a The Annual Report of the Federal Security Agency contains the Administrator’s report and the re-— ports of all the Agency’s constituent organizations. In addition, the following reports are issued as separate reprints: THE ADMINISTRATOR’S SUMMARY SociaL SECURITY ADMINISTRATION Pusiic HEALTH SERVICE OFFICE OF EDUCATION . Foop anp Druc ADMINISTRATION OFFICE OF VOCATIONAL REHABILITATION BurEAU oF EMPLOYEES’ COMPENSATION Saint EvIzABETHS HosPITAL Both the consolidated volume and the separate reports are available at nominal cost from the Superintendent of Documents, U. 5S. Government Printing Office, Washington 25, D. C. UNITED STATES — GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE WASHINGTON : 1950 For sale by the Superintendent of Docimenta: U. S. Government Printing Office, Washington 25, D.C. - Price 30 cents: Yeprort of bhe FEDERAL SECURITY. AGENCY T IYI Office of Education FEDERAL SECURITY AGENCY OscarR R. Ewine, Administrator OFFICE OF EDUCATION Earut JAMES McGratu, Commissioner Deputy Commissioner of Education, Raut I. Griassy. Associate Commissioner of Education, Epwin H. Miner. Executive Assistant to the Commissioner and Director, Division of Central Services, Ratpo C. M. Fuynrt. Director, Division of Elementary Education, Bess GoopYKOONTz. Director, Division of Secondary Education, GALEN JONES. Assistant Commissioner for Vocational Education, Raymonp W. GREGORY. Director, Division of Higher Education, JonN DALE RUSSELL. Director, Division of School Administration, HEnry F. ALvss. Director, Division of Auxiliary Services, RatpH M. DUNBAR (acting). Director, Division of International Educational Relations, KENpric N. MARSHALL. il Letter of Transmittal FEDERAL SEcuRITY AGENCY, OFFICE OF EDUCATION, Washington, D. C., October 31, 1949. The Honorable Oscar R. Ewing, Federal Security Administrator. Dar Mr. Ewine: I herewith submit the annual report embracing the activities of the Office of Education for the fiscal year ending June 30, 1949. Respectfully, Earu JAMES McGratu, Commissioner of Education. see ue FEDERAL SECURITY AGENCY fISJQAIUT, PADMOLY $P2Q 2uU} JO} UOIyN4IYSU DIQuUN}O> Peg. a4 JO} BsnoLy Bulpuig uddawy S220 JouoBay Joutdsopy syzaqozj3 yulns suoijo10dso> papiy-Ajjoiapa4 S2d1asasg Asvipuny Bhd YOIsIAIG] suoius) $'P 24> |Suap24 4° noaing nosing $,U2Ip]'4* 221As2g yuawAojdwy °s "fy SBDIAIVNS 24D4S 4O NDOJINg 221As25 aouounsuy yuawAojdwaury [Oyidsopy suawpraiy Aynnsas puawAojdwy 4° ND|INg SQIIAIBS [O2'P2w B hed noaing QduUOD{sissyw 219g 4° noaing YF[OZH 4$O S24N4Iysu] |OUOIYORY JOUOINSU| SIOAIAING Y aBy-PIO yO NDaing JOseucc) uoabins aut B hed 21HO JDUOISSIWIWO*) ayy $2 22'HO $321A19S JO444¥a>5 yo voIsiaig) UOrjOsysiuIW py JOO4IS 4° YOoIsiaig SUONOIZY |, AOPMMPZ [,gOUI24U] JO UOISIAiC) D fe} DUOIZDIOA JO 3D! uol}OONpg sayBipyy 4° uolsiaig eh HIG 42d | - it At HO UOIJOINPZ [OUO!ZOIOA 30 VOISIAIG | Aah ASE Pa Brug Pye Pees uolyoanp3 Asopuoras 40 uorsiaig pivog sjpaddy uoljpsuadwo>r saahojdw3 yoroonpy Asoyuawa)3 yo volsiaig | uoijosuadwo s22hojdwig B hed noaing AJ@UOISSIWIWO") 24t 4° 21HOE dauoissiwWwo-)> 2uy Bhd 2'HO Yol}DONpA 49° 2IHO | S2D1AIVG jOIDadS 40 221HO QDIAIZS UPOIHY DW;qNg uolposjsiuimpy Apundag joI90¢ SUDI{O] IY 34D4S-|D42Pp24 $9 21HO UOI{OI}SIUIW PY 49° 27'1HO SUOI{O/2y JOuoipoUs24uU} Bed 2IIHOE spoday pue SUOILOIIIGNg Bed 2IHO Jesuno® [O4auac) 4° IPO FUDYSISSWY VAILNIAXG SQIIAIIS Pl?!g $9 UOISIAIG Ysibasay Bae 2IHO Joposgsiuimpy Agiunsag jos2poy4 juogsissy JOposgsiuIMpYy Ayiundsasg josap2q DyL JOPOIJSIUIIPYY Of SpUDYSISSY msc winsGosg JO} JOpOIYSIUIUPYY {UDYSISSWY Federal Security Agency The Federal Security Agency was established on July 1, 1939, by Reorganization Plan No. 1 of 1939. The objective of the Plan, the President said, was to group together those agencies of the Govern- ment whose major purpose was to promote social and economic secu- rity, educational opportunity, and the health of the citizens of the Nation. Among the agencies so grouped by that Plan and by Reor- ganization Plan No. 2 of 1939 were the Social Security Board (includ- ing the United States Employment Service), the Office of Education, the Public Health Service, and the Federal functions of the American Printing House for the Blind. Reorganization Plan No. 4 of 1940, effective June 30, transferred to the Agency the Food and Drug Administration, Saint Elizabeth Hospital, Freedmen’s Hospital, and the Federal functions relating to Howard University and to the Columbia Institution for the Deaf. During the war the Agency became the center around which numer- ous war activities were developed. In addition to other war functions, the Federal Security Administrator became Chairman of the War Manpower Commission, established in September 1942. When the Commission was abolished at the end of the war, the United States Employment Service, transferred from the Agency to the Commission on its establishment, was then transferred to the Department of Labor. The Agency was further expanded by Reorganization Plan No. 2 - of 1946. Among other things this plan, effective July 16, abolished the Social Security Board and transferred to the Administrator all the functions of the Board and of its Chairman; transferred to the Agency the Children’s Bureau with all its functions except those relating to child labor; and abolished the Employees’ Compensation Commission and transferred its functions to the Administrator. As of the same date, the Administrator established the Social Security Administration, comprising the program bureaus formerly in the Social Security Board and also the Children’s Bureau. Legislative enactments of June 1948 again transferred the United States Employment Service to the Agency, as of July 1, and adminis- tration of the Federal Credit Union Act, as of July 29. The Employ- ment Service was placed in the Bureau of Employment Security of the Social Security Administration, and the Bureau of Federal Credit Unions also was placed within that Administration. The organization of the Agency at the close of the fiscal year 1949 is shown on the accompanying chart. é Z a = ‘ rf ' + oy | é » i 4 Ne ¥ F et od 4 e r , 1 A \ : 1 j ¥ if i. a - ' : a De e 4 1, ; eed ¢ } ; P ' 7 ’ r Qs : ° " ~y ¢. - \a9 ! 1 ap «% 5A) N ‘ ’ l ¥ it - AS a ¥ ’ ty} ' i i z) ‘ nf j : 5 ; Cie " I Tv Sir > fe ‘dle a ‘ ‘ i » @ ’ i + a | "8 : ? rt ra j t i> “ 4 i ; ym j h ’ + - F b j CPT wold Tie Gieets Oe erie BE “eirgl bes ae yp ia fac d ie ae J, Le & F SE 9” err Piast ee La Rae A ; tis cnrnend VS Ty rv ( ar ne Ap nbd et ety ook he ) ag gee) yee ‘biowehg meat sil! Fo-seabs alt Jabetogd a 4G +6 , _ i =) p 7 al ery aa 49 OF eee cay ¥ » , fe 6 y ‘ ny s Cae ets PEL v4 | oo Sees Ce ee hy / ete seat P : ; gered as ' ' io it th Tate Meet iv - ee ‘FAT or be if") Oe | | i sor. ahh dal Lins tie vt tit re} De ate aH 4O°RTH A f ny it. POERITS Pee ORR LMATE iP-saitrerdtisaub a od ae sel eel jtosienwe FD aii Cent |. Famille oe th “— are) view Vial. te & .Or iii X ' yeh rey ye birey cor ews ay uy 4 betig ® Lore. @h) hick aorvgsen 3 ‘heat oe Meee 4 +5 ; 7 2 i.e rel me ; ; Coe. UR) Ae eae TESTERS A, VN, See Tee he ¥3 ' she ¥ Aa ay i» nf iff _ oat f Sed , a 4 i eM Po Fate (74 Dah beta are a Beverus. 3 ' iy ‘7 x 3 ! 3 * f tifa s3 ry ” y= as Aas ; fel 4 as) 1 es : rhe Se ey “s j ‘ iA 2 i> 7 t@ i; s ? 7 : rei orre. (95 é » " a, ; ' { 1 Lit. oP as ve i if 4 ue ‘s-a/ Bis 4 j HO 804 Trobe @ ate ee : ' ; oa: 4 tied. aeoe?r alton? ath iv vse Mest and Bas £ 3 USGele nae ae are rttishk~-otht (Ova tree F sei ~ 3 vee bal a Bh eters) p ever re oy Sater rte mi asthe SB? Fh GAR ars Ineotl CGP i: ite Viney gs (ions Call © asytrt, 16 yi 30 BG bile his tug. mote Edie) onto Ae a ne wort wall Dip Fed ey leith ie aise ereyii ae mM | ti) yi doch) Wight sy HAs eheae } ss Bis ) a dee Teerhigeeprioo ae " ‘8 ay | ed Giro, i Contents COMMISSIONERS REVIEW AND RECOMMENDATIONS. . Teacher shortage . . The unmet need for facts School building needs . The facts must be gathered . Federal action essential . : Education for international erations Declaration of human rights . Communism and the schools : The real dangers . . RESEARCH AND STATISTICS . EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH METHODS. Uniform records : : Attitude, achievement and ernie A aeMent Otc Gear iitstion of educational research in the United States . . Basic PrERiopic STATISTICS . State school systems City school systems . Higher education . Elementary education . Secondary education Vocational education Libraries : Special education . ADMINISTRATION OF GRANTS . ProGRAMS UNDER CONSIDERATION . General federal aid to education , Federal programs of school health services . Federal programs for school plant construction . Recognition of need for a scholarship program . . OccUPATIONAL TRENDS . GRANT PROGRAMS ADMINISTERED BY THE OFFICE Vocational education—Instructional problems Agricultural education Business education . Home economics education Trade and industrial education . ; Occupational information and guidance. . vii vili Contents Page Vocational education—Organization and administrative problems .. . 39 Vocational teacher education. 2s... 49) 4o ew 41 Land-grant colleges... . sie al edue lw a Oo aa a 44 ‘Federal property donations aad aieposat J ante” gl eit alee 44 Inspection of Howard Universitye} ex acery 4< - 6 < = > 2 eee 46 PROGRAMS OF ORGANIZATION AND ADMINISTRATION... 46 ELEMENTARY ‘EDUCATION 2M ES, ATES aaah, Cee ee 46 SECONDARY ISDUCATION®. 2% <5 Se ss Be) Sei. s a) ee ae gee 50 Higher’ EDUCATION 3.) 00 a Se amen ee pe oe 52 Stats anp Locan ScHoot SYsTeMs:.:.°.+.+.+.°.'.*. ee De 55 Popit PERSONNEL SERVICES... <. 2... ss, - +s «> eee wens 58 PROGRAMS. OF INSTRUCTION ...°. 0). 2%... nnn GENERAL EDUCATION ............/.....\. BINPeye he 20 60 Individual, pupil growth ...../-.. : 22... 4) Bee: tp 60 Life adjustment education. . . . sce te: (ce pueaee. eve a Ry tpteee te ee ee 62 College programs of general paueation og Tg eg co a nn 64 INSTRUCTION IN Special AREAS. 99) SO ee! AR ee Oe 64 Social sciences . .. . re te” Jor a bak thee cate destin ie ca 64 Home and family life patente gu letlde «uel Gale wager slopes se 2. CAM 68 Science and related subjects .. .&.... 2... 4.5. 2. els a es es SE 69 Atomic energy. . RO Pee era ee Se ae 70 Health and physical fod vention 8 ael'b lho army gna SSD take nh oat A 72 Hibrary® “services. |ucy ce ote ee ene ee ab ey ee 73 Audio-visual aids \'si.< i he he owed ie ino Bp sm ie go ic 74 ih 1 tea1. re So CS Te eI MOA EE, een ah a mr Ey 74 Radios otis (o.venc apes 26s Rag en SERRE hee oP Se eat 76 Professional education. . . - C8? ori eee ea. yee er 76 Achievement of veterans as stucehis sl ey eee ss dae eee 77 Groups with special instructional problems. ............ 78 Adultilliterates 20580 ve ak Sete uals ag es, este aks ee 78 Displaced ‘persons 07s Yes o ey oa gen ae na cea vaca 78 Education of Negroes. . . Soe ON ae ee sure igs 0 cen er 78 Exceptional children and youth soe t 6 whe Gag terete ae 79 PROGRAMS FOR IMPROVING THE PROFESSIONAL STATUS OF “TEACHERS (en a ew ee ei ae 79 ELEMENTARY AND SECONDARY SCHOOLS. +... . . . =. «.. © one 79 feacher supply ...4..: . . oe bt ee os o MORO DS. ae 79 Organizational efforts in eachan einen ian ss us ’eblas oe os J200 00 00EIoy 81 Qualitative changes in teachereducation. ...........40.. 82 Progress on in-service education ... ......0. \s00>9 lokoeubai Dea 83 Contents CoLLEGE TEACHING. Improvement of college teaching . : Teacher attitudes toward college teaching . SPECIAL TEACHER GROUPS. Teachers of adult illiterates . Teachers of exceptional children . INTERNATIONAL EDUCATIONAL RELATIONS . Impact oF WoRLD DEVELOPMENTS ON EDUCATION IN THE UNITED STATES. Relationship of UN to education in the United States . President Truman’s “Point 4” . yA Rol ees Exchange programs . Impact oF WoriLD DEVELOPMENTS ON OFFIcE ACTIVITIES Exchange of materials and information Exchange of educational personnel Evaluation of foreign student credentials : Advisory service to foreign visitors and American Pdentse Studies of foreign systems of education Programs of American Military Government . Participation in international conferences Planning for fundamental education Appendix—Publications issued by Office . TaBLE 1.—Funds available for allotment to States from Smith-Hughes and George-Barden Acts, fiscal year 1949 TABLE 2.—Expenditure of Federal, State, and local finds tay voeetional education, by type of program, fiscal years 1948 and 1949 . TaBLE 3.—United States Government films sold under auspices of Office of Education . Cuart 1.—Expenditures for education 4 CuHart 2.—Actual salary and real wage of ete ; Cuart 3.—Enrollment in higher education . Cuart 4.—School medical services : Cuart 5.—Enrollment in federally aided Aaa olan se Cuart 6.—Schoolhouses and‘school children . 861699—50-——2 ix 101 ¥ ° fh i it ‘ 7 . . = 08 q? is het . : ‘ i Aye 1h % : ‘ - yy “i ' : : oe ne & ¢ , Vo Oy 5 ; = ; ; ‘ oR? ct FA nt A ne . i 2 i ‘ a4 i : * yl . ‘ = & ait | a ‘ “J - =) r Lae é j “y's ba i -” ‘ ‘ z ‘ ; Viviae= * * se « ' may 2S ve "| Wise. BEd toad t ‘ Lae s r al er ia pi38 P ISP, * at ey ptaw .. -sotnowhe vedyil x nes hisey rs , 5 7 7 P | 3 = a 4 - ai = A A \ i af) i * ays i ay - ile) - 1 Mu he a , ee a, =! ‘. en 4 Ay a) a _y ny -— , * = a = ba a7 i! i ° Yana | CER APR TUR . oStadrisast oystioa Ye owiuiagot saclion Inswot eqkg wee idee Vika _y ota htits Lenoliquanieas ube P avers PR MOITAL erg (4 “6 avaekneoa7ad _a s i ? rifts Gite Il ete, OF ELT eR lenoliesnie i ciatoeiio rebels aphenrdin TU ach foe etotiely ohiovet.of ¢ ve 3 1) TIS Y A TPS iM cate it as vide: ta thyeet . RETPETSYY TV rades, hee : itecrintak gf cohtanuuhs istesnabal aptiO vd bartaal aise Y inoetatla vet.oldaiiera eee pinky jaay 1AM) 2 nv refs at a. laishe 1S sk) tin nia? jevadt te BOG eb OF Cla! snakes OF aters ta ots Bey conta bee 7 ueree be fyi deat Lanta’: _ seo rrtes tesla b vere’ qhhacteshi ng raat of bi ih eoecodlog 4 frthiliite ogee Office of Education Commissioner’s Review and Recommendations AMERICAN EDUCATION is now in the most critical period in its history. Ironically, this crisis results in part from the realization of our ideal of universal education. Since the earliest days of the Republic wide- spread dissemination of knowledge among the people has been recog- nized as the only sure foundation of a prosperous and impregnable democracy. George Washington clearly set forth the direct relation between the well-being of society and the general education of its citizens when he said: ‘‘In proportion as the structure of a government gives force to public opihion, it is essential that public opinion should be enlightened.’’! Our people generally have held the firm conviction that it is in the interest both of the individual and of society that all youth regardless of race, color, sex, social or political conviction, or economic status should have equality of educational opportunity. This has not been a popular view in other countries. In fact, thoughtful men through the ages, and some in our own country today, have been concerned about the future of a nation which attempts to provide education on any such grand scale. Renan, the distinguished French scholar, for example, some years ago put the case against universal education most pointedly when he said, ‘“‘Countries which, like the United States, have set up a considerable popular instruction without any serious higher education, will long have to expiate their error by their intel- lectual mediocrity, the vulgarity of their manners, their superficial spirit, their failure in general intelligence.” The vast majority of our people take a contrary view. They con ——————t 1 Farewell Address, Sept. 17, 1796. (Writings, XIII, p. 309, Ford ed. New York and London, 1892.) 1 2 Annual Report, Federal Security Agency, 1949 sider equal educational opportunity the birthnght of every child. Contrary to Renan, they would not limit elementary and secondary education because the higher educational opportunities are inade- quate; they would rather extend educational opportunity at all levels to as many as can profit from it. This recognition of the importance of education combined with the rapid rise in the birthrate is, however, the root of many of the current difficulties in education in the United States. Devoted though we are to the conception of equal educational opportunity for all, we have not yet faced realistically the practical consequences of this philosophy—the cost in terms of teachers, buildings, textbooks—dollars and cents. As Commissioner of Education I feel that I should be remiss in my duty if I did not vigorously draw the attention of the American public to the present inadequacies in our educational system. Unless re- moved they will prevent the realization of our national educational ideals. Our school system is inadequately staffed and housed. The present shortages of teachers, of buildings, and of instructional facilities are acute. They will become more serious in the immediate years ahead. Teacher Shortage There were in 1948-49 approximately 28,000,000 children enrolled in the elementary and secondary schools. A startlingly rapid in- crease in this number has already begun. By 1960, the number of children enrolled in elementary and secondary schools will be about 37,000,000 with the most rapid increases occurring in the 3 school years beginning in 1952, 1953, and 1954. The available teachers to- day fall far short of the number needed even to staff the classes assembling in the fall of 1949. This shortage exists largely among elementary teachers. In many communities the shortage of teachers has resulted in classes of more than 50 children. In others education has been curtailed by dividing the school day into two sessions, one group of students attending in the morning and another in the afternoon. Thousands of classes are taught by teachers who hold only emer- gency or temporary certificates. 'Though such persons deserve com- mendation for their help in these critical times, a permanent, effi- ciently operating educational program cannot be developed on the basis of a temporary teaching staff. Many of the present teachers had been out of service for some years and had lost some professional skills through disuse. Some quite naturally are not so highly moti- vated as younger men and women who are planning to spend their lives in the profession. Indeed many of the older teachers are now Office of Education . 3 serving only out of a sense of duty which was born of the war emer- gency, and which may not serve to retain them in the profession much longer. The present shortage of teachers will become more serious. Noth- ‘ing can now be done to forestall the emergent crisis which will mean educational privation for many of our children. We have already delayed beyond the point where even the most drastic steps can quickly relieve the shortage of teachers in the elementary schools. Those who will graduate from the colleges and universities in the next 4 or 5 years will hardly replace the normal number of vacancies caused by retirement, death, marriage, and change of occupation. During the next academic year approximately 25,000 elementary school teachers will be graduated; at least 100,000 will be needed (30,000 for the increased enrollment, 60,000 for normal annual turn- over, and 10,000 to replace a reasonable fraction of the teachers now holding emergency certificates.) For the years ahead, 30,000 new teachers a year will be needed to accommodate the increase beyond normal enrollment if the school program is to be maintained at its present level of efficiency—a level that in spite of the best efforts of educators is not high enough to justify a spirit of complacence. One of the most important factors in the present short supply of teachers is the relatively low salary they receive in many communities. There has been some improvement in teachers’ salaries ina number of communities, but the general average is still too low. Is it sur- prising that the profession of school teaching should not attract young men and women in sufficient numbers when the 4 years of additional education required for initial employment results in a beginning salary only slightly above (and during the war years often below) that of high-school graduates who enter industry or commerce? Salary is not the only feature of academic life that attracts and holds the best minds and the most inspiring personalities. The many men and women who returned to teaching voluntarily during and after the war with a considerably smaller salary demonstrates that to many there are greater satisfactions than financial gain. Yet it is true that able persons continue to leave teaching because of financial need. Moreover, there is no reason why teachers, who are as able and de- voted to their work as the members of other professions, should live from hand to mouth while others enjoy financial security. The cor- roding effect of financial insecurity on morale and on membership in the teaching profession cannot be calculated mathematically, but those who know the profession do not doubt the fact. If the staffs of the elementary and secondary schools, and of the colleges and universi- ties, too, are to be composed of able and conscientious men and women, salaries must be raised considerably. Until the economic rewards 4 Annual Report, Federal Security Agency, 1949 for those who choose teaching as a life work are larger there is little likelihood in the visible future that the supply of well-prepared, enthusiastic, and devoted teachers will be adequate to meet the needs of the entire Nation. To take a Micawber-like attitude that some- how everything will turn out all right in the present crisis in our schools is to play cavalierly with the destinies of thousands of American youth. Only by facing this problem realistically now can the shortage of qualified teachers be materially reduced 3, 4, or 5 years hence. Only thus can the right of all American children to a basic education for their own personal advantages and for the responsibilities of citizenship be guaranteed. Though income is a significant factor in recruiting and holding teachers in the profession, it is by no means the only factor. The status which the teacher occupies in the community, the regard of the public generally for the work of the schools, the opportunity to live a normal life unshackled by local conventions and prejudices, and a multitude of other psychological and social factors are no less impor- tant. In too many communities teachers are required to adapt their own tastes, conduct, and social activities to members of the school board or other prominent citizens. They are often expected to lead an abnormally restrained and inhibited life unmatched in the lives of the parents who impose such restrictions. The attitudes of suspicion concerning the teacher’s political and social views, increas- ingly common in recent years, likewise deprive the teaching guild of some of its most alert and enterprising minds. These and other more subtle influences unquestionably make teaching unattractive to many talented young men and women. The Unmet Need for Facts We need more reliable evidence than we now have as to why some young people are attracted to teaching while others are driven from it. We do not know what makes some highly successful as teachers and others dismal failures. It is of the utmost importance to the future of education in this country that this evidence be gathered and made generally available not only to the members of the profes- sion themselves but to the public at large. A study of the teacher in America is needed now. A considerable body of pertinent information on the subject already exists. Much of it, however, relates to such matters as teachers’ salaries, their ages, the amount of training they have had, insurance and annuity pro- visions in various school systems, and to other of the more obvious aspects of the teacher’s life and work. All these items of information can be used to advantage in determining the status and drawing Office of Education 5 . 5 power of the teaching profession. But there are others of greater significance which deserve careful study. An adequate analysis of teaching will require the cooperative efforts of educators, social psychologists, economists, sociologists, psychiatrists, anthropologists, political scientists, and other specialists in human relations. Such a group should attempt to identify and study the intellectual and emotional characteristics of successful and unsuccessful teachers and the forces which determine the conditions of teaching in the United States. Such an investigation should seek answers to the following questions: What factors in the work of the teacher make the profession unappealing to many young people to- day? What personality traits make for inspiring and effective teach- ing? Can these traits be cultivated or are they essentially inborn? To the extent that the latter is true, what means should be taken to identify at an early age persons having such traits and how can they then be attracted into the profession? What attitudes in the com- munity outside the school prevent the recruitment of the best qualified candidates and drive teachers out of the profession? What influence do standard salary scales and permanent tenure have on the retention of highly competent and grossly incompetent teachers? What steps are taken to acquaint high-school and college youth with the char- acteristics of the teaching profession? ‘This meager but representa- tive list of questions to which satisfactory answers are not available should make abundantly clear the need for thorough study of the teacher in America. Plans for such a study have for some time been in the process of development in the Office of Education. Either public or private funds should be made available soon to make this investigation possible to the end that the profession may attract and keep the thousands of inspired and inspiring teachers so urgently needed in our schools. School Building Needs The present critical shortage of teachers is matched by an arresting lack of schoolhouses. If all the needed teachers were available today many would have no rooms in which to conduct their classes; that is, rooms fit for school use. The shortage of school buildings is in part the result of the depression of the thirties and in part the result of restrictions on construction during the war years. From 1930 to 1940 many communities found it difficult if not impossible to finance school construction. They waited for a more prosperous day. But when money was available, building materials were not. As a consequence many children must attend classes conducted in obsolete, insanitary, and frequently dangerously dilapidated structures, And even many 6 "| tanned Report, Federal Security Agency, 1949 of the buildings which are physically sound are antiquated in terms of the functions of modern education. Some teachers in the school year 1948-49 are conducting their classes in church basements, fac- tories, stores, and other unusual locations. ‘These emergency efforts to provide space where our children can be educated are laudable. They show again our ability to carry on in the face of difficulties. But the fact that such measures are necessary is a reflection upon our ability to foresee the educational needs of the youth of the United States and to provide modern schoolhouses built on plans that are educationally sound. How serious is the shortage of schools? Facts have been presented to show that the school population will increase roughly at the rate of at least three-quarters of a million children each year at least until 1958. If we assume a class of 30 to be a suitable instructional unit, then the number of new classrooms required each year to accom- modate these new enrollments until the end of this period will be approximately 25,000. But these figures neglect entirely the fact that many existing schools are antiquated and dangerous to the health and safety of children. Education has changed basically since they were built 30, 40, or 50 years ago. The curriculum and the teaching methods of today require a school composed of something more than four walls, a blackboard, and desks. The school is now a living community in which children of varied ages engage in a great variety of activities, some of which now con- sidered essential by competent authorities were unknown only a few years ago. These activities can be carried on effectively only in buildings designed specifically for educational purposes—and for the purposes of education in 1949-50, not in 1899 or even in 1929. In addition, therefore, to the many school buildings that must be con- structed immediately to accommodate the greatly increased enroll- ments resulting from the high birth rate of recent years, thousands of new classrooms are needed to replace those which are now a menace to the health and safety of children, or unsuitable for the purposes of modern education. The Facts Must Be Gathered The number and types of new buildings needed are not known with accuracy. Nowhere has such information been systematically and completely gathered. It can be secured only with the full cooperation of all the States and their constituent communities, for the total building program is dependent in part on the organization of education within the several States and smaller governmental units. For many years it has been recognized that many school districts are too small Office of Education ; 7 and too poor to maintain an adequate educational program. The little red one-teacher school, to be sure, served a high purpose in the history of this country. Many men great in the Nation’s councils received their early education in these buildings. The dramatic past of these structures, however, should not blind us to the fact that in many communities they now occupy the place in education equivalent to that of the horse and buggy in the field of transportation. Many larger administrative units are needed in the school system. They provide a broader tax base. They also make possible larger schools with greatly enriched and diversified offerings. These well-rounded programs are essential if all children regardless of their residence are to have approximately equal opportunity for education and the resulting social and economic benefits. Remarkable progress has been made in the reorganization of school districts. In the State of Arkansas, for example, there were 4,600 districts in 1928. Now there are approximately 375. In Illinois the districts have been reduced from 12,000 in 1940 to 6,000 in 1949. Similar reorganization plans are being executed in other States. But there yet remain hundreds of school units too small and geographically too remote from population centers to support an adequate educa- tional program. If the maximum use of local resources is to be made, the movement to reorganize administrative school units should proceed apace. In attempting to determine the cost of the school building program for the entire country, plans for local reorganization must be taken into account. ‘There is need, therefore, for a cooperative and comprehen- sive study of school organization and finance. Until such an investiga- tion is made with the enthusiastic cooperation of State and local units, the sums needed to provide an adequate school plant for the entire Nation can be only roughly estimated. Sampling studies made by the Office of Education and the National Education Association in- dicate that the cost of building the additional school structures needed to accommodate the increased enrollments within the next 10 years and of replacing obsolescent and dilapidated buildings would amount to at least 10 billion dollars. More comprehensive studies should be begun at once. The demand is obviously so great, however, that appropriating legislative bodies need not refrain from acting until final and definite figures are available. No alarmist state of mind is required to predict that the educational system of the country will fall into shocking disorder and ineffectiveness if steps are not taken now to secure an adequate supply of teachers and school buildings. This is a condition which no democratic social order can long condone. It contains examples of inequities to which critics of democracy like to be able to point. 861699—50——3 8 Annual Report, Federal Security Agency, 1949 Federal Action Essential Careful students of the school system are convinced that the quality of education cannot be maintained without Federal financial support. They are certain that without such aid the deterioration in the quality of education which has already begun will accelerate. ‘The need for Federal aid to education is clear and imperative. Without Federal aid the traditional American ideal of educational opportunity for all cannot be realized. Without it the educational birthright of an in- creasing proportion of our youth will be denied. The following facts compel this conclusion. Traditionally the control of education in this country has rested with local communities and the States. In the beginning each district taxed itself for the support of schools. Later the States began to sup- plement local money out of general funds in an attempt to equalize local educational advantages. Though the formulas for equalization vary greatly from State to State this practice has now become almost Nation-wide. Concretely, this means that some sections of the State contribute to the support of education in other sections. This practice has been justified on the ground that all children should have equal educational opportunity not only for their own good, but most particu- larly because it is in the general interest to give all children the fullest possible education for the rights and the responsibilities of citizenship. These plans of equalization have helped to reduce the differences in the character and the quality of education within the school districts of the several States. Within even the wealthiest States, however, wide educational dif- ferences still exist. These same differences also exist among the several States. They stem largely from two economic and social factors. The wealth of the several States varies enormously and the States which have the least money have proportionately the most children. It is essential that Federal funds be supplied to reduce the present inequalities. A formula should be devised for the distribution of Federal funds which will take into consideration both the relative ability of the various States to pay for education and the differences in their birth rates. The largest proportion of funds so distributed should of course go to the poorer States. In the past, the practice has been to make grants for specific edu- cational purposes. It has not been the policy to appropriate lump sums to be used by States or institutions for such purposes as seemed to them most pressing and desirable. Moreover, Federal financial assistance for specific purposes has usually been made available only on the condition that the receiving agency match or supplement it. There are well-known arguments for this type of joint support of education. Office of Education 9 The practice of giving Federal support to specific types of educa- tion should undoubtedly be continued for some years to come. Indeed categorical grants-in-aid for education may always be necessary as an initial stimulus to the development of needed educational programs within the States and communities. It would seem desirable, how- ever, to balance these categorical grants by making other Federal grants in lump sums to be used by the States in support of such edu- cation as they consider essential. This plan would tend to preserve local initiative in the development and control of a well-balanced educational program. For. the time being, however, this ideal support of a more general character will have to be qualified by the practical needs and pressures for specific types of education. These should not prevent the passage of legislation for general Federal aid for the expenses of maintenance and operations and for school construction. In addition to these more general grants, however, support is needed at least for a period of years for several specific types of education. A case in point is the present inadequate supply of personnel in the various health services as recently reported by the Federal Security Administrator. This report shows that many American citizens re- ceive inadequate health service because of an insufficient supply of doctors, dentists, and nurses. A careful study of the matter would seem to indicate that two of the chief factors in preventing a larger production of properly trained practitioners in these fields, are the high cost of education to the individual, and the high cost to educa- tional institutions in providing it. It is a well-known fact, for ex- ample, that medical education absorbs a very large percentage of the resources of those institutions which offer it. Not uncommonly the annual cost for the education of a medical student is six to eight times that of the cost of educating the average student in a college of liberal arts. Personnel and facilities in the medical schools of the country are far from adequate, and if they were raised to a proper level of efficiency very large sums would be required. Yet the health of our citizens generally requires that more doctors be produced and that they be better trained. It seems unlikely, however, that rapid prog- ress can be made in this direction unless the resources of the institu- tions are increased quickly. In this instance it would seem desirable to make an exception to the rule that the Federal Government make only general grants to the various States. If the objective of better public health services is to be achieved, it appears necessary to make grants directly to the appropriate educational institutions and to pro- vide scholarships for capable but needy students who desire to become physicians. Another exception to the rule of making more general grants should 10 Annual Report, Federal Security Agency, 1949 be made at the present time in the form of a large scholarship program for American youth who graduate from secondary schools and who possess the ability to profit by higher education but do not have the financial means to gain it. The report of the President’s Commission on Higher Education recently issued showed that there are hundreds of thousands of young people in the United States of high scholastic ability who discontinue their education in the secondary school because they, or their parents, cannot afford advanced education. Most colleges and universities have scholarship funds for worthy and able students. But the fund is normally so small that only a few students can be helped. Moreover, aid is often available only to students who have already shown their capacity to profit by college education through the successful completion of at least one college year. The consequence of this practice is that many young men and women of superior ability who cannot finance the first year of higher education never enter college at all. | President Truman, in a speech delivered at Rollins College on March 8, 1949, stated: If our country is to retain its freedom in a world of conflicting political philoso- phies, we must take steps to assure that every American youth shall receive the highest level of training by which he can profit. A soundly conceived Federal scholarship program in our colleges and universities is a necessary step in attain- ing this goal. Education has been defined as a bulwark against the acids of fascism and communism. Neither of these totalitarian forms of government can survive examination by educated men and women—men and women free to search for the truth and imbued with the principles of liberty set forth in the preamble to the Constitution of the United States—the greatest document of government, in my opinion, that has ever been written by the hand of man. The report of the President’s Commission showed also that the ability of the various States to support higher education varied con- siderably. Some of the States with the smallest annual income have the largest number of young people capable of profiting from higher education. It is in the interest of the national welfare that these young people have an opportunity to continue their education beyond the high school. If this is to be accomplished, some form of Federal scholarship program is absolutely essential. Education for International Relations Thirty years ago, in the aftermath of the first World War, H. G. Wells observed, ‘“Human history becomes more and more a race between education and catastrophe.” ? The onset of the Atomic Age has now given disquieting dimensions to the prescient insight of Mr. Wells. There is a feverish and ubiquitous building of instruments 2 Outline of History, New York, Collier & Son Co., 4th ed. rev. 1925, vol. iv, p. 1305. Office of Education Il of war—military planes, ships, and bombs, and recruitment of armies. Yet there is hope among the people everywhere that another conflict which could wipe out civilization may yet be avoided. And there is widespread agreement that education is the best and perhaps the only means of preparing the peoples of the world to live together in harmony and prosperity. Normally the usual processes of education should suffice to ensure peace and security. But under present conditions these efforts must be supplemented by direct, specific instruction for international under- standing. Basic general education should provide a knowledge of the physical universe and the human beings who inhabit it. It should also cultivate the habit of looking for relevant facts and applying analytical thought to current problems. Through a study of man’s nature, his persistent desires and life purposes, and the different manner in which these human characteristics are reflected in various national and racial customs, the educated person should gain a sym- pathetic understanding of cultures which differ from his own. Nor- mally this program of general education would be enough to guarantee international understanding and peace. For the minds and the hearts of men would be opened to the influence of other peoples and other cultures different from their own. They would possess the judgment and the integrity and the sympathetic understanding to live in har- mony and to work cooperatively with the people of other countries in what may be the last opportunity to preserve peace and good will among men. But this indirect route to the goal of amity among nations is too slow. Direct attention by educators is indicated. The unstable international situation requires that a specialized program dealing with problems of international understanding and peace be made an integral part of the work of the schools and of informal educational agencies. It is urgently necessary that the people of all nations come to know something of their fellow men in other areas of the globe. Only through an intelligent and sympathetic understanding of the customs, the ambitions, the art, and the culture of other peoples can the various nationality groups hope to live together in harmony in this ever contracting world. A vigorous campaign of education is therefore needed, focused directly on problems of international understanding. The President of the United States in his letter appointing the members of the Commission on Higher Education recognized the need for such education. He referred specifically to the urgency for considering problems of international understanding and he said he hoped the Commission would especially consider ‘‘the adequacy of curricula, particularly in the fields of international affairs and social understanding.” 12 Annual Report, Federal Security Agency, 1949 Many good beginnings have already been made in the field of international education. One of the specialized agencies of the United Nations organization, the United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization, is concerned with the work of educational agencies. The United States National Commission for UNESCO composed of one hundred distinguished educators, scientists, and other persons engaged in cultural activities within its brief existence of 3 years has already developed a vigorous and imaginative program. It has enlisted the cooperation of many cultural organizations in the crucial task of educating our people about the purposes of UNESCO and the part which they can play in it. Nevertheless much yet remains to . be done in making Americans conscious of the work of this important agency. Even those who have a general understanding of its program often fail to exhibit an enthusiasm for its work commensurate with its potential value in maintaining world peace. The maintenance of harmonious relations among the nate is a task worthy of the efforts of all educators. All the various profes- sional associations of educators from the elementary schools through the colleges and universities ought to devote a significant part of their annual conferences to a discussion of the ways and means by which they can assist in achieving the objectives of UNESCO. Elementary school teachers, administrative officers, supervisors of instruction, high-school teachers, principals, directors of instruction, college profes- sors of history, psychology, philosophy, art, literature, and other subjects, counselors, college deans, presidents of colleges and uni- versities, and all others concerned with education—all these have a moral responsibility to become acquainted with UNESCO and to advance its program. It is encouraging to observe that many efforts are already being made to supplement the formal programs of educational institutions in the advancement of international understanding. The various programs for the exchange of persons fall in this category. One of the most successful of these was established through the efforts of Senator William Fulbright. Drawing upon his experience as a Rhodes Scholar at Oxford University, Senator Fulbright saw the advantage of having the citizens of one nation live in close contact with those of another. The Fulbright Bill passed by the Congress and approved by the President on August 1, 1946, makes it possible for a considerable number of foreign students, teachers, and research workers to spend varying amounts of time in this country. Similar arrangements provide for residence of Americans in other countries. Through the United States Department of Defense exchanges of persons between the United States and Germany and Austria have been arranged and Office of Education 13 similar plans are now being prepared for the exchange of Japanese nationals. The Institute of International Education in New York has a well-developed program for the exchange of students from other countries to the colleges and universities of the United States. The Office of Education of the Federal Security Agency in cooperation with national educational organizations has for several years arranged for the exchange of teachers in foreign countries, especially the United Kingdom, with teachers in the United States. Each British teacher takes the place of an American in one of our school systems and vice versa. ‘The success of these teacher exchanges is clearly indicated by the fact that the demand in the school systems of this country for British teachers far exceeds the supply. The long-run effect of these programs is already perceptible in the good will and the improved understanding in the communities in which exchange persons have lived and worked. One aspect of these programs of exchange needs study. It can best be presented in the question, ‘‘What are the purposes of an exchange program and what kinds of persons are likely to achieve these purposes?”’ There are two obvious objectives of exchanges. The first has to do with pro- viding another nation with highly skilled technical personnel, such as engineers, research workers, or scholars. Countries like Germany, Italy, and Japan, many of whose educators, scientists, and others engaged in cultural activities were lost, or were not trained in adequate supply during the war years, or who lost touch with the learned world through isolation, need the assistance of technical personnel from this and from other countries. Only through such assistance can their economy and social organization be restored to a sound and self- sustaining basis. Then there are other nations whose standards of living have never been high, whose natural and human resources have not been ade- quately developed, and whose skilled workers, scholars and scientists do not exist in sufficient numbers to undertake a program of national development. In the development of their own resources President Truman offered to these nations the knowledge and the skills of Americans. Said he, We must embark on a bold new program for making the. benefits of our scientific advances and industrial progress available for the improvement and growth of underdeveloped areas. ... For the first time in history, humanity possesses the knowledge and the skill to relieve the suffering of these people. ... The United States is pre-eminent among nations in the development of industrial and scientific techniques. ... I believe that we should make available to peace- loving peoples the benefits of our store of technical knowledge in order to help them realize their aspirations for a better life. And, in cooperation with other nations, we should foster capital investment in areas needing development.’ 8 Inaugural Address of Harry S. Truman, Jan. 20, 1949. (p.3, Senate Document No. 5, 81st Cong., 1st Sess. Fourth.) 14 Annual Report, Federal Security Agency, 1949 The exchange of such technical personnel will help greatly in main- taining international peace by reducing the economic and social differences between the ‘‘have” and the “‘have-not’’ nations, and by creating good will abroad. Our institutions of higher education, the various branches of government and industry and commerce can all supply highly trained persons for such technical assistance. These persons can help other nations in improving their industrial and agri- cultural production and in generally upgrading the conditions of life of the people. American educators can render an even more lasting service by assisting foreign school systems in establishing programs for the recruitment and training of their own professional and_ technical people. Thus the technical leadership now supplied from beyond their own borders can eventually be provided through their own educational institutions. The educational institutions of the United States can make an enormous contribution to this program of technical help to other nations through the exchange of persons and also through advisory commissions. These activities will create much good will and foster international understanding. A second purpose of the exchange program is somewhat more direct in its expression. ‘To be sure, the interchange of technical personnel will have some incidental effect on international understanding, but the brief and preoccupied sojourn of specialists or technicians will not ordinarily supply opportunity for doing the two-way job of cultural ambassadors. The interpretation of our culture to the members of the communities in which they happen to reside, and the acquiring of an adequate understanding of the customs, thoughts, and ideals of another people, are processes requiring exceptional abilities and longer residence, as well as relative freedom from the preoccupations of a technical assignment. Prolonged and leisurely contact between the citizens of one nation and those of another—citizens selected because of their interest in international understanding—is an excel- lent means of breaking down the cultural barriers which separate peoples and sometimes engender hostile attitudes. To be effective ambassadors of good will, exchange persons must live intimately with the people in the country of their sojourn. Understanding and sympathy are human qualities, cultivated best in the day-to-day contacts of life. But contact does not always breed understanding. What types of persons, then, are likely to make the greatest contribution to inter- national understanding by living in another country? My own con- viction is that teachers, students, businessmen, journalists, members of labor organizations, and others in the ordinary walks of life would best carry out the mission of international understanding. In the Office of Education 15 development of a more nearly adequate exchange program, and in the selection of persons to be cultural ‘ambassadors, there ought not to be an inordinate emphasis upon scholarly accomplishments. It is questionable whether research scholars are better qualified to achieve this second purpose of the exchange program than are the ordinary teachers in our lower schools, our undergraduate students, and our typical men of business, commerce, industry, labor, and the profes- sions. In any event the latter can certainly play a valuable part in an exchange program. A similar comment concerning the too-narrow selection of exchange persons appears in the February 7, 1949, report of the United States Advisory Commission on International Exchange: _ In reaching our conclusion as to the general effectiveness of the program, we find ourselves in agreement as to one defect. In our judgment there is great need for broadening the scope of the exchange of persons program. The culture of any nation is a composite of all activities of all of its people. Recognition has been given to the scientific and technical fields and to exchanges of academic personnel and leaders in the professions, but insufficient emphasis kas been placed on certain other groups—ministers, authors, musicians, businessmen, and others whose par- ticipation is necessay to a balanced program of interchange. ; Take the secondary school teacher, for example. Such a person, under the plan now in operation between England and the United States, moves into a position vacated for one year by an American teacher. The visitor has a regular teaching assignment which results in daily contact with the children of the community and with teachers and administrative officers in the school. The visiting teacher sees these people, so to speak, in their native habitat under normal conditions exhibiting their natural reactions. She lives in an average home in the community and witnesses at close range the normal activities of American family life with its stresses and strains, its joys and sorrows, its good will, its provincialism, and its prejudices. The members of the school community and of the home likewise have an opportunity to observe the behavior and the ideas of the visitor. Through meetings in the church, the Rotary Club, the circus, the picnic, and other social activities the teacher sees America as it really is, not inevitably out of context as it often appears in the movies, the novel, the lecture hall, or the textbook. In Britain the American exchange teacher has the same experience. And most important of all, the children who sit in the classroom of such a teacher come to realize that a foreigner is fundamentally quite like us, having likes and dislikes, ambitions and loyalties, a desire to achieve the basic human satisfactions, and above all a common sense of decency, of honesty, of integrity, and of good will toward those who do not erect barriers against its expression. In short, students, at the most impressionable ages, come to realize that this visitor from a foreign land is like most of our fellow countrymen, a pretty good 861699—50-—4 16 Annual Report, Federal Security Agency, 1949 person after all, and that any basic differences that may exist between our two peoples must arise from misunderstanding and not from malice. ‘The same can be said for students, working men, and busi- ness executives who would spend a year in a foreign community. This in my judgment is the primary purpose of international exchanges. A careful review of the purposes of the exchange programs and an appraisal of the accomplishments to date would, it seems to me, be very helpful in clarifying future policies and practices. Such an evaluation should take into consideration the distinctions between different types of exchange programs. In the case of technical advice and assistance, of course, the scholarly standing and accomplishments of those who are to be sent abroad are of paramount importance, and an interest in the broad problem of international understanding of secondary consideration. A distinction should be made between the research scholar, on the one hand, who is going abroad to advise with a foreign government or private agency upon a specific technical problem, and the university research scholar, on the other hand, who has no such assignment but wishes merely to complete his own research which may have no rela- tion whatever to any of the technical problems in the visited country. In the former instance, the direct contribution to international understanding may not be expected to be great, but the technical advice provided justifies the exchange. In the latter, it should be the chief objective. There seems little justification, therefore, for using funds set aside to promote international understanding and peace to advance personal research, however meritorious the research may in itself be. A systematic and careful evaluation of these and other aspects of the international exchange programs would be useful in determining future policies with regard to this important activity. Declaration of Human Rights No report on the part which education can play in creating inter- national understanding and peace would be complete without reference to the Declaration of Human Rights prepared by the United Nations Commission on Human Rights. The Declaration, which embodies the highest ideals of all people of good will throughout the world, ranks in importance with the French Declaration of the Rights of Men and of Citizens, the British Magna Carta, and the United States Declaration of Independence and The Bill of Rights. At present this document carries only the unofficial endorsement of the participating nations, but a committee is now at work upon a covenant which will embrace most of the provisions of the Declaration. This covenant upon its completion will be submitted to the powers signatory to the Office of Education | 17 Declaration for formal official approval. Persons of every creed, color, nationality, race, and condition of life, interested in lifting men every- where to a higher level of human aspiration and a richer spiritual and material life will wish to work energetically not only for the adoption of the covenant, but more important, for the carrying out of its im- plications in the everyday activities of all our people. All Americans should read and study the Declaration of Human Rights, and discuss its implication with their fellow citizens. Particu- larly the schoolmen of the Nation should consider ways in which the educational program, from the elementary school through the univer- sity, can teach the principles of human conduct and relations set forth in this monumental statement. The teachers of the Nation should know its provisions by heart and they should attempt to embody its precepts in their tasks, not only in the formal activities of the class- room, but in all the relations of one human being to another throughout the school and its environment. The distribution of information about the Declaration of Human Rights and the organization of activities leading to its adoption and implementation is in the hands of the United States National Commission for UNESCO. Educators and other citizens as well will wish to cooperate actively with the National Commission in acquainting our people with the Declaration and in working for the practical realization of its recommendations in the lives of all Americans. Communism and the Schools In the present postwar period, as after World War I, there is a noticeable increase in internal tensions of the Nation. One expression of these tensions is seen in the widespread concern over communism. Many citizens feel, for example, that there is danger that communistic influences may operate through our educational systems. This whole problem calls for a quality of careful thinking and considered action which it is the special responsibility of schools and colleges to supply. Recent months have seen the discharge of three members of the faculty of a large State university for reasons of Communist Party membership. The American Association of University Professors is, at this writing, investigating the situation. The members of the National Education Association in formal meeting in July of 1949 in Boston resolved that persons who are members of the Communist Party should not be permitted to teach in the schools, and that they should be excluded from membership in the Association. In the spring of 1949 the Educational Policies Commission of the National Education Association issued a report which deserves careful study, both by members of the teaching profession and by the public at large. 18 Annual Report, Federal Security Agency, 1949 Entitled, ‘‘American Education and International Tensions,” the report analyzes the cross-currents of world conflicts of ideology, their implications for education, and the consequent steps to be taken in American schools and colleges. ‘The Commission makes four specific recommendations: 1. Young citizens should have an opportunity to learn about the principles and practices of totalitarianism, including those represented by the Soviet Union and by the Communist Party in the United States. 2. Texching about communism or any other form’ of dictatorship does not mean advocacy of these doctrines. Such advocacy should not be permitted in American schools. 3. The schools should continue with vigor their programs for giving young citizens a clear understanding of the principles of the American way of life and a desire to make these principles prevail in their own lives and in the life of their country. 4. Members of the Communist Party of the United States should not be employed as teachers. The position of the Commission with respect to the exclusion of the Communists from teaching positions in the public schools is sound. Under the laws of all States children are required to attend school until a designated age. In addition to learning a certain body of fact about the world in which they live, the presumption is that they are sent to school to learn how to use their intellectual faculties, that is, how to think critically and logically. In short, the teacher even in the lower grades is expected to cultivate those habits of mind and of attitude which predispose the growing citizen to pursue the truth. Children are not sent to school to be indoctrinated with a closed system of philosophy or the political views of the teacher. To the extent that education becomes dogmatic indoctrination it ceases to be education. The Communist embraces and teaches dogma. He is, by his Party membership and sympathy, committed to a closed system of thought. He has given his allegiance to a predetermined set of principles which, are not to be evaluated in the light of evidence or examined on the basis of results. He is not free to serve the truth as the evidence may uncover that truth. He has therefore surrendered his right to teach in a nation of free people. In this, the Communist is not alone, of course; but the fact that there are those others whose commitments prevent them in some measure from pursuing the truth does not justify the retention of Communists. Instead, it raises a much more difficult question: How can American education guard itself against domina- tion by any and all forms of dogmatic intolerance, and at the same time safeguard the traditional rights of academic freedom and freedom of speech? This much appears clear: While our constitutional guarantees Office of Education 19 rightly defend the privilege of every man to speak his mind out freely, regardless of the truth or error of his utterance, trusting to the sifting processes of free debate and the integrity of an educated people, there is no justification, either in principle or in practice, for knowingly employing as teachers of our youth those whose commitments are contrary to the foundation principles of freedom itself. The Real Dangers Communist influence, if it began to find expression in our schools and colleges, would be inimical to the development of the minds and characters of American youth on whom the future depends. But in our efforts to avoid one danger, we must not embrace another. The present period of hysterical concern must not betray us into adopting measures of censorship and control which are the essence of the police state. Some persons have the unfortunate tendency to label as communistic every idea which they happen to dislike. This form of intimidation through vilification is just as objectionable and just as stultifying as the closed-mindedness of the Communist. Under no circumstances must we permit the constructive effort to keep the schools free of Communist domination to lead, by almost imper- ceptible steps, to the establishing of thought-control and the limita- tion of academic freedom in our schools and colleges. There are many citizens, many of whom vigorously deplore com- munism, who have that relatively rare and highly desirable quality of critical loyalty which enables them to support the nation and social institutions which at the same time they are working to improve. To create a more perfect union . . . to promote the general welfare . . to secure the blessings of liberty . . . are fundamental American objectives. No person of sober thought could suggest that these ideals have as yet been fully realized. ‘The teacher who is free to aid students in analyzing both the strengths and the weaknesses of American life is in a position to train the kind of leadership which will make tomorrow better than today. Any attempted intimidation of the teacher, any effort to break the independent spirit or quiet the inquiring mind, is more than a violation of academic freedom: it is a betrayal of American youth, and therefore of America’s future. It is one thing for a teacher to disqualify himself by giving allegiance to a closed system of dogma; it is quite another thing for the American public to give way to a form of mass hysteria and surrender its own free institutions to the emboldened forces of reaction. Unless the schools are kept free, education can become the tool of a controlling class, as it was in the fascist countries of Kurope under Hitler and 20 Annual Report, Federal Security Agency, 1949 Mussolini. When the dissident opinion of minority groups or indi- viduals is killed or suppressed, the pursuit of truth is stopped and the minds of children are perverted. As we fight communism let us beware lest we create our own kind of police state. If, in our efforts to defeat totalitarianism, we become totalitarian, we have lost the battle. Consider some of the features of totalitarianism which are most repugnant to democratic values: the suppression or liquidation of dissident groups; imprisonment for political opinions; spying and informing on private citizens; censorship of newspapers, radio, books, education; abrogation of the rights of free speech and free assembly; arbitrary adherence, either voluntary or involuntary, to a dogmatic party line. In the name of democratic liberty, with its necessary responsibility, American educators and the American public must avoid these evils. The nonconformist teacher must not be attacked and his character besmirched merely because he differs from others. Teachers rightly repudiating the Communist Party line must not be subjected to the line of some other party or of a pressure group or class or race. A free society must be made up of free men. There is no other way. And since there is no short cut to democracy and freedom, but only a continuing, never-relenting struggle for the truth that makes us tree, the teaching profession must be alert to every infringement of the traditional rights of teachers under a democratic form of govern- ment. Defeatism born of fear, conformity which masks frustration, and allegiance blindly and uncritically given to whatever ideal or objective have no place in American education. Cool examination by dispassionate judgment marks these degradations of the human spirit as the basic enemies of democratic life. The teaching pro- fession has a great responsibility to practice and to perpetuate the best traditions of the American heritage of freedom. ‘This is an obligation not easily or pleasantly discharged, but it is one which will bring rich rewards in the thanks of our people when a calmer day makes detached judgment possible. A brief review of educational developments in the United States and of the relationship of the activities of the Office of Education to these developments is presented in the pages that follow. a xe ww Office of Education . 21 Research and Statistics EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH METHODS Uniform Records The collection and publication of reliable information on the “‘con- dition and progress of education in the several States and Territories” requires uniform basic records. Uniformity in turn demands the understanding and acceptance, by the various compiling agencies and reporting officials, of a standard set of definitions of terms such as “‘school” and ‘‘capital outlay.”’ Because of the central importance of records, the Office of Education has for 40 years been vitally interested in the improvement of reporting systems. During the year, the Office worked actively with the Michigan State Association of School Business Officials, with the newly organized New York State Association of School Business Officials, and with the Research Committee on School Accounting of the National Association of School Business Officials (United States and Canada). The Office cooperated with this Research Committee in revising the Manual of Public School Accounting. Attitude, Achievement, and Aptitude Measurement The measurement of attitudes of pupils in various fields (such as mental hygiene, current affairs, and pupil-teacher relations) has been fostered on the national level by the Purdue Opinion Panel. Increas- ing use of the measurement of attitudes is evidenced in social studies classes, and more attention is being paid in general to the attitudes of students about democratic practices. The Office of Education, for example, has issued checklists for students and faculty on democratic attitudes, for experimental class use. The study of personality as an aspect of student adjustment has expanded greatly. A larger number of tests have been offered for use, especially tests which encourage the unconscious and indirect expres- sion of students’ motives and reaction patterns. Achievement measurement and evaluation are advancing through the wider use of questions which emphasize understanding and prob- lem-solving ability, instead of merely factual information. Wider application has also been made of observation as a technique of measurement, Aptitude measurement in the schools has received significant impetus from the successful work in the area by the armed forces. 22 Annual Report, Federal Security Agency, 1949 Several aptitude test batteries have been evolved, each of which measures several different aspects of intelligence. Such multiscore instruments provide measures which are much more sensitive and therefore more helpful for pupil counseling than the single, undifferen- tiated score normally obtained from intelligence tests. The measurement field, in general, has been characterized by an attempt to get away from isolated measurement of single aspects of the student’s abilities and personality. Therefore, the emphasis has been placed on the need for a more complete picture of each child. Development has been in accord with the view that the child is best studied as a complex interacting whole, rather than as the simple sum of separate, isolated parts. Coordination of Educational Research in the United States Educational research has many needs—for staff, facilities, and financial resources—but perhaps greatest of all is the need for im- proved coordination of research efforts and more efficient cooperation among research agencies. Engaged in educational research at present are professors; teachers; graduate students; bureaus of educational research in the universities, in public schools, and in State departments of education; the American Council on Education; the Educational Testing Service; various educational associations (such as the Na- tional Education Assoication and its constituent units, the National Society for the Study of Education, the Southern Regional Educational Conference, and certain of the State educational associations); as well as the Office of Education, Federal Security Agency. The efforts of these groups are to some extent coordinated by the logic of research needs, as accounted in the periodicals and volumes reporting educational research. But too often educational research reflects merely the pressures and limitations of a personal or local situation. Student X, for example, works on a problem which he can complete ‘“‘within the school year’’; professor Y perforce continues to exploit his local opportunities, even though the point of diminishing returns has long been passed; bureau Z works on problems—generally admin- istrative problems—which are peculiar to its own school system; and so on. Larger issues demanding both a broader viewpoint and ereater resources remain neglected or are inadequately explored. Two solutions seem to be shaping up in response to the need for coordination in educational research: (1) The development of larger research units; (2) development by the Office of Education of new areas of responsibility for research leadership. An example of the first type is the formation of the Educational Testing Service, which combines the educational testing activities of the American Council Office of Education : 23 on Education, the Cooperative Test Service, the College Entrance Examination Board, and the Graduate Record Office. An example of the second is the planning and encouragement of research connected with the Life Adjustment Education Program of the Office of Educa- tion. Some dozen States have appointed steering committees for encouraging experimentation in various phases of the Life Adjustment Education Program. However, the opportunities of the Office of Education in the field of coordination of research are largely untapped. Obvious avenues of development include the use of research grants to universities and research bureaus and the establishment of a clearing house for educational research. BASIC PERIODIC STATISTICS Since 1871 the Office of Education has collected and published basic statistical facts to show status and trends and establish the normative standards that exist in the field of public and private education. From 1871 to 1916, these statistical reports were collected annually for almost all levels of education, but because of the growth of edu- cation, many studies were thereafter put on a biennial basis. Although the Office is required by law to collect and publish edu- cational statistics, educational institutions and systems are not re- quired to report to the Office except for the land-grant colleges and the administration of Federal money for vocational education. Volun- tary cooperation can be obtained only if the results of such coopera- tion are made of real value to the cooperating institutions and school systems. This means that the published reports must give sufficient and accurate data which are useful to the respondents and as nearly current as possible. Some 75 percent or more of the institutions and school systems cooperate voluntarily. Data for the others have to be collected from secondary sources, such as State departments of education, or by personal visits. The statistical studies, together with a statistical summary of edu- cation, constitute the Biennial Survey of Education in the United States. The summary chapter picks up the major historical trend and status tables from each of the other studies in order to present a concise overview for all education, public and private, in the United States of the following data: Number of schools (more than 200,000), enrollment (more than 28,000,000), staff (more than 1,000,000), sources of income, and purposes of expenditure (more than $4,000,- 000,000) in 1945-46. In addition, the major data are given for white and Negro schools in the 17 States and the District of Columbia that have separate schools, for various types of libraries, and for any special statistical studies made during the biennium. 861699—50—5 24 Annual Report, Federal Security Agency, 1949 State School Systems The biennial chapter, “‘Statistics of State School Systems, 1945-46,” and the abridged study (60 items) on the same subject for 1946-47 (Circular No. 255) were published during the year. From some stand- points the report on State systems is the most important statistical report published by the Office since it deals with the American public elementary and secondary school system, in which about 82 percent of all persons attending school;on a full-time day basis were enrolled. According to the most recent report published, the number of 1-room schools decreased from 265,474 in 1909-10 to 86,563 in 1945-46, and was probably below 75,000 in 1948-49. The average salary of supervisors, principals, and teachers increased from $1,420 in 1929-30 to $2,254 in 1946-47, and was estimated at $2,750 for 1948-49. This is still a relatively low salary considering educational requirements for teachers, the social importance of teaching, and the rise in the cost of living. Expenditures per pupil in average daily attendance for current expenses increased from $86.70 in'1929-30 to $152.80 in 1946- 47, and to an estimated $185 for 1948-49. The grand total expended by the public-school system for current expense, capital outlay, and interest for 1946-47 was $3,420 million. The Federal Government supplied almost 3 percent; State govern- ments, 35 percent; and county and local governments, including school districts, 62 percent of the revenue receipts for 1946-47. The enrollment for the public-school system for 1946-47 was 23,659,158, of which 17,821,481 were in kindergarten and elementary school, and 5,837, 677 in high school (last 4 years of school system). It is estimated that in 1948-49 the enrollment in public schools was 25,667,000. (Total enrollment should not be confused with average daily attendance; the latter may be roughly computed as 85 percent of the former. Note also that these figures are for public schools only.) City School Systems “Statistics of City School Systems, 1945-46,’’ a chapter in the Biennial Survey of Education, and “Expenditures Per Pupil in City Schools, 1946-47,’ (Circular No. 245) were published in the 1949 fiscal year. The biennial chapter gives 17 items for each city of 10,000 population or more having its own system (not part of a larger school system). National figures are given on many more items by the 4 city-sized groups and for all city school systems combined. Data report 418,980 supervisors, principals, and teachers, and 11,- 970,043 pupils, by sex; average and aggregate attendance; expendi- Office of Education 2S tures of $1,061 million for salaries of supervisors, principals, teachers, and clerks; expenditures for free textbooks, supplies, and other expenses of instruction; total current expense of $1,511 million for full-time day schools and $50 million capital outlay for new plant and equipment. Data are also given for total bonds and other school debts outstanding totaling almost $1,100 million. Certain data are Chart 1.—EXPENDITURES FOR EDUCATION (Estimated for all education, public and private) BILLIONS OF DOLLARS 1943-44 44-45 45-46 46-47 47-48 48-49 given separately for 26,891 full-time day elementary schools; for 5,870 full-time day secondary schools; for 532 systems with part-time, Americanization, night, and continuation schools; and for 173 systems with summer schools. The city school system data are particularly useful for cities making surveys, and for cities that regularly compare themselves with a definite group of cities. They also make possible on a national and State basis comparison of urban and rural school practices. A group of 226 cities that report promptly cooperate to make the annual study of Expenditures Per Pupil in City Schools possible and keep the data comparable over a period of time. From 1937-38 to 1946-47 the average total current expense per pupil 26 Annual Report, Federal Security Agency, 1949 pode AED. ciberac eini she RIE REE ee attending full-time day schools in all city school systems increased from $102.89 to $186.41. City expenditures per pupil generally exceed rural expenditures, and consequently also exceed the average for the country as a whole. Average expenditure for cities of different- sized groups ranged in 1946-47 from $191.08 in cities of 100,000 population and more, to $143.76 in cities under 10,000 population. There was an even wider range among individual cities within each Chart 2.—ACTUAL SALARY AND REAL WAGE OF TEACHERS * THOUSANDS OF DOLLARS 3.0 2.5 20 SALARY RECEIVED -_ -_ “a _ REAL WAGE 1939- 40- “4I- 42- 43- 44- “45- “46- ‘%47- 48- 40 341 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 1 Real wage is actual salary adjusted to consumers’ price index (Bureau of Labor Statistics). Teachers include principals, supervisors, and ‘‘other instructional staff.’’ croup. For example, the smallest cities ranged from $64.28 to $267.98, with a median average expenditure of $141.82 and a mean average expenditure of $143.76. Higher Education Because there is no central organization of all institutions of higher education in the Nation, or even within most States, the Office of Education collects information directly from all institutions of higher education (1,728 in 1948-49, according to the classification used by the Office). The Office during the past year divided periodic statistics of Office of Education 27 higher education into a number of small studies staggered throughout a biennium, as follows: Summer school enrollment (annual)—July; fall enrollment (annual)—October; earned degrees granted (annual)— June; staff, income, expenditures, property (biennial)—June. This “fractionation” of the statistical program for higher education gets more prompt and complete replies and makes possible preliminary releases of the annual studies from 6 to 8 weeks after the forms are sent out. The decrease in fall enrollments in higher educational, institutions during the war period and the increase since the war is shown in chart 3 Chart 3.—ENROLLMENT IN HIGHER EDUCATION Fall enrollment, all types of students MILLIONS OF STUDENTS VETERAN NONVETERAN 1939 4 43 45. 46 47 48 There were more than a million veterans in college in the fall of each of the past 3 years: 1,080,396 in 1946; 1,122,738 in 1947; and 1,021,038 in 1948. The number of junior colleges as defined by the Office of Education increased from the 46 reporting in 1917-18 to 472 in 1947-48, and their total enrollment from 4,504 to 240,173. As defined by the American Association of Junior Colleges, there were 651 such institutions in 1948-49, compared with 663 in 1947-48. 28 Annual Report, Federal Security Agency, 1949 The total staff, administrative and instructional, in all institutions of higher education in 1945-46 was 165,324, an increase of 14,344 in 2 years. The number of degrees conferred in both 1948 and 1949 was greater than ever before because of the large number of GI students. Including an estimated amount for the U. S. Service Academies, the total income for higher education for 1945-46 was approximately $925 million for educational and general purposes, distributed by source (in millions) as follows: Student fees, $214; Endowment earnings, $90; Federal Government, $197; State & local governments, $256; Private gifts and grants, $78; other sources, $90. Approximately $462 million of this was received by publicly con- trolled and $463 million by privately controlled institutions. Degree Prewar high 1947-48 1948-49 TOGA]... Bennet eee LEE ane fo eae 2 eae) Se 216, 728 318, 749 422, 754 Bacheloms and iret ProlessiON ale. se ee es eee 1 186, 500 272, 144 366, 634 Masters and second! professional. 232225. = 5s 5 ee 1 26; 731 _ 42, 417 50, 827 OCEANS Ss BNR Re oe ea eh) 23 3 ee ee 23,497 4, 188 5, 293 1 1939-40. 2 1941-42. Elementary Education No separate periodic statistical studies are made of kindergartens and of elementary schools because of the great number of these schools under the jurisdiction of 86,000 school districts. Data on enrollment in public elementary schools, given in the studies of State and city school systems, show the beginning of the upswing from the most recent low of 17,713,096 in 1943-44 to 17,821,481 in 1946-47. The estimated enrollment for 1948-49 was about 20,000,000. The aforementioned studies give number of schools, by State (160,227); teachers, by sex (541,528); total elementary enrollment, by sex; enrollment, by grade; the number and enrollment in 1-, 2-, and 3-teacher schools for the States reporting; average and aggregate days attended, and length of school term in days; total enrollment, staff, grade enrollment, average and aggregate attendance, and length of term in schools for Negroes in the 17 States and the District of Columbia, having separate schools for Negroes. They also give number of staff (64,495) and students (2,259,392), by sex, in all private ele- mentary schools, by State; and for the number of staff and students in Catholic elementary schools, by State, as reported by the National Catholic Welfare Conference. In “‘Statistics of City School Systems,’’ data are given for elementary schools (including nursery and kindergarten where present) for enroll- Office of Education | 29 ment (34.2) and average daily attendance (28.0) per teacher for all city schools combined and for each of the 4 city-sized groups. Secondary Education During the year the study was completed of public high-school sta- tistics for 1945-46 for the 24,314 schools of all types employing 326,776 staff members and educating 7,140,164 pupus, including those in junior high schools. This was the first large study in this field since 1937-38, when there were 8,016,384 pupils. Because there were almost 1 million fewer persons aged 14-17, inclusive, in 1945-46 than in 1937-38, it would be expected that there would be 7 10,000 fewer persons enrolled in high school. Therefore, about four-fifths of the 876,220 decrease in enrollment was due to the decrease in births. In 1945-46, 445,647 boys and 570,917 girls were graduated from the fourth year by 20,065 public high schools. Public and private high schools have graduated more than 1 million pupils a year for 11 years (1935-36 to 1945-46) and probably each year since 1945-46. The enrollment in the last 4 years of public high-school work in 1945- 46 was 5,706,389 pupils; this number was 65 percent of the total number of persons 14-17 years of age in the population. There were about 10,000 fewer men and 16,000 more women teach- ing in high school in 1945-46 than in 1937-38, reflecting the exodus of men from teaching during the war. The 1,732 high schools in 11-grade school systems enrolled 322,897 pupils, whereas the 22,215 high schools in 12-grade systems enrolled 6,596,727 pupils (exclusive of ungraded high schools and those with enrollments of fewer than 10). One of the outstanding features of high-school development over the past 35 years has been a steady and uninterrupted increase in the num- ber of schools deviating in form of organization from the 8-4 or 7-4 types of school organization in favor of some sort of “reorganized” pattern such as 6-3-3 or 6-6 type. In 1945-46 the reorganized schools constituted 43 percent of the total number, had 62 percent of the pupils, and 58 percent of the staff members, compared with 39 percent, 56 percent, and 54 percent, respectively, in 1937-38. Vocational Education Vocational education statistics are reported in a separate section. ~ Libraries In order to study the library resources available for instruction and self-education, the Office of Education periodically collects and 30 Annual Report, Federal Security Agency, 1949 reports statistics on the holding, services, personnel, and expenditures of school, college, and public libraries. ‘These comprehensive surveys, scheduled on a quadrennial basis, are supplemented by occasional limited studies made annually. The latest Nation-wide compilation for college and university libraries, covering the academic year ended June 30, 1947, showed the following figures in comparison with those for 1939-40: 1946-47 1939-40 Number of institutions submitting report_______- 1, 345 1, 321 Number of volumes: ACUG0 GUIDE VERT 32 6 2 eee eee ee 3, 602, 198 3, 194, 578 PG CMIOL, OF VCE cis eee ee ee 94, 300,665 71, 666, 801 Added“per student 2 UU VV ee eee 1.9 2. 6 At end of year per student__._____________- 48. 3 59. 8 Circulated for home use per student___-___- 15. 0 21.7 Number of reserve books circulated per student __-_ 18. 7 30. 0 Total operating expenditures (excluding capital UGLY) cre ae te ae eg en ae ee $34, 621,588 $17, 976, 231 Operating expenditures per student____________- $18. 07 $15. 31 It may therefore be assumed that our college and university libraries were operating at the close of the 1948-49 school year with slightly more than 100 million volumes in their collections and were expending annually at least $38 million, exclusive of capital outlays. In the case of the institutions with enrollments of 5,000 students or more, their expenditures in 1946-47 for library purposes were dis- tributed as follows: Salaries: library staff, 51.1 percent; Wages: student service, 8.6; Books and periodicals, 31.4; Binding, 3.5; Other (excluding building maintenance), 5.4. The comprehensive study of the 7,500 public library systems in the United States is not scheduled until 1950, but an analysis of the annual reports of the 94 public libraries in cities with populations of 100,000 or more showed an increase from 1945 to 1948 of 7 percent in number of volumes at end of year, 12 percent in number of registered borrowers, 4 percent in circulation, and 43 percent in expenditures (excluding capital outlay). At the beginning of 1949, this group of large-sized public libraries possessed 45,142,081 volumes and circulating 133,283,304 annually; and were expending $45,205,592, exclusive of capital outlays. Public-school library statistics for the school year 1947-48 were collected during 1949, but the compilation and analysis had not been completed at the end of the fiscal year. Special Education More exceptional children and young people were enrolled in special schools and classes than ever before. More than twice as many local Office of Education 31 school districts reported special educational services for such pupils in 1948 as in 1940. Despite a slight decrease in total day school enroll- ment, the enrollments in special schools and classes for exceptional children and youth in local school districts increased by 20 percent (from 313,722 to 378,059). From 1931-32 to 1947-48 there was an increase of 90 percent in the number of children reported as receiving special educational services in public schools or in State and private residential schools. Yet hundreds of thousands—even millions—who need such services are still not getting them. Administration of Grants PROGRAMS UNDER CONSIDERATION General Federal Aid to Education Although general Federal aid to education has been discussed for many years, the need for Federal aid has probably been more clearly recognized this year than at any previous time. In his budget message in January 1949 President Truman stated: , . . - In many areas, teachers’ salaries are low, particularly in the elementary grades. ‘Too many are leaving the profession; too few are entering. Enrollments are rising. As a result, overcrowded classrooms and substandard instruction are common. As the large number of children born during and after the war reach school age, the situation will become even worse, Many States are finding it difficult, even with high tax rates, to pay adequate salaries or to take other corrective measures. It is therefore urgent that the Congress enact legislation to provide grants to the States in support of a basic minimum program? of elementary and secondary education for all our children and youth. This Budget includes a tentative appropriation estimate of 300 million dollars for such grants in the fiscal year 1950. Evidence of the need for general Federal aid hasrapidly accumulated. Studies show that the wealth per child in the eight most wealthy States is approximately three times the wealth per child in the eight least wealthy States. This means generally that unless Federal aid is available for schools, the least wealthy States will have to make approximately three times the fiscal effort to support their schools as the most wealthy States, or will have to be satisfied with lower standards of education. The evidence shows clearly that the least wealthy States have in general made about 50 percent greater fiscal effort to support their schools than the most wealthy States and yet > have not been able to provide satisfactory educational programs. More bills relating to Federal aid to education were introduced 861699—50—6 32 Annual Report, Federal Security Agency, 1949 in the first 6 months of the 81st Congress than in any previous com- parable period. Most of these bills are designed to provide an equi- table system of Federal aid to schools without imposing Federal controls. The Senate, having passed a bill providing for general Federal aid to education during the 80th Congress, acted favorably upon a similar bill in May 1949 (S. 246). At the close of the fiscal year, legislation on this subject was still before the House of Representatives. Federal Programs of School Health Services In cooperation with the Children’s Bureau of the Social Security Administration and with the Public Health Service, the American Academy of Pediatrics made a study of child health services which showed a serious lack of school health services, particularly in the isolated semi-rural and isolated rural areas. This lack is shown graphically in chart 4. In the areas adjacent to and including the metropolitan areas (combining the first three county groups), 11 percent of the children were in counties without school health services; whereas in the isolated semi-rural and isolated rural areas (combining the fourth and fifth eroups), 42 percent of the children did not have school health services. The study also showed that the administration of the program in the more populous areas was predominantly under school jurisdiction, while in the less heavily populated areas it was largely under the jurisdiction of departments of health. Forty-eight percent of the children lived in districts in which the responsibility was under schools, 12 percent lived where it was joint health agency and school, and 36 percent lived in areas in which it was under health agencies, and 4 percent under other agencies. In 10 States 50 percent or more of the children lived in counties with no school health services. In 10 additional States, 30 to 49 percent of the children lived in such counties. To meet this lack of services, a school health services bill was introduced into Congress and passed the Senate, but had not been voted upon in the House of Representatives at the close of the fiscal year. To obtain full information, the Office completed a study of the present legal responsibility for school health services. Established Federal grants to States have continued, directly or indirectly, to bring improved health services to children of school age. Among these grants are those for maternal and child health and crippled children’s services, through the Children’s Bureau, and those for public health education and tuberculosis, through the Public Health Service. Office of Education 33 The experimental study on methods of vision testing, carried out under the auspices of the National Society for the Prevention of Blind- ness, the American Academy of Ophthalmology, the Children’s Bureau, and the St. Louis Board of Education, was completed. - The American Medical Association conducted a survey of local medical societies on their participation in the school health program. Supplementary studies are being made of the schools by the Office of Chart 4.—SCHOOL MEDICAL SERVICES (Proportion of children aged 5—14 in counties with no organized medical service in public elementary schools, 1946 *) MILLIONS OF CHILDREN O | 2 3 4 ) 6 GREATER METROPOLITAN COUNTIES vie 1% LESSER METROPOLITAN ADJACENT TO METROPOLITAN ISOLATED SEMI-RURAL 56%] ISOLATED RURAL WITHOUT fae WITH SERVICE See] SERVICE 1 A county is said to be without school health service if there is not at least one public elementary school in which children are given a medical examination by a physician. Education. This is an example of cooperation between education and the medical profession. In the past year the use of the topical application of sodium fluoride was extended in an attempt to decrease the amount of dental caries in school children. This extension, a joint project of health and educational authorities, was stimulated in part by funds pro- vided by the Public Health Service for experimental purposes. There has been an increasing interest in mental health for school children, school personnel, and the community as a whole, with workshops devoting considerable time to this subject. Hmphasis 34 Annual Report, Federal Security Agency, 1949 is being given to meeting the mental health needs of children and school personnel with increased pre-service and in-service training for school personnel in this field. Federal Programs for School Plant Construction From January through June 1949, 40 bills were introduced in the 81st Congress to authorize Federal financial assistance for the construc- tion of elementary and secondary school facilities. Twelve of these bills pertain to special and specific situations, 8 propose assistance for emergency construction only in cases where the urgent needs have resulted from war and specific Federal activities, and 20 propose to make Federal funds available to all States for needed school construc- tion in general. These 20 bills fall into 8 different administrative and distribution patterns. Six school construction bills, each representing a different admin- istrative and distribution pattern, were referred to the Senate Com- mittee on Labor and Public Welfare, which organized a special sub- committee to consider them. The Subcommittee held public hearings on these bills in June 1949 but had not reported a bill by the close of the fiscal year. Recognition of Need for a‘’Scholarship Program The report of the President’s Commission on Higher Education, released in December 1947, had wide discussion during the past year. Among the recommendations was one for a federally financed system of fellowships and scholarships, to enable capable young people to continue their education beyond the secondary level. As the program of educational benefits for veterans tapers off, the need for a similar plan of financial assistance for selected nonveteran students will be more generally felt. Studies have shown that half or more of the most capable high-school graduates do not enter college, largely because they cannot afford to. The waste of this most precious of all natural resources can be prevented only by some program of financial assistance to students. A few States have provided scholar- ships in limited numbers and amounts. The resources available to the States and to the individual institutions are inadequate to meet the demonstrated national need. The President’s Commission on Higher Education came to the conclusion that the problem can only be solved by a plan using Federal funds for scholarship purposes. The Commission, composed of nationally known educators, recoin- mended such a program. The President’s budget message of January 1949 recommended - Office of Education , 35 an appropriation of $1 million to the Office of Education for two studies, one of which would be concerned with plans for administering and operating a program of scholarship assistance. It was subse- quently decided not to undertake such a study but that the Office of Education should prepare a staff memorandum summarizing the the known facts concerning the need of assistance for students in higher institutions. In May 1949 the Division of Higher Education of the Office held a conference of national educational leaders to study this problem. The Office then submitted its recommendations to the Bureau of the Budget in the same month. OCCUPATIONAL TRENDS A trend toward higher employing standards was particularly notice- able during the past year and has created needs for more skilled and better educated employees at all levels. President Truman’s “‘point 4” is one indication among many that the United States will be increasingly called upon to provide men and women with a large variety of skills and abilities, to help in the re- habilitation of the war-torn world. Among occupational conditions directly affecting vocational edu- cation was a pronounced shortage of craft workers, accelerated by the relatively high average age of workers in certain crafts. In industry the rapid increase in the number of apprentices since World War II continued, resulting in a greater demand on the public schools for related training and instructional materials. Farmers purchased an increasing amount of power-driven machinery during the year, which in turn increased the demand for persons skilled in the care and opera- tion of farm machinery. The trend in industry is toward increased dependence upon science and technology. This dependence has perhaps been accelerated by the developments in the utilization of atomic energy. The trend was re- flected in the employment of more engineers and scientists in industry and business. The needs of industry and business were in turn re- flected in college enrollments in engineering and scientific curriculums. In 1948-49 the colleges graduated the largest classes of engineers and scientists in their history. Industry also evidenced an increasing need for well-educated persons for administrative positions, a need reflected in a large increase in the enrollment of students in business education. As in engineering, the number of graduates in this field rose to an all-time peak. The greatly increased enrollments in all fields of training which prepare for business careers emphasize the growing need for adequate and effective guidance services to high-school and college students, in 36 Annual Report, Federal Security Agency, 1949 order that the students seeking professional careers may have adequate knowledge of the professions in which they are interested, and may be guided into the professions for which they are best qualified. There has been an acute shortage in all branches of the health professions—physicians, dentists, nurses, laboratory technicians. Public health authorities, for example, point to the need for training at least 20,000 practical nurses a year for the next 10 years. There were shortages of elementary teachers in practically every State during 1948-49 (see extended discussion elsewhere in this report.) The large numbers of married women who work outside the home, as found in a survey (1947 data) published by the Census Bureau in 1949, indicate that homemaking programs need to serve not only the teen-age children who are taking responsibility at home, but also women who are gainfully employed and also keep house. GRANT PROGRAMS ADMINISTERED BY THE OFFICE Vocational Education—Instructional Problems AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION The Office’s Agricultural Education Service, Division of Vocational Education, cooperated with the Department of Agriculture in the pub- lication of a bulletin entitled ‘“‘Price Program of the U. S. Department of Agriculture—1949.”’ More than 300,000 copies of this bulletin, 10,000 bulletins containing outlook charts, and copies of an outline of conservation practices were made available to departments of voca- tional agriculture for use by in-school farm boys, out-of-school young farmers, adult farmers, and veterans who are enrolled in the institu- tional-on-farm training programs. A special regional committee devoted the greater part of a year in developing a long-time comprehensive program of work for agri- cultural education, setting forth plans by which the States and local communities may put into operation a complete program of agricul- tural education. In cooperation with the American Society of Agricultural Engi- neers, special working conferences were planned for farm mechanics teachers. Frequent discussions were held with representatives of the American Institute of Cooperation, the National Grange, the American Farm Bureau Federation, the Farmers Union, and the National Council of Farmer Cooperatives on the instructional prob- lems to be taken up in classes in vocational agriculture. Four regional conferences of supervisors and teacher trainers were held which. emphasize instructional programs for young and adult farmers, and for veterans enrolled in institutional-on-farm training classes. Office of Education 37 Two studies are under way for improving instruction in agricul- ture—one to work out a functional program in agricultural education for young farmers and the other to formulate plans for evaluating institutional on-farm training for veterans. The membership in the Future Farmers of America, the national organization of students of agriculture in public secondary schools, increased during the year roughly from 260,000 to 280,000. The New Farmers of America, a national organization for Negro Farm boys in States maintaining separate schools for Negroes, grew roughly from 26,000 to 28,000. Leadership training schools were conducted by the Agricultural Education Service for the officers of these two organizations. BUSINESS EDUCATION The Business Education Service gave major attention during the year to the preparation of a step-by-step schedule of planning, develop- ing, and organizing a long-range adult instructional program in the distributive occupations. This schedule provides for a reasonably complete subject-matter coverage of the several levels of employment in the major areas of retail and wholesale distribution and the dis- tributive phase of service occupations. Under this program an adult distributive worker will be able to pursue, in sequence, related courses providing comprehensive training in a specific area of distribution. The Business Education Service worked cooperatively with nu- merous national trade associations, for example, the National Leather and Shoe Finders Association and professional organizations, in the preparation of instructional materials. HOME ECONOMICS EDUCATION Teachers of home economics in service need many kinds of help with their instructional problems. In most States a large number of inex- perienced teachers are found in the home’ economics field, for many are employed only a few years and then leave to marry or to enter better-paying professions. War marriages have brought with them many problems which call for special insight into family relations and child development on the part of both youth and adults. These aspects of the home economics program should be strengthened. Many home economics departments need better equipment for teach- ing these and other phases of home and family living. Because of these conditions the Home Economics Education Service helped State leaders in 16 States to plan for State-wide curriculum studies and State or district curriculum conferences, or to evaluate and organize for publication materials that had been developed by teachers. In several States, representatives from this Service assisted 38 Annual Report, Federal Security Agency, 1949 in evaluating the local and State needs and helped set up a long-time plan which would emphasize different aspects of the program in succeeding years. Work was completed on two bulletins—‘“Frontiers in Homemaking Education—A Program for Adults’ (Vocational Division Bulletin No. 239) suggesting guides to supervisors and teachers who are organ- izing and developing adult homemaking education programs, and “Space and Equipment in Homemaking Education” (Misc. No. 9) for persons planning homemaking departments in secondary schools. The leaflet ‘‘Home Economics in the Public High Schools of the U.S. A.” was published. In 1945 high-school girls began organizing chapters of the Future Homemakers of America and of the New Homemakers of America onanational basis. During 1948-49, 737 new chapters were organized in both groups and membership increased by roughly 26,000, raising the total membership to nearly 295,000. Because of the increase in membership in the two groups, many teachers, supervisors, and teacher trainers have needed help in integrating this work with the other parts of the school program. One representative of the Office of Education visited 31 States during the year to give help on this problem. TRADE AND INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION The Trade and Industrial Education Service, at the request of the Air Force Training Command, made a special study of 10 training centers conducted by the Command. An official report was made to the Command Headquarters setting forth the criteria for evaluation, describing existing situations, and making recommendations for improving the instruction in’Air, Base schools. The Service assisted in the development of new types of instructional materials for firemen. Pictorial manuals—‘‘Handling Ladders” and “Handling Hose and Salvage’’—were prepared by a joint committee from the International Association of Fire Chiefs, The Fire Depart- ment Instructors’ Conference, and The National Fire Protection Association. In addition, the Service prepared a bulletin ‘Arts and Crafts: A Bibliography,for Craftsmen,” issued by the National Gallery of Art, and a bibliography on occupations for girls and women, for use by the Women’s Bureau of the Department of Labor. In cooperation with a national committee representing the national associations of nursing education, a curriculum for the use of schools offering training for the occupation of practical nursing was prepared for publication. This curriculum, organized to conform to an analysis of the occupa- tion previously published, was designed for use of vocational schools and cooperating hospitals training practical nurses. Office of Education | 39 The Trade and Industrial Education Service prepared a list of in- structional materials on apprentice training for distribution to State and local school authorities, and to training officials in industry. The Service coordinated the exchange among States of instructional ma- terials and study guides for apprenticeable occupations. A program for completing a uniform pattern of study guides for apprentices in railroad shop crafts was coordinated among seven States engaged in this type of training. The Service provided leadership for four regional committees working on improving trade and industrial education programs through studies on placement and follow-up of trade school graduates; standards for trade school buildings; production of visual aids for instruction; and an outline of technical vocational courses. OCCUPATIONAL INFORMATION AND GUIDANCE The eighth National Conference of State Supervisors and several regional conferences held by the Occupational Information and Guidance Service helped more than 100 State supervisors and coun- - selor-trainers to exchange ideas on guidance practices. The first draft of a publication on occupational information for training counselors was completed. Documents on the implication | of the new draft law, on occupations in the Navy, and on occupational outlook were produced, either by the staff of the Service or by other agencies with the assistance of the staff. Demonstration and pilot guidance centers were operated on an experimental basis in several States to establish patterns that could be used by other schools. Vocational Education—Organization and Administrative Problems For the first time, policies for the administration of the Federal vocational education acts were published in the Federal Register during the fiscal year. The policies were also printed as ‘‘ Administration of Vocational Education” (Vocational Education Bulletin No. 1, rev. 1948). Assistance was given States in total program planning and evalua- tion, in analyzing needs from the budgetary standpoint, and on prob- lems regarding the responsibilities of State boards for vocational education as the ultimate authority in the State for the vocational education program. New procedures were used in auditing the State’s accounts of Federal and State matching funds for vocational education. A fiscal audit was made by the Grant-in-Aid Audit Unit of the Federal Security Agency and a program review of professional aspects of State expendi- | 861699—50 —7 40 Annual Report, Federal Security Agency, 1949 tures was made by the Division of Vocational Education Office of Education. Heretofore one person from the Division made both the fiscal audit and the program review in a State. Approximately one-fourth of the States now provide, through the vocational division of the State department of education, supervision and leadership for all phases of business education—office training and distributive training. Other States provide supervision only for the Chart 5.—ENROLLMENT IN FEDERALLY AIDED VOCATIONAL CLASSES MILLIONS DISTRIBUTIVE OCCUPATIONS aA o@, SOAK KRG eretete®- —e_ : SEREKRSNSNG SEB GGVI S S NS 1917 20 "25 30 fo} 40 45 federally aided distributive occupations training. In response to the interest and requests of the States, the Business Education Service is assisting them in developing an organizational pattern that will best facilitate effective vocational training in all phases of business education. Special problems were presented in the area of guidance services. States had problems dealing with budget provisions, the duties and qualifications of new officers, and, in many cases, with first steps in providing guidance services. Thirty-one States were aided in this program planning, six States in reactivating dormant programs, and three States in establishing new ones. The postwar increase in enrollments in all types of vocational education classes (day, evening, part-time) brought the total enroll- Office of Education . 41 ment in all phases of vocational education for 1948-49 to a new all-time high. Enrollments since 1917 in each of the four fields of vocational education are shown in chart 5. The Federal funds appropriated for vocational education programs in the States are shown in table 1. These amounts were identical with those for the preceding year. TABLE 1.—Funds available for allotment to States from Smith-Hughes and George-Barden Acts, fiscal year 1949 Purpose Smith-Hughes Act George-Barden Act LR SILT ce gm pi il i ai age Ek $7, 285, 122 $19, 842, 760 mri Uuralied UCHLION 2 22a es ee Oe Lt 3, 058, 453 6, 889, 084 Trade and industrial education__._____.____-~- 13, 111,913 5, 6038, 853 STO mameeCODOMNICS. COUCALION Bee oe ee ey le eo ete ad DP DDD. ast Pisiriputive occupations education. = 1, 794, 499 Ree ae aIO 1 ees ge oe Vela ef OG ee ae ae eee 1 Not more than 20 percent may be used for home economics, Despite the fact that no additional Federal funds were available for vocational education in 1948-49, the State and local expenditures for vocational education increased, as shown in table 2. In many cases this means that States, in order to establish vocational programs in schools not previously served, are decreasing the rate of reimburse- ment from Federal funds to schools with currently established voca- tional programs. TABLE 2.—Expenditure of Federal, State, and local funds for vocational educa- tion, by type of program, fiscal years 1948 and 1949 Expenditures Source of funds = oy a : istributive ome Trades and All programs | Agriculture occupations | economics industry 1947-48 UNO AGY ees Reg inet sacle Aerial hs $103, 675, 710 | $30, 539, 600 $3, 861, 231 $28, 380, 202 $40, 894, 675 TYG SY EH a a 26, 192, 984 9, 887, 090 1, 525, 506 6, 260, 411 8, 529, 977 DL Obeme sete ARE ee ele tek 25, 848, 610 6, 849, 464 1, 251, 696 7, 539, 236 10, 208, 213 POCA Me tee an eee 51, 634, 116 13, 813, 046 1, 084, 029 14, 580, 555 22, 156, 485 1948-49 1 SIN Gye eam tees 22 oe 119, 293, 893 34, 615, 022 5, 423, 961 33, 405, 719 45, 849, 191 Wetomileeene. 2 eye ryreeit en sae 26, 406, 924 10, 048, 995 1, 548, 877 6, 243, 033 8, 566, 019 ELC mete eae oss 30, 356, 147 7, 942, 476 1, 449, 913 8, 732, 370 12, 231, 388 YC pea Ss, ee a eS 62, 530, 822 16, 623, 551 2, 425, 171 18, 430, 316 25, 051, 784 1 Provisional figures, subject to final audit of State reports, Vocational Teacher Education AGRICULTURE The Agricultural Education Service made a special effort to em- phasize the directed teaching phase of the resident teacher-training 42 Annual Report, Federal Security Agency, 1949 program by conducting workshops for critic teachers in Pennsylvania, Maryland, Delaware, New Jersey, Michigan, and Louisiana. The Service cooperated with a joint curriculum committee of the American Society of Agricultural Engineers in working out the training needs of teachers of vocational agriculture in farm mechanics. Reports were prepared showing the number of new teachers avail- able and how they were placed in 1948. Information was also collected showing the percentage of agricultural college graduates who qualified as teachers of vocational agriculture. BUSINESS As a result of a national workshop conducted by the Business Education Service for State supervisors and teacher trainers, a bulle- tin dealing with the pre-service and in-service training of teachers of distributive occupations was prepared. This publication presents the best practices, standards, and curriculums of the several States. The lack of occupational experience is one serious deficiency of business teachers, particularly those teaching courses not federally aided. Inanattempt to meet that need, and in response to the request for assistance from many teacher-training institutions, the Service prepared a bulletin on ‘‘Business Experience for Business Teachers’ (Vocational Division Bulletin No. 241). supplied by the Carnegie Foundation for the Advancement of Teach- ing. One of its goals is the development of a national plan for accred- iting institutions which prepare social service workers. The Committee on Criteria for College Work in Home Economics of the American Home Economics Association, without going into an actual program of accreditation, has produced a book on home economics in higher education, intended to be a guide to institutions in setting up their programs. The chapters of this volume deal with the philosophy, curriculum, and administration of programs in home economics. The appendix contains a checking device which the college department can use in evaluating the aspects of the department and its program on the bases discussed in the book. Two members of the staff of the Office of Education have served as consultants for the committee which prepared the home economics volume. | Plans for improving the procedures for the accreditation of institu- { jo Office of Education 55 tions that prepare teachers were considered by the American Asso- ciation of Colleges for Teacher Education and the National Commis- sion on Teacher Education and Professional Standards of the National Education Association. Activities of the Service Though the latest Office bulletin on scholarships and fellowships available in institutions of higher education in the United States was published in 1936, the Government Printing Office reports that there is still a strong demand for it. The urgent need for up-to-date information resulted in the initiation of work on a new bulletin concerning available scholarships and fellowships. A Specialist for College Business Management was added to the staff of the Division of Higher Education in April 1949. In addition to the usual consultative services, he began editing a handbook on principles of business and financial administration for colleges and universities, prepared in collaboration with a committee representing the various associations of college and university business officers. STATE AND LOCAL SCHOOL SYSTEMS State Studies During the past year State-wide studies of education were completed in a number of States, including New Mexico, Indiana, North Caro- lina, South Carolina, and Georgia. A study of limited scope was completed in Texas. Special studies were completed in Arizona and California. In addition, the Governors’ Conference sponsored a study of public elementary and secondary school education, published by the Council of State Governments under the title, “The Forty- Eight State School Systems.’’ These studies served to call attention to many problems which seriously need attention and, in a number of States, helped to bring about at least partial solutions. Changes in State Educational Structure The State structure for education is a significant factor in developing a satisfactory educational program in any State. Changes in State structure however are usually made slowly regardless of the defects which may exist. While minor changes were made during the past year, only a few States made major changes in State structure. The citizens of Colorado adopted a constitutional amendment providing for the appointment of the chief State school officer by the State 56 Annual Report, Federal Security Agency, 1949 Board of Education. The Texas Legislature took steps to eliminate the elective superintendent of education when the present term ex- pires, and provided for the immediate election of a State board of education and for the appointment of a State commissioner of education. To assist State and local school authorities with their problems of organization and administration and at the request of the National Council of Chief State School Officers, the Office of Education made a detailed study of the organizational structure of the 48 State depart- ments of education and prepared for publication the manuscript “The Structure of State Departments of Education”? (Misc. No. 10). Three additional studies, also requested by the Council, were initiated. For one of these, ‘‘Organization of State School Administration as Provided by State Laws,” digests and analyses of State laws were prepared; for the other two, ‘Services of State Departments of Education” and ‘‘Administering Professional Personnel of State Departments of Education,” inquiry forms were developed. Provisions for Changes in Local School Administrative Unit Organization The citizens in many States have continued to be interested in improving the structure of local school administrative units. Arkan- sas established provisions by law that will eliminate most of the very small districts of the State by-1950. Colorado and Missouri enacted laws providing for the reorganization of districts. Minnesota revised and extended its reorganization laws. Iowa, Illinois, and other States are continuing their program for reorganizing and enlarging local school administrative units. Financing Education There were three broad but distinct developments in the financing of education: (1) Many States further increased the proportion of school funds from State sources, the Nation-wide percentage at present being approximately 40 percent of the total. (2) The tax base was further broadened in many States, al- though approximately 60 percent of all public-school revenue still comes from general property taxes. (3) Many States continued to strengthen their equalizing or foundation programs. Indiana and Texas in particular revised their programs last year, providing more adequate and objective bases for defining needs and improving the equalizing features, | Office of Education 57 Most States are still studying the development of better measures for educational need. Some States have developed relatively valid and objective measures, while in others the measures are still rough or subjective. Some States are still struggling with the development of better measures of local taxpaying capacity. While most States still use assessed valuation regardless of variations in assessment ratios, several States have either improved their assessing plan or developed some more objective measures, such as an equalizing ratio or an index of taxpaying capacity. Plant Needs The increase in birth rate during the war years further complicated the problem of providing adequate school plant facilities which was already serious because school plant construction had been practically discontinued during the war years. An average increase in enroll- ment in the public schools of at least three-quarters of a million stu- dents a year for each of the next several years is expected. Because of the accumulative effect of births on school enrollments, attendance will continue to increase at least until 1958. To provide for this increased enrollment will require approximately 250,000 classrooms during the next 10 years. Another 150,000 or 160,000 classrooms will be required to replace obsolete facilities and probably another 40,000 for kindergarten and junior college pupils. While some local school systems have begun systematic studies to determine plant needs and costs, many systems still do not realize the seriousness of the problem and have not developed any adequate plans for working out a solution. Few States have faced the problem real- istically. Only a few have carried out systematic State-wide studies to determine where permanent school centers should be located, what buildings should be provided, and what plans should be developed to finance the needed school plant construction. Because of the great variation in construction costs since 1930, dollar volume of capital outlay has little meaning unless it is related to schoolhousing space provided by the investment. Results from preliminary studies, and calculations based on enrollment increases, educational program expansion, and emergency replacements indicate that it will require a capital outlay investment of at least $10 billion within the next 10 years to enlarge and improve physical plant facili- ties for public elementary and secondary schools. (See chart 6.) Miscellaneous Developments Three groups carried on cooperative studies during the past year. These include the Southern States Work-Conference on Educational 58 Annual Report, Federal Security Agency, 1949 Problems, the Central States Conference, and the New England School Development Council. These studies represent efforts by schools and by State school systems in various parts of the country to coordinate their attack on common educational problems. The officials in many States now realize that State laws and restric- tions have placed such serious limitations on local tax levies for school purposes that local initiative and responsibility have been seriously handicapped. Some States are working to remedy this situation. Consultative services were rendered by Office staff members on problems of State and local unit organization, school plant planning and management, school finance, and -pupil transportation, to State departments of education, workshops of State universities, State school boards associations, and local school administrative units in 22 of the 48 States. The staff also prepared for publication 6 articles on educational legislation, 24 articles on educational school plant planning and management; the following Office bulletins and circulars: “‘Educa- tional Leadership in Action’’, ‘Selected Bibliography on School Finance” (Bulletin 1949, No. 14), ‘‘Records and Reports for Pupil Transportation”? (Special Series No. 2), ‘State School Plant Assist- ance,” ‘Bibliography on School Plant Management,” ‘Improving School Custodial Service’ (Bulletin 1949, No. 13), and Parts I and II of the ‘Educational Directory, 1948-49”; and for outside publi- cation: Three chapters of American Association of School Adminis- trators yearbook on ‘‘American School Buildings’’; five chapters for “Guide for Planning School Plants’ by the National Council on Schoolhouse Construction; chapters on pupil transportation for State educational surveys in Indiana and New Mexico; and a survey report for the Arizona Advisory Council on Education, on the structure, organization, and services of the State educational agency entitled “Improving Education in Arizona.”’ The Office also worked with State education staff members and with civic groups in analyzing programs of legislation and finance for the education of exceptional children and youth. PUPIL PERSONNEL SERVICES Particularly significant in pupil personnel services was the issuance in April 1949 of a manual on “Counselor Preparation”? which was prepared jointly by the following organizations: American College Personnel Association, American Psychological Association, National Rehabilitation Association, National Vocational Guidance Associa- tion, Office of Education, National Association of Guidance Super- visors, U. 5S. Employment Service, and Veterans’ Administration. Office of Education . 59 This is the first time in the history of the guidance movement that a joint enterprise on such a large scale has been completed. It is felt that the manual will be especially valuable in defining areas of train- ing and qualifications basic to developing effective counselors. Supervised work experience for pupils in areas of training not already covered by federally supported vocational programs was recognized as having definite educational value when properly supervised and integrated into the instructional program. The relation of guidance services to the rest of the educational program was a topic of increasing concern. Books such as ‘“‘Education in a Divided World,’ by Dr. Conant, President of Harvard, and “EKiducation for all American Children,’ by the Educational Policies Commission, and many lay articles emphasized this point. Guidance services are a central theme of the Life Adjustment Education program (described elsewhere in this report); and texts on elementary and secondary education have more and more employed guidance tech- niques to relate teaching to the characteristics and needs of individual pupils. These emphases have in turn pointed to the necessity for a conception of guidance as a coordinated service if it is to do all that is expected of it. International interest in guidance services is growing. Foreign visitors, including an official delegation of German educators, included guidance work as an object of investigation. Calls for field help in Brazil, the Philippines, and other countries were received. UNESCO has expressed an interest in adding this kind of service to its program. The International Labor Organization adopted a recommendation on vocational guidance for the benefit of its 61 member nations. Another trend has been toward raising standards of practitioners and protecting the public from unethical practices. Notable progress was made by the Ethical Practices Committee of the National Voca- tional Guidance Association. Certain other professional organiza- tions are experimenting with qualification requirements. Public employment agencies are resorting more and more to certificating practices. In May, the National Vocational Guidance Association published its first approved list of guidance services under a group of minimum standards of the Ethical Practices Committee. With the assistance of Office staff, several groups made efforts to define the counselor’s duties in terms of competencies and the train- ing required to obtain these competencies. Resulting from these efforts, a report of the National Vocational Guidance Association and two of a series of eight reports from the National Association of Guidance Supervisors were published. The American Psychological Association and Counsel of Guidance and Personnel Associations did preliminary work on similar reports. | 60 Annual Report, Federal Security Agency, 1949 Two studies, one referring to summer sessions and the other to regular sessions, were published by the Office to describe work being offered in counselor training institutions. Many States employed new counselor training staffs, often using Federal funds in part, and the new offerings embodied the developing theories. The total effect is a distinct advance in the degree of professional competency ex- pected of guidance counselors. Evaluative Criteria, Form B, and a manual of directions, were published during the year, a joint effort of State officials and Office of Education staff members. Guidance programs in many schools were evaluated by this instrument. Meanwhile, the Cooperative Study of Secondary School Standards completed a tentative form of another evaluation tool. The trend is toward measuring guidance services by standard criteria, with emphasis on the stimulation rather than on the grading of provisions. The quantity of services reported in another study indicated that the number of schools having counselors had increased nearly 100 percent in the past 10 years. Both national and State activities related to the extension of social work education brought about joint planning and studies by a number of professional organizations and Government agencies during the year. The status of visiting teacher services in the public schools, accreditation of schools, and the certification requirements for school social workers present pressing problems which educators must solve in the development of these services. The Office began a national survey to get information on the extent to which these services are available in the schools. A statistical report recently issued by the Office indicates that in 1945-46 only about one-sixth of the secondary schools in the United States claimed to provide counseling services to pupils. Fifty-seven percent of the 4-year high schools employed a staff of six or fewer teachers. In schools of this size it is difficult to employ full-time counselors. ‘This fact has pointed up the need for more participa- tion by teachers and administrators in counseling. ‘To meet this need during the past year, more emphasis was placed on promoting in- service training of staff members in child study techniques. Programs of Instruction GENERAL EDUCATION Individual Pupil Growth The child-development approach to elementary education centers attention upon individual guidance as a basis of instruction. Among Office of Education . 61 the many evidences that child development is being accepted as a basic approach to instruction are the following: 1. A mounting volume of scientific literature and accounts of successful school practices have centered attention upon the influences affecting children’s attitudes and social behaviors. 2. There is increasing cooperation between home and school in the continuous protection of children’s physical health and in the guidance of children’s social behaviors and learnings. 3. Adjustments are being made in the school building, its equip- ment, and the outdoor play areas to aid both learning and social cooperation. 4. Continuous appraisal and adjustment of the school curriculum are being made to improve the experiences and guidance services of all children, both normal and exceptional, and to make possible more cooperative relationships between parents and teachers. 5. Such extended community facilities as children’s libraries and museums, supervised play centers, and summer camps are providing new opportunities for children’s Aliens Repair 6. There has been a rapid growth of specialized services ee excep- tional children and youth. With the increased emphasis on the child-development approach to curriculum problems, teachers carry a heavy responsibility for planning children’s school experiences to meet individual pupils’ needs. How is the course of study different because of such emphasis? What happens to “subjects” such as arithmetic, geography, and spelling? How can teachers and parents measure children’s growth? To answer these and similar questions, the Office of Education obtained accounts from school experience and published ‘‘The Place of Subjects in the Curriculum” (Bulletin 1949, No. 12). To emphasize the school’s central purpose of promoting children’s erowth and development, the Third Conference of Leaders in Ele- mentary Education agreed on a resolution calling on all the constituent associations to promote the widest possible understanding of this point of view. Almost without exception, studies of what parents want for their children bring out their belief in the school’s responsibility for broad social, physical, and intellectual growth. To say simply to parents of prospective students what the school’s aims are, the Office pub- lished ‘‘Preparing Your Child For School”? (Pamphlet No. 108). To help parents and schools work together in analyzing, recording, and reporting children’s growth in schoo] enterprises, the Office analyzed school systems’ current types of report cards, and made recommendations based on the analysis in an Education Brief called ‘Periodic Reports of Children’s Progress.” 62 Annual Report, Federal Security Agency, 1949 Life Adjustment Education During 1948-49 there were many evidences of a widespread desire to improve the high-school curriculum in order to serve all American youth. A group of distinguished lay leaders formed a Nationai Citizens Commission for the Public Schools. Members of the Com- mission did not state a special concern for any particular aspect of public-school activities, but especially pertinent to secondary schools were Chairman Roy E. Larsen’s comments: ‘‘We must all decide what results we want from our public schools, and then we must begin at once to take the necessary steps to obtain them.” There was emphasis upon the provision of consultant services for schools as illustrated by extension divisions of State universities and teacher-training institutions, the Horace Mann-Lincoln Institute of School Experimentation at Teachers College, Columbia University, and the formation of the Joint Council of Economic Education at New York University. The Committee on Human Development of the University of Chicago reported broad-gauge research studies focused upon character in adolescents and upon the impact of social classes on adolescents. Financed by the William Volker Charities Fund, Inc., the Citizen- ship Education Study in Detroit, Mich., published materials helpful to teachers. Supported by the National Better Business Bureau, the Consumer Education Study completed a series of bulletins, begun in 1942, for high-school pupils and teachers. These publications were designed to develop more discriminating consumers, but their prepara- tion provided also an excellent example of harmonious and effective cooperation between education and lay citizens. With many different approaches State departments of education encouraged the improving of the high-school curriculum. In Penn- sylvania, committees of teachers gathered effective practices from the schools of the State and published them under the direction of the department of public instruction in a manual called “Educating for Citizenship.”” In the State of Washington, a bulletin entitled “Life Adjustment Education’’ was similarly prepared. In Illinois, 32 lay and professional organizations cooperated with the State department of education in sponsoring a State-wide revision of the high-school curriculum. In Michigan, the cooperative agreement between secondary schools and colleges was extended and many high schools pioneered in education for family living. In Maryland, there was a vigorous renewal of the State-wide effort to improve general educa- tion in junior high schools. Characteristic of many State education department activities was an effort to secure the participation of lay citizens in setting up educational goals. Office of Education 63 In July 1948 the Office of Education directed a conference on Life Adjustment Education attended by leaders from Indiana and six adjoining States, at Indiana University, and in October 1948 a con- ference for State and local leaders in Washington, D. C. In April 1949 the Commission on Life Adjustment Education for Youth, which is an advisory body to the Office, held a one-day conference in Washington attended by representatives of national lay organizations. Chief State school officers and directors of vocational education were invited to set up State committees to stimulate Life Adjustment Education.» The Office compiled suggestions for State committees in a circular entitled “Getting Programs of Life Adjustment Education Under Way,” and suggestions for local school staffs in a circular called “Developing Life Adjustment Education in a Local School.” With the cooperation of the American Technical Society, a non- profit publishing company, wide distribution was given to two pam- phlets prepared by members of the Office staff: “High school—What’s In It For Me?” and ‘A Primer of Life Adjustment Education.” Many States and local educational agencies held conferences and pre- pared Life Adjustment publications of their own. At the close of the year, life adjustment committees had been appointed in 12 States, and 3 of them had selected a few schools to cooperate in developing appropriate programs for all youth At their April 1949 meeting, members of the Commission on Life Adjustment Education for Youth agreed that if, in the promotion of their program, they should be limited to a single point of attack, their emphasis would be upon a continuing study of the pupil with the supporting guidance services.” Other emphases which they con- sidered of great importance were upon maintaining and upgrading skill in the tool subjects, utilizing the industrial and practical arts, encouraging supervised work experience, educating the citizen of and for a free society, developing intelligent consumers, and improving home and family living. The Office made progress in the study of characteristics of youth. Field work consisted of planning and carrying out the measurement and evaluation of a group of 14-year-olds and a group of 17-year-olds in cooperation with the School of Education of Indiana University. One aspect of this general project resulted in the publication of a bulletin, ‘Intellectual Abilities in the Adolescent Period”’ (Bulletin 1948, No. 6). In cooperation with Delta Pi Epsilon, a graduate research fraternity in business education, the Office made a study of the business situa- tions to which youth must adjust satisfactorily if they are to avoid making poor judgments and unwise economic and business decisions. 64 Annual Report, Federal Security Agency, 1949 College Programs of General Education Interest in programs of general education at the college level con- tinued to be high. An increased time allotment for general educa- tion was advocated by those interested in certain of the professional fields and also in preprofessional curriculums such as those for medi- cine and law. The engineering profession put increasing emphasis on the broadening of engineering education, on the inclusion of more general education and on more work in the humanistic and social studies. In some cases this is being accomplished by increasing the curriculum to 5 years and in others by replacing some of the technical and professional subjects with humanistic-social subjects. The Journal of General Education established by Earl J. McGrath, then dean at the University of Iowa, is continuing publication under the sponsorship of the University of Chicago. The series of volumes dealing with the relation of the various subject-matter fields to general education is rapidly approaching the completion of its publication schedule. The faculty members of many colleges have been revising their curriculums to make better provision for general education. INSTRUCTION IN SPECIAL AREAS Social Sciences In the social sciences there was an apparent trend toward larger and broader units of instruction at all grade levels, from elementary schools through universities. There seemed to be an increased emphasis on pupil participation, for example, in pupil-teacher plan- ning, student government, and forum activities, to give opportunities for social development. Forward-looking elementary schools con- tinued to develop social studies units which touch on the direct experience and interest of children; through activities designed to help them understand the problems in the unit, pupils acquire learn- ings in language arts, music, science, and other school subjects. Junior high schools in increasing numbers experimented with the core curriculum. In this curriculum a maximum use is made of problems and experiences; the language arts, fine arts, physical sciences, and social sciences are taught in situations which add meaning to the experience or help in solving a problem. In senior high school curriculums a few schools developed general education programs drawing heavily on the social sciences and language arts, and a larger number of schools broadened their traditional courses in civics, history, and social problems to include social science materials from related fields. Office of Education 65 Colleges and universities continued to experiment with broader approaches to the social sciences as part of a general education pro- eram. Departmental social science groupings replaced traditional departments in four-fifths of the teachers colleges; the same trend was observed in one-third of the land-grant colleges and State uni- versities. Education for intelligent citizenship continued to be recognized as a major goal for social science instruction in the schools. A better understanding of America’s role in world affairs was a point of special emphasis, as schools attempted to carry out the suggestions made in “Education for International Understanding in American Schools.”’! The Educational Policies Commission issued ‘‘American Education and International Tensions”? which called for development of an understanding of the principles and practices of totalitarianism, com- munist and fascist, as ways of life which differ from democracy. Emphasis on economic education promises to be increased in schools and colleges as the result of (1) investigations which were being conducted by the American Economic Association and the -Catholic Economic Association; and (2) the formation of a national organiza- tion, the Joint Council on Economic Education, which sponsored three workshops on economic education. : Stimulated in large part by recent publications, new emphasis was given to conservation education as a basis for peace and improved living standards for all peoples. Intercultural education tended to become international in its emphasis on human rights for all people of all races, religions, and cultures. The study of atomic energy, its development and control, entered the school curriculum. These national and global problems did not, however, preclude interest in other problems closer to home; there was also increased interest in the social sciences in education for home and family living. The reception given to Stuart Chase’s ‘““The Proper Study of Man- kind,” a notable effort to explain and relate the social sciences to contemporary social problems, indicated a general school interest in the role of the social sciences in today’s world. The Office of Education established a social science section in the Division of Higher Education during the fiscal year 1949. Specialists in the social sciences worked to improve instruction in citizenship, world understanding, atomic energy, and the teaching of Government, economics, history and geography, consumer education, and conservation. The Office staff approached these, not as isolated subjects, but as critical points to be planned for within the total social studies curriculum. 1 National Education Association, 1948. 2 National Education Association, 1949. 66 Annual Report, Federal Security Agency, 1949 Social science specialists worked with teachers in workshops, and at conferences at the University of Minnesota, New York University, Syracuse University, the University of West Virginia, the University of Nebraska, the University of Washington, and Middlebury College. Several of the publications prepared by specialists for the social sciences are concerned with the whole social studies program. A descriptive analysis of courses of study in elementary social studies was prepared along with a statement of trends and recommendations, “Social Studies Courses of Study,’’ (Selected References Series, No. 17, April 1949, Division of Elementary Education.) Four annotated bibliographies of professional materials for social studies teachers of the various grade levels were prepared: ‘‘ Teaching the Social Studies,” Selected References Series, No.'18, May 1949, Division of Elementary Education; ‘‘Selected Sources of Current Teaching Materials for Social Studies Classes,’ ‘‘Teaching the Social Studies, A Bibliography of Periodical Materials,” and ‘‘A Selected Professional Library for the Social Studies Teacher,’ Circular Nos. 301, 302, 303, March 1949, Social Studies Series, Division of Secondary Education. The Office of Education placed strong emphasis on citizenship education through a program known as Zeal for American Democracy. Activities of the Office were coordinated by an Interdivisional Com- mittee. In February 1949, the Office sponsored a conference for represen- tatives of the learned and professional organizations to consider the establishment of work conferences for college instructors of teachers of social science. The purpose of the conferences was to focus the attention of institutions preparing teachers on the kinds of skills and information prospective teachers need to educate youth for American citizenship. The conferees felt this step to be of so great importance that they went on record as endorsing it with high priority. At least 14 States developed programs, for which the Office extended all help requested and available. Sample State programs follow: Pennsylvania produced a new manual, ‘‘ Education for Citizenship,” which contains a list of recommended practices in the teaching of democracy which were gathered from the schools of the Common- wealth. Nevada established community committees, with high-school students included, to promote local programs of Zeal for American Democracy. North and South Dakota promoted the ‘‘ Young Citizens League” which constitutes a vehicle for teaching American ideals and supplies apparatus for putting representative government into practice in everyday school activities. The Office of Education cooperated with three national nongovern- Office of Education ; 67 mental organizations in conducting the second annual Voice of America contest. 250,000 high-school students throughout the land competed in delivering original essays on the topic, ‘‘I speak for Democracy.”’ Recordings of winning talks are lent by the Radio Seript and Transcription Exchange Service of the Office. Publications of the Office particularly concerned with citizenship education were: Pointers—a news letter and a supplement to keep school people aware of developments in citizenship education programs throughout the Nation. How Democratic Is Your School?—a pamphlet containing a discus- sion of the principles of American democracy and checklists on demo- cratic practices for secondary school teachers and students. With Liberty and Justice for All—a bulletin containing a series of units describing how democratic government in this country came about, of practical value for the teacher of upper elementary grades. (Bulletin 1948, No. 15). Education for Freedom—a bulletin summarizing State requirements for instruction concerning the Constitution, American history, and matters relating to American freedom. (Bulletin 1948, No. 11). What is Democracy? America’s Schools Are Writing the Definition— a reprint by the Office of a series of articles from the Christian Scrence Monitor, which describe what schools are doing throughout the Nation to develop better citizens. Specialists for the social sciences took a major part in projects of professional and learned organizations whose work affects the social science field. The organizations include: American Economic Asso- ciation, American Political Science Association, National Council for the Social Studies, National Council of Geography Teachers, Associa- tion for Supervision and Curriculum Development, American Educa- tion Fellowship, Committee on International Relations of the National Education Association, and Joint Council on Economic Education. A staff member represented the Office on the steering committee which organized the Estes Park (Colo.) conference on the role of higher education in international understanding, and the Brookings Institu- tion seminar on teaching of international relations at Lake Forest (Ill.). A sampling study dealing with offerings and registrations in the social studies during the school year 1946-47 makes possible the determination of trends in this field since 1933-34. This study reveals an increased emphasis on United States history. It also shows that United States history courses almost always provide for instruction in current affairs and in American government and the Constitution. Substantially all students, both in junior and in senior high school, 68 Annual Report, Federal Security Agency, 1949 are enrolled in courses in United States history, but the range in hours of instruction devoted to this subject is wide. Another study, ‘‘Requirements and High School Students’ Pro- grams,” concerned with high-school graduation requirements and the actual 4-year programs of representative students from schools having good programs in civic education, showed that although only 11 States required 3 or more units—i. e., years of instruction in social studies, the graduates, whether in a college-preparatory, vocational, or general program, tended to average about 3 units in social studies, 1 of which was in United Stats history. | Members of the staff began studies, designed to improve the teach- ing of Government economics, history, and geography, at the request of the American Political Science Association, the American Economic Association, and the Catholic Economic Association. ‘The Office is cooperating with the National Council for the Social Studies on another study. Home and Family Life Education The Office of Education made studies with the aid of staff members in 14 colleges to determine the emphasis now being given to home and family life education as part of the general education program for all home economics students and for other college students. Plans were made to strengthen the programs in these colleges so that they will contribute more effectively to the kind of wholesome family life which is basic to successful living in a democracy. At three of the four regional conferences for home economics super- visors and teacher trainers called by the Office, committees worked on the problem of increasing the contribution of home economics to educa- tion for home and family life for all high-school pupils and for adults. At the fourth regional conference, supervisors and teacher trainers worked on ways of evaluating progress toward some of the objectives of education for home and family living. Special assistance was also given to one State conference of city supervisors and teachers on the teaching of family relations. | Conferences were arranged in the southern and southwestern sec- tions of the country for college teachers of family relations. Course objectives, essential concepts, experiences which might help college students understand themselves and develop in their family, social, and community relationships, and the teacher’s role in family relations classes were considered by these groups. Reports of the conferences and a “Progress Report of a Cooperative Study of the Teaching of Family Relations on the College Level’’ were completed. The Office also gave special attention to methods by which home Office of Education 69 economics teachers and high-school, college, and adult students could acquire a greater understanding of the ways children develop and the factors in home and family life which promote wholesome growth. A national conference of State and city supervisors of home economics, teacher trainers, college teachers of child development, and high-school homemaking teachers was called. They evaluated present practices in high schools and colleges and made suggestions for strengthening the teaching of child development in the high-school homemaking pro- eram. To meet the many requests from lay organizations and schools for information on how to improve parent-teacher relationships, the Office published ‘‘Working With Parents’”’ (Bulletin 1948, No. 7). Science and Related Subjects SCIENCE At their invitation, the Office assisted a few school systems in reorganizing science courses and in planning desirable alternatives to the science courses long accepted as useful primarily to students who plan to complete college work. Consultative help was given to colleges and universities, where workshops and institutes were arranged on problems of science teaching. To aid in such work the Office prepared a bibliography of references on science education. The Office assisted schools to make science a part of the elementary school instruction, to help science teachers so to modify course content and methods of teaching that the needs of all youth may be served, and to counsel with college science teachers on problems related to the development of science courses especially suited to purposes of general education. In elementary education, emphasis was placed on the importance of relating the experiences of children in elementary science to the total elementary school program. The Office cooperated with more than 100 teacher-training institutions on the improvement of teacher training in science for elementary school teachers. The Office also assisted in-service education programs in 19 major cities, 10 counties, 6 State departments, 7 colleges, and at meetings of 14 State or national professional teachers’ groups. A bulletin entitled ‘‘Teaching Science in Rural and Small Town Schools” (Bulletin 1949, No. 5) was prepared to help teachers in rural communities. The Office conducted studies and cooperated in the preparation of the reports of studies conducted jointly by the Office of Education and by national organizations, as follows: (1) Office of Education—“Inquiry Into the Teaching of Science, Grades 7-12 (1947-48).” 70 Annual Report, Federal Security Agency, 1949 (2) American Association for Colleges of Teacher Education—‘“Inquiry into Science Offerings and Facilities in Teachers Colleges.” (3) National Association for Research in Science Teaching—‘‘Needed Research in Problem Solving.” CONSERVATION To coordinate the planning of projects related to conservation education, an Interdivisional Committee on Conservation Education was established in the Office. The Committee assisted the U. S. Forest Service, the Junior Red Cross, and other agencies, in the evaluation of motion pictures, pamphlets, teaching units, and other materials prepared for classroom use, and suggested pupil projects and activities which could be used to develop fundamental concepts and personal responsibilities for conservation at all levels of the schools. With assistance from the Office, the National Committee on Policies in Conservation Education prepared a selected bibliography on conservation for use by pupils and teachers at various grade levels. This bibliography brings to the attention of teachers and supervisors references not only on the more limited aspects of conservation, such as animal life, plant life including forestry, water, minerals, and soil, but also on the broad problems of conservation. AVIATION To encourage teachers to utilize surplus aviation war equipment for classroom demonstration, the Office produced a ‘Bibliography of Articles Concerning Conversion of War Surplus Equipment for Civilian and School Use.”’ MATHEMATICS The Office made a résumé and analysis of recent elementary courses of study in arithmetic, together with suggested references for teachers. Atomic Energy The Interdivisional Committee on the Educational Implications of Atomic Energy was created in the Office of Education to help meet the need for educational services which will bring to the public an aware- ness of the problems arising from the development of atomic energy, and an understanding of their significance which will assist in the formulation and support of sound national policies. In its work the committee maintained close liaison with the U. S. Atomic Energy Commission. The Committee’s functions are: (1) Coordination of the selection and collation of data on school and college courses involving atomic Office of Education 71 energy developments; (2) service as a clearing house for material related to the educational implications of atomic energy develop- ments; (3) cooperation with other educational groups and civic- minded organizations in planning, initiating, and, where appropriate, directing conferences, workshops, and exhibits; (4) cooperation with appropriate agencies to develop a public awareness and understanding of the potentialities of atomic energy for our national welfare and security and for our personal health and happiness. A survey of colleges and universities to determine the nature and extent of their activities in developing instruction about atomic energy and its significance revealed that relatively few had made any signifi- cant curricular changes since the advent of the atomic era. Of those that had, it was found that the technological schools had continued the prewar trend in increasing the social science requirements in their programs, while the liberal arts colleges had increased their require- ments in the physical sciences. The findings of this survey were summarized in a special issue of Highur Epucation devoted to atomic energy developments. : A similar survey among secondary schools indicated that only ina few school systems had careful attention been given to the educational implications of atomic energy. ‘Some physical science teachers had incorporated instruction relating to atomic energy in their courses, but since these courses reached only a minority of the pupils, the broad educational needs were not well served. The survey revealed teachers’ needs for information about the opportunities opened up by atomic energy developments—industrial, agricultural, medical, research, and vocational—and for suggestions for coordinated pro- grams, techniques, activities, and instructional materials. Many such suggestions were incorporated in a supplement to the March 1949 issue of Scuoou Lire entitled ‘Atomic Energy Here to Stay.” Five bibliographies on atomic energy and its educational implica- tions were prepared. These are: (1) A Bibliography of Bibliographies on Atomic Energy (for teachers, students, and adult discussion groups); (2) Introductory Bibliography on Atomic Energy (for teach- ers, students, and adult discussion groups); (3) Teaching Aids in Atomic Energy (bibliography for teachers); (4) Inexpensive Books and Pamphlets on Atomic Energy; (5) An Annotated Bibliography on Atomic Energy for Teachers and Students. The Committee revised three tests for evaluating the results of Atomic energy education in secondary schools. The tests were origi- nally prepared by a Committee of the College of Education, University of Illinois. The revised versions were sent to chief State school officers for such distribution as they care to make, and to State educa- -tional-journals: for possible publication. : 72 Annual Report, Federal Security Agency, 1949 Health and Physical Education The Office of Education directed its efforts toward relating all aspects of school health and physical education to the growth and developmental needs of children in a total educational program. Particularly significant was a series of conferences held in five Western States on health and physical education in the elementary schools. In all, 85 conferences, involving school administrators, supervisors, teachers, specialists in health and physical education, and public health personnel, were held. These conferences stressed local and State problems and programs. “Playground Equipment That Helps Children Grow,” Education Brief #16, was prepared. This publication stressed the need for developmental equipment and gave suggestions for selecting, con- structing, placing, and maintaining equipment. | Several studies were carried on in cooperation with national organi- zations. Among the subjects were: Interscholastic athletics for children of elementary and junior high school age, girls’ athletic pro- grams, and the status of health and physical education in elementary schools. The Office gave special attention to the improvement ot teaching in health education and to a determination of the status of programs in health instruction in the secondary schools. A report on “Institutions Offering Professional Education in Health Education, Physical Education and Recreation’? was completed. The report of the Regional Demonstration Workshop on Teacher Education for Health in Sec- ondary Schools, sponsored by the Office, was issued. The first regional conference among Negro colleges for teachers of health education, sponsored by the Office of Education, was held March 1949, at Virginia State College, Petersburg, Virginia. A con- ference on camping and outdoor éducation was called by the Office to consider the national significance of such programs to education. The Office published a revised classroom height-weight chart and prepared two bulletins on teacher education for health: “Teacher Education for the Improvement of School Health Programs’”’ (Bulletin 1948, No. 16) and “‘Report of the Regional Demonstration Workshop ~ on Teacher Education for Health in Secondary Schools.” The Office sponsored, with the Public Health Service and the Chil- dren’s Bureau, a conference on Mental Hygiene in Schools and Teacher-Education Institutions. Fourteen consultants attended the conference; their recommendations on needs and projects to be carried out should result in the development of a broader program for the Federal Security Agency in the field of mental health. Additional study was made in the use of the Wetzel Grid—a method Office of Education (i: of graphing the growth of a child—as a means of pointing out areas in the country where children have health problems. In many schools of the country the instructional phases of health education are the direct responsibility of the science teachers. The Office therefore worked to secure a functional integration of units on personal and community health into the curriculums in general science and biology. Library Services Libraries are essential in programs of instruction and self-education for children, youth, and adults. In the library field, a number of major developments took place during the 1949 fiscal year. One was the marked progress in sound planning to achieve adequate library service-in schools, colleges, and communities. As part of their plans to improve elementary and secondary school libraries, State super- visors and other educators worked on the evaluation of these facilities and their relation to the curriculum. Rural sociologists and librarians organized the Northern Cieat Plains Library Planning Council to work for adequate library service in that large, but sparsely populated, region. Regional planning was also evidenced in the creation of the Midwest Interlibrary Corporation, a cooperative undertaking of libraries for the acquisition and econom- ical storage of research materials. Much attention was paid to library legislation, a necessary step in any long-range planning. Interested American Library Associa- tion groups conducted a Library Legislation Institute, participated in by public administrators, political scientists, economists, and librarians. Organized efforts by lay groups and librarians were rewarded with the passage of legislation which created a State library agency in the sole remaining State without one. Another major development during the year was the enlarging of the conception of what constitutes “library materials.” In increasing numbers, public libraries, college libraries, and school libraries, as agencies for the dissemination of information, continued the trend toward the use of all media of communication, not the printed word alone. Another major development concerned the recruiting and training of the library staff. To attract suitable persons to the profession, many State library associations, individual libraries, and library schools put on intensive campaigns to interest high-school and college students in library work as a career. Notable changes were also made in professional library training programs. Nearly two-thirds of the library schools moved towards placing instruction in library methods 74 Annual Report, Federal Security Agency, 1949 on the undergraduate level and reserving for graduate study those courses in library science which prepare librarians for positions involy- ing professional leadership and scholarship. The Office of Education participated in many of the major library developments during 1948-49. Among the States assisted were: Alabama, Arkansas, Connecticut, Florida, Louisiana, Massachusetts, Mississippi, New Jersey, New York, Tennessee, and Washington. Aid was also given on the revision of the library portion of the Evalua- tive Criteria of the Cooperative Study. The Office assisted in the planning for library extension and im- provement not only by providing much basic data, but also by organizing and conducting a conference of State library agency officials and library training specialists. This work conference made recommendations regarding the standards to be applied to the oper- ation of large administrative units of library service in areas now wholly lacking such service. It also formulated the guiding prin- ciples for the training of workers to serve in such areas. For the use of college and school administrators, the current trends and problems in professional library education were analyzed and the results published in the Office periodical, Highzr Epucation. This survey showed that library schools were in the process of revamping courses and curriculums in order to put the study of the scholarly and professional aspects of librarianship on a strictly graduate level. Sound planning in the field of college and university libraries was aided by the completion of a Nation-wide survey for the academic year 1946-47. The facts on resources, services, and expenditures will furnish part of the basis for studying the adequacy of these libraries to support the instructional programs of their institutions. Another basic survey completed showed the trends from 1945 to 1948 in the resources, uses, and expenditures in public library systems of cities with populations of 100,000 or more. Audio-Visual Aids FILMS Increased teacher interest in the use of visual methods and materials was probably the most significant developmient in visual education during the fiscal year 1949. Thousands of schools have purchased projectors and other equipment since the war, and with such equip- ment now available teachers sought help and guidance in its use. The Office of Education, for example, received more than 18,000 such inquiries in 1947-48 in contrast to only 5,000 during the preceding year. Office of Education . 75 This increased teacher interest was coupled with a healthy growth in teacher initiative and responsibility at the local school level with less and less reliance being placed on the visual education ‘‘experts.”’ Visual aids became an accepted part of the school program and the concern of all teachers rather than that of visual education specialists only. The Office published (1) a selected bibliography of motion pictures on democracy, (2) a summary of how to obtain the motion pictures and filmstrips of all Government agencies, and (3) a State-by-State directory of 897 16mm film libraries. In an attempt to answer the much disputed question of whether schools have projection equipment, the Office conducted a survey of public secondary schools and found that more than 80 percent of them, rural and urban, had 16mm sound projectors. Sales of Office of Education films increased slightly over the previ- ous year. The Castle Films Division of United World Films Inc. continued to sell the films under a contract awarded by the Treasury Department. During the 7} years since the first films were released, nearly 100,000 prints have been purchased by schools and colleges, industry, and other educational users. Since 1944, the Office has collected a royalty on film sales, and by June 30, 1949, a total of $234,580 had been returned to the U.S. Treasury. TABLE 3.—U. S. Government films sold under auspices of Office of Education Number of— Agency Total ar otion F i pictures Filmstrips SOCAN ie ests Se tis eee ot eth saetde seh ep phates mete y_ bays 2, 018 1, 309 704 Mtnicoroteaucaltion see) et 22 es eres bi oe 8S ee ce Bed 899 467 432 IDepaniMenG Ofte NAVY. 55. 8 02h oe nee oe abe beeen eee 612 436 176 Wenpasrvment io Aoriculturet £ sep rl eve rete OF VANE: eh bat 150 125,00) eek ee er IDE PAEhMICHL, Of LNOTATINY. eset te te ea SS ee ee 85 75 10 Mepariment of the Air, Forces. seve ct ce eee asd ek ext) peedao saw (A! 41 30 (WiHeEe DOL Iter ATnerican Atlairse ) ean. oe Ue Se ee eee 68 OSt eee oe ae AS OASHIIIATO Sy Ne Per! tea betes lose pee or yee Tk pee see ano 59 13 46 ffice of War Information: Overseas Slancn fe 44 Sus ower ee ae Ee De ioe 2 eee Peeled) 10 10): | ea ee a DROMESTICIDTANCH St. eat Se 2 ee Se One soe ne 32 PO [ale gi he Priplicieredl thyService. gers ere. bee | Pet bow eels eee 12 CigteseLonaitics A GTMUIMIStrallOn ie cse see ee et See 1G Mishrarnas Wiildiile Services. hs ee. 0 noes pao see ee Ds 4 AM | recy OE ie aed HISWTAREMICHEIOMMLALOSS Casto ee. Nase ou ee ee ee see 2 OMimecrismall Businessua s7 jy rycom, Sevres pile $31 ee el. ead 1 Housinsand Home Hinance A SenCy. ese. see so eee ene ae 1 Perhaps the outstanding visual education service performed by the Office during the 1949 fiscal year was its facilitating the release, for educational purposes, of the films of the Department of the Army, the Office of Inter-American Affairs, the Overseas Branch of the Office of War Information, the Department of State, and the United States 76 Annual Report, Federal Security Agency, 1949 Coast Guard. At the end of the year, the Office of Education was handling 2,013 motion pictures and filmstrips of 15 different Govern- ment agencies. The Office of Education, at the request of the Navy Department, is carrying on several evaluation projects in selected universities on the use of audio-visual training aids in Navy training programs; and at the request of the Public Health Service, is supervising the production of a motion picture on mental health. These professional services being rendered by the Office for other Government agencies were recognized and approved by the Hoover Commission. RADIO As a result of the effort to bring the advantages of instruction by radio to all schools, 44 new FM stations on the 88-92 megacycle band, set aside by the Federal Communications Commission for education, were added this year. Radio workshops and training courses in utilization invariably preceded the installation of these stations, which are located at universities, colleges, and in school systems in every section of the United States. State, county, and city directors of audio-visual education continued to establish new divisions of radio and television under competent direction in their school systems. A comprehensive study of ‘‘Educational Broadcasting in the United States,’ including television, was completed by the Office for UNESCO; it will be published as part of a larger volume describing such activities of all member nations. Scripts, transcriptions, and printed teaching guides were distribu- ted to schools and colleges for their use on a loan basis in cooperation with the Federal Radio Education Committee. Nearly 12,000 such scripts, and 4,000 transcribed programs, were lent for classroom use and for rebroadcast over educational stations; the latter represented an increase of 25 percent over the 1948 number. Distribution by the Office of new radio and television bibliographies, guides, and related publications reached the quarter-million mark, compelling evidence of the increased use of radio, recordings, and the new use of television for instructional purposes. It is estimated that more than 150,000 teachers are using radio and recordings in their daily work. ‘They receive a regular service of the Frec BuLuetin produced by the Office of Education. Professional Education In professional education, in addition to teacher education, activity was confined chiefly to the health professions, social work, and Office of Education . er engineering. In the last-named, effective cooperation was maintained with the American Society for Engineering Education through the activities of the Office specialist in engineering education, who has served during the year as a member of the Society’s National Council, as chairman of the National Capital Area Section, and as a member of eight national committees. An Office staff member directed a Nation-wide survey of social work education, covering historical development, present status, and needs, with respect to the selection, preparation, employment, and salaries of individual workers, and with respect to coordination among schools, professional accrediting organizations, and employment agencies. The Office sponsored a study of premedical education for Negroes to discover reasons for the low level of achievement of Negro students on the Medical Aptitude Test and to suggest methods of improving educational programs so that Negro students will be admitted to medical schools in greater numbers. The Associate Chief for Education in the Health Professions directed the activities of the Committee on Teaching, American As- sociation of Dental Schools. This committee prepared a report on recruiting, preparing, and improving dental teachers. The committee also sponsored the preparation of a 44-page report on teaching orthodontics to undergraduate dental students. The Associate Chief for Education in the Health Professions continued his participation in the Pharmaceutical Survey as assistant director in charge of curriculum studies. Achievement of Veterans as Students Studies of student achievement in many widely scattered colleges throughout the country have consistently shown that veterans have tended to excel nonveteran students in grade-point averages. Since the veterans comprise almost half the student body, their high scholastic attainment raised the quality level of work done by the entire student body. The testimony is almost universal that, as a result of veterans in their classes, professors now have the ablest and most diligent group of students they have ever taught. The invest- ment the Federal Government has been making in financing the continued education of veterans is paying immediate dividends in the strengthening of the general level of student achievement in colleges and universities. It cannot be doubted that for the next 30 or 40 years the country will receive enormous dividends through the high quality of leadership of those veterans who have had their education financed by the Federal Government. 78 Annual Report, Federal Security Agency, 1949 Groups With Special Instructional Problems ADULT ILLITERATES A recent Office of Education study indicated that probably less than one-eighth of the school systems in the Nation were conducting literacy education classes. Another study showed that the greatest shortage of suitable reading materials for adults was in the fields of citizenship, parent education, homemaking, and health. In an effort to meet part of this need, the Office project in literacy education completed its scheduled production of instructional materials for adults of low literacy levels. It was planned to have them published at low cost for general distribution. The published materials would comprise a packet consisting of four basic primers, four accompanying workbooks, one language workbook, one arithmetic workbook, one testing work- book, one teachers’ guidebook entitled ‘‘Let’s Help the Ten Million,” and six supplementary pamphlet readers. DISPLACED PERSONS Approximately 50,000 displaced persons came to the United States during the year under the provisions of the Displaced Persons Act of 1948, which authorized the admission of 205,000 by June 30, 1950. The proper resettlement of these displaced persons requires their knowledge of simple facts about the geography, history, and institu- tions of America, as well as an understanding of its institutions and customs. Moreover, they need help in making the psychological adjustment in their transfer from the status of displaced persons to that of potential American citizens, and in appreciating their obliga- tions as well as opportunities. . At the request of the Displaced Persons Commission, the Office of Education assigned a staff member, for a period of 3 months, to make a report on an orientation program for displaced persons who are eligible for admission to the United States, and to make recommenda- tions on the most effective methods for administering the proposed program. EDUCATION OF NEGROES Few, if any, subjects in education received more public attention during the year than the education of Negroes. This is partially a result of litigation aimed at bringing about equality of opportunity and of the widespread interest of Negroes and certain public officials in bringing public services more in line with democratic principles. The activities of the Office of Education in this connection included the revival of the National Advisory Committee on the Education of Negroes; sponsorship of a work conference on special guidance Office of Education . | 79 problems of Negroes; publication of a bulletin on the education of Negro leaders; and continuation of the project on literacy education begun in 1946. An Office study of the technical instruction provided in agriculture in 20 Negro land-grant colleges has been under way for 2 years. The director of this study and a member of the staff of the Agricultural Education Service visited each of the colleges to determine the qualifications of the personnel employed, the suitability of laboratories and equipment for instruction, the nature of the instruction provided, the use made of the farm and its facilities, and the adequacy of the laboratory and reference material for instructional purposes. EXCEPTIONAL CHILDREN AND YOUTH The Office published studies of State legislation for education of exceptional children, enrollments in special schools and classes and instructional programs for hospitalized and for crippled children. Interested nongovernmental agencies have both received and contributed service on specific projects. One of them—the National Society for Crippled Children and Adults, Inc., cooperated with the Office in publishing a report on teacher-education programs. Others, including the National Society for the Study of Education, the International Council for Exceptional Children, the American Associ- ation for Gifted Children, the American Epilepsy League, the National Foundation for Infantile Paralysis, and the National Tuberculosis Association have sought the help of Office of Education staff members, or have worked with the Office, in the preparation of publications. Programs for Improving the Professional Status of Teachers ELEMENTARY AND SECONDARY SCHOOLS The three most significant developments in teacher education relate to supply of teachers, organizational efforts for the improve- ment of teacher education, and qualitative changes in the programs of teacher education. Teacher Supply The over-all supply of teachers increased in 1948-49. The supply of new teachers available for employment for the academic year 1949-50 will be greater than the number available in 1941. There 80 Annual Report, Federal Security Agency, 1949 is imbalance, however, in relative numbers of elementary and second- ary teachers that will be available. Whereas, in 1941, colleges and universities prepared 32,197 elementary teachers and 35,525 secondary teachers, in 1949 they prepared 24,908 elementary and 55,767 second- ary teachers, including those, largely elementary, with less than 4 years’ preparation.! Since in 1941 there was an ample supply of secondary teachers for such subjects as English and social studies, the supply of teachers for these subjects is greater than the comparison of 1949 and 1941 figures would suggest. The supply of elementary teachers, on the other hand, was not adequate in 1941, and the total number of 1949 graduates was only 77 percent of the number that were graduated in 1941. A favorable development, however, is that the new elementary teachers now being supplied by colleges have undergone longer periods of preparation than those in 1941. Each year fewer prospective teachers leave college with only 2 years of preparation, and a greater proportion are college graduates. This increase in the amount of initial preparation of elementary teachers is due in part to the raising of standards for certification. Supply and demand in the college teacher field is fast becoming associated with supply and demand of elementary and secondary teachers; 12 percent of all new college faculty members in 1947-48 were recruited from secondary schools.?, The percentages of faculty members, old and new, with bachelor’s and master’s degrees were 16 and 45, respectively. Thirty-four percent with the rank of instructor held bachelor’s degrees and 54 percent held master’s degrees. The college is, therefore, in competition with the high school for faculty members. Ordinarily, the master’s degree would constitute a mini- mum requirement for college teaching. The facts that 69 percent of all new faculty members were at the instructor level, and that more than 60 percent of all college faculty members held master’s or lower degrees indicate a shortage of adequately prepared, experienced teachers at the college level. In 1947-48, 4,188 doctor’s degrees were conferred. From a number of institutional studies and some national studies of recent years, it is clear that a majority of persons receiving doctorates will go into teaching. If 60 percent, or approximately 2,500 per year, should go into college teaching, that would hardly be enough for replacements. Latest information available in the Office of Education shows that about 190,000 college faculty members were employed in 1947-48. The annual turn-over would have to be only 1.3 percent for this supply of 2,500 per year to be adequate for replacements. More college 1 Maul, Ray C. Teacher Supply and Demand in the United States. Naticnal Commission on Teacher Education and Professional Standards, National Education Association, 1949. 2 Survey of Salaries and Occupational Attitudes of Faculty Personnel in Higher Education, 1947-48. Office of Education, Circular No. 254. Office of Education ) 81 teachers will, therefore, have to be prepared if the colleges are to maintain faculties of the present size. To expand to the extent sug- gested by the President’s Commission on Higher Education would require almost twice as many. The teacher supply situation in 1948-49 may be summarized as follows: (1) Supply met and exceeded demand in most—but not all— secondary school subjects the country over. The fact, however, that many of these persons have barely met minimum subject-matter and professional standards indicates that there was not yet an oversupply of well-qualified secondary teachers. (2) The supply of elementary teachers, while improving, still was below the 1941 number by about 238 percent. (3) There was a shortage of well-prepared college teachers for cur- rent enrollments. This statement is based on the assumption that a master’s degree constitutes the minimum preparation acceptable for college teaching. (4) Changes in the economic situation eased the competition for teachers all along the line from the elementary schools to colleges. Students are shifting in significant numbers from engineering, business administration, and strictly liberal arts courses to cirriculums leading to teaching. The greatest easement, however, was at the secondary school, where it is needed less than at the elementary school and college levels. The major problem, therefore, is to correct the imbalance between the supply of elementary and secondary school teachers. Based on a 4-year training period as a standard, the data show that there were almost 4 times as many secondary as elementary teachers prepared in 1949. (5) The number of emergency teaching permits probably declined only slightly from the approximate 100,000 of 1947-48. This can happen despite an over-all increase in the number of teachers because most emergency permits are held by elementary and rural teachers; it is among these groups that shortages are still acute. Organizational Efforts in Teacher Education The second major development was in organizational efforts toward the improvement of teacher education. Interested organizations are becoming more closely knit and as a result are more potent forces for the improvement of teacher education. The Council on Coopera- tion in Teacher Education is using its influence to bring the highly segmented groups interested in teacher education together on prob- lems of common concern. As an example of unification, the American Association of Teachers Colleges, the National Association of Colleges 82 Annual Report, Federal Security Agency, 1949 and Departments of Education, and the National Association of Teacher Education Institutions in Metropolitan Districts merged in February 1948 into an organization called the American Association of Colleges for Teacher Education. This new association will carry on more extensive research and studies than was possible with each working separately. The National Commission on Teacher Education and Professional Standards of the National Education Association expanded its sery- ices. Most of the States now have State commissions which are branches of the National Commission. This development is sig- nificant because it represents a fresh interest by the profession in improving teacher education programs. The National Commission in cooperation with the various State commissions held several regional conferences that have made large numbers of persons aware of some of the basic problems in teacher education. Some 20 States have organized councils on teacher education. These councils generally represent a cross-section of all interested groups ina State. The State education association, the State depart- ment of education, and the teacher-education institutions are always represented; and the association of school boards and the State parent- teacher association are often represented. ‘These State councils are generally extra-legal organizations that make recommendations to the State board of education through the State superintendent of public instruction on such problems as teacher recruitment and selection, teacher certification, and in-service teacher education. Qualitative Changes in Teacher Education Less obvious than supply and demand or organizational changes, but probably as significant, was a subtle qualitative change in teacher education. This change is hard to document, yet those most sensitive to developments in this area know that it has been taking place. Some of the evidences follow: Approximately 20 State departments of education are trying to improve their standards for approving col- leges that propose to educate teachers; a significant number of colleges are making qualitative changes in their pre-service teacher-education programs; and some universities, notably Illinois, Nebraska, Syracuse, Texas, Georgia, Delaware, and Maryland, are improving their services to teachers on the job. Efforts to provide more field laboratory experi- ence for prospective teachers are also becoming common enough to indicate a trend. The major points to which attention needs now to be directed for further improvements are: (1) The basis for teacher certification; Office of Education 83 (2) the internal organization of institutions preparing teachers; and (3) plans and procedures for the in-service education of teachers. Most certificates to teach are issued by State departments of educa- tion. The regulations which the States set for the approval of insti- tutions to prepare teachers and for certification of persons after they are prepared control to a large extent the supply of teachers generally, as well as the balance between the number of elementary and secondary school teachers that are prepared. At present the most common basis for certification is a transcript of credits from an accredited institution. If the transcript shows that a student has completed certain courses, the appropriate certificate is issued. This practice is open to abuse by institutions with only a minor interest in teacher education. Another problem is the internal organization of institutions that prepare teachers. The President’s Commission on Higher Education called attention to this problem. Many institutions are so organized that the intelligence of those competent in teacher education cannot be brought to bear on the improvement of the programs. Respon- sibility for policy formulation and program planning for teacher education is often widely scattered. A third problem relates to the in-service education of teachers. With barely 60 percent of the elementary and secondary teachers in America holding college degrees and with changing conditions making new demands on teachers, it is imperative that those now in service develop new insights and skills. Furthermore, the positive influences of improved pre-service teacher-education programs will be largely negated unless teachers now in service are receptive to new develop- ments in education. Teachers, administrators, college faculties, and local boards of education will have to find their appropriate roles in this in-service program. Progress on In-Service Education The emerging oversupply of teachers for secondary schools gives employing officers more choice in the selection of teachers. This se- lectivity in employment permits school and college administrators to exert a significant influence on improvement in the work of both incoming teachers and teachers with experience. Consequently, one finds a continuing increase in (1) the number and variety of workshops attended by employed teachers during the school year and summers; (2) the cooperative committee studies and activities carried on under the auspices of State and local school systems; (3) the supervisory personnel employed in the offices of county superintendents of schools; and (4) the emphasis by professional organizations on studies dealing with improvement of teachers after they are on the job. 84 Annual Report, Federal Security Agency, 1949 During the past fiscal year the Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development issued its yearbook with the title, ‘“Toward Better Teaching,” a special issue of Educational Leadership dealing with improvement of the work of employed teachers was published, and the American Association of School Administrators was con- sidering the preparation of a yearbook devoted to in-service education of teachers. Specialists in the Office of Education contributed to the improve- ment of in-service education of teachers through the 2-week work conference for members of State departments of education, held in the spring of 1949. They also took part in more than 30 regional con- ferences for teachers in health and physical education, social studies, science and aviation, and industrial arts; and worked closely with educational leaders responsible for the development of teacher-edu- cation programs and curricular programs in the schools. For all of the areas mentioned, specialists provided bibliographies and other publications for teachers. An example of the latter is “Report of the Regional Demonstration Workshop on Teacher Edu- cation for Health in Secondary Schools.”’ This 2-week workshop was attended by 65 participants from Arizona, New Mexico, Oklahoma, and Texas, and was sponsored jointly by the Office, the American Cancer Society, and the University of New Mexico. The Office had in progress a study on in-service education of teachers and another on achieving good staff relationships in the sec- ondary school. These and other projected studies are aimed mainly at discovering outstanding supervisory programs, analyzing them for their points of excellence, and then describing their features and pro- cedures. Emphasis in Office consultative work in teacher education was on meeting the needs of children and society, developing good citizenship and an understanding of democracy, and providing pupils with a world point of view in the social studies program. To assist teachers and others in improving the curriculum and teaching of social studies, two publications were prepared, Social Studies Courses of Study (Selected References No. 17) and “Teaching the Social Studies’? (Selected References No. 18). In the spring of 1948, a National Conference on Professional Prepa- ration in Health, Physical Education, and Recreation was sponsored by several national professional associations. Personnel of the Office participated in this conference and in several follow-up conferences held regionally in 1949. Office staff members also cooperated with national committees of the American Association of Health, Physical Education, and Recreation, and other organizations. Efforts were directed mainly toward improved curriculum and other standards Office of Education 85 relating to pre-service and postgraduate professional preparation. It is estimated that from 300 to 400 workshops in health and physical education were held during the summer of 1948 in addition to many other conferences, workshops, and other in-service activities during the year. Personnel of the Office, upon invitation, participated in many of these, and had direct association with thousands of teachers, administrators, public health personnel, and others in lay and pro- fessional groups. The Office sponsored or participated in workshops on teacher educa- tion in health in Bowling Green, Ohio, and in New Mexico; on the social problems of children at Boston University; and on school health services in Colorado. | To encourage teacher-education institutions to examine and improve their offerings in science for elementary school teachers, a clearing house was established for the exchange of curriculum materials and descriptions of successful programs by teacher-training institutions. Two packets of exchange materials were sent to approximately 100 colleges. The packets included suggestions for teaching several subject areas, news items from letters received, samples of science sequences for elementary teachers, and basic principles to keep in mind in planning science courses for elementary teachers. COLLEGE TEACHING Improvement of College Teaching The severe criticisms of the quality of instruction in colleges and universities, presented in the Report of the President’s Commission on Higher Education, were doubtless one factor leading a number of institutions to undertake programs to assist their faculties to do better teaching. Colleges are using many devices to assist and to stimulate instructors in improving their teaching. Particularly significant were the announcements of plans for a different approach to the graduate curriculum for the preparation of college teachers. Syracuse University was one of the first to develop a new-type doctor of philosophy program, in which the objective is broad education in subject-matter and professional preparation in teaching methods, rather than narrow training for research. Harvard University, Columbia University, and the University of Chicago also announced an interest in developing such programs. Because the Federal Government annually contributes $5,030,000 to help meet the costs of instruction in land-grant colleges and uni- versities, the Office of Education has a special responsibility in helping to improve college teaching. Accordingly, the Office began during 86 Annual Report, Federal Security Agency, 1949 the year a study of devices for improving the effectiveness of college teaching. The Presidents of the land-grant institutions each named a member of his staff as a liaison officer with the Office in carrying forward the study. These liaison officers were sent two checklists to complete, one listing devices used by graduate schools to improve the training of prospective college teachers, the other listing devices used by colleges to evaluate and improve their teaching. The returns are being used in preparing a handbook on improving college teaching. Teacher Attitudes Toward College Teaching As a part of a more comprehensive survey of higher education faculty personnel, the Office asked a representative sample of college teachers a number of questions dealing with their attitudes toward their jobs. Tenure provisions were found to be the most satisfactory item to the full professors, while retirement provisions made the strongest appeal to instructors. Research opportunities were the least satisfactory to the professors, while office space was the least satisfactory to the instructors. In general, 11 percent of those in the rank of instructor did not expect to remain in college teaching and 30 percent did not expect to remain in their present positions. Of the full professors, 97 percent expect to remain in college teaching and 91 percent expect to stay with their present institutions. This survey should help colleges and universities increase their holding power with faculty personnel. SPECIAL TEACHER GROUPS Teachers of Adult Illiterates One of the problems in reducing illiteracy in the Nation is the dearth of qualified teachers who understand the interests, needs, and psychology of adults. The project in literacy education sponsored by the Office of Education made an approach to the solution of the prob- lem by training a group of teachers and leaders who could serve as “key men” in promoting and supervising classes for teachers in stra- tegic centers. _ All the institutions that participated in the project have expressed a determination to continue their interest in the preparation of teachers of adults. They plan to make the course for such teachers a part of the regular curriculum. In addition, they have individually or co- operatively conducted workshops and special summer courses for the preparation of teachers of adults. Office of Education | 87 Teachers of Exceptional Children With the growth of special education for exceptional children and youth has come increased opportunities to prepare teachers for them. That was shown by a study of offerings made by colleges and univer- sities in this field. The number of centers in which well-rounded cur- riculums in all or even in most areas of special education are offered is still small, totaling not more than a dozen. But more than 150 teacher-education institutions in the United States are offering courses, for example, in teaching the blind, the mentally retarded, the speech- handicapped, or one of the other groups of exceptional children. Staff members of the Office are advising with some of these institutions on the further development of their programs, and with State education officials on certification standards in special education. International Educational Relations IMPACT OF WORLD DEVELOPMENTS ON EDUCATION IN THE UNITED STATES The end of traditional American isolationism involves new responsi- bilities for education. Membership in the United Nations and in several score of specialized international agencies requires a new aware- ness of world problems. In the midst of sensational headlines flaunt- ing controversy and crisis in world affairs, American education must train for clear thinking on complex issues, and provide adequate and accurate information as the basis for sound public decisions. The volume and type of requests for assistance coming to the Office of Education indicate that many American educators are awake to their responsibility, but that they feel a need for guidance. During 1948-49 American teachers, students, and civic leaders requested in- formation about sources of suitable materials on other nations, as- sistance in developing international programs, reports on effective programs in operation in American schools. or guidance in establish- ing contacts with foreign schools for the purpose of exchanging cor- respondence, or arts and crafts or books and professional publications. Technological advances also make international developments of greater significance to educators in this country than in the past. The development of atomic energy, for example, adds to our “‘inter- national problems”’ (discussed elsewhere). Aviation also is a major aspect of world relations. Recommendations of the President’s Air Policy Commission for a Nation-wide plan for the instruction of youth were referred to in the Office’s 1948 annual report. 88 Annual Report, Federal Security Agency, 1949 Relationship of UN to Education in the United States Many American educators are also conscious of their obligation to help in implementing, on behalf of the United States, the resolution unanimously adopted by the General Assembly of the United Nations in November 1947, asking all member governments to ‘encourage teaching of the United Nations Charter and the purposes and princi- ples, structure, background and activities of the United Nations in the schools and institutes of higher learning in their countries.” Teachers and leaders of the educational profession are engaged in developing both curricula and teaching methods, especially in the social sciences, in order that students may better understand the new instrumentalities of international cooperation with which our government is increasingly cooperating. Special announcements and new catalogs received by the Office indicate that an increasing emphasis is being placed on international relations in the curricula of American colleges and universities. Interdepartmental ‘‘area study” programs in international relations are broadening the approach to the study of international organization. Universities, State departments of education, professional organiza- tions, and local school systems have sponsored workshops where teachers of social studies learn about the UN and how to teach the fundamentals of international cooperation. Their publication programs have included materials on world affairs and world under- standing. In some school systems, separate units on UNESCO have been taught. In one State a number of high schools used assembly periods to show films on the UN and other aspects of international affairs today. These reflect the recognition of a new need for general orientation on international affairs in this country —not only for the relatively small group of students planning international careers, but for those who will become civic leaders in their home communities. At the invitation of the American Council on Education nearly 100 leading educators, including officials from the Office of Education, attended a conference on The Role of Colleges and Universities in International Understanding held at Estes Park, Colorado, in June 1949. Probably the most significant action of this meeting was the designation of the American Council on Education as the American member of the proposed International Association of Universities and the decision to proceed aggressively with the organization of this Association and with plans for the proposed 1950 conference of the Association. American delegates played a leading part at the conference of universities which UNESCO sponsored at Utrecht in the summer of 1948, when the foundation was laid for an international associa- Office of Education . 89 tion of universities; and American classroom teachers were represented at the UNESCO seminars on teacher training, early childhood education, and education for international understanding, which were held, respectively, in England, Czechoslovakia, and the United States. At the public sessions held during the meetings of the U. S. National Commission for UNESCO in Boston and Cleveland, the large numbers of teachers in attendance gave striking evidence of the eagerness of educators to share in the great effort to remove cultural barriers which separate the peoples of the world. President Truman’s ‘“‘Point 4” — American educators were especially interested in President Truman’s program known as “‘Point 4”’ to make the benefits of scien- tific and industrial progress available for the improvement of the under-developed areas of the world. While the emphasis in such a program would naturally be placed upon improving agriculture, expanding industry, conserving natural resources, and increasing communications, it became immediately apparent that the provision of basic education and technical training was essential to such a pro- eram of economic development. At the request of the Department of State, the Office of Education participated in the preparation of various educational projects designed to carry out the purposes of the program. Exchange Programs During the academic year 1948-49, the United States experienced the greatest influx of foreign students in its history. In spite of already crowded conditions in our institutions of higher learning, 26,759 foreign students were admitted, as against approximately 21,000 in 1947-48 and 16,000 in 1946-47. ‘These students came from 151 countries, colonies, dependencies, protectorates, and absorbed states. They studied in fields ranging from architecture to zoology. The foreign students enrolled in 1,500 institutions in the continental United States, Alaska, the Canal Zone, Hawaii, and Puerto Rico. In addition to the knowledge imparted in the various academic, technical, and scientific subjects, the students have received a general orienta- tion in the life and background of the people of the United States. According to the Institute of International Education the percent- ages of foreign students in the United States, by area of origin, were as follows: Europe, 16; Canada and Newfoundland, 16.5; United States Territories, 0.6; Latin America, 26.4; Africa, 3.5; Asia (including Near and Far East and South Pacific areas), 35.6; undesignated, 1.4. Of the total number of foreign students, 35 percent came on their 90 Annual Report, Federal Security Agency, 1949 own resources; the institutions of higher learning in this country aided 29 percent; private agencies and foundations here assisted 7 percent; private agencies in foreign countries helped 19 percent; foreign governments aided 8 percent; and 2 percent of these students were assisted by the United States Government. The Department of State continued its programs of student, teacher, and professor exchanges, some of which operate under the Buenos Aires Convention and some under the Travel and Mainte- nance Grant program, as well as in-service training in many fields for educators from Latin America. Plans were made to extend these activities to areas other than the Western Hemisphere in 1949-50. The Department of State has to date completed final agreements with 12 countries—China, Burma, the Philippines, Greece, Italy, Belgium and Luxembourg, the United Kingdom, France, the Nether- lands, New Zealand, and Norway—under the Fulbright Act, which provides for cultural and educational exchanges with funds realized from the sale of war surplus materials abroad. Serving as screening agencies in cooperation with the Department of State are the Institute of International Education, the Office of Education, and the Con- ference Board of Associated Research Councils. The Department of the Army in cooperation with public and private agencies initiated a program for exchanging students, educa- tors, and leaders in certain professional fields with American-occupied Germany. This exchange program is a significant phase of the total reorienta- tion program of the U.S. Military Government for Germany. Under the program, Germans in various professional fields are sponsored by an organization, institution, or group in this country and brought here for a period of study and observation of the American way of life, as well as the operation of constitutional government based on the democratic ideal. The program also brings to Germany the best scholarship and training from both the United States and Europe. An advisory Commission on the Occupied Areas, which works through panels of experts in the several fields of cultural and educa- tional activity, has been established in the United States. The Commission and the panels assist the institutions and organizations which sponsor the visiting Germans by planning programs and visits to institutions where the visitors may observe and participate in their special field of activity. During the fiscal year 1949 more than 500 German leaders visited this country for periods of from 2 to 12 months. For many of the eroups, private foundations subsidized the total cost of the visit except for ocean travel. For other groups the cost was defrayed by Military Government. Office of Education 91 IMPACT OF WORLD DEVELOPMENTS ON OFFICE ACTIVITIES Exchange of Materials and Information The growing concern of teachers and civic leaders with their role in the postwar world is reflected in the thousands of requests to the office for information and materials. Formerly by far the greatest number of these requests were for material on the other American republics. However, with the creation of the United Nations, re- quests for material and information on countries outside this hemi- sphere, as well as on world organizations, such as the UN, UNESCO, and WHO (World Health Organization), formed a large proportion of the correspondence. ‘Teachers asked for information about effec- tive programs of international understanding or intercultural educa- tion in operation, with a view to pooling experiences or obtaining practical suggestions for developing similar programs. To meet the needs in part, a “Selected Bibliography for Teaching About the United Nations’ was prepared by the Office’s Division of International Educational Relations.