work, the methods of approach to GEOGRAPHT. 217 the diflferent phases of the subject, and the mental powers to be cultivated. But in addition to these more general and fundamental suggestions there are considerations that relate to modes of presenta- tion and appliances for illustrative instruction that require attention. The suggestions of the Conference must necessarily be incomplete, and, at the outset, thej' wish to disclaim anj' intention of limiting, even bj' suggestion, the modes of teaching to the methods here briefly outlined. The Conference hold it to be of first importance that every- teacher should become so familiar with the subject as to be able freelj- to depart from any proposed method according as the special conditions of the school shall indicate. At the same time, the Conference feel that the following outlines of the manner in which different parts of the subject may be laid before a class ma}- prove serviceable. .Their effort is to suggest briefly and definitely certain modes of treatment of the various parts of the subject, believino- that teachers can infer from these the manner in which other parts of the subject may be developed. Preliminary Suggestions. Inasmuch as all success in teaching depends largely on the ability, training, and opportunities of the teacher, several rather miscellaneous recommendations are introduced, at the outset, relative to the organization and equipment of the school and the training of the teacher. We urge that, in the selection of new teachers, onlj' those be appointed who, by observation and by practice in recording and reproducing their work, have acquired a sufflcient knowledge and skill to be able to carrj- out themselves the observations, recordings, mappings, and modellings that are expected of their scholars. We also recommend that familiaritj- with the modern aspects of physiog- raphy be made a requirement of all special teachers of geography, as soon as practicable. We strongly urge that self-improvement be stimulated hj special meetings of geographical teachers wherever these can be organized, and tliat the resources of the schools and of accessible libraries be utilized as fully as possible in the presentation and discussion by the teachers themselves, at these meetings, of various special problems connected with this specific line of work. We recommend that schools be supplied (1) with large-scale maps of their own district and their own state ; (2) with the best obtainable series of general maps, prepared as far as possible on uniform scales ; the style of projection and the scale being indicated on each map ; (3) with a sufHcient number of small globes to enable every scholar, suflScientlj' advanced, to study the globe individually, at one hour or another, during the day, just as a book might be studied ; (4) 1,218 GEOGRAPHY. with illustrations of various kinds as liberally as possible, including photographs, lantern slides, and means of projection ; (5) if possible, with a few models (whose scales should not be unreasonably exaggerated) representing the home district, if these can be obtained,, or, if not, at least with typical models of some interesting regions of our own country ; (6) with books of reference on history, travels, natural history, etc., involving geographical elements and suitable for the use of both scholars and teachers, and in increasing numbers year by year ; (7) with a selected series of topographical maps for use in schools (see note below) . In order that the expense incurred in procuring all these materials should not be too heavy, at any one time, it is suggested that it be divided and distributed over several years, rather than that the supply of materials be neglected. In many cases, the assistance of generous patrons of public schools may be enlisted to this end. We recommend that each teacher keep a book of record, in addition to any records kept b}' scholars, and that in this the more general and important results of class work be set down for future reference ; thus accumulating a fund of original information, largely the product of the scholars' own activities, which will be serviceable to them, later in their studies, and to their successors. We urge that at all stages and in all parts of the study of geography the teacher, rather than the-textbook, should lead the class. A good ' textbook is necessary to furnish maps and other material of study, to secure conciseness of definition, and to save time in study, after- a proper introduction to its texts has been given by the teacher, and a good textbook should give a better presentation of the subject than teachers can usually be expected to command. So also, recitations based on textbooks are indispensable in order- to secure precision of understanding and of statement on the part of the scholars. But every stage of the subject should be naturally intro- duced and illustrated by the teacher, and the textbook should be kept Note. — Regarding a series of topographical maps for use in high schools, the Conference voted that tlie chairman should appoint a committee whose duty it should be to select from topographical maps of the United States GeologicaT Survey such a series as shall best illustrate the principal topographical forms of our country, and also to select from the charts of the Coast and Lake Surveys a series which shall best illustrate the principal features of our shore lines ; and that high schools be urged to purchase these series of maps, together with the topographic maps of the district in which the school is located, if such have been made. When this committee reports, it is probable that the list of maps which it selects will be published, together with the prices at which they can be obtained.* Professors William M. Davis, Charles F. King, and George L. Collie were appointed as such committee. GEOGEAPHY. 219 in its proper place as an aid and not as a master, and mere lesson- hearing should never be allowed to replace actual teaching. It is scarcely necessary to say that the simple memorizing, or the slavish following, of the textbook should be avoided, and the work adapted to the particular 5. Historj 3. English .1. Latin Ti. German 4. Greek 4. French 4. J Fourth Year. Periods TiVi- Higher Algebra and Trigonometry 2. Physic:^ :>. Physiology ( Vz year) 5. I'Geolosy or I ! Physioi?- | 1 rapby '_ : I'a yr.) 1 ■■*■ ! Meterology . > ('. yr.J J History 3. English r.. Latin ."i. German 4. Greek 4. French 4. 17 ! Zl Gl PROPOSED ARRANGEMENT OF COURSES. ( Not worked out in detail, intended to be merely suggestive,) An Average of 4 Periods Per Week to be Given to Each Column. MATHEMATICS. scrENCE. HISTORY AND ENGLISH. FOREIGN LANGUAGES. AET AND ETHICS. First Year. Periods 16 or 20. Algebra. Physical Geography. History. English. Latin. Incidental. Second Year. Periods 16 or 20. Algebra and Geometry. Physics. History. English. Latin. German.* Incidental. Third Year. Periods 16 or 20. Algebra and Geometry. Chemistry. History. English. Latin. German. Greek.t Incidental. Ponrtii Year. Periods 16 or 20. Higher Alge- bra and Trig- onometry.' Biology. History. English. Latin. German. Greek. Incidental. 16 16 16 16 * German, if taken, to be an extra, giving the pupil 20 hours instead of 16. ■f- Greek, if taken, to be siibstituted for Science for last two years and Mathe- matics of last year. COURSES AS ARRANGED BY THE COMMITTEE OF TEN. (Studios classiflod for comparison.) MATHEMATICS. SCIENCE. HISTORY AND FOEEIGN ENGLISH. LANGUAGES. CLASSICAL. First Year. Algebra 4. Physical Geography 3. History 4. EngUsh 4. Latin T>. Second Year. Geometry 3. Physics 3. History 3. English 2. Latin 5. German 4. Third Year. Algebra and Geometry 4. English 3. Latin 4. German 4. Greek 5. Fourth Year. Trigonometry and Higher Algebra 3. Chemistry 3. English 2. Latin 4. German 3. Greek 5. 14 9 18 39. LATIN-SCIENTIFIC. First Year. Algebra 4. Physical Geography 3. History 4. English 4. Latin 5. Second Year. Geometry 3. Physics 3. Botany or Zoology 3. English 2. Latin 5. German 4. Third Year. Algebra and Geometry 4. Astronomy and Meteorology 3. History 2. English S. Latin 4. German 4. Fourth Year. Trigonometry and Higher Algebra 3. Chemistry 3. Geology or Physiography, Physiology 3. English 4. Latin 4. German 3. 14 18 19 29 COURSES AS ARRANGED BY THE COMIVIITTEE OF TEN. ( Studies claBBified for comparison.) MATHEMATICS. HC3BNCE. HISTORY AND FOREION ISNGLIHH. LANGUAGES. MODERN LANGUAGES. First Year. Alf^cbra i. Physical Geography 'i. History 4. English 4. German "». Second Year. Geometry '.i. Algebra aud Geometry 4. Trigonometry and Higher Algebra 'S. Physics 3. Botany or Zoology 3. English '1. Gorman 4. French 5. Third Yrar. Astrunomy and Meteorology 3. History 2. English 3. German 4. French 4. Fourtli Year. Chemistry 3. Geology or Physiography, Physiology 3. English 4. German 3. French 4. 14 18 19 29 ENGLISH. First Year. Second Year. Third Year. Algebra 4. (ifdiTietry 3. Fourth Year Algebra and Geometry 4. Trigonometry and Higher Algebra 3. Physical Geography 3. Physics 3. Botany or Zoology 3. Astronomy and Meteorology 3. Chemistry 3. Geology or Physiography, Physiology 3. History 4, English 4. History 3. English 3. History 4. English 5. History 3. English 4. Latin or German or French 5. Latin t)r German or French 5. Latin or German or French 4. Latin or German or French 4.