UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR HAROLD L. ICKES : SECRETARY [}>- OFFICE OF EDUCATION : J. W. STUDEBAKER COMMISSIONER BULLETIN, 1937, No. 2 BIENNIAL SURVEY OF EDUCATION 1934-1936 IN TWO VOLUMES VOLUME I UNITED STATES GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE WASHINGTON : 1940 UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR HAROLD L. ICKES : SECRETARY OFFICE OF EDUCATION : J. W. STUDEBAKER COMMISSIONER ELEMENTARY EDUCATION 1930-1936 being Chapter I of Volume I of the BIENNIAL SURVEY OF EDUCATION IN THE UNITED STATES l 1934-36 BULLETIN , 1937 , No . 2 [ADVANCE PAGES] By BESS GOODYKOONTZ Assistant Commissioner of Education UNITED STATES GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE WASHINGTON : 1940 For sale by the Superintendent of Documents, Washington, D. C. Price 10 cents Contents Page Foreword _ v Some Characteristics of Present-Day Elementary Education _ 1 Current Problems in Elementary Education _ 4 Some Statistics of Elementary Education _ 9 Children in the elementary school _ 9 The school program _ 17 The teaching staff _ 23 Extent to which the elementary school attracts and holds its clientele. _ 27 Counting the cost _ 31 hi Foreword When on a swiftly moving train, it is difficult to estimate with any degree of accuracy one’s rate or direction of motion. It is much easier to do so from the vantage point of some safe and stationary platform. A similar difficulty is experienced by those who are in some way a part of the continuously moving current of elementary education. Changes take place swiftly in techniques, devices, mate¬ rials of instruction. Fundamental changes in philosophy and pro¬ cedures usually come more slowly. But always there is change — sometimes difficult to evaluate. This review of elementary education is planned for those who for a brief time would like to dissociate themselves from the ongoing program, to stand aside and view it analytically, particularly in some of its quantitative elements. There are three major sections: First, a brief statement of some outstanding characteristics of ele¬ mentary education today; next, an analysis of some of the major problems which elementary schools face; and last, answers to more than 60 often-asked questions of statistical fact about elementary education. It is hoped that the material thus presented will be of assistance to the many persons who are interested in the elementary schools — in the children they serve, in the teachers, in the kinds of changes taking place in the school program. During the preparation of the report, Emery M. Foster, Chief, and David T. Blose, associate specialist of the Division of Statistics, have given much valuable help in the selection and special computation of pertinent statistical information about elementary education. The illustrations throughout the manuscript were drawn by William Thompson, artist, Office of Education. Chapter i ELEMENTARY EDUCATION Some Characteristics of Present-Day Elementary Education In terms of the numbers of persons involved, elementary education represents our biggest educational program. — The numbers themselves are startling. Twenty-two and three-fourths millioris of persons, in this case persons aged 5 to 14 or thereabouts, make up this educational group. All of them together represent nearly one-fifth of all the Americans on the mainland. Most of them are in public schools ; 1 in 10 are in private elementary schools. These millions of elementary school children represent a phenom¬ enal increase in numbers. In 1880 elementary schools enrolled slightly more than 10 million children; in 1900, 16 million; in 1930, nearly 24 million — an increase of 130 percent in 50 years. Between 1930 and 1936 enrollments decreased 3.6 percent. Nevertheless some¬ thing of the proportionate size of this school group can be seen in the fact that secondary school enrollments, which have certainly pyramided dramatically in recent decades, are now less than one- third of elementary school enrollments, with a total of about 6 y2 million. In fact, when September rolls around each year and stu¬ dents start back to school, 75 march off to the nearby elementary school, 21 to the high school, and 4 to college. It is easy for the public to be unaware of this biggest school group. For one thing, the public sees the constant increases in sec¬ ondary schools and sympathizes with the pressing problems of young people at that age. But so far as numbers are concerned, if the present small decreases in elementary school enrollments and the present dramatic increases in secondary enrollments continued at present rates (which is highly improbable), by 1950 enrollments in secondary schools would still be less than one-half of those in elementary schools. In other wTords, the sheer size of the problem of elementary education is a characteristic which cannot be over¬ emphasized. The elementary school is typically grades I to VIII. — Tradi¬ tionally this has been true since the early years of graded public education in this country, and at the present time in 41 States the common school is recognized as grades I to VIII; in 4 States it is grades I to VII; and in 3 States there are both seven- and eight- grade schools. l 2 BIENNIAL SURVEY OF EDUCATION, 19 34-3 6 During recent years reorganization of the upper grades of the elementary school and the lower grades of the secondary school has been urged. This has come about partly because of pressure for space in many school systems as both elementary and secondary school enrollments expanded. ( But in addition, psychological and educational investigations showed the need for richer school pro¬ grams for adolescent children. Therefore a new unit in the school system — the junior high school — developed to provide these richer programs. This new unit promptly took on some of the character¬ istics of secondary schools, with their specialized courses and in¬ structors, departmentalization, course and credit systems, and so on. New-type programs included more of the social sciences ; exploratory courses in science, mathematics, languages; courses in the practical arts. However, the junior high school is by no means universal. In 1934, only 27 percent of seventh-grade and 30 percent of eighth-grade boys and girls were in reorganized secondary schools. In other words, 70 percent of all seventh- and eighth-grade children were still in elementary schools. In rural areas nearly all upper grades are still in elementary rather than secondary schools. At the lower end of the age range, kindergartens are ordinarily thought to represent the beginning year for elementary schools. For about 80 years there has been continued interest in the establishment of kindergartens as an integral part of elementary schools. But in 1936, only 650,000 children were attending kindergartens, both public and private. Had they all been 5-year-olds, this number would have represented only about 30 percent of all the 5-year-olds in the coun¬ try. Kindergartens must then be ruled out as a typical element in present elementary schools, so far as general practice is concerned. We are still dealing with an eight-grade elementary school. The home backgrounds of elementary school children repre¬ sent wide differences, all of which influence the school pro¬ gram. — Of every 100 children attending elementary schools, 52 live in the country or in villages; 17 in small towns from 2,500 to 10,000 population; 7 in cities from 10,000 to 30,000; 5 in cities from 30,000 to 100,000 ; and 19 in cities of 100,000 and more. These figures show that so far as elementary school children are concerned, 70 percent of them still live in the country or in little towns close to the country. This necessarily influences the thinking in regard to their school pro¬ grams. Can there be a fixed State curriculum? What problems are there in the selection of State texts ? How do statements of standards take into account these background differences ? What problems are created for little children by the administrative demands for the reorganization of school units into larger geographic areas? ELEMENTARY EDUCATION 3 Nationality backgrounds also show wide variations. According to the census, one child in five aged 14 years or under is foreign-born or of foreign-born or mixed parentage. That is, one in five may speak or hear frequently some foreign language ; one in five has emotional and social connections which color his beliefs, understandings, and reactions. These are only two ways in which differing home backgrounds pre¬ sent school problems. There are many others, but these will serve to illustrate their importance. Public elementary teachers represent one of the Nation’s largest employee groups. — There are at present more than 600,000 teachers, principals, and supervisors in elementary schools. This may well be one of our largest single employee groups. It is certainly one of the largest professional groups with common interests and common purposes. The present total National Education Association membership is around 200,000. The American Legion in February of this year had a membership of approximately 750,000. The Y. W. C. A. had something over 600,000. There were approximately 300,000 trained nurses, 150,000 physicians. In other words, in com¬ parison with these groups, public elementary school teachers represent a very large, a very useful, and potentially a very influential group. Sixty percent of all American teachers are in public elementary schools. The elementary school is working toward higher standards of training for its teachers. — By no means all teachers in ele¬ mentary schools have the equivalent of graduation from a 2-year normal school. In fact the proportion of teachers having 2 years of college ranges from 38 percent in the 1- and 2-teacher schools in open country to 91 percent in cities of 100,000 population. Some States (Arizona, California, Connecticut, Delaware, and Rhode Island) now require 4 years of college as a minimum for certification for elementary school teaching, but there is a long way to go before elementary school teachers will all be college graduates. Salaries have much to do with this situation, both as cause and effect. It is not reasonable for the public to expect to buy much edu¬ cation for 40 children for $882 a year, the average annual salary of elementary school teachers in 1936. On the other hand, it is not reasonable to expect that a school district will pay generously for the services of a teacher who has little more than high-school training as professional preparation. Elementary education is changing in its philosophy and its practices along fairly definite, consistent, and generally ac¬ cepted lines. — This characteristic is the least statistical of all, unless it be in an enumeration of satisfied customers. Testimony of parents 160349° — 40 - 2 4 BIENNIAL SURVEY OF EDUCATION, 19 34-3 6 and teachers that children enjoy school is plentiful, but it is hard to tabulate. However, the changes taking place in elementary schools are without doubt in the direction of more meaningful, more valuable experiences for boys and girls. It is not unusual for onlookers to be misled by the confusion of sounds, the imposing vocabulary, the apparent conflicts in fundamen¬ tal philosophy enveloping elementary education like a fog. But be¬ hind the fog things are going on — maybe not so fast as we should like, not so universally as we could wish, not always so wisely as might be. But no more can the dictum of a former university president be true that elementary schools “very properly devote themselves largely to enabling children to acquire tools of knowledge.” Elementary schools are planning their programs close to the needs, the interests, and the potentialities of their clientele. Current Problems in Elementary Education These characteristics enumerated in the foregoing section make a sort of backdrop against which some of the pressing problems of ele¬ mentary education at the present time may be examined. 1. Developing a profession of elementary school teaching. — There are many evidences that we do not yet have such a profession. The statement, “I am only a grade teacher” reflects a feeling of in¬ feriority, an assumption of an inferior social and economic status. So long as that exists, it is difficult to build professional spirit. Not long ago at the convention of one of the State teachers’ associa¬ tions, a speaker addressed two sections — the primary teachers and the intermediate-grade teachers. The intermediate-grade teachers total¬ ed fewer than 15 ; the primary teachers were several hundred in num¬ ber. These two meetings took place on the same day. They repre¬ sent a fairly common situation. There is a 'profession of teaching in the primary grades which has been built up over many years by super¬ visors of primary grades and by persons in teacher-training institu¬ tions who have devoted their lives to preparing teachers for the pri¬ mary school. Primary teachers have had excellent training; they have frequently received higher salaries than teachers in other grades ; they have fairly permanent tenure; they stay on the job. Teachers in intermediate and upper grades do not have these advantages. In teachers’ meetings they wander from one section to another; on the job they wander more frequently from one grade to another and from one school to another. They hope to get into an upper grade or into high school where conditions are better. Other difficulties in the way of creating a profession of elementary school teaching include the youthfulness of teachers, their mobility, and the relative isolation and loneliness of their jobs. The high ELEMENTARY EDUCATION 5 schools have needed more and more teachers and have been in a posi¬ tion to pay for them. Consequently, though the elementary schools have served a useful purpose as a training ground for high-school teachers, they have suffered in the process. It may be that more sys¬ tematic follow-up of graduates by teacher-training institutions, and the establishment of a new organization for intermediate and upper- grade teachers or the stimulation of an existing one in the State teach¬ ers’ associations would provide a greater sense of professional unity. 2. Facilitating adjustments in elementary schools made necessary by changing enrollments and changing stand¬ ards. — What do the decreasing enrollments in elementary schools suggest? For one thing, smaller groups, fortunately; for another, more adequate space for the activity programs which have been so handicapped in crowded quarters; for another, more equipment than when the available funds had to be spread over continually increasing numbers. These things are much needed. In addition adjustments in the lower grades of the elementary school are taking place. Probably everyone agrees that the kinder¬ garten type of training is desirable for all children. Recent emphasis on reading readiness and readiness for other educational activities has shown the importance of the kindergarten type of initial school experience. But 80 years of trying to make the kindergarten an adjunct to the school and comparative failure (in terms of the pro¬ portions served) in securing that objective should lead elementary school officials to be realistic about the situation. It is not wise longer to permit most of the beginning first-grade children to miss kinder¬ garten training. A promising development of recent years is a reorganization in the beginning classes of the elementary school — a sort of primary school which incorporates the kindergarten type of training as the first year or first grade for every child. In that way the kindergarten then becomes the first year in name and the first year becomes kindergarten in type. Adjustments at the upper end of the elementary school are also taking place. We have seen that most of the seventh and eighth grades are still in the elementary school. However, although not all of their programs have been changed in line with recommendations for junior high-school programs, in some schools they have. Explora¬ tory courses in science, in industrial arts, and in social studies open up new and meaningful worlds to the young student, at the same time providing opportunity for continued practice of fundamental reading, language, and mathematical skills. For the elementary schools, in¬ cluding these upper elementary grades, fundamental studies are much needed to give some dependable bases for deciding what is a good life for children at different stages of development ; what are the educa- 6 BIENNIAL SURVEY OF EDUCATION, 1934-36 tional vitamins essential for a good fare. Any adult who has worked with children could list dozens, if not hundreds of topics — units of work — which are of interest to children and which have a measure of desirable content. Which of all of these to select is the difficult problem. The question is no more important for children in the upper ele¬ mentary school than it is for others, including high-school students. It is only heightened by the present indecision as to what to do about these seventh and eighth grades. Since the depression delayed school-building programs and the top floors of many elementary schools are empty because of the declining enrollments, superin¬ tendents and the public have been asking, “Why move the seventh and eighth grades to high-school buildings that are already crowded?” In some cities there is now a definite plan to keep seventh- and eighth- grade children in the elementary school. There can be no harm to them in this if their programs are well thought out. The harm comes if they are to remain in or to return to the traditional programs of former years. Curriculum adjustments are therefore much needed. 3. Instituting an in-service training program. — To super¬ visors of elementary schools this frequently seems the most important problem of all. The inadequate training or unevenness of training of teachers, the rapid turn-over in the teaching staff, and the remote¬ ness of many elementary school positions, point emphatically to the importance of in-service training programs. Other things heighten this impression. The typically large classes, the frequently inade¬ quate equipment, and the present-day conflicts in philosophy which cannot help but concern teachers, all show the need for wise, con¬ structive, thoughtful plans for helping teachers on the job. The problem is to develop useful techniques of in-service training. State supervisors of elementary education have developed some which seem particularly useful. In Tennessee, for example, the State super¬ visor holds a 3-day conference of county elementary supervisors and visiting teachers on the assembly ground at Monteagle, Tenn., at which time supervisors make plans for their year’s programs. In New Hampshire, the State supervisor has a series of regional con¬ ferences with local supervisors. The practice of organizing State¬ wide committees for curriculum development has proven to be one of the most useful means of in-service training. The State super¬ visors in Alabama, Kansas, Virginia, Arkansas, Florida, Louisiana, and probably a number of other States have sent some of their leaders to summer workshops for curriculum planning. This procedure seems to be growing in favor. Publications from State departments of education are increasing in number and value. The Michigan State department has issued a ELEMENTARY EDUCATION 7 series of publications which are useful for study groups of teachers and local supervisors ; a recent volume describes superior practices in the elementary schools of the State. The California State depart¬ ment, under the leadership of the chief of the division of elementary education, issues the Journal of Elementary Education , which reports the outstanding activities of the whole State. Many State depart¬ ments have increased their efforts during recent years to secure county supervisors. Tennessee, Alabama, Virginia, California, New Jersey have made encouraging gains in this respect even in these difficult years. 4. The formulation of a unified program of elementary edu¬ cation. — This means only that all the persons in State or local de¬ partments of education who have something to contribute to or any responsibility for elementary schools should be able in some way to plan together. In some school systems there is a division of elemen¬ tary education and a division of secondary education. Other systems are organized on a different axis, having a division of administration and a division of instruction. Each type of organization has its advantages, which need not be analyzed here. But in addition to the major divisions, there are supervisors of special fields, such as art, music, school libraries, health and physical education, school build¬ ings, special classes, all of which have something to do with elemen¬ tary schools. The need for machinery to synthesize the activities of all of these persons is obvious, if children’s programs likewise are to have some unity. Another problem has to do with working out agreements with the many agencies which have plans for elementary schools. For ex¬ ample, there are at present 16 State departments of health which have health supervisors doing some work in the schools. There are also State conservation departments with plans for conservation education and recreation for school children. There are State highway de¬ partments with a stake in safety-education programs for the schools. There are boys’ and girls’ clubs, and other agencies which assert that they have something to contribute to a well-rounded program for children. Patriotic societies, temperance societies, humane societies have programs and sometimes printed matter which they wish to have adopted in the schools. The desirability of having one program for children rather than many is generally agreed upon. There is also little doubt as to the necessity of having all school activities under the direction of school authorities. The task appears to be that of working out agreements with these nonschool agencies. In doing so three questions come up for consideration : Do these other programs have something valu- 8 BIENNIAL SURVEY OF EDUCATION, 19 34-3 6 able for children ? Is it something the schools cannot do ? How can it be brought in as a part of and under the supervision of schools? 5. Securing proper attention to elementary education prob¬ lems. — The present public attitude is that since enrollments are de¬ creasing most of the problems of elementary schools will soon be solved. Secondary schools have been spectacular in their growth and important in their demands. The recent popularity of youth and their problems is shown by a report of approximately 400 different national organizations that have programs for youth. But it is still true that the elementary school furnishes the basic education for prac¬ tically all children; that their attitudes toward learning, their intel¬ lectual interests, and their habits of thinking and working are begun in the elementary school. The quality of its services should be com¬ mensurate with its responsibilities. Consequently, one of the most important responsibilities of workers in elementary education is to continue to call attention to the magnitude and the basic importance of elementary education. Some Statistics of Elementary Education Children in the Elementary School 1. How many children are attending elementary schools? In 1936 there were 22,749,351 children attending elementary schools, including the elementary grades in junior high schools. This includes all children in public schools, private schools, resi¬ dential schools for exceptional children, and practice or demon¬ stration schools in connection with teacher-training programs. Of the total, 11,639,079 were boys and 11,110,272 were girls. 2. How many public elementary schools are there? In 1936, there were 232,174 organized elementary schools reported. This number decreased from 245,091 in 1926 to 238,306 in 1930 and to 236,236 in 1934. Elimination of small schools through consolidation has been partially responsible for this decline. 9 10 BIENNIAL SURVEY OF EDUCATION, 19 34-3 6 3. Where do the elementary school children live and attend school? Of every 100 children in public elementary schools, 52 live in the country or in villages and towns of less than 2,500 population ; IT live in towns of 2,500 to 10,000 population ; 7 live in cities of 10,000 to 30,000 population ; 5 live in cities of 30,000 to 100,000 ; and 19 are in large cities of more than 100,000 population. Where elementary school children live. 4. From what nationality backgrounds do elementary school children come? According to the 1930 census, there were 297,215 foreign-born white children 14 years of age or under. Of these, 95,800 were from Canada; 40,372 from Italy; 29,847 from Germany; 20,131 from Scotland; 18,715 from England. ELEMENTARY EDUCATION 11 Of the 36,056,876 children 14 years of age or under, 7,647,267 were foreign-born or of foreign or mixed parentage — 21 percent Italian, 14 percent Polish, 9 percent Russian, 8 percent Canadian, and 7 percent German. From five other countries came more than 2 percent each : Czechoslovakia, England, Irish Free State, Austria, and Sweden. Altogether this means that one child in every five who are 14 years of age or under is either foreign-born or of foreign or mixed parentage. One elementary school child in five has a foreign background. 5. How does the number of children in elementary schools compare with the numbers of enrollees in other schools? When there were 22,749,351 children in elementary schools, there were 6,432,014 in secondary schools and 1,208,227 in colleges. In other words, of every 100 students, 75 were going to elemen¬ tary school, 21 to high school, and 4 to college. Of every 100 students, 75 are attending elementary school, 21 high school, and 4 college. 160349° — 40 - 3 12 BIENNIAL SURVEY OF EDUCATION, 19 34-3 6 6. What part of the total population of this country is repre¬ sented by the children in the elementary schools? In 1936 the 22% million children in elementary schools rep¬ resented 18 percent of the total population. 7. How does the elementary school's present relation to the Nation's total population compare with that of former years ? The elementary school’s population is now a smaller propor¬ tion of the total population than it used to be. From 1880 to 1936 the total population increased from 50 million to 128 million, or 156 percent. The elementary school enrollments increased from 10% million to 22% million, or 122 percent. In 1880 elementary school enrollments were 20 percent of the total population; in 1936 they were only 18 percent of the total population. 8. How does the number of children now attending elemen¬ tary schools compare with that of former years? The number of children attending elementary schools m 1936 was more than twice as great as that in 1880. Over the period of 50 years from 1880 to 1930 it increased 130 percent. Between 1930 and 1936 it decreased 3.6 percent. Elementary school enrollments. Each figure represents a million children. ELEMENTARY EDUCATION 13 9. How is the declining birth rate affecting enrollments in the elementary school? Elementary school enrollments started to decrease in 1932 and they now continue a fairly regular decline. Up to that time, enrollments had continued to increase, in spite of declin¬ ing birth rates, until the schools had achieved nearly complete enrollment of all children of elementary school age. Now birth rate and elementary school enrollments are both declining. Year Birth rate per 1,000 Elementary school en¬ rollment Year Birth rate per 1,000 Elementary school en¬ rollment 1880 34.9 10, 242, 518 14, 181, 415 16, 224, 784 18, 457, 228 20, 864, 488 1930 18.9 23, 588, 479 23, 566, 653 23,262,371 22, 749, 351 1890 _ 31.9 1932 _ _ 17.4 1900. . _ . 29.8 1934... _ 17. 1 1910 .. 26.4 1936 . . . 16.7 1920 _ 23.7 10. How many Negro children attend separate elementary schools? In 18 States which maintain separate schools for Negro and white children, there were 2,250,045 Negro children attending separate schools in 1936. This is approximately one-fourth of all the children attending public elementary schools in those States. 11. How are elementary school enrollments divided between public and private schools ? In 1936, 20,477,964 children attended public elementary schools, and 2,271,387 attended private elementary schools. That is, for every child enrolled in a private elementary school, 9 children were enrolled in public elementary schools. PRIVATE SCHOOL Proportions of elementary school children in public and private elementary schools. 14 BIENNIAL SURVEY OF EDUCATION, 19 34-3 6 12. What kinds of private schools enroll large numbers of elementary school children? About 97.5 percent of all children attending private elementary schools were in schools under denominational control in 1933. Ninety-two and one-half percent of the total number attending private elementary schools were in Catholic parochial schools; about 4 percent were in Lutheran schools. No other denomina¬ tion enrolled as much as one-half of 1 percent of the total. 13. How does the proportion of children attending private elementary schools in 1936 compare with the proportion of enrollees in other private schools? 10 percent of all elementary school pupils were in private elementary schools. 6.5 percent of all secondary school pupils were in private secondary schools. 49 percent of all college students were in private colleges and universities. 14. How does the proportion of children attending private elementary schools vary from State to State? In 4 States more than 20 percent of all elementary school chil¬ dren attend private schools; in 6 States from 15 to 20 percent are in private schools; in 8 States and the District of Columbia, from 10 to 15 percent; and in 13 States from 5 to 10 percent. In 17 States less than 5 percent of the elementary school children are in private schools. ELEMENTARY EDUCATION 15 Children in private elementary schools. Each figure represents 2 percent of the total elementary school enrollment in private schools. 15. What grades make up the elementary school? Some elementary schools have six grades, some seven, some eight, and a few have nine, besides the kindergarten. With the development of junior high schools, the elementary school organ¬ ization has changed in those school systems which have junior high schools. However in 1934, 71.5 percent of seventh- and eighth-grade pupils were reported as belonging in elementary schools. In 1930, the percentage was 73.2. The percentage of upper-grade pupils reported as belonging in elementary-school organizations varied greatly among the States. For example, in Louisiana 99.1 percent and in South Carolina 98.3 percent of the pupils in the two upper grades (grades 6 and 7) were in the elementary school, while in Rhode Island 35 percent of the pupils in the two upper grades (grades 7 and 8) were in the elementary school. 16 BIENNIAL SURVEY OF EDUCATION, 19 34-3 6 16. How are elementary school children distributed among* the grades? In 1936 the more than 20 million children attending public elementary schools were distributed as follows : Number of children Kindergarten - 606,753 First grade - 3,530,325 Second grade - 2,557,589 Third grade - 2,524,736 Fourth grade _ 2,498,741 Fifth grade _ 2,432,991 Sixth grade - 2,319,470 Seventh grade - 2,181,987 Eighth grade - 1,739,969 Training schools and schools for exceptional chil¬ dren - 85,403 Total. 20,477,964 17. What proportion of seventh- and eighth-grade children are attending reorganized secondary schools rather than elementary schools ? In 1934, 27 percent of seventh-grade children and 30 percent of eighth-grade children were in junior high schools or some form of reorganized secondary school, rather than in elementary schools. 18. How many elementary school buildings are there ? In 1936 there were 238,867 school buildings in use for public elementary and secondary schools. Of these 232,173 housed elementary schools. Approximately 132,813 had 1 room only; 81,340 had more than 1 room but housed only elementary grades ; and 18,020 housed both elementary and secondary schools. ELEMENTARY EDUCATION 17 The School Program 1. How is the school day spent in the elementary school? According to a report made in 1936, 1 in 63 cities scattered throughout the country, nearly half the time (48.7 percent) in eighth-grade elementary schools was spent on the 3R subjects — reading, writing, spelling, language, and arithmetic; 16.6 per¬ cent of the time was used for science and the social studies ; and the rest (34.7 percent) was spent on art, music, physical educa¬ tion, and other so-called special subjects. 2. To what extent do State laws prescribe what subjects shall be taught in elementary schools ? State laws exercise considerable control over the elementary- school curriculum. For example, State laws in the several States require that the following subjects — usually elementary- school subjects — shall be taught: Number of States Physiology and hygiene - 40 United States history - 35 Geography _ 29 Grammar - - - - .. - 29 Arithmetic _ 28 Writing _ 28 Spelling - 28 Reading _ 27 Other less-common requirements include safety in 20 States, drawing in 12 States, and music in 8 States. Specific topics required include nature of alcoholic drinks in 48 States, Constitution of United States in 40 States, and hu¬ mane treatment of animals in 16 States. 3. On what subjects or fields is most time spent? It is more difficult to answer this question each time a study is made, because of the spread of the practice of integrating subject matter and thus of doing away with a required allot¬ ment of time to each individual subject. Even then, for any one subject the amount of time varies greatly from grade to grade. According to Kyte and Lewis, most time is spent on reading, social studies, arithmetic, and language. 1 Kyte, George C., and Lewis, Robert H. Time tables. The Nation’s Schools, 17 : 23-24, January 1936. 18 BIENNIAL SURVEY OF EDUCATION, 19 34-3 6 4. How does the amount of time spent on various subjects compare with that given in former years? The time allotments reported by Kyte and Lewis may be compared with those reported in a similar study 2 made in 1926 : Percent in — 1926 1936 3R subjects _ 51.7 11.8 36.5 48.7 16.6 34.7 Content subjects. - Special subjects. ... 1926 1936 51.7% 48.7% 11.8% 16.6% 36.5% 34.7% GAMES MUSIC ART WORKSHOP ETC. Proportion of school time spent on various subjects. 5. How commonly are music and art included in elementary school programs? All the schools include music in the first six grades, according to the study of city school time allotments by Kyte and Lewis, and nearly all (98 percent) have it in the seventh and eighth grades. Art is included in grades 1-7 in nearly all (97 percent) of the cities, and in 88 percent of grades 8. The decreasing per¬ centage in upper grades may be accounted for by an increasing percentage providing industrial arts. 3 R's READING WRITING ARITHMETIC ETC. CONTENT SUBJECTS GEOGRAPHY HISTORY SCIENCE ETC. SPECIAL SUBJECTS 2 Mann, Carleton H. How schools use their time. 1928. Teachers College Contri¬ butions to Education, No. 333. ELEMENTARY EDUCATION 19 6. Is health instruction commonly included in the elementary school program? Seventy-five percent of the cities included in Kyte and Lewis’ study begin health instruction in first grade. A higher per¬ centage include health instruction in intermediate grades. 7. In how many States is medical inspection required in the schools by State law? In 26 States the schools are in 1939 required by State law to provide medical inspection for their pupils, and in 14 more States there are laws permitting such service. 8. How long is the school day in public elementary schools? Five hours made up the school day for children in grades 3 to 6, and somewhat less than that for children in lower grades in cities of 30,000 and more in 1927, the latest date for which information is available. 9. How long is the school term in elementary schools? The average school term in elementary schools was 169 days in 1936. 10. How does the average number of days schools are in ses¬ sion differ among the States? Eight States had an average term of 180 days or more in elementary schools in 1936; 19 States and the District of Co¬ lumbia had 170 to 180 days; 5 States, 160 to 169 days; 2 States, 150 to 159 days; 2 States, 140 to 149 days; and 2 States, 130 to 139 days. 20 BIENNIAL SURVEY OF EDUCATION, 1934-3 6 Length of the school term. ELEMENTARY EDUCATION 21 11. What is the average number of days each child in the public elementary schools attends school each year? On the average, each child enrolled in a public elementary school in 1936 attended school 132 days. Presumably, however, the teacher is there and the school goes on 169 days. Average attendance in elementary schools. 12. Do elementary schools have libraries? 50,904 elementary schools had library service in 1935. Of these, 18,537 had centralized libraries and 32,367 had classroom collections only. 22 BIENNIAL SURVEY OF EDUCATION, 19 34-3 6 2,473,566 children were enrolled in the 18,537 schools having centralized libraries; 8,972,250 volumes were estimated to be in those libraries. These figures do not include elementary schools housed with high-school grades, many of which have centralized libraries. 13. What proportion of the children go to kindergarten? Keports for 1936 show that 37,806 children attended private kindergartens and 606,753 children attended public kindergar¬ tens, making a total of 644,559 enrollees, not including those in residential schools for exceptional children. During that year the Census estimated that in this country there were 2,221,000 5-year-olds. It is not known how many kindergarten enrollees were 4, or 5, or 6 years of age; but if all the kindergarten chil¬ dren had been 5 years old, there could not have been more than about 29 y2 percent of all 5-year-olds attending kindergarten. 14. Do elementary schools have adequate buildings for enriched school programs? In 1937 school superintendents in 506 cities of 10,000 popula¬ tion and over reported that 39.3 percent of all their buildings for both elementary and secondary schools were more than 30 years old. Most buildings erected for elementary schools more than 30 years ago did not provide for shops, auditoriums, gym¬ nasiums, nor for especially equipped science and art rooms. School buildings — old and modern. ELEMENTARY EDUCATION 23 The Teaching Staff 1. How many of the Nation’s teachers are teaching in public elementary schools? In 1936 there were 1,067,483 teachers in public and private schools and colleges in continental United States. Of these, 639,487 were teaching in public elementary schools, including kindergartens and grades 1 to 8 (or 1 to 7 in those schools which have 11 grades). In other words, 60 percent of the Nation’s teachers are in public elementary schools. TEACHERS IN PUBLIC ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS I TEACHERS IN ALL OTHER SCHOOLS Approximately six of every ten teachers are teaching in public elementary schools. 2. How many teachers are there in private elementary schools? It is estimated that in 1936 there were 3,881 men and 62,373 women, or a total of 66,254 teachers in private elementary schools. This means that for every teacher in private elementary schools there are about 10 teachers in public elementary schools. 3. What are the proportions of men and women teachers in public elementary schools? 81,401 men and 558,086 women make up the total of 639,487 public elementary school teachers. These represent 12.7 percent and 87.3 percent, respectively. If only those teachers are counted who are in schools organized as elementary schools and in no cases in reorganized junior high schools, the proportions are 11.6 percent and 88.4 percent, respectively, of men and women teachers. 4. Is the number of men teachers in the public elementary schools increasing? From 1890 to 1930 both the actual number and the proportion of men teachers in elementary schools decreased. However, since 1930 there has been a slight increase, from 10.7 percent in 1930 24 BIENNIAL SURVEY OF EDUCATION, 1934-3 6 to 12.7 percent in 1936, in the proportion that men teachers are of the total number. This includes the teachers of grades 1 to 8, in both organized elementary schools and junior high schools. 5. How do the proportions of men and women teachers in ele¬ mentary schools compare with those in secondary schools and colleges? Of every 100 teachers employed in each type of school, the following numbers were men: Year In public elemen¬ tary schools In public second¬ ary schools In public and private colleges 1890 _ 34 41 0) 1900 _ 29 50 78 1910 _ 19 45 79 1920 _ 11 32 72 1930 _ 11 37 72 1936 _ 13 42 74 ’No data. 6. What proportion of public elementary school teachers are single ? The National Survey of the Education of Teachers in 1931 showed that of a sampling of 234,000 elementary school teachers, 47.4 percent of the men and 77.3 percent of the women were single. 7. How much college training have public elementary school teachers had for their work? In 1931 reports were received from approximately 250,000 public elementary school teachers on the number of years they had attended college. Half of these were teachers in rural or small village schools, and only a fifth of them in large cities of 100,000 population or more. Nearly three-quarters of them (74 percent) had had 2 years or more of college work; 12 percent had had 4 years or more ; but 1 in 18 had had nothing more than a high-school education. ELEMENTARY EDUCATION 25 8. What proportion of the teachers have had 2 years or more of college education? Of the 250,000 public elementary school teachers for whom records are available, the proportion that have 2 years or more at college differs as follows : Percent In 1- and 2-teacher schools in open country _ 38 In 3- or more-teacher schools in open country _ 72 In villages of less than 2,500 population _ 79 In cities of 2,500 to 9,999 population _ 88 In cities of 10,000 to 99,999 population _ 90 In cities of 100,000 or more _ 91 38% 72% TEACHERS IN VILLA6ES OF LESS THAN' 2500 POPULATION m 79% 88% 90% 91% Proportion of elementary school teachers who have 2 years or more of college education. 9. What salaries do public elementary school teachers receive ? The average salary of elementary school teachers, supervisors, and principals in public schools was $1,005 in 1935-36, in the 24 States and the District of Columbia, which reported salaries for elementary and secondary schools separately. For teachers alone, in 29 States and the District of Columbia reporting, the average was $882. 26 BIENNIAL SURVEY OF EDUCATION, 19 34-3 6 10, How do salaries of elementary school teachers vary among the States? Twenty- four States and the District of Columbia reported average annual salaries of elementary school teachers, super¬ visors, and principals in 1935-36, ranging from $431 in Arkan¬ sas to $1,735 in New Jersey. 11. How do elementary school teachers’ salaries compare with those of former years? In fewer than half the States which report salaries in ele¬ mentary and secondary schools separately, the average salaries of elementary school teachers, supervisors, and principals, decreased from their high point of 1930 as follows : Year Percent 1930. 1932. 1934. 1936. 100. 99.4 87.5 91.3 12. How do salaries of elementary school teachers compare with those of secondary school teachers? In 1936, when the average salary of teachers, supervisors, and principals in public elementary schools was $1,005, the average for those in regular and vocational high schools was $1,523, or 52 percent more than for the elementary. ELEM ENTARY SCHOOLS $1,005 SECONDARY SCHOOLS Teachers’ salaries. $1,523 13. What proportion of the principals in elementary schools are administrative and supervisory officials ? Information received in 1934 concerning more than 12,000 elementary school principals in city schools showed that 58 per¬ cent were teaching principals and 42 percent full-time principals of one or more schools. ELEMENTARY EDUCATION 27 Extent to Which the Elementary School Attracts and Holds Its Clientele 1. What proportion of the children of elementary school age are in school? According to the 1930 census, 92 percent of the children of the ages 6 to 13 were attending school. Ninety-five percent of the 7- to 13-year-old children were attending. 2. How does the proportion of children of elementary school age in school vary among the States? According to the 1930 census, in 12 States 98 percent or more of the children 7 to 13 years of age were attending school; in 19 more States and the District of Columbia the percentage was above 96; in 5 States, the percentage fell below 90. 3. How does the proportion of children of elementary school age that are in school compare with the proportion of chil¬ dren of secondary school age that are in school? In 1930, 73 percent of the young people of the ages 14 to 17, inclusive, and 92 percent of those 6 to 13 years of age, were attending school. 4. How does the proportion of elementary school age children in school compare with the comparable proportion for those of college age? In 1930, when 92 percent of the 6- to 13-year-old group was in school, college enrollments were about 12 percent of the total number of young people 18 to 21 years of age. In 1936 enroll¬ ments were about 12.4 percent of the estimated population of that age group. Of course, many persons outside that age group were in college, thereby decreasing the proportion of what is commonly thought of as the college-age group that are in college. Even so, the proportion has increased steadily from 3 percent in 1890. 5. How does the proportion of children of elementary school age in elementary school compare with that of former years ? In 1920, the census reported 87 percent of the children 6 to 13 years of age attending school; 91 percent of those 7 to 13 were attending. The 1930 figures were 92 percent and 95 percent, respectively. 28 BIENNIAL SURVEY OF EDUCATION, 19 34-3 6 6. How regularly do elementary school children attend school? Eight of every ten children enrolled in public elementary schools, attend school each day school is in session, according to the 41 States which made a report of elementary school attendance in 1936. Regularity of school attendance. 7. How many children of elementary school age are out of school and employed? According to the 1930 census, of nearly 10 million children who were 10 to 13 years of age, 235,328, or 2% percent of them, were gainfully employed. 8. What are the compulsory school attendance laws which affect enrollments in the elementary school? In 2 States attendance at full-time day school is compulsory at 6 years of age, in 33 States at 7 years of age, and in 13 States at 8 years of age. The compulsory school attendance ages include not fewer than 7 years in any State, the one State which includes only 7 years being a State in which the elementary school is a 7-year school. In 21 States children are required to complete eighth grade before they may be excused from attending school for employ¬ ment. 9. So far as the literacy figures show, what proportion of our total population has acquired the rudiments of an ele¬ mentary education? Literacy, as defined by the United States Census, means the ability to read and write, either in English or in some other ELEMENTARY EDUCATION 29 language. According to the last census (1930), 4.3 percent of the total population 10 years old and over was illiterate. In other words, 95.7 percent can read and write. 10. How does the percentage of illiteracy differ among the States ? The percentage of illiteracy ranged, according to the last cen¬ sus, from 0.8 in Iowa, to 14.9 in South Carolina. The five States with highest and the five with lowest percentages are as follows : Lowest Highest Iowa . _ 0.8 South Carolina 14.9 Washington 1.0 Louisiana 13.5 Oregon _ 1.0 New Mexico _ 13.3 Idaho _ 1.1 Mississippi _ 13.1 Utah _ 1.2 Alabama _ 12.6 11. How does the proportion of literacy compare with that of former years? The percentage of literacy has risen steadily in this country, as is shown by United States Census figures : 1870. 1890. 1910. 1920. 1930. Percent literate _ 80.0 _ 86.7 _ 92.3 _ 94.0 _ 95.7 12. How does the proportion of illiteracy compare with that of certain foreign countries ? Definitions of literacy differ widely among the nations, but the following census reports and estimates as reported in the De¬ partment of Commerce Foreign Commerce Yearbook for 1936 show something of the great differences existing in the per¬ centages of illiteracy. Brazil: “Roughly estimated around 70 percent.” Chile: “Estimated at about 25 percent in 1930.” Denmark : None. France : 7 percent of those 5 years of age or over are unable to read or write (1931 census). Italy: 21 percent of those 6 years and over are not able to read (1931 census). Japan : “Approximately 10 percent, excluding children under 7.” Mexico : 59 percent in 1930 ; “estimated 1934 at 54 percent.” Netherlands: “Practically none.” Spain : 43 percent of population over 10 years of age unable to read or write (1930). Sweden : “Practically no illiteracy.” United States: 4.3 per cent (1930). 30 BIENNIAL SURVEY OF EDUCATION, 19 34-3 6 13. What proportion of the children who attend elementary schools persist to the eighth grade? In 1936 there were approximately 83 pupils in the eighth grade for every 100 who had enrolled in fifth grade. 14. How do the proportions of children who persist to the eighth grade compare with those of former years? The proportion of pupils who reach the eighth grade has risen steadily in the last 10 years. The following figures show the numbers of children reaching eighth grade for every thousand who had enrolled in fifth grade : Number of children 1927. 1929. 1931. 1933. 1936 719 745 779 825 831 ELEMENTARY EDUCATION 31 Counting the Cost 1. How much is spent per elementary school child for education ? In 22 States and the District of Columbia which reported such figures separately for elementary schools in 1936, an average of $57.69 was spent for current expenses for each elementary school pupil in average daily attendance. If this average holds for the other States, we are spending approximately $1,074,- 348,457 for current expense for elementary education in this country. 2. How does the amount spent per elementary child compare with that for secondary school pupils? In that same year 19 of the same States and the District of Columbia spent an average of $113.09 per pupil in average daily attendance in the regular and vocational high schools. FOR EACH ELEMENTARY SCHOOL CHILD FOR EACH SECONDARY SCHOOL CHILD $57.69 $113.09 CURRENT EXPENSE Average expenditures for elementary and secondary schools. 32 BIENNIAL SURVEY OF EDUCATION, 19 3 4-3 6 3. How does the amount spent per elementary child vary among the States ? The amount spent for each child by the District of Columbia and the 22 States which reported, ranged from $18.76 for current expense in Arkansas to $114.52 in Nevada. The four States reporting the lowest and the four the highest are as follows : Lowest Arkansas _ $18.76 Alabama _ 21.04 South Carolina _ 24.42 Tennessee _ 29.00 Highest Nevada _ $114.52 District of Columbia _ 104.39 New Jersey _ 93.90 California _ 89.86 HIGHEST EXPENDITURES PER PUPIL LOWEST EXPENDITURES PER PUPIL Range in expenditures for elementary schools. UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR HAROLD L. ICKES : SECRETARY OFFICE OF EDUCATION : J. W. STUDEBAKER COMMISSIONER TRENDS IN SECONDARY EDUCATION being Chapter II of Volume I of the BIENNIAL SURVEY OF EDUCATION IN THE UNITED STATES : 1934-36 BULLETIN, 1937, No. 2 [ADVANCE PAGES] By CARL A. JESSEN Senior Specialist in Secondary Education Office of Education (. Assisted by persons named in the text) UNITED STATES GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE WASHINGTON : 1937 For sale by the Superintendent of Documents Washington, D. C. Price 10 cents * ' * CONTENTS Fag* Foreword _ v Increases in the Secondary School Population _ 1 Providing for Individual Differences _ 2 The Reorganization Movement _ 7 Provisions for Continuing and Supplementing High-School Education _ 12 Vocational Education _ 18 Small High Schools _ 26 The Curriculum _ 33 Guidance _ 40 A Comprehensive Service to all Youth _ 43 m . . FOREWORD Education in the United States faces important problems in the large and increasing enrollments in secondary schools, in the wide variety of interests and the extensive range of capacities represented in the pupils coming to these schools, and in the peculiar needs by pupils of early adolescent age for advice and guidance on social, moral, educational, and vocational issues which they imminently must decide, no matter how inadequately prepared they may be to make the needed decisions. Moreover, since the end of the compulsory school age usually comes within the secondary school period, pupils are withdrawing at all times, thus placing a demand for flexibility in the courses such as is required at no other level. In its effort to record basic facts regarding the development of secondary education through the years, the Office of Education in¬ cludes data on secondary schools in the chapters entitled “Statistics of State School Systems” and “Statistics of City School Systems” which appear in every issue of the Biennial Survey of Education. Quadriennially in the same publication appear chapters on Statistics of Public High Schools and Statistics of Private High Schools. The present chapter on Trends in Secondary Education is in¬ cluded to provide opportunity for discussion of significant movements and undertakings which do not lend themselves appropriately to analyses so exclusively statistical in character as those mentioned in the preceding paragraph. The chapter was written principally by Carl A. Jessen, senior specialist in secondary education. Certain sections of the chapter were prepared by other members of the Office staff. These contributions are indicated by footnotes at the appro¬ priate places in the chapter. The subjects of the sections and their authors are as follows: Exceptional Pupils. Elise H. Martens, Senior Specialist in Exceptional Children. Vocational Education. C. M. Arthur, Research Specialist in the Vocational Education Division. Small High Schools. Division of Special Problems. Tests and Measurements. David Segel, Educational Consultant and Senior Specialist in Tests and Measurements. Guidance. Maris M. Proffitt, Educational Consultant and Senior Specialist in Guidance and Industrial Education. VI FOREWORD At the outset the outline and general plan of the chapter were sub¬ mitted for criticism to a number of persons outside the Office of Education. Valuable reactions and suggestions were received from Roy O. Billett, Boston University; Harl R. Douglass, University of Minnesota; D. H. Eikenberry, Ohio State University; E. D. Grizzell, University of Pennsylvania; B. Lamar Johnson, Stephens College, Columbia, Mo.; Grayson N. Kefauver, Stanford University; Leonard V. Koos, The University of Chicago ; Joseph Roemer, George Peabody College for Teachers; and Francis T. Spaulding, Harvard University. Bess Goodykoontz, Assistant Commissioner . CHAPTER II TRENDS IN SECONDARY EDUCATION INCREASES IN THE SECONDARY SCHOOL POPULATION Over the last 40-odd years the public high schools have increased their enrollments more than thirtyfold. In the 25,000 public high schools of the Nation nearly 7,000,000 pupils are enrolled. The en¬ rollments in grades 9 to 12 (8 to 11 in 11-grade systems) have virtu¬ ally doubled with each decade from 1890 to 1930. Reports sub¬ mitted by the various States indicate that between 1930 and 1934 the gain was 29.5 percent. Taking the number of persons in the population of ages 14 to 17 as the group that is of high-school age and comparing that number with the enrollments in the last 4 years of the public high schools, one finds that the enrollment as of 1934 is 59.5 percent of the population count. If those attending private secondary schools are added, the percent¬ age rises to 64. This leaves out of consideration those enrolled in part-time, continuation, and night schools as well as those in business colleges, junior colleges, and trade schools. When one considers that in one of the States (California) the number in high school in 1934 was 89.6 percent of the estimate of the population of ages 14-17, one realizes how close to 100 percent the enrollment must have been in some communities to bring the average for the State to so high a figure. Comparison for earlier years indicates that in 1890 the number in secondary schools, public and private, was 6.7 percent of the census count of persons between the ages of 14 and 17 in the United States. In 1900 the percentage had risen to 11.4; in 1910 it was 16.6; in 1920 it was 37.9; in 1930 it was 51.1; and in 1934, as already reported, it reached 64 percent. These are most astonishing growths in enrollment — increases more rapid and more far-reaching than any found at any other time in any other nation. They indicate the expanding way in which the youth of the land is being reached by the provisions for secondary education.1 1 The reader who is interested in further statistical data on this subject is referred to successive issues of the Biennial Survey of Education, and its predecessor, the Annual Report of the Commissioner of Educa¬ tion. Both are publications of the U. S. Department of the Interior, Office of Education, and are, for the most part, available in educational libraries. 1 2 BIENNIAL SURVEY OF EDUCATION, 1934-36 PROVIDING FOR INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES Change in the character oj the school 'population . — The sustained rise in the enrollments in secondary schools is important, not only be¬ cause of the growth in numbers and the greater popularization of secondary education in the United States, but also because of the in¬ creased range of pupil abilities, needs, and interests which has ac¬ companied the expansion in numbers. To what extent the sons and daughters of all groups in the population are present in the high schools has not been determined so unmistakably as the enrollments, but the data which are available2 tend to show a growing although by no means a uniform representation in the schools of pupils from homes at all levels in the socio-economic scale. Similarly, results of so- called intelligence tests show that many of the pupils now coming to the high schools are very different in academic ability from those of an earlier day. The 203,000 pupils who were enrolled in public high schools in 1890 were a rather homogeneous group. Occasionally a pupil who was not by ability or interest suited for college work found his way into the public high school; but he was soon made to see his error. The colleges and normal schools of that day enrolled almost half as many pupils as did the secondary schools, public and private combined. The great similarity in interests, capacities, and destinations of pupils made it possible for the high school to offer a prescribed curriculum taught in a rather uniform way. The 7 million registered in public high schools in 1934 were of a different order. Among them is included the same type of academi¬ cally minded pupil that made up the enrollment in 1890; but, with nearly 60 percent of the population of school age enrolled in the schools (as indicated, close to 100 percent in some communities), numerous types of pupils not represented in that earlier day now find their way into the high schools. Six of every seven will in all prob¬ ability never go to college. The present high-school population dis¬ plays an almost complete spectrum of abilities of normal human beings and sounds nearly the entire gamut of interests of young people. The varied interests and abilities of these millions will not be served by a few leaves taken from the book of knowledge and presented in a stereotyped way. Moreover, any attempt to compare the achieve¬ ments of these pupils with those of an earlier day or with the selected pupil population of foreign secondary schools is inevitably based upon the false premise that the character of the pupil population remains constant through the years and is comparable as among nations. Nothing could well be further removed from the truth. 3 See U. S. Office of Education Bulletin, 1932, No. 17, Monograph No. 4, The Secondary School Popula¬ tion, by Grayson N. Kefauver, Victor H. Noll, and C. Elwood Drake. In addition to reports of findings of the National Survey of Secondary Education on popularization and democratization of secondary edu¬ cation, this monograph supplies reference to earlier studies on the subject. SECONDARY EDUCATION 3 The segregated or specialized school. — The solutions attempted for the growing problems of widely differentiated capacities and needs are numerous and diverse. They involve important changes in offerings, in curriculum content, in teaching methods, in administration, in graduation requirements, and in the entire concept of secondary education. One of the suggested ways of meeting the problem of individual differences is through separate schools. In the present year an edu¬ cator of importance has recommended that segregated schools be developed for pupils who are especially slow and for those who are unusually efficient in their school work.3 Similar recommendations have been made from time to time regarding segregated secondary schools to care for different interests, especially vocational work. While illustrations can be found of special vocational schools which have retained their characteristics of specialization over a period of years, the response of the American public has generally been that it desires a comprehensive school which pupils with all types of interests may attend. The considerable number of schools known by such names as manual training high schools, commercial high schools, polytechnic high schools, and the like, which are in reality compre¬ hensive high schools with little or no vestige of the more than ordinary specialization which originally gave them their names, supply frequent proof of the demand of democracy that every pupil in every school of a city shall by and large have the opportunity to take any subject available to any pupil in that city. It remains to be seen whether the public will respond favorably to the suggestion that segregated schools be developed for housing pupils of exceptionally high or low scholastic ability and academic aptitude. Homogeneous grouping. — In the past certainly the practice has been to enroll normal pupils in the same school despite wide range in abilities or so-called intelligence quotients. That this procedure introduces complications goes without saying. Some schools attempt to form special classes for those pupils who deviate greatly from the average. Many more schools have attempted to solve the problem through homogeneous grouping which is a more elaborate system than the special class since it involves the assignment of each pupil of a school to classes in which are to be found pupils having capacities approxi¬ mately equal to those which he possesses. Most frequently three such levels of capacity are recognized in each subject, with a resultant three- level organization of classes. Numerous problems are encountered in putting plans for homogeneous grouping into operation. Aside from the objection that it is undemocratic and likely to develop superiority or inferiority complexes in the pupils, homogeneous group- 3 Tildsley, John L., The Mounting Waste of the American Secondary School. (The Inglis Lecture, 1936.) Cambridge, Mass., Harvard University Press, 1936. 129314—37 - 2 4 BIENNIAL SURVEY OF EDUCATION, 1934-36 ing involves problems relating to the basis of selection of pupils for the various groups, the introduction of flexibility in schedule-making to allow assignment and reassignment of pupils, and the marking of achievement of pupils in the different groups. Probably the major difficulty has been to secure actual differentiation in content and teaching procedures used with the various groups. Obviously, if such differentiation does not take place, the purpose of grouping has been defeated. The entire subject has become so important that recently the National Society for the Study of Education produced a yearbook on the grouping of pupils.4 Unit plans of teaching. — Homogeneous grouping presupposes a pupil enrollment large enough to support more than one class section in each subject. When one considers that 70 percent of the high schools have fewer than 200 pupils enrolled in them, it becomes apparent that this provision can be employed only to a limited extent in the high schools of the United States. For smaller schools it is necessary to provide some means of differentiation within the class. A number of provisions for differentiation within the class have been grouped together and named “plans characterized by the unit assign¬ ment” by one author in the field.6 It would be incorrect to leave the impression that unit organization and unit assignment are found only in small schools; the unit plan is employed by large schools as well as by small schools. By breaking up the content of a course into smaller blocks, unit organization makes possible the administration of both minimum requirements and enrichment to pupils in the same class section; especially is this true when, as frequently happens, the unit plan is combined with the laboratory method of teaching. The various types of unit plans can, if desired, be operated in con¬ nection with special classes and grouping procedures. Moreover, since no special organization of the school as a whole is required, unit plans are likely to be adopted only by teachers who have an interest in making them effective; those not interested are under no compulsion to give attention to them. Exceptional pupils. 6 — The discussion of individual differences up to this point has been directed toward that large group of pupils who are classified as normal in mental and physical ability. With the influx of pupils which has taken place it is important to make adjustments for those who deviate markedly from normality. More high-school leaders are alert to the problem than ever before. Several serious attempts have been made to effect needed adjustment in a compre- * The Grouping of Pupils. Part I of the thirty-fifth yearbook of the National Society for the Study of Education. Public School Publishing Co., 1936. c Billett, Roy O. Provisions for Individual Differences, Marking, and Promotion. National Survey of Secondary Education. U. S. Department of the Interior, Office of Education, Bulletin 1932, No. 17, Monograph No. 13. * The section on exceptional pupils was written by Elise H. Martens, senior specialist in the education of exceptional children, Office of Education. SECONDARY EDUCATION 5 hensive way. The concept seems to be taking root that the secondary school is for adolescents, whatever their mental capacity or physical status, and that consequent drastic changes are in order in high-school organization and curriculum. The junior high school has been the first to encounter the problems of mentally and physically handicapped children and to make con¬ structive efforts to meet them. In Philadelphia, for example, a plan has been recently developed whereby a modified course of study is offered in several selected junior high schools, comprising instruction in prac¬ tical arts, problems of living, English and literature, physical and health education, and club and guidance activities.7 Specific plans are made to adjust the content of the 3-year program to the needs of the retarded young people for whom it is organized. Extension of the project to carry them on into the senior high school through adjust¬ ment that will parallel that of the junior high school is now under consideration. In planning a similar experiment in one of the high schools of Balti¬ more for those who in spite of every effort are unable to master the content of a standard curriculum, the sole requirements for advancement were stated as “regular attendance and a willingness to put forth their best effort.” The content of the course includes practical English and arithmetic, hygiene and health education, art, home economics, and music, with the elements of office practice and typing for those who can take them. The course leads to a certificate of completion instead of a high-school diploma. An accompaniment of such adjustments as these for mentally handi¬ capped adolescents is a growing realization of the broadening function of the high-school shops and commercial laboratories. The time- honored theory that no seriously retarded children should be admitted to these is beginning to yield to the conviction that there are shop and commercial activities which some retarded pupils can perform quite satisfactorily and which will help to prepare them to enter semiskilled occupations. The plans referred to above are being developed on this basis. Some communities are finding the w~ay to a similar goal through the organization of “adjustment classes” in the high school, in wilich occupational activities and liberalizing experiences both hold impor¬ tant places. It has even been advocated that steps be taken to intro¬ duce into the shop program training in “gardening, farm labor, fur¬ nace tending, window washing, auto washing, some types of janitorial service”,8 and other activities wfithin the capacity of seriously retarded pupils. To help these people to fit into the routine jobs of industry and to do better the things they will do anyway is certainly a wTorthv ’ Broome, Edwin C. Industrial Arts and the Problems of the Maladjusted Pupil. Industrial education magazine, 38: 15-17, January 1936. • Hoopes, Paul C. What To Do with the Dull Child? Industrial arts and vocational education, 25: 8-9, January 1936. 6 BIENNIAL SURVEY OF EDUCATION, 1934-36 function of the secondary school, quite in keeping with its established objectives. Every phase of the school program— including vocational education — must contribute to this goal and must accept its share of responsibility for the releasing of individual capacities of whatever nature. The physically handicapped face a somewhat different problem. When they reach the age of employability, they have at their disposal the services of specialists in vocational rehabilitation who will assist them to secure suitable occupational training and placement. What the secondary school should give them is a general educational back¬ ground, with the opportunity to explore occupational activities should they face the need of early wage-earning. Yet little is being done in a systematic way at present to extend the educational program for the physically handicapped into the secondary school. Sight-saving classes, classes for the deaf and the hard-of-hearing, and facilities for crippled children all too often end with the elementary grades and those pupils who wish to go on to high school must do so as best they can, with little or no adjustment made to their particular handicaps. There are a few exceptions among the school systems of the country in which the local high schools have formulated a well-organized plan to meet the needs of such handicapped groups. But the problem is as yet only dimly recognized. It offers a challenge for future develop¬ ment in the secondary school no less impelling than that presented by the mentally handicapped. Special education for all exceptional children — both handicapped and gifted — must be accepted unequiv¬ ocally as a function of the modern high school if it is to discharge its responsibility as a socialized and socializing educational agency. Largely a 'problem jor future solution. — Finally it must be said that the number of schools and teachers who give any visible symptom that they are really aware of the importance of the problem of individual differences is regrettably small. As late as 1932 Billett stated “that provisions for individual differences, in general, are innovations in the secondary schools.”9 It is hopeful that the literature on individual differences is becoming extensive and that specialists in such important fields as administration, curriculum, guidance, and tests and measure¬ ments are giving attention to the problems occasioned by the wide range of abilities, needs, and interests represented in pupils of public high schools. Those abilities and those interests are so varied and their presence so compelling that they cannot for any great length of time be ignored. 8 Op. cit p. 8. SECONDARY EDUCATION 7 THE REORGANIZATION MOVEMENT Prevalence of reorganized schools. — Of the public high schools in the United States reporting in 1934 to the Office of Education, 28.6 per¬ cent were reorganized ; that is, they had deviated from the conventional type of organization consisting of an elementary school followed by a 4-year high school. In this 28 percent of the schools were registered 46.4 percent of the high-school pupils of the Nation. If comparison is made only for the pupils in the last 4 years preceding high-school graduation, it is found that the reorganized high schools enrolled 37 percent of the total number. The growth in reorganization which had been pronounced through the decade 1920-30 was slower from 1930 to 1934. In fact, the proportions of all high-school pupils in reorganized and regular high schools during this period remained practically constant ; that is, the two types of schools were growing with approximately equal speed in total pupil enrollment. The reader should not conclude that the movement toward reorganization was arrested. On the contrary, the evidence indicates a more rapid growth in the number of reorganized high schools than in the number of regular high schools and in the most comparable measure of all, namely, numbers of pupils in the last 4 years of school, the increase was greater for the reorganized than for the regular schools. The character of the movement was changed somewhat and the tempo was retarded, but the trend toward change from conventional to reorganized plans of organization, which has been going on for a quarter of a century, was not interrupted. Types. — The condition just mentioned, in regard to both number of schools and enrollments, reflects the rapid development in junior- senior schools, and the somewhat slower growth in junior high schools. Obviously, any persistent addition to the number of junior high schools, such as occurred in the early 1920’s, serves to raise the total number of pupils enrolled in reorganized schools, but does not pro¬ portionately add to the number of pupils in the last 4 years. Rapid increase in 5- and 6-year as well as senior high schools, on the other hand, adds noticeably to the numbers in the last 4 years. When the rate of increase in junior high schools dropped sharply as it did be¬ tween 1930 and 1934, and the growth in numbers of senior and junior- senior schools held much more nearly to the trend line, it was to be expected that the increase in number of pupils in the last 4 years of re¬ organized schools would maintain the leadership over the regular schools while the percentage of pupils in all reorganized schools might not be augmented in any marked way. This is what happened as shown in table 1. g BIENNIAL SURVEY OF EDUCATION, 1934-36 Table 1.* — NUMBER AND TYPES OF REORGANIZED SCHOOLS BY 4-YEAR PERIODS, 1922-34 Type of school 1922 1926 1930 1934 1 2 3 4 5 Total _ - _ . 1,566 3,544 5,777 6, 639 Junior 387 1,127 414 1,842 648 1,948 755 Senior _ _ _ _ 91 Junior-senior and undivided _ _ _ 1,088 2,003 3,287 : 3,936 Nearly three-fifths of the reorganized schools reporting in 1934 were junior-senior or undivided schools. Their number was about twice that of the junior high schools although the enrollments of pupils were about equal in the two kinds of schools ; in other words, the typi¬ cal junior-senior school was approximately half the size of the typical junior high school. The number of senior high schools was much lower, only about one-ninth of the total. It is to be noted that the rate of increase in junior-senior and senior high schools has been more rapid than the increase in junior high schools since 1926, and es¬ pecially since 1930. Attention is invited to the dominant prevalence of 3-year schools and their counterpart, the 3-3 and 6-year schools, among the junior- senior and undivided types. (See table 2.) Three of every four of the reorganized schools follow one or another of the patterns mentioned. Nine of every ten of the undivided schools are of the 6-year type and four of every five of the segregated junior and senior schools are de¬ veloped on the 3-grade plan. Only among the junior-senior schools does one find any considerable number of deviates from the standard pattern; here 43 percent of the schools are organized on the 2-4 plan. With such a predominance of one style of grade organization one may well ask oneself if the movement toward reorganization is in danger of itself becoming standardized. Is a school system which undergoes reorganization likely to shift merely from one kind of standardized pattern to another? The situation, so far as assignment of grades to the units of reorganized schools is concerned, seems to suggest that such is the case. One needs to bear in mind, however, that the characteristics of schools are determined by many factors aside from grades included. Moreover, even if one views the matter purely from the standpoint of grades assigned to each unit, there are significant variations from the 3-year and 6-year patterns. In table 2 are shown 23 types of grade organization within reorganized schools. Surely this should be enough variety to suit the most enthusiastic opponent of standardization. In addition, there are various aline- ments and relationships among units which are not shown in the table. SECONDARY EDUCATION 9 One of these is the so-called 6-4-4 plan. It consists of a 6-year elementary school, followed by two 4-year units at the secondary school level. Taken together, these units provide an education from the first grade through junior college. Numerically, the school systems which have adopted the 4-4 plan are not convincing, but the significance of the movement is probably not to be judged by the number of those which have adopted it at the present time. If it or any other plan has certain advantages over more common practice in school organization, one may expect that it will be adopted much more widely. Educators who support the 4-4 plan claim that very significant advantages in articulation of work and in acceleration of pupils inhere in the compact 4-4 plan over the less W'ell integrated 3-3-2 or other plans of organization. Certain it is that while those administering and teaching in any given unit of the school system may think of their unit as being in a measure independent of other units, no such thought can be present in the mind of the pupil who as an individual has to pass from unit to unit. Any provision, whether 6-4-4 or other plan, is to his advantage if it makes his progress from grade to grade and from unit to unit less subject to delays and stops from causes over which he has no control.10 Trends in the States. — Returning to table 2, one finds that Ohio led in number of reorganized schools wTith nearly 600 such schools; six other States, namely, Indiana, Pennsylvania, Alabama, Michigan, New York, and Arkansas, had more than 300 reorganized schools. Comparison of table 2 with a similar table for 1928 included in the chapter on Secondary Education in the Biennial Survey of Educa¬ tion, 1928-30, provides some revealing contrasts. Eight States reported a loss in the number of reorganized schools since 1928 and eight had exactly or very nearly the same number at both periods; the remaining States showed gains in total numbers. Most of the States showing losses w^ere in the South, although the largest loss was in Illinois, vdiere the net reduction in reorganized schools was 18. The States showing the largest increases in number of reorganized schools were in order, Arkansas, Ohio, Alabama, Kentucky, New York, and Florida. Those showing the largest percentage increases were in order, Delaware, Arkansas, Florida, Kentucky, Maryland, and New Hampshire. Thus it is seen that the largest increases occurred also in the South. The net increase in number of reorganized schools in the three States which are in both of the above lists wras 476, a 156 percent growth. Over the same 6 years, the increase for all the States wTas 36 percent; noticeably most of this increase came between 1928 and 1930. 10 The reader who is interested in a discussion of unusual as well as more usual types of reorganized schools is referred to U. S. Department of the Interior, Office of Education, Bulletin 1932, No. 17, Monograph No. 5, The Reorganization of Secondary Education. This monograph, written by Francis T. Spaulding, O. I. Frederick, and Leonard V. Koos, is one of the publications of the National Survey of Secondary Education. Table 2. -REORGANIZED HIGH SCHOOLS CLASSIFIED ACCORDING TO TYPE OF ORGANIZATION, 1934 10 BIENNIAL SURVEY OF EDUCATION, 1934-36 Undivided High Schools Z\-L S9pei0 1 S 1 s ^ CM 00 Hf< CO co r>- 00 1 ^HCMrfiCO ^ 1 < ! CM ! 25 rH © CM O *t C CO rH co co II~9 S9pBJ0 1 * 1 2 i i i i i ii i i i i i ii ii! ill! 2I~8 sepRjQ 104 © rH CO ^ CM CO 1 'H rH i y—i CO H CO ii i i i -H CM CM 05 rH co CM II -L sapv.JO 1 g ! « ^ | | | | ■ • ■ CO i i i i i i r © i iii i i i i i i i i i iiii i i i i i i i i i i t t i 1®V>X *0 00 s co co cm 05 Jt^ co ■'t* U- i-H 00 00 CM CM © 00 © N w C 00 OO HOMKM o CO^d ^ - 05 rH CO CO Junior-Senior High Schools 2I~« ‘8-9 S9PBJQ 1 * 2 i ! ! ; ; ; ; ! • i-i *-» ! oo ! ' ! i - j- iii- 21-01 ‘6 ~L S9pBJ0 CO W 60S ‘I 281 ' O 00 00 00 CM ' 0C CM H y—i COiH N CO O 05 N CC 't 00 ^ CO CM rH • >• © © N o o M ^ HH co co CO 21-6 ‘8 ~L S9pBJ0 C* d 1, 022 00^ CM i CO CO N CC © iC rH i CM CO CO CM i y i i OCOrH 00 h o oo »o -1 CM 00 CM CO d 11-6 ‘8-9 S9PBJ0 a 2 h II— 8 ‘L- 9 S9PBJ0 s 2 j co iii i i i i i F55<>X 2 2,378 lOOONO rH © GO -H CO rHrH CM rH oo © co -H I -H l : 05 lO i i i 1 Tf< •*— 1 1 1 C 1 CO • 1 •*■ 0 05 co o ! i i i i i i • i i ! 05 o ! ! 05 ! 5 is 1W 9 3 154 4 18 117 64 1 144 3 3 °5828'° 233S : ; ill i i i i i i- i i ! ! ! 05 ; | i ;j j u5wc,sM £3°° i 05 WHH 1 26 14 14 1 ! ; | | i- i ; i ill; j | | i : t^-rH « o ! 05 !h05H Jt^ rH ! ! - ; ! CO 05 1 ! 1- ■IH CO ; i~ l I IT • « T & i 05 ! 1 j j ! f : i ! • i O 1 5 1 ! j NNOOCO tOOO»OC&© «000» H i- HvHthvoh U- 05 ! 05 1 1 • 1 j- 4 1— * CO 1 1 * 1 T* 1 1 : I 1 1 V- 1 . C£ < i J i ^ ! iii i iii i iii i • i 03 1 » l | j s«sgM 8$s«® S^SSS gSSSS $33^8 SSSfeSSfe ggg& Nebraska . . . Nevada Now TTamnshire New Jersey _ _ New Mexico . . . New York. _ North Carolina _ - - Ohio.. _ _ Oklahoma... _ _ Oregon _ rennsyivania _ ... Rhode Island . . South Carolina _ _ OUUU1 UaKU icl . . Tennessee . . . . . Texas _ Utah.... _ _ Vermont . . . . Virginia... . . . Washington _ _ _ West Virginia _ Wisconsin _ Wyoming - - 12 BIENNIAL SURVEY OF EDUCATION, 1934-36 Values. — Varied viewpoints exist with regard to the values of reor¬ ganized as against regular high schools. Assuredly, no one is in position to say that one type or another is best adapted to all situa¬ tions. The sustained trend toward establishment of reorganized schools and the relatively few cases in which reorganization has been abandoned are in themselves indications of a large number of judg¬ ments favorable to reorganization. It is a fact also that many pro¬ visions for guidance, individual differences, student activities, ex¬ panded curriculum offerings, better-trained teachers, and the like, awaited the coming of the reorganized school before being widely introduced into the training of pupils of early adolescent age. This does not constitute proof that these facilities and improvements came as a result of reorganization; they did accompany it. PROVISIONS FOR CONTINUING AND SUPPLEMENTING HIGH- SCHOOL EDUCATION A varied category. — A movement so widespread and so persistent as has been the development of secondary education in the United States inevitably involves, and should involve, numerous adaptations to meet the complex conditions which it is intended to serve. It is almost universally realized that these adaptations need to be made for the benefit of those who are enrolled in the schools. It is not so universally realized, however, that they should be made also for those who have left school or who are about to leave. Still there are many agencies, public and private, designed to supply educational services to those who are no longer attending full-time day classes in the usual types of high schools and academies. Some of these provisions look toward an extension of secondary education beyond high-school graduation while others aim at meeting the varied needs of those who have not completed their high-school work. Trade schools, business colleges, night and evening schools, various other kinds of part-time schools, summer schools, summer camps, postgraduate high-school classes, junior colleges, correspondence study, and reading courses are among the auxiliary agencies thus provided. Attempt will not be made here to discuss all such facilities, but to give attention to some of those which have been especially prominent over the last few years. The junior college. — The first junior colleges were private institu¬ tions. Not till the early years of the present century did the public junior college make its appearance.11 The growth in both public and private junior colleges has been rapid although by no means spectacu¬ lar as has been the development of reorganization at the high-school level. One reason for this slower development is that the public has not by unanimous consent regarded the junior colleges a part 11 Joliet (Ill.) Junior College was established in 1902. This is the oldest public junior college now in operation. SECONDARY EDUCATION 13 of secondary education. This viewpoint in turn is largely deter¬ mined by the path which has been taken by the junior college itself. No matter what its proponents say about it and its objectives, so long as the junior college in practice shows itself to be principally an institution preparatory to further college work, and only secondarily an agency for general education, so long will it find difficulty in at¬ tracting pupils who are not destined for college and whose parents therefore are not especially interested in paying taxes toward support of what they consider to be essentially a collegiate institution. The problem of terminal courses, principally of semiprofessional character, is one which is occupying the attention of leaders in the junior-college movement at the present time. A committee of the Carnegie Foundation for the Advancement of Teaching, after a study of junior colleges in California in 1932, recommended three such cur- riculums to take their place beside the preacademic and preprofes¬ sional curriculums usually found. These three were (1) a curriculum for social intelligence intended to train for social citizenship in Amer¬ ican civilization, (2) a series of specialized vocational curriculums for those “who will soon terminate their schooling to enter the occupa¬ tions”, and (3) an adult education curriculum for those now out of school. It is to be noted that in California probably more extensively than anywhere else has the idea of terminal curriculums in the junior college found its way into practice.12 Only two of every five junior colleges are publicly supported and controlled, but two of every three students enrolled in junior colleges are registered in public as distinct from private institutions. (See table 3.) The acceleration in enrollments over the last 5 or 6 years has been more pronounced in the public than in the private junior colleges although the growth has been considerably arrested in all these institutions since 1932. Table 3.— NUMBER OF JUNIOR COLLEGES AND THEIR ENROLL¬ MENT, 1931-36 1 Year Public Private Total Number Enrollment Number Enrollment Number Enrollment 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 1931. . . . . . 178 45, 021 60, 954 60, 345 70, 221 74, 853 82, 701 258 29, 067 36, 677 36, 210 436 74, 088 97, 631 96, 555 103, 530 1932 _ _ _ _ 181 288 469 1933 . . . 189 304 493 1934. . . . . . 210 304 33, 309 32, 954 39, 610 514 1935.. _ _ 219 302 521 107, 807 1936 _ _ _ 213 305 518 122, 311 1 Data taken from the Junior College Journal. (Stanford University Press, Stanford University, California) for January of each year. In Office of Education, Bulletin 1936, No. 3, are listed the names of 664 institutions of junior college grade in operation during the school year 1935-36; this listing excludes commercial schools, normal schools, professional schools, emergency junior colleges, university branch schools, and university lower divisions. 12 According to an article appearing in the November 1935 issue of the Junior College Journal, 75 percent of the graduates of the Los Angeles Junior College had pursued semiprofessional curriculums designed to be of terminal character. 14 BIENNIAL SURVEY OF EDUCATION, 1934-36 California leads in number of junior colleges with 55. Other States having more than 20 junior colleges are the following: Texas, 43; Iowa, 37; Oklahoma, 24; North Carolina, 23; Missouri, 22; Illinois, 21; Mississippi, 21. It is apparent that, aside from California and North Carolina, the principal development has occurred through the Mississippi Valley. Beginning with the fall of 1934, so-called emergency junior colleges were established in a number of States. At the outset, Michigan, Ohio, New Jersey, and Connecticut were especially active in this direction. As of April 1936, there were 143 freshman junior colleges in 16 States; their combined enrollment was approximately 14,000. Among the States, Kansas led with 37 such institutions. Other States having 20 or more such colleges in 1936 were Michigan, New York, and Texas. In each of four States, namely, New York, New Jersey, Michigan, and Kansas, the enrollment exceeded 1,000 students. The largest schools were in New Jersey, where six such colleges employed more than 150 teachers and had nearly 3,100 students. These freshman colleges are intended primarily to give an oppor¬ tunity for the beginning of college careers to high-school graduates who otherwise would not find it possible to start their college work. Generally they offer only 1-year courses, depend upon other educa¬ tional institutions for use of their plants and equipment in off hours, and in other ways give evidence of their temporary character. Postgraduate higli-school work. — Not only do high-school graduates in increasing numbers enter junior colleges; but in communities where opportunity for junior college work is not supplied, the high schools have been required to provide training for large numbers of graduates who return for further work. An investigation conducted in New York State 13 during the school year 1933-34 revealed that in 171 schools reporting there were more than 5,000 postgraduate students. In Illinois 14 that same year 118 schools reported more than 2,000 postgraduate students. In Wisconsin 15 130 high schools had 1,314 postgraduates. In the Nation as a whole about 60,000 postgraduate high-school students were reported in 1933-34. 16 Such data as are available in these and other studies indicate rapid increases in the number of postgraduates in the period since 1930. The educational programs which are offered postgraduate students consist principally of subjects which they did not elect during their attendance in high school previous to graduation. Commercial 13 Soper, Wayne W., and Hollister, Frederick J. The Postgraduate Problem in New York State. Albany, N. Y. Bulletin No. 1029 of the University of the State of New York. 14 Clement, J. A. A Study of Postgraduate Students Enrolled in Accredited Public High Schools of Illinois Outside Chicago. Ann Arbor, Mich. North Central Association Quarterly, April 1935. 15 Lyons, George B. Postgraduate Students in the Public High Schools of Wisconsin. Unpublished Master’s thesis, Department of Education, the University of Chicago, 1934. A summary of this study appeared in the Wisconsin Journal of Education, Madison, for November 1934. 16 Biennial Survey of Education in the United States, 1932-34. U. S. Department of the Interior, Office of Education, Bulletin 1935, no. 2. See table 10 of ch. V. SECONDARY EDUCATION 15 subjects are reported with especial frequency. The school which offers a program designed especially for its postgraduate enrollment is rare. Night schools , 'part-time education , correspondence instruction. — A type of education developed especially to meet the needs of those who have dropped out of school is the night or evening school. Some plans include provisions by which students of night schools may earn credit toward graduation and ultimately receive a high-school diploma on the basis of their work in night school. More frequently, the work is designed primarily to assist those who, having stopped their atten¬ dance at day school on account of employment or for other reasons, at some later time wish to study subjects of high-school grade. The vocational motive is usually prominent in the educational programs of night schools. The number of cities operating night schools and the enrollments in night-school classes dropped sharply from 1930 to 1934 as reported to the Office of Education;17 enrollments were nearly 22 percent below 1930, when more than a million pupils attended night-school classes. Efforts by cities to balance their educational budgets undoubtedly account for much of this retrenchment; moreover, the emergency programs for adult education supplied educational facili¬ ties to many young people who in more normal times would have had opportunity for night-school work and would have attended such an institution. Forms of education closely allied to night school are the part-time school and the part-time class. Data supplied to the Office of Educa¬ tion by the States indicate that, while numerically there are only between one-fourth and one-third as many pupils enrolled in part- time work as there are registered in night school, a trend toward larger enrollments in part-time education is making itself felt in recent years. Night-school enrollments rose until 1930 and have receded since that time; part-time education, despite the large reduc¬ tion in continuation school enrollments, is growing. Even in federally aided vocational education, where no set-back has occurred in night- school registration, the part-time school is showing the most rapid growth among the three classifications of schools receiving aid, namely, evening, part-time, and all-day. Correspondence study is another means for extension of the influ¬ ences of secondary education. A recent report 18 indicates that in 12 States official recognition is given to supervised correspondence study by one educational agency or another. Eighteen other States and a 17 Statistics of City School Systems, 1933-34. This is ch. III. The U. S. Department of the Interior, Office of Education, Bulletin 1935, No. 2, Biennial Survey of Education in the United States, 1932-34. 18 National Conference on Supervised Correspondence Study. Report of Committee on Developing a Central Agency for Evaluation, Research, and Information on Supervised Correspondence Study. Un¬ published report by A. A. Reed, chairman. 1936. 16 BIENNIAL SURVEY OF EDUCATION, 1934-36 number of educational organizations national in scope have shown an interest in correspondence study of high-school subjects. Federal agencies. — In recent years a number of agencies of the Federal Government have served to solve in part problems related to secondary education, although not established principally for that purpose. Two of these agencies which can be treated briefly here are the Civilian Conservation Corps and the National Youth Adminis¬ tration. The Civilian Conservation Corps was organized in April 1933. Not until December of the same year was provision made for super¬ vision of an educational program in the camps. By 1936 the edu¬ cational program had, in the words of Robert Fechner, Director of Emergency Conservation Work, “been of increasing value and im¬ portance.” 19 Since participation in educational activities is at the option of the enrollee himself, it is of especial significance to note that participation rose from 50 percent in July 1935 to 75 percent in June 1936. With three-fourths of the enrollees being reached by the program, education has become an important part of life in the camps. The objectives of Civilian Conservation Corps education run all the way from the removal of illiteracy to the providing of college courses, from instruction very definitely on the job to training in avocational and leisure-time activities. Approximately half of the enrollees are at the high-school level; that is, they have completed elementary school but have not completed high school. Two-fifths of those at the high-school level are taking high-school courses. The greatest participation is in the vocational program, where con¬ siderably more than three-fifths of the total number of enrollees take part. The job-training program of the Civilian Conservation Corps, under which instruction is closely related to work on the job, pro¬ vides an example which is significant for part-time education in the regular schools. The National Youth Administration is another recently established governmental agency of significance to secondary education. The President’s Executive order creating the National Youth Administra¬ tion is dated June 26, 1935. During the first year of its existence the National Youth Adminis¬ tration provided two types of service to persons of high-school age. In the first place, it administered a program of high-school aid under which deserving and needy young people were assisted to attend high school through payments of up to $6 per month per person. Gener¬ ally these persons were required to perform some kind of socially desirable service to the institutions which they attended ; for the cur¬ rent year such service is made a condition of receiving the aid. The average number thus aided over a period of 9 months from September 1“ Radio address by Robert Fechner, Apr. 17, 1936. SECONDARY EDUCATION 17 to May, inclusive, was approximately 180,000; the highest point was reached in May 1936, when more than 280,000 received high-school aid. 4 The other principal provision for aid to persons of high-school age was through work projects. This provision was extended to persons between the ages of 16 and 25; consequently the work project is not assignable only to persons of high-school age. In May 1936 approxi¬ mately 210,000 out-of-school youths were employed on National Youth Administration work projects. Some of these projects were closely related to education, as, for instance, the beautification of school grounds, improvement of school playgrounds and equipment, development of visual aids, and preparation of exhibits of minerals, fossils, and the like to be placed in schools for educational purposes. Significance of auxiliary agencies. — It is to be expected that the facilities of these and other auxiliary agencies in secondary educa¬ tion will be progressively improved to care for those who are out of school and for those who, being in school on a full-time basis, are not appealed to by the offerings and methods employed in the schools. The brief resume which has been given here reveals some of the directions in which development may be realized. The junior college of the future will presumably give more attention to its responsibili¬ ties as a school from which large numbers of graduates will go directly into occupations instead of to college. Postgraduate students may look for less fitting of them into the program and more fitting of the program to meet their needs. Night-school facilities may more logically be expanded than curtailed when financial problems and unemployment beset our economic system. Part-time education and correspondence instruction, which together with night schools em¬ phasize the desirability and feasibility of education for those who are employed for all or part of the day, may be expected to become more general. The Civilian Conservation Corps is demonstrating a school- job relationship which is far too valuable to be restricted to those who can be sent away to the camps, and the principle of scholarships put into practice by the National Youth Administration need not be limited to the funds granted by the Federal Government. A broad¬ ening of the horizons to include not only those who are adjusted but also those who are unadjusted in the schools, not only the 65 percent in attendance but also the 35 percent who have withdrawn, is needed if secondary education is to fulfill its proper mission in a democracy. VOCATIONAL EDUCATION™ Scope of this discussion. — Any discussion of vocational education and the trends in this field must take into consideration the vocational- education program now being carried on in the 48 States, the Terri- 20 The section on vocational education was written by C. M. Arthur, research specialist in the Office of Education. 18 BIENNIAL SURVEY OF EDUCATION, 1934-36 tories of Alaska and Hawaii, and the island of Puerto Rico, provided for under the Smith-Hughes Act of 1917 and acts supplementary thereto — the George-Reed and the George-Ellzey Acts. It must be remembered, however, that vocational education antedated the pas¬ sage of these acts, that some vocational schools were in operation be¬ fore the passage of the acts, and that even today a number of voca¬ tional schools and classes are operated independently of Federal aid. This discussion, therefore, has to do with the trends in vocational education as it is carried out in both federally aided and nonfederally aided schools. Vocational education as it is here discussed will be understood as education which fits youth for useful employment, providing training in the technique of the various occupations as well as in related sub¬ jects — science, mathematics, history, geography, and literature — which are useful to men and women both as workers and as citizens; which trains those already employed in a trade or industrial occupa¬ tion or in the field of agriculture to become more proficient in the work in which they are engaged ; and which trains girls, young women, and adult homemakers for the conduct of a home. In its very nature vocational education is unalterably tied in with the secondary-school system. Particularly is this true of vocational education reimbursed from Federal funds which, under the terms of the Smith-Hughes Act, is “of less than college grade.” Growth of vocational education. — Concrete evidence of the growth of the vocational-education program since the passage of the Smith- Hughes Act in 1917, is to be found in the increased enrollment in vocational courses carried on under State plans in the high schools of the country as reported by the States to the United States Office of Education. The record shows that the enrollment in vocational schools or classes in 1917, before the Smith-Hughes Act went into effect, was approximately 164,000; whereas the enrollment in these schools for the fiscal year ended June 30, 1936, was approximately 1,382,000. Even during the most trying years of the economic depression, when both State and Federal appropriations were curtailed, the total enrollment in vocational classes increased materially from year to year. From 1918 to 1936 the number of home-economics classes increased from 323 to 5,587. and the number of vocational-agricul¬ ture classes, from 1,741 to 11,183. With this brief background of the vocational-education program in mind, it is pertinent to consider some of the problems confronting vocational education, as well as some of the trends discernible in this field. Vocational-education 'problems . — A number of specific problems which vocational education has been called upon to solve have been accentuated in recent years as a result of the unprecedented economic SECONDARY EDUCATION 19 and social changes incident to the period of depression. An attempt will be made to indicate the more important of these problems in four main fields of vocational education — agriculture, trades and industries, home economics, and commercial education; to show what adjustments have been made in the vocational-education program in an effort to meet them; and to indicate any additional adjustments they portend for the future. Problems in the field oj commercial education. — The passage of the George-Deen Act by the Seventy-fourth Congress served to focus the attention of educators, industrialists, and merchants upon the need for greater emphasis upon vocational training in the distributive occupations. The distributive occupations constitute a comparatively new field, for which little or no vocational training has heretofore been provided. These occupations include those involved in retailing, jobbing, and brokerage operations, commission buying and selling, and various other merchandising activities. In the large cities one person of every six between the ages of 18 and 25 gainfully employed is engaged in selling or other occupations in the distributive field. In the country as a whole f person of every 10 workers between these ages is so employed. As a result of the opportunities for employment open in this field more than 100,000 beginners 18 to 19 years of age enter these employments, and a large but unknown number of older beginners under 25 years of age seem to find employment every year. Unfortunately for the youth who want to follow one of the dis¬ tributive occupations, very few public schools provide preparatory training of a recognized vocational kind, and practically none offers extension training in evening and part-time schools for small-store managers, retail salespeople, and others. Out of more than 6,000,000 youth enrolled in high schools only about 10,000 are receiving voca¬ tional preparation for retailing, selling, and store-service occupations. Even on the assumption that all persons enrolled in courses pre¬ paring for the distributive occupations enter employment in the distributive field, the public schools today are offering courses for only a small proportion of the youth who will begin a career in this field, and are aiding very few to learn efficient practices necessary for earning a higher salary, for successful management of a small store or business, or for winning vocational advancement. In the cities in which a larger proportion than ever before of the high-school graduates are finding employment in stores, no efforts seem to be made to establish classes preparing for this field of employment — the third largest in the country. Too great emphasis has been centered in commercial courses in the past upon training in commercial typewriting, stenography, and bookkeeping. The high enrollment in such courses today is out of 129314—37 - 4 20 BIENNIAL SURVEY OF EDUCATION, 1934-36 all proportion to the demand for workers in these and other clerical lines. Despite the findings of numerous surveys to this effect, enroll¬ ment in advanced bookkeeping and in shorthand and typewriting classes has increased, their continuance being justified on the ground that they contribute to business information, social understanding, character building, a knowledge of English, and on similar grounds. It was in recognition of the need for adequate training programs in the distributive occupations that Congress included in the George- Deen Act, which takes the place of the George-Ellzey Act and which becomes effective July 1, 1937, authorization for annual appropriations to assist the States in carrying on this phase of commercial education and in training teachers for it. Trends in all-day and 'part-time vocational programs. — For several years past vocational programs have been in process of expansion and adaptation to meet the needs of out-of-school, out-of-work youth 14 to 18 years of age who complete the period of compulsory school at¬ tendance while they are still too young for wage-earning employment. Although the period of compulsory full-time school attendance has been extended in some States, with provision for part-time attendance in continuation schools for employed workers beyond that age, it is still true that in a number of States there is a gap between the age at which boys and girls are released from compulsory school attendance and the minimum age of employment as fixed by law or as determined by industry. It is clearly not in the public interest that these boys and girls should be abandoned in the most critical habit- and character-forming years of adolescence by being denied both employment opportunities and suitable educational opportunities. The responsibility for pro¬ viding these educational opportunities, including opportunities for securing needed vocational training to fit for entrance into regular employments, belongs to the public-school system. In the field of vocational education this means that the all-day school will be obliged to raise its age of admission to trade courses in order that those receiving training will be old enough to secure em¬ ployment on completion of the course, while the public schools in general must take over some of the services which have in the past been rendered to employed youths in the ages of 14 to 18 years by the part-time general continuation schools. In general, the all-day vocational schools have been modifying and developing their programs to meet the needs of the 14- to 18-year-old youth, and the part-time school to meet the needs of employed youth in more advanced ages. The problem of providing for the educa¬ tional needs of the two youth groups is one large phase of our present- day “youth problem.” The out-of-school rural youth. — Serious consideration and attention has been given in recent years by those responsible for vocational SECONDARY EDUCATION 21 education in agriculture to the problem of providing training in farm¬ ing for out-of-school farm youth and young men between the ages of 16 and 25, who desire to become established in farming. No ironclad standard for training these youth and placing them on their own farms can be set up, since different individuals in the group have different requirements and different objectives. In some in¬ stances such youth have accumulated a little money from profits on supervised farm practice projects while attending day-school classes in vocational agriculture and are looking forward to farm ownership. For these youth, continued training looking toward the accomplish¬ ment of their goal is essential. In addition, definite steps should be taken to see that they are placed on farms suitable to the enterprises in which they desire to engage. This is now being done. Only recently a plan has been worked out by the agricultural education service of the Office of Education, cooperating with State boards for vocational education, whereby farm youth who are receiv¬ ing training in part-time agriculture classes in rural high schools may rent or purchase farms. Under this plan a young man, who, upon the investigation of a vocational agriculture teacher and the local super¬ visor of vocational agriculture, proves to be a desirable prospect as a farm purchaser or renter, is put in touch with a local representative of a Federal land bank. When he has acquired a farm and has started to operate it, every effort is made to get him to continue his agricul¬ tural training in evening classes with a view to developing his farm¬ ing ability and getting assistance in building up the farm for which he has contracted. Where desirable, officials of the Federal land bank cooperate with the vocational agriculture teacher in counseling and helping the young farmer in connection with his marketing, management, and financing problems. A sound educational program for out-of-school farm youth must be based upon a survey of the individual youth and the community in which he lives. During recent years many of the State supervisors of agricultural education have encouraged vocational agriculture teachers to make such surveys to determine: (1) The needs of the out- of-school farm youths in their present situations; (2) their needs for prospective future situations; and (3) the extent to which part-time schools can meet these needs. Programs for these youth must be as flexible as possible to enable them to get both individual and group instruction at a convenient time and place, and on a unit, short-time, intensive basis. To enable them to get training in cooperative activities, as well as leadership training in these and school and community affairs, part- time vocational agriculture students all over the country have been formed into local organizations. Chief among these organizations is the Future Farmers of America, the 4,500 chapters of which have a total membership of 120,000 boys — many of them part-time voca- 22 BIENNIAL SURVEY OF EDUCATION, 1934-36 tional agriculture students. In 47 States, Hawaii, and Puerto Rico, the local chapters of this organization are now providing training for boys in group and community activities through chapter programs; participation in the work of marketing and puchasing organizations, community betterment projects, agricultural fair exhibit projects, and chapter thrift bank programs; and in educational, recreational, and social activities of a varied character. The out-of-school girl. — The school mortality among girls 16 to 18 years of age, many of whom have found it necessary to drop out of school and become wage earners or aids in their own homes, has in recent years been somewhat high. Included in the out-of-school group, also, are those who have finished the compulsory school period and who, because they can neither find employment nor afford to attend college, are forced to live at home, where in many instances there is no specific need for their help. Instruction for these two out-of-school groups, and particularly the former group, presents a complex problem. In many instances it has been possible to gather these girls into part-time classes for periods of from 4 to 8 hours a week. An attempt is made in these classes to capitalize the avocational interests of the girls by stressing personal and home problems in relation to preservation of health, the economical budgeting of slender resources, and the various aspects involved in the provision of food and clothing for themselves and the members of their family. Special emphasis has been laid also upon instruction designed to make these girls proficient in avocations for which there is a sale value, such as fancy baking, canning, candy making, making of clothing accessories, making of children’s clothing, and handicraft work of various kinds. Placement and follow-up of vocational graduates. — As the program of vocational education has developed and advanced those in charge of it have felt an increasing responsibility for the placement, insofar as possible, of those who complete vocational courses. The boy or girl or adult worker trained for a job which he does not find continues to be a social liability. In some instances, therefore, special employment bureaus have been set up by vocational schools, and in many instances close cooperation of schools with local industries, labor organizations, and public employment offices is maintained in an effort to place vocational graduates. Training a boy enrolled in a vocational agriculture department, for example, is only a part of the responsibility of that department. His establishment in farming is the next step. As indicated in the discussion of problems confronting vocational agriculture with respect to the out-of-school rural youth, every effort is made by the vocational agriculture teacher to see that graduates of his department are placed on farms, either as tenants or as owners, followed up in their farming activities, and induced to return to school SECONDARY EDUCATION 23 on a part-time basis for continuing instruction in farming problems. In a similar manner, also, attention is being given in the field of trade and industrial training to placement of those who have com¬ pleted training, following them up to see that their service is satis¬ factory, and persuading them to return to part-time and evening classes for extension instruction which will make them more efficient and proficient in their employment. In this placement and extension instruction program, the vocational teacher works in close touch with employers, securing from them sug¬ gestions concerning instruction which will aid in making the employee more valuable as a worker. Supervised farm practice. — Under the terms of the Smith-Hughes Act every individual enrolling for a course in vocational agriculture in a rural high school is required to take at least 6 months of super¬ vised farm practice work. This provision has been rigidly adhered to in all vocational agriculture programs in the States reimbursed from Federal money. With the development of the program, however, came the realization that a broader interpretation of the Smith-Hughes provision in respect to supervised farm practice was necessary. Early in the history of the program, therefore, the requirements governing supervised prac¬ tice were raised. Instead of covering only one enterprise and carrying it for a period of 6 months, pupils were encouraged to undertake more than one enterprise and to carry on several enterprises for the period of the calendar year or longer. Gradually, also, the program has evolved until today vocational agriculture students are encouraged to carry a number of different supervised farm practice projects, involving experience in a number of farm enterprises and for the full period of the agricultural course. More recently a plan has been adopted whereby students outline their farm practice on a long-time basis, which takes into consideration the extension of this practice into actual farming enterprises — after they have completed their vocational agriculture training and are estab¬ lished as partners on the home farm or as farm renters or owners — and the fitting of these enterprises into the general agricultural pro¬ gram of the community. Home projects. — The increasing recognition of the necessity of giving pupils experience in handling concrete situations instead of expecting them to learn the principles of homemaking by merely teaching them facts and principles, is revealed in many of the newer courses of study in home economics. This recognition has given rise to an increasing use of the home project in such courses as a means of providing experience in actual home situations. The home project is to the program of instruction in home economics what supervised farm practice is to the program of instruction in vocational agriculture. 24 BIENNIAL SURVEY OF EDUCATION, 1934-36 Through the home project as it has developed over the years, and particularly during the past 6 years, home economics students inter¬ pret in home activities the instruction they receive in the classroom. Reports from the different States indicate that, through undertaking and carrying out home projects, girls develop ability to carry increasing home responsibility for such enterprises as planning and preparing food for family meals that are adequate and yet procured at a cost low enough to come within limited income, raising in home gardens and preserving vegetables and fruits to be used in the family diet, making clothing from materials on hand, planning for family recreation at home at little or no cost, sharing in various phases of home manage¬ ment, caring for sick members of the family or sharing the responsi¬ bility of caring for small brothers or sisters, and similar home activities. School superintendents and teachers have testified to the outstand¬ ing value of home economics instruction in general and home project activities in particular in bringing about improved practices of buying, preparing, and serving nutritious foods; providing clothing for the family on an economical basis; changing the physical aspects of the home; and increasing the family morale, creating happier relations among family members, and setting up better standards of family living. Problems of adult education. — Lest it be thought that the only problems with which vocational education has been concerned have been those involved in providing preparatory training for boys and girls, it should be made clear that special attention has been given almost from the inception of the vocational education program, and particularly during the years of depression and unemployment, to the needs of adult men and women — those employed in trade and indus¬ trial occupations, those engaged in farming, and those responsible for the management and operation of homes. The needs of employed adult workers who because of technological and other changes must have training in new phases of their occupa¬ tions in order that they may be able to hold their jobs, or of unem¬ ployed workers who must be trained in entirely new jobs which may be available, have been provided for to a large degree. Adult farmers in need of instruction and help to aid them in meeting the new con¬ ditions which have confronted them in the past 6 years, and city workers returning to the farms, or settling on farms for the first time, have received increasing attention. Adult women in special need of help in meeting problems growing out of the emergency and recovery period have been given much needed help. More detailed discussion of the problems of vocational education for adults, however, is reserved for another chapter of the survey. Emphasis upon rounded vocational courses. — The mission of voca¬ tional education as conceived by President Wilson’s Commission on National Aid to Vocational Education is not only to provide the SECONDARY EDUCATION 25 individual with definite training in the technique of the various occupations so that he can take his place in society as a producer, but to prepare him for his place as a citizen. To this end, therefore, the well-organized vocational school or class provides training in techniques and in the related fields — science, mathematics, drawing, and similar subjects — as well as in such subjects as history, geography, English, literature, economics, and psychology. Further, the well-organized vocational school or class seeks to familiarize the prospective worker and the individual already em¬ ployed, with the laws of health and with his rights and obligations as a worker and as a citizen, in relation to his employer, his fellow em¬ ployees, his family, the community, the State, and the Nation. Events of the past 6 years have served to emphasize to an increasing degree the need for a type of vocational training which has for its objective the integration of training in the fundamentals of an oc¬ cupation with training in the liberal subjects provided for students enrolled in the academic courses in the high school. SMALL HIGH SCHOOLS Problems prevalent in small high schools. — With all the mass-produc¬ tion tendencies in the United States and with all our reputation for bigness, it is surprising to many to be told that smallness rather than largeness has been and continues to be an outstanding characteristic of our schools. If one considers the broad responsibilities placed by society upon secondary education, it is apparent that American educators must give attention to the small high school and its problems. The efforts of local school officials to bring secondary education within reach of the children living in areas of sparse population has made the multiplication of small high schools almost inevitable. Since the age span of children attending high school is, roughly, only half as wide as that of children attending elementary school, and since more and more selection takes place as the children grow older, the difficulties involved in bringing together a group of sufficient size in sparsely populated areas to maintain a high school which can perform the tasks assigned to it become evident. The administrative and instructional problems of the small high school have been too frequently pointed out to warrant much con¬ sideration here.22 Administratively the small high school involves difficulties in maintaining at reasonable per capita costs adequate housing, equipment, and supervision. From the point of view of 21 The section on the small high schools was prepared in the Division of Special Problems, Office of Education. 22 Ferriss, E. N. The Rural High School, Its Organization and Curriculum. U. S. Department of the Interior, Office of Education, Bulletin 1925, No. 10. Gaumnitz, W. H. The Smallness of America’s Rural High Schools. U. S. Department of the Interior, Office of Education, Bulletin 1930, no. 13. Roemer, Joseph. The Weakness of the Small High School. Peabody Journal of Education, 6:37-47, July 1928. 26 BIENNIAL SURVEY OF EDUCATION, 1934-36 instruction, it means limited curricular and extracurricular provisions, overloading of teachers in numbers of classes and subjects taught, poor distribution in staff assignments, and similar problems. Ap¬ proximately 2,000 small high schools attempt to provide a complete 4-year program of secondary education with but one or two teachers.23 The difficulties encountered and the limitations imposed upon the type and quality of secondary education provided are numerous and have far-reaching results. Reducing the number of small high schools. — A definite reduction in the number of high schools with very limited enrollments may be observed during recent years. The percentages of high schools in the two enrollment groups 10 to 24 and 25 to 49 (table 4) are growing smaller, and the total number of schools enrolling fewer than 50 pupils is decreasing. These trends have been especially evident during the last 4 years. They mean that existing high schools are growing larger through increments in enrollment and fewer extremely small high schools are being established. Table 4.— SIZE OF HIGH SCHOOLS, BY ENROLLMENTS Size of schools by enrollment Schools in 1925-26 Schools in 1929-30 Schools in 1933-34 Number Percent Number Percent Number Percent 1 1 3 4 5 6 1 10 to 24 . . . . 25 to 49 . . . . 50 to 74 . . . . . . . 75 to 99 . . . . 100 to 199 _ _ _ 200 or more . . . . . Total _ _ _ _ i 2, 107 » 3, 635 i 2, 940 i 1, 876 3, 220 3,932 11.9 20.6 16.6 10.6 18.1 22.2 2, 077 3, 866 3, 521 2,543 4, 603 5, 627 9.3 17.4 15.5 11.5 20.7 25.6 1,470 3,139 3, 364 2,795 5,594 6, 851 6.3 13.6 14.5 12.0 24.1 29.5 17, 710 100.0 22, 237 100.0 23, 213 100.0 1 Partially estimated. The total number of high schools for which data are available has increased only 4.4 percent during the past 4 years, while high- school enrollments have increased 28.9 percent. It is particularly hopeful to note that even in rural communities fewer high schools were established from 1930 to 1934 than during the previous 4 years, and that the establishment of small high schools has been kept in check despite an unprecedented increase in high-school attendance in these communities. While the increase of more than 53 percent in the number of rural children attending high school is in itself an important factor in the enrollment in established schools, one cannot escape the fact that a very large proportion of the increase resulted from the extension of high-school opportunities into areas in which » Gaumnitz, W. H. The Place of the Small High School in American Secondary Education. In Econom¬ ical Enrichment of the Small Secondary School Curriculum, Department of Rural Education, National Education Association, 1934. SECONDARY EDUCATION 27 such opportunities did not formerly exist. This means that the opportunity to attend high school is becoming more widely available in the rural communities without the multiplication of extremely small schools. Table 5.— PERCENTAGE INCREASES IN SCHOOLS AND ENROLL¬ MENTS, 1926-34 Schools Enrollments Type of school 1926-30 1930-34 1926-30 1930-34 « 2 3 4 5 Rural . . . - . . . . 21.8 5.3 33.1 53.2 Urban _ _ _ _ _ _ 36.8 1.9 10.6 17. 1 Both.. . . . . . . . . . 25.6 4.4 17.1 28.9 While the growth in the proportion of children of high-school age going to high schools has to be recognized as one of the most important factors responsible for the growing increase in the size of high schools located in the sparsely settled communities, it should not be concluded that this factor alone accounts for the tendency toward larger schools. Perhaps more than ever before thought and study has during recent years been given to the problem of reorganizing the vast number of extremely small local units of school administration with their limita¬ tions in providing secondary education in such communities into larger ones. More than a dozen States are at present studying this problem with the cooperation of the Office of Education. Arizona, Arkansas, California, Illinois, Kentucky, North Carolina, Ohio, Oklahoma, Pennsylvania, and Tennessee are cooperating officially with the local school units survey project of the Government. Certain other States have made similar consolidation studies financed either in whole or in part by allotment from the Works Progress Administration, among them Texas, Washington, and Wisconsin. Others have within recent years completed studies of this problem and have developed State¬ wide plans of action looking toward larger units of finance and control. Graduate schools have contributed to progress made along these lines through county and community studies of the need for reorganizing local school units. Fully 50 masters’ theses were reported in this field during the school year 1934-35. A number of the studies now being made are concerned with consolidating the areas formerly organized as consolidated units. School consolidation and other lines of cooperative action are through these surveys not only becoming easier but they are for the most part larger in scope and based upon more scientific bases. Provisions for free tuition and transportation for children of high- school age continue to be important factors in making high-school opportunities available in sparsely settled areas without further multi- 28 BIENNIAL SURVEY OF EDUCATION, 1934-36 plying the number of small high schools. Many improvements along these lines have been made by the various States during recent years. These improvements have consisted of both new legislation and refine¬ ments in the existing laws. According to recent studies,24 provisions have now been made in every State of the Union for the payment of part or all of the tuition of high-school pupils residing in districts not maintaining high schools and under certain conditions for free trans¬ portation to and from school. In 12 States board and room may be furnished in lieu of transportation and a number of States are em¬ powered to erect and maintain dormitories in connection with high schools. However, many of the laws providing free tuition and transportation are still optional rather than mandatory in character and frequently they are limited to specific types of school districts and areas. In some cases the conditions under which these laws operate are still so restrictive in nature as to make high-school attendance of rural children unreasonably difficult. The lack of availability of local funds has been one of the most important factors in making free tuition and transportation laws imperative. Many States have found it necessary to provide funds for these services from county and State sources if high schools of an effective size are to become generally available to children of rural communities. Several other types of State laws and regulations should be cited briefly as influencing high-school enrollment in rural areas. During recent years there has been an increase in the financial aid provided from State sources for the support of secondary education. Such grants are frequently made only on condition that the schools be of a minimum size. For example, Oklahoma now requires that a high school must have a minimum of 40 pupils in average daily attendance before it is eligible to receive secondary aid; North Carolina requires 60 pupils as a basic minimum for State aid; Tennessee requires 30 pupils for a 4-year high school and 10 pupils for a 2-year high school; while Maryland requires an average daily attendance of 25 pupils for State aid toward the maintenance of a first-class high school and 12 pupils for a second-class school. Since all of these are in terms of average daily attendance it is clear that minimum enrollments must be even larger than those suggested above. In a number of States equalization programs, based upon a stipulated amount per teacher known as a foundation program, fix definite pupil-teacher ratios. These ratios discourage small schools. Frequently from 20 to 25 pupils are required for the first teacher, and an increasing number for succeeding teachers subsidized according to the particular regulations established. Other requirements now commonly applied to discourage establish¬ ment and maintenance of unreasonably small high schools are: 24 Rivenburg, B. E. A Study of the Opportunities for Secondary Education in the Different States of the United States. Master’s thesis, University of Minnesota, 1935. (Available for interlibrary loan from the United States Department of the Interior, Office of Education.) SECONDARY EDUCATION 29 Permission from and accreditment by State departments of education ; a minimum property evaluation; a minimum area in square miles; a minimum distance between schools, etc. Any study of trends along these lines leads definitely to the conclusion that school leaders have become more and more convinced that there have been too many small high schools in the past and that they are making deter¬ mined efforts to make secondary education available to rural children with fewer and larger schools. Brief mention should probably also be made of the effect that the tendency to reorganize the school system to include junior high school has had upon the size of these schools. It is clear that when the two upper elementary grades are included in the high-school organiza¬ tion a larger school results and that such an enlargement makes possible improvements in pupil-teacher ratios, in staff assignments, in management of extracurricular activities, and the like. Such reorganization has, however, not as yet greatly affected the high schools of the sparsely settled areas. One high school in every five has fewer than 50 pupils enrolled and nearly half of them have fewer than 100 pupils (table 4). Supplementary data reveal that only 1 in 33 of those in the first group and only 1 in 6 of all schools of fewer than 100 pupils are reorganized. Not a great deal of the growth in the size of high schools can, therefore, be attributed to this factor. It is probable that the depression with its emphasis upon the re¬ duction of per capita costs has given impetus to the trend toward larger high schools. The financial aid given by the Government to rural school districts to encourage school building construction has no doubt also helped. Another factor closely related to the general problem is the continued, if not accelerated, program of road improve¬ ment observable throughout the Nation. Without hard-surfaced highways, improved supplementary roadways, snow clearance during the winter months, and similar developments, large school attendance units and free transportation provisions could have made compara¬ tively little headway. As has already been implied in connection with the discussion relat¬ ing to provisions for free tuition and transportation wide variations exist among the States in the developments affecting the number and size of high schools. A number of States, notably Mississippi, Missouri, Tennessee, and Illinois have been especially successful during the past 4 years in eliminating small high schools. These States still have many schools enrolling fewer than 50 pupils but through consolidations and reconsolidations the proportion of very small high schools has decreased and, except in Illinois, the number of schools maintained also. These accomplishments are especially significant in view of the increases which have occurred in the number of children pursuing secondary education. Other States, including Indiana, Maryland, North Carolina, New York, Ohio, and Virginia, 30 BIENNIAL SURVEY OF EDUCATION, 1934-36 which have long been successful in providing secondary education to rural children without the multiplication of very small high schools, have during the past 4 years further lowered the proportion of such schools. On the other hand, other States, such as North Dakota, Nebraska, New Mexico, and Texas, have increased the total number of high schools maintained as well as the number enrolling fewer than 50 pupils. Other Midwestern States — Michigan, Iowa, and Kansas, for example — have made some slight reductions in the pro¬ portionate numbers of small high schools. Improving education within the small high schools. — In the discussion analyzing the trends in and the status of the small high-school situation in the United States, it is assumed, whether true or false, that instruc¬ tion must be given in organized classes meeting in regular class periods. It is a system of group instruction involving regular, usually daily, assignments and recitations. Tradition and economic necessity have decreed that the classes, or at least the average number of pupils per teacher, shall range between 25 and 35. Taking now the ever-expand¬ ing number of objectives and services which are considered essentials of a modern program of secondary education, it becomes a case of simple mathematics to determine the minimum number of teachers and pupils which will be needed in a given high-school organization. This line of reasoning has led certain students 25 in recent years to fix the minimum enrollment of the high school capable of providing a modern program of secondary education at from 200 to 300 pupils. The heterogeneity of the secondary education group and the conse¬ quent demand for increased services place a premium on larger high schools and increase the problems of the smaller schools. Insofar as the class organization and procedures indicated are considered essential it would appear that the solution is the development of larger schools. During recent years objective evidence has been accumulating to show that marked improvements can be made both in the organization and in the instructional processes of the small high school. For the most part the plans for improving the educational programs of the small high schools are local in character rather than State-wide. For one thing, there has been increased experimentation with the alter¬ nation of courses. Under this plan certain of the first- and third-year courses, or of the second- and fourth-year courses, are offered only in alternate years. Excellent results have been obtained where this plan has been carefully organized and properly safeguarded. Many of the State high-school manuals and courses of study include complete 4-year programs, outlining for high schools employing various num¬ bers of teachers plans for alternating courses in even- and odd-numbered years. The chief achievements of this plan are to increase the number of pupils per class and the number of courses offered. Alternation of » Dawson, Howard A. Satisfactory Local School Units. Nashville, Tenn., 1934, pp. 27-31. George Peabody College for Teachers, Field Study No. 7. SECONDARY EDUCATION 31 courses has the merit of accomplishing some improvement in the small high-school situation without disturbing the usual scheme of class sessions and group instruction. Another plan which has been used to add courses to the traditionally narrow curriculum of the small high school, especially in the voca¬ tional subjects and the fine arts, is the employment jointly by two or more of the small schools of a teacher specially trained in these fields. In some States, Pennsylvania, for example, such circuit or part-time instructors are now being employed by the State and their services made available to the several high schools of certain counties needing such specialized service. This plan provides trained teachers in fields for which full-time teachers could not be economically provided within a single small high school. If, as has been proposed, county, State, and Federal funds were to become more generally available for the employment of itinerant circuit teachers of this type, it is clear that improvements in the program and services of the small high school could be achieved far beyond anything that has been accomplished through this plan thus far. It has been demonstrated that through the use of such teachers education in home economics, agriculture, and the industrial arts of a quality on a par with that generally compre¬ hended under the Smith-Hughes program could be made available in even the smallest and most isolated rural communities. One other important scheme to improve the services of the small high school should be discussed briefly. It is commonly known as the supervised correspondence study plan.26 Under this plan the growing demands for a broader and more diversified program of secondary education are met in high schools of sparsely settled communities by the use of lessons purchased from some central agency. Where such lessons are properly constructed every effort is made to make them as nearly self-teaching and self-administrative as possible. They may be used by high schools to provide instruction in courses needed by individuals or small groups of pupils. Usually the completed lessons are sent back to the agency of issue for correction and criticism, and thus the course takes on the complete character of correspondence instruction except that the pupils have a specific time and place for study as well as the guidance of a teacher. In some cases only the lessons are purchased and used by the local teacher as lesson contracts, workbooks, and other types of supervised study. The advantages of this plan are that the teacher using such lessons need not have any extensive amount of training in the fields in which instruction is given by this means. Moreover, she can conduct instruction in more than one subject or field during the same class hour, thus overcoming the small-class problem. Through the proper 26 University of Nebraska. Supervised Correspondence Study— Questions and Answers. Lincoln, Nebr., 1936. Publication No. 116, Extension Division, University of Nebraska. Gaumnitz, W. H. High-School Instruction by Mail. U. S. Department of the Interior, Office of Educa¬ tion, Bulletin 1933, No. 13. 32 BIENNIAL SURVEY OF EDUCATION, 1934-36 use of this plan no child needs to be held back because he cannot fit into the program of a given small high school or because he works faster than others of his age. On the other hand, the needs of the slow and irregular child can be met without disturbing the progress of others or the program of the school. Best of all, each child can be given training in the particular fields in which he is especially interested within reasonable costs. To be sure, the quality of the lessons and instructional services thus provided must be carefully safeguarded. It has been demonstrated by experimentation at the University of Nebraska, which secured a grant for this purpose from the Carnegie Foundation for the Advance¬ ment of Teaching, that self-teaching lessons of high quality can be con¬ structed and that instruction in the various high-school subjects by correspondence is feasible. The courses used must, of course, be built for that purpose and the administrative procedures must be carefully worked out. Where definite standards for the use of such lessons have been established, preferably in cooperation with the State school authorities, satisfactory results have been obtained. According to a recent report 27 supervised correspondence study has now become officially recognized in 12 different States either by the State departments of education or by the high institutions of learning as a practical means of providing and improving opportunities for secondary education in rural communities. Interest has also been shown in this movement in 18 additional States, either through the use of such lessons in one or more of the high schools of each or through other manifestations. If the growth of the use of this plan and the interest in it may be taken as proof of its possibilities it may be concluded that great things may be expected from it in the future. A composite solution needed. — The various plans here discussed as means of solving the problems of the small high school need not be thought of as being exclusive of each other. It is clear that regular instruction in many of the fundamental courses, such as English, must be continued. It is, however, probable that the services of high schools with limited enrollments could be expanded and improved through the wise use of course alternation, of itinerant or circuit teachers, of the supervised study plan, or of combinations of these methods. There seems to be .a basic need that persons responsible for providing and improving secondary education in sparsely settled communities should be quite as alert to the possibilities of these non- traditional means of improving and solving the problems of the exist¬ ing small high schools as they are to the several ways and means whereby such schools may be abandoned or made larger. There can be no doubt that sparsity of population, weather and road conditions, 27 Reed, A. A., et al. National Development and Present Status of Supervised Correspondence Study. An unpublished report made before the National Conference on Supervised Correspondence Study, Aug. 11, 1936, at Teachers College, New York City. SECONDARY EDUCATION 33 costs of transportation, insufficient school support, and like factors will for years to come necessitate the continuance in rural communities of thousands of high schools with enrollments of fewer than 200 pupils. THE CURRICULUM Importance of the curriculum. — In an educational program no con¬ siderations are of greater importance than those which concern the curriculum. Such other features as housing and material equipment, financing, organization, and administration are significant, but they are necessary as means to efficient operation of schools and do not have to do with basic reasons for operating schools at all, as do curriculum content and teaching procedures. The paramount significance of the curriculum is reflected in the amount of study and consideration given to it. For instance, over a period of years the Office of Education has attempted to secure refer¬ ences to research studies conducted by agencies and individuals throughout the Nation. Each year is published a bibliography listing these studies, and in each bibliography is a section devoted to the cur¬ riculum. Twenty-eight percent of these studies during the last 6 years deal specifically with the curriculum. Moreover, the evidence is that the proportionate number of such studies is growing: From 1929 to 1932 less than one-fourth of the studies reported dealt specifically with the curriculum; from 1932 to 1935 more than one-third of the studies were on this subject. Courses of study. — One type of curriculum study which is of special importance because it involves numerous persons both in its prepara¬ tion and in its effects is the course of study. This is especially true in elaborate curriculum revisions such as those which are under way in the States of California, Texas, and Virginia at the present time. From 1930 to 1935, nearly 500 high-school courses of study were reported, 202 issued by State school systems, and 277 by city school systems. Published high-school courses submitted by city school systems since that time bring the total to somewhat over 550. No claim is made that these are all the courses published during these 6 years. The total number in all probability is considerably above this figure. Add to these the large number of courses whose circulation is limited entirely to staff members of the high school in which they are used, and one may gain some realization of the importance of courses of study in influencing educational thought and practice in the United States. Social sciences and English are the subject fields in which courses of study appear most frequently.28 They show very little superiority !8 This activity is paralleled by nationally developed curriculum studies in these two subject fields. Ref¬ erence is made to the publication in 1935 of An Experience Curriculum in English by a committee of the National Council of Teachers of English under the chairmanship of W. W. Hatfield, and to the series of re¬ ports growing out of the Investigation of the Social Studies, currently being printed by Charles Scribner’s Sons. 34 BIENNIAL SURVEY OF EDUCATION, 1934-36 one over the other, but there is considerable drop from them to the other three large academic fields — namel}r, mathematics, science, and foreign languages. These three also are rather close together in fre¬ quency although mathematics and science display superiority over foreign languages (all of them taken together) in the number of courses of study issued by city school systems. Home economics, commercial education, and health education follow, with industrial arts, art, and music less frequently represented. Additional listings of courses and manuals include agriculture, guidance, library instruction, safety, character education, and extracurriculum activities. The statements contained in courses of study are regarded largely as tentative* One indication of this is the large number of courses which appear in mimeographed form, thus providing for additions and changes from time to time. The frequent revisions which occur supply further evidence of the temporary character of the pronounce¬ ments made. The curriculum is not in much danger of being frozen through the course of study unless the revisions become perfunctory or ineffective. Courses of study are usually prepared by committees of teachers. Obviously, they reflect a composite opinion of the teaching staff con¬ cerning what shall be taught and how it shall be presented. Usually also the courses are written for teachers. However, in late years a number of courses have been designed for placement into the hands of the pupils as well. In such cases they are likely to be developed in greater detail and to contain numerous suggestions on how the various activities and assignments may be approached. A noticeable trend is the development of subject content in the form of units. To be sure, many of the courses purporting to be developed on the unit plan exhibit little or no change from the topical outline courses of an earlier day, except in the substitution of the term “unit” for the older term “topic.” On the other hand, larger numbers of courses are appearing in which content is broken up into true units and the treatment developed on this basis. With unit organization is often included provision for minimum essentials and for enrichment through optional work. The unit plan is especially adapted to varying the amount and the difficulty of activities required of different pupils. A few courses are developed on the principle of differentiation for various ability levels or are intended for the noncoflege group or some similar classification of pupils. Provisions for individualization, while present in many cases, are by no means common even among those school systems which elevate the importance of their instructional programs by issuing courses of study. Articulation. — A notable trend in thought and practice affecting the curriculum is the increasing realization of the close relationship which must be maintained among the different subjects studied at SECONDARY EDUCATION 35 the same time and among treatments at different times when the same subject is studied. In other words, articulation is horizontal among the subjects studied at any given time and vertical within each individual subject studied from semester to semester or from year to year. Both types of articulation are being developed. The fusion and core courses which have been established in various schools are illustrative of efforts mainly at horizontal articulation. The fusion movement has been effective principally at the junior high school level and has been developed more especially in mathe¬ matics, science, English, and social science. Where it has involved a number of years of work, as in general mathematics, vertical articu¬ lation is very definitely aimed at; but in much of the work in general science, general shop, general social science, and combinations of spelling, written composition, speech, and literature into general courses in English, the emphasis is upon horizontal articulation within a subject field. An expanded conception of horizontal articulation is involved when relationships between or among subject fields are considered. In this classification, for instance, belongs the effort toward cooperation of various school departments in promoting a better knowledge, under¬ standing, and use of English.29 More compelling perhaps is the prin¬ ciple under which a major fraction of the pupil’s school time is given to a course which cuts across subject fields and combines into this one course, materials which are regarded as being of significance to all pupils regardless of where those materials may have been placed under a more traditional subject-field organization. This is a practice which, while one cannot claim that it has been generally or even often adopted, nevertheless is found in a fair sprinkling of schools. Many of the schools cooperating in the Progressive Education Association’s study of the relation of schools and colleges give evidence of revising their curriculums in this direction.30 Discussion of the conventional school subject plan of organization versus the “fundamental cate¬ gories” type of curriculum organization is to be found as one of the issues in the 1936 Report of the Committee on the Orientation of Secondary Education.31 Numerous plans for horizontal articulation involve equally great emphasis on vertical articulation. Probably no advocate of reduc¬ tion in separations between subject fields will admit that he is not fully as much interested in a sequential arrangement of curriculum content through the various grades and administrative units of sec¬ ondary education. Certainly a comprehensive effort for unification 29 The reader may be interested in examining a publication in this field issued in 1936 by the National Council of Teachers of English. Ruth Mary Weeks is editor of the study which is entitled “A Correlated Curriculum” and is published by D. Appleton- Century Co., New York. 30 See the November 1935 issue of Progressive Education for descriptions of various types of realignments of subject matter looking toward greater integration. 31 Bulletin of the Department of Secondary School Principals, vol. 20, no. 59. Issues of Secondary Edu¬ cation. Thomas H. Briggs was chairman of the committee which made its report after 4 years of study. 36 BIENNIAL SURVEY OF EDUCATION, 1934-36 and coherence in curriculum materials must embody both horizontal and vertical articulation. There are, however, numerous efforts at vertical articulation within subject fields which make little attempt to attack in any systematic way the problem of relationships among subject fields. Witness the large number of courses of study devel¬ oped by subject specialists who have little acquaintance or concern with what is taught in other subject fields. The most significant experiments in vertical articulation are those which aim to make less abrupt the transitions from grade to grade and from school to school. Articulation vertically is no special prob¬ lem so long as a pupil remains with the same teacher. Curriculum articulation may be faulty even under those conditions, but at least the means for improvement are close at hand. The problem becomes complicated when the pupil passes on to another teacher, and it develops complexity when he enters another school. Among school systems which, through experimental modifications of the curriculum, have in recent years attempted to bring about easier and more advan¬ tageous transitions for the student as he passes through the secondary school are Joliet, Ill., Little Rock, Ark., Kansas City, Mo., Pasadena, Calif., and Tulsa, Okla. Tests and measurements ,32 — Measurement of outcomes is an impor¬ tant feature of any change or development in curriculum content and teaching procedures. It is, therefore, pertinent at this point to give attention to the steady advance which has occurred in the construc¬ tion and use of tests and measurements for high school. Improve¬ ments in the use and construction of established types of testing and the creation of new types of tests are among the important activities. One development, that of the improvement of established types of testing, is illustrated by the tests constructed by the Cooperative Test Service. These tests cover the regular subjects of the high- school and junior-college curriculum. They are characterized by thoroughness of construction and by the great length of the tests (i. e., by the large number of items), insuring for the tests high reli¬ ability and also high validity in the case of the majority of schools teaching the subjects tested. Another method of increasing the validity of tests for both instruction and guidance which has been used more and more frequently is through the use of test batteries.33 Such tests make possible more valid interpretations of the variations in the abilities of an individual because accurate comparisons of stand¬ ings in various subjects can be made. The total score of such tests 32 The section on Tests and Measurements was written by David Segel, educational consultant and senior specialist in tests and measurements, Office of Education. 33 Carnegie High School Achievement Examination. Department of Education and Psychology, Car¬ negie Institute of Technology, Pittsburgh, Pa. Progressive Achievement Tests. Intermediate and Advanced Batteries. Southern California School Book Depository, 3636 Beverly Boulevard, Los Angeles, Calif. Public School Attainment Scales. Public School Publishing Co., BloomingtoD, Ill. SECONDARY EDUCATION 37 is also a highly reliable and valid measurement of attainment in the secondary field. In a recent survey of the testing practices of high-school teachers it was found that teachers construct and use many new-type tests, especially for testing during the course of the year. Standardized tests are more likely to be used at the end of the semester or year. A good practice discovered in high schools is the construction of uniform tests by and for all the instructors teaching the same subject. Some of the standardized tests mentioned above have been expanded to cover some of the more recently advocated outcomes of instruction. In science instruction, for example, the ability to apply principles to a new situation is now considered to be a direct outcome of science teaching in high school. Formerly the student was expected to learn scientific principles but was not required to apply them, on the assumption either that science was being taught because of the mental discipline involved or that the application of scientific prin¬ ciples followed easily the knowledge of such principles. Science tests are now constructed which require the pupil to apply scientific prin¬ ciples to new situations. Another development related to the testing movement is the crea¬ tion of new types of appraisal for outcomes of school activity which cannot be appraised by new- type paper and pencil tests. One of the more prominent attempts in this area is that of a group of high schools to construct new methods of evaluation under the encouragement of a committee of the Progressive Education Association. Rating schemes, diary accounts, and anecdotal records by teachers, are among other types of appraisal being experimented with. Another development in test construction on the secondary level is the search for test items which denote maladjustment of pupils to school or fife. In addition to their use in diagnosing individual pupils, such tests have a bearing upon the general efficiency of schools and their related activities. This development is probably best exempli¬ fied by the work of Symonds and Mailer.34 Still another line of activity in testing affecting secondary education is the search for independent intellectual and social traits and the use of tests which measure these traits. If upon further investigation, as the first fruits of this research indicate, it is found that the number of intellectual and social traits is not large, then secondary as well as other education would necessarily be affected, since the development of the individual’s capacities is an important consideration in educa¬ tion. Some general aptitude tests following the findings of this re¬ search have already been constructed. Further activity in the pro¬ duction of such tests is probable. 84 Student Questionnaire. Bureau of Publications, Teachers College, Columbia University, New York City. Character Sketches— A Test of the Measurement of Personality Adjustment. Bureau of Publications, Teachers College, Columbia University, New York City 38 BIENNIAL SURVEY OF EDUCATION, 1934-36 The extracurriculum. — In recent years extracurriculum activities have taken on respectability and educational standing previously denied them. Time was when school activities in which pupils engaged outside the classroom were largely ignored if they were not actually opposed by the educational authorities. The result was that they were conducted apologetically or covertly as the conditions might require. From this low estate student activities have been elevated to a position where it is realized not only that they are here to stay but that they have large educational values. Their contributions to citizenship-social, leisure-time, and vocational objectives are frequently stressed. That they are important in character development is usually admitted. Their failure to make a significant contribution to the health objective through their athletic programs is generally deplored, thus indicating that an unrealized opportunity for such contribution exists. With recognition has come a great expansion in the extracurriculum programs of secondary schools. To athletic, musical, dramatic, debating, literary, and journalistic organizations have been added a large collection of clubs in these fields as well as in school service, social improvement, guidance, school subjects of great variety, and special interests of all kinds. A recent investigation lists more than 600 different kinds of clubs as being in existence in 224 schools studied.36 In many schools the time needed for extracurriculum activities is included in the school day. When this is done even greater responsi¬ bility is placed on the extracurriculum for justifying itself on the basis of educational values. Under these conditions greater stress may appropriately be placed upon a nearer approach to universal partici¬ pation by pupils with less emphasis on teams representing the school and on scholarship requirements for participation, a more general supervision by educational authorities, and a closer integration of individual activities with one another and with the work and objectives of the school. Sane school administration dictates that student activities shall be recognized for their important potentialities in contributing to educa¬ tional objectives; that the competitive spirit is strong in young people and should be acknowledged, but should not dominate the extracur¬ riculum program; that activities should be fostered which have a carry-over value for adult life, but that the pupil also has a right to some activities which have special appeal to his adolescent tastes and consequently may be dropped soon after his schooling is completed; that while supervision of the activities program is in place and neces¬ sary it must not be exercised to the point where it robs the program of spontaneity and deprives pupils of opportunity for exercising ini- ” Nonathletic extracurriculum activities, by William C. Reavis and George E. Van Dyke. This is Monograph No. 26 of the National Survey of Secondary Education. United States Department of the Interior, Office of Education, Bulletin 1932, No. 17, Monograph No. 26. SECONDARY EDUCATION 39 tiative and leadership; and that school authorities may have full realization of the values of extracurriculum activities in building school spirit and morale without abdicating from control of school policies. The changing emphasis in the curriculum. — The curriculum of the secondary school is evolving in the direction of less emphasis upon formal classroom work or units of credit and more attention to success¬ ful adjustment and learning to live. As the practical procedures for achieving these ends are evolved one may look for significant changes in organization, administration, offerings, and teaching in the schools. At the present time the committee on relation of schools and colleges of the Progressive Education Association is attacking the problem from the standpoint of college entrance and college success; the Civilian Conservation Corps finds its curriculum policies most effective as they relate instruction very closely to the job and to interests in leisure-time activities; test workers are emphasizing measurement not only of scholastic achievement but also of attitudes, habits, and skills; informal activities of the extracurriculum have been gaining station and more and more find themselves dignified through inclu¬ sion in the program of education; numerous State and city educa¬ tional agencies are, through courses of study, giving emphasis to new and revised curriculum materials and teaching procedures; and large numbers of administrators, guidance workers, teachers, and parents have seen that earning a stipulated number of units of credit in scho¬ lastic work is no guarantee of preparation for successful living. The problem is one of developing techniques and procedures for introducing these important adjustments into the educational program of the schools without succumbing to a system of soft pedagogy which makes no demands on anybody anywhere. On the one side is the visionary who would have everything count as education and on the other is the extreme conservative whose motto is “What was good for me is good for my children. ” Certain it is that, while much that is traditional, formal, and prescriptive, both in content and in teaching methods, must be exchanged for freedom and flexibility, the tradi¬ tional features should be modified gradually and only insofar as one sees with a degree of clarity how newer materials may be made to operate effectively. GUIDANCE 36 The importance of guidance. — Sporadic efforts by large and small progressive school systems throughout the country to provide guid¬ ance services to their secondary school pupils have appeared from time to time for many years. For a score of years a few schools have included guidance as a vital part of their programs, but only in the past few years was there a development on a national scale of what 36 The section on Guidance was written by Maris M. Proffitt, educational consultant and senior specialist in guidance and industrial education, Office of Education. 40 BIENNIAL SURVEY OF EDUCATION, 1934-36 is frequently spoken of as the guidance movement. There is a gen¬ eral recognition among educators today that guidance as a service to the individual to assist him in making decisions and adjustments necessary for securing, in accordance with his abilities and interests, the optimum results from educational training and from efforts at social and vocational adjustments, is a fundamental and essential function of education that should be included as an integral part of every school system. National organizations for guidance. — Organizations of teachers and others interested in the promotion of guidance in the public schools have had much to do with the development of the guidance movement. The National Vocational Guidance Association, which holds its annual meetings just preceding the winter session of the National Education Association and in the same city in which that association meets, has done much to promote the development of guidance in the schools. The publication of a national magazine by the association and later by the National Occupational Conference, which is an endowed organiza¬ tion for the promotion of guidance, has had a very large influence in stimulating interest in guidance and in providing information about guidance of value for schools in organizing and maintaining guidance programs. The national association has approximately 40 branch associations scattered throughout the United States which hold regular meetings during the school year for the purpose of discussing ways and means of introducing guidance in the public schools and improving services already existing. These branch associations work in close cooperation with other local organizations and agencies interested in the improvement of school programs. State agencies for the development of guidance service. — Numerous States have undertaken to promote guidance work in the public schools. Such activities range from efforts of a State department to encourage, through its leadership in education, local schools to make some provision for educational guidance services, to legislative enact¬ ment of compulsory provisions for the inclusion of guidance in the public schools of the State. During the past 2 years the departments of education in most of the States have held State or regional confer¬ ences whose programs have dealt specifically with guidance. For example, the Wisconsin State Department of Education outlined a State guidance program and during the past year has been holding regional conferences throughout the State to promote the inclusion of the program in the work of the local schools. In Maine the secondary school principals’ association has given a prominent place on its pro¬ gram to the subject of guidance. Arizona has held State-wide con¬ ferences on guidance. Delaware in 1932 held a State conference specifically devoted to guidance and invited lay people interested in the development of education to attend the conference. Since that SECONDARY EDUCATION 41 time the State Department has held a number of follow-up meetings to promote guidance work in the schools of that State. Several States have committees working on the development of guidance programs. New Hampshire in 1932 appointed a committee to outline a guidance program for the schools of that State. The report of the committee was made available in the school year 1933-34. It outlines a plan of guidance procedure for grades 7 to 12, inclusive. This report sets forth the aims of guidance, gives a chart for organizing and administering guidance programs, and lists guidance activities to be carried on by junior and senior high schools. The report also includes a bibliography on testing and gives suggestions for the organ¬ ization of a testing program in the schools. The program as outlined is now being tried out in a tentative way in a number of high schools and will be revised in the light of experience into a State program of guidance. Maine also has a State committee preparing a program of guidance. Alabama has made provisions for a study of guidance by a committee appointed to prepare a State course of study. The plan is to develop a program for guidance in the schools of the State. By legislative enactment New York State has made a requirement that beginning with the school year 1936-37, schools located in cities hav¬ ing a population of 100,000 or more are to make specific provisions for guidance in their programs. Courses in occupational information. — One of the more common regulations made by State departments is that for including a course in occupational information as a part of the secondary school curricu¬ lum. West Virginia requires a course in occupations for one full semester in the ninth grade. Guidance is made a constant in the curriculum of New York high schools offering a regent's diploma. A study of occupational information courses made by the Office of Education in 1934 from a representative sampling, consisting of 1,111 junior and senior high schools, shows that 68.5 percent of all schools reporting include instruction in occupational information. An outstanding trend during the past 2 years is the effort mani¬ fested to supply materials on occupations for vocational guidance. There has been a great increase in the number of occupational studies prepared by city school systems for use in vocational counseling in secondary schools. Each of these studies deals with a single occupa¬ tion and includes information on the nature of the work to be per¬ formed, working conditions, opportunities for employment and advancement, and educational qualifications and experience necessary for entrance into the occupation and for promotion in it. In some instances the number of such occupational studies issued by a single school system runs into the dozens. Many of these have been mimeo¬ graphed or printed by the local board of education and made available for purchase at a nominal cost. 42 BIENNIAL SURVEY OF EDUCATION, 1934-36 In addition to occupational materials developed by public schools, numerous organizations interested in the education of vocational workers and a few private agencies catering to the demands for such literature have contributed greatly to the accumulation of occu¬ pational information in a form for use by classes studying occupa¬ tions and for vocational counseling services. Comprehensive bibliog¬ raphies covering this field of literature are now appearing. The National Occupational Conference has recently begun the issuance of a printed bibliography in pamphlet form on occupational informa¬ tion called Occupational Index. Librarians are also preparing annota¬ ted bibliographies on occupational studies, some of which are issued by commercial publishing houses. A COMPREHENSIVE SERVICE TO ALL YOUTH The people of the United States have embarked upon a more exten¬ sive program for universal secondary education than has ever before been witnessed. The steady influx of pupils into the high schools has been accompanied by an ever-widening range in the interests and capacities to be served. It is idle to argue that many of these pupils are not suited to high-school education. With all their variety of needs they are here; and the temper of our people and their con¬ fidence in education as the most practicable method of adjustment to modern problems lend plausibility to the belief that larger numbers and less selectivity will mark the development from year to year. The secondary school will have to meet the demands of the people for continuously increasing universality in high-school education; if those demands are not met, the people will turn to other existing organizations or will develop new agencies for carrying out their will. Much has been accomplished in developing the high school to meet its enlarging responsibilities. Mainly the adjustments which have been made are of two lands. In the first place, provisions and facili¬ ties have been developed through increased numbers of small and large, both regular and reorganized, high schools, a host of agencies supplementary and auxiliary to the regular day school, and expanded curriculum offerings, both academic and vocational. The second type of adjustment consists in developing ways for effective utilization of the facilities provided. Progress in utilization of facilities has lagged much behind provision of facilities, but there are evidences, especially in curriculum and in guidance developments, of a clearer realization that the secondary school must not only provide facilities but must actually serve the interests and needs of adolescent boys and girls. Within the last 2 years efforts have been made to establish a number of services which involve the education of youth. Of this nature are the Civilian Conservation Corps and the National Youth Administra¬ tion already referred to in these pages. Here also should be men¬ tioned the committee on youth problems of the Office of Education SECONDARY EDUCATION 43 whose youth publications on community organization, leisure for living, education for those out of school, vocational guidance, finding jobs, and community surveys are now available. An ambitious enterprise is the series of studies now in progress under the direction of the American Youth Commission of the American Council on Education.37 The yearbook of the Department of Superintendence for 1938 will deal with the subject of youth. Exactly what new means will be developed for the future education of young Americans and what changed emphasis may take place is difficult to foretell. Undoubtedly the solutions will be fully as com¬ plex as they have been in the past, if not more so. A tendency which is being demonstrated at the present time is in the direction of part- time attendance at school and part-time work on the job, the two activities being closely correlated one with the other. With such part-time education one may expect to find much greater emphasis on adjustment service, advice, placement, and follow-up, attention being given to these functions even if the stress on informational responsibilities long regarded as paramount has to be reduced. While maintaining its courses for the scholastic type of pupil, the school will extend its services principally to the “newer 50 percent” who do not have the strong academic interests characteristic of high-school en¬ rollments in earlier generations. The school will put forth more effort to serve all youth with a comprehensive program in which balance will be maintained in emphasis on academic, vocational, recreational, cultural, social, and health objectives. Motives such as these are apparent in a present undertaking known as the Cooperative Study of Secondary School Standards. Started by the six regional associations of colleges and secondary schools the study at first set out to develop revisions in the standards under which secondary schools were accredited in the various areas served by these associations. This original purpose is still present, but it is over¬ shadowed in importance by an effort to define in as specific terms as possible what constitutes a good secondary school. It is felt that if criteria for evaluation on this basis can be developed, accrediting will take its proper place in American education and attention will be shifted from meeting minimum standards to a progressive upgrading of schools from year to year. In 1935 was celebrated the tercentenary of the founding of secondary education in the United States. The Boston Public Latin School, established in 1635, and numerous other schools throughout the Nation planned and carried out exercises wdiich commemorated the achievement of 300 years in secondary education. Those achieve¬ ments and that development w^ere wTell worthy of being celebrated. 37 An important publication growing out of this undertaking is the Monograph on Secondary Education by Harl R. Douglass which is in process of being printed as this is written. This monograph presents a significant evaluation of the purposes of secondary education. 44 BIENNIAL SURVEY OF EDUCATION, 1934-36 During 300 years the secondary school has progressed far in enroll¬ ment, in educational program, in physical facilities, in organization and administration, and in teaching. Such dissatisfactions as exist at the present time do not reflect disappointment over past record. They reflect rather a vivid realization of the enormous task which is placed upon secondary education in a democracy and the insufficiency of present facilities for meeting the responsibility. At no other level of education, unless it should be adult education, are the problems so staggering and solutions so inadequate. o . UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR HAROLD L. ICKES : SECRETARY OFFICE OF EDUCATION : J. W. STUDEBAKER COMMISSIONER HIGHER EDUCATION 1930-1936 being Chapter III of Volume I of the BIENNIAL SURVEY OF EDUCATION IN THE UNITED STATES : 1934-36 BULLETIN , 1937, No. 2 [ADVANCE PAGES] Prepared by WALTON C. JOHN Senior Specialist in Higher Education united states GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE WASHINGTON : 1938 For sale by the Superintendent of Documents, Washington, D. C. Price 15 cents CONTENTS Page Foreword _ vn Section I. The Harvard University Tercentenary _ 1 1. The Celebration _ 1 2. Relation of Harvard College to Cambridge University _ 4 3. Character of Early Harvard Program _ 5 Section II. Higher Education and the Economic Depression _ 7 1. Introductory _ 7 2. Conferences on Higher Education _ 8 3. Action of the Federal Government _ 9 a. College Student Aid Programs _ 9 b. Federal Emergency Administration of Public Works _ 11 c. The Civilian Conservation Corps Camps and the Colleges - 11 d. The Emergency Colleges - 11 e. The Project in University Research _ 12 Section III. Administration and Control of Higher Education _ 13 1. The Closing and Merging of Higher Institutions of Learning _ 13 2. Administration of Higher Educational Institutions _ 13 a. Increase of Federal Aid to Higher Education _ 13 b. Changes in the Form of Higher Educational Administration in the States _ 14 c. State Reorganization Affecting Higher Education _ 16 d. Wayne University _ 16 e. Higher Educational Finances _ 17 (1) Income _ 17 (2) Increases Indicated _ 17 (3) Income of Privately Controlled Universities and Colleges _ 17 f. Higher Educational Institutions and Insurance and Annuity Plans- 18 g. Personnel Work _ 19 (1) Number of Institutions Reporting Personnel Departments _ 20 (2) Principal Types of Personnel Organization _ 20 h. Measurement _ 21 3. Educational Standards _ 23 a. Standardizing Organizations _ 23 b. Changes in Standards of the North Central Association of Colleges and Secondary Schools _ 23 c. Accrediting of Engineering Curricula _ 24 d. Universities and Colleges for Negroes _ 24 Section IV. The Student Body _ 26 1. Gains and Losses in College Enrollments _ 26 a. The Office of Education Report _ 26 b. President Walters’ Report _ 27 c. Factors Influencing Increase in College Enrollments _ 27 d. Scholarships and Fellowships _ 28 The Rhodes Scholarships _ 29 2. Recruiting of Students _ 29 m IV CONTENTS Page Section V. The Teaching Staff _ 32 1. Gains and Losses in Teaching Staffs _ 32 2. Academic Freedom of Speech and Tenure _ 32 Views of Leaders on Academic Freedom _ 34 3. The Effect of the Depression on Faculty Members _ 35 a. Employment _ 35 b. Salary Reductions _ 36 c. Salary Restorations _ 36 d. Promotions _ 36 e. Appointment Policies _ 36 f. Tenure Policy _ 36 g. The Reaction of Faculties to the Depression _ _ _ _ 37 Section VI. College Organization and Instruction _ 38 1. The Junior College _ 38 Success of Transfer Students from Junior Colleges in a State University. _ 39 2. The Liberal Arts and Sciences _ 40 a. Subject-Matter Organization versus the Individual Student _ 40 b. Experiments in College Education _ 41 Character of Recent Experiments and Changes _ 42 c. Present Trends _ 43 3. Adult Education in the Colleges _ 45 a. Changes in Enrollments _ 45 b. Urban Universities _ 45 c. Adult Educational Courses _ 46 Section VII. Graduate Study and Research _ _ 47 1. Graduate Study - 47 a. Master’s Degree - 47 b. Doctor’s Degree _ 49 (1) General Trends — Number and Distribution of Doctorate Degrees _ 49 Total Doctorates by Years _ 50 (2) Differentiation of the Doctorate _ 50 c. Developments in Advanced Degrees at Columbia University and Harvard University - 52 (1) The Doctorate at Columbia University _ 52 (2) The New Teachers Degrees at Harvard University _ 52 d. Report of Committee on Graduate Instruction, American Council on Education _ 53 e. The Study of Graduate Work in Engineering by the Society for the Promotion of Engineering Education _ 53 f. Graduate Work in Teachers Colleges _ 54 g. Graduate Study for Negroes _ 55 2. Research _ 55 a. Stimulation and Coordination of Research _ 56 (1) American Association for the Advancement of Science _ 57 (2) American Council of Learned Societies _ 57 (3) National Research Council _ 58 (4) Social Science Research Council _ 59 View of Social Science Research Council on Research in Colleges 60 (5) Agricultural Experiment Stations _ 61 (6) American Council on Education - 62 (7) Carnegie Foundation for the Advancement of Teaching _ 62 (8) Engineering Experiment Stations _ 63 CONTENTS V Page Section VIII. Professional Education - - - 65 1. Introductory - 65 2. Theology - 66 a. Enrollments in Theological Schools - 66 b. Protestant Theological Schools _ 67 Standardization in Theological Schools _ 67 c. Catholic Seminaries _ 68 (1) Courses of Study - 68 (2) The Survey of the Curriculum of the Major Seminary _ 68 (3) Instructional Staff _ 69 (4) Student Body - 69 (5) Graduates _ 69 (6) Preparatory Seminaries _ 69 d. Courses in Bible and Religion in American Universities and Col¬ leges _ 69 3. Law _ - 69 a. Enrollments _ 70 b. Tendencies in Legal Education - 70 4. Medicine _ 71 a. Statistics of Medical Schools _ 71 b. Tendencies in Medical Education _ 71 5. Dentistry _ 72 a. Statistics of Dental Schools _ 72 b. Dental Survey _ 73 6. Pharmacy _ 73 Statistics of Schools of Pharmacy _ 73 7. Nursing _ 74 8. Engineering _ 75 a. Enrollments _ 75 b. Engineering Degrees _ 75 c. Advancement of Engineering Education _ 75 d. Ideals of Engineering Education _ 77 9. Agriculture _ 78 a. Enrollments _ 78 b. Degrees _ 78 c. The Agricultural Curriculum _ 78 d. Humanistics and Agriculture _ 79 e. Specialization _ 79 f. Graduate Work _ 79 10. Home Economics _ 80 a. Statistics of Home Economics _ 80 Degrees _ 80 b. Objectives _ 80 11. Teaching _ 81 a. Statistics of Teacher Education _ 82 (1) Elementary School Teachers _ 82 (2) High-School Teachers _ 82 (3) Teachers in Universities, Colleges, and Professional Schools _ 83 (4) Students in Teacher-Training Institutions _ 83 b. Changes in Institutional Types _ 84 c. The Depression and Teaching _ 85 VI CONTENTS 1 1 . Teaching — Continued. d. Improvement of Teaching _ Report of the Committee on Program and Graduate Study which Institutions of Higher Education Should Organize for the Prep¬ aration of Secondary School Teachers _ _ e. Education of Teachers in Vocational Agriculture, Home Economics, and Trades and Industries _ (1) Teachers of Agricultural Education _ (2) Teachers of Home Economics Education _ (3) Teachers of Trade and Industrial Subjects _ Page 86 86 87 87 90 91 FOREWORD It is the purpose of this survey to call attention to some of the more significant developments that have taken place in higher education between 1930 and 1936. It covers, to a considerable extent, the criti¬ cal period of the economic depression and includes those years in which recovery and improvement in higher education have begun to be marked. It presents the developments which have taken place during the period covered by the Biennial Survey of Higher Educa¬ tion, 1934-36. The reaction of higher education to the depression is considered in some of its quantitative aspects in the statistical reports of the Office, but the results of the depression as it relates to education as a whole are considered in a separate chapter of the Biennial Survey of Education. The Office acknowledges with great appreciation the cooperation of those who have assisted the author in the preparation of this study. The names of these are mentioned in different parts of the bulletin. Bess Goodykoontz, Assistant Commissioner oj Education . VII Chapter III • HIGHER EDUCATION • 1930-1936 Section I THE HARVARD UNIVERSITY TERCENTENARY 1. The Celebration The three hundredth anniversary of the founding of Harvard College has particular significance in the higher educational history of this country. The celebration of that event held in 1936, points to what is perhaps the longest period of continuous service which any higher educational institution has been permitted to render in the United States. In view of the importance of the occasion, the authorities of Harvard University held at Cambridge, Mass., a notable tercentenary celebration which was attended by more than 10,000 alumni and a great many visitors from all over the world. The celebration included two principal parts. The first part was devoted to the Tercentenary Conference of Arts and Sciences which was held from August 31 to September 12, 1936. There were 72 distinguished scholars from different parts of the United States and from foreign countries who participated. The conferences dealt with four major fields of learning, namely, the Humanities, Physical Sci¬ ences, Biological Sciences, and Social Sciences. The meetings were open to teachers, professional leaders in their respective fields, and to the laity. Public lectures were given by outstanding scholars such as Eddington, Svedburg, Fischer, Jung, Hopkins, and a number of others. Some of the topics discussed were such as “Authority and the Individual,” “Factors Determining Human Behavior” and the lec¬ tures included such subjects as “Medieval Universalism and its Present Value,” “Stability and Social Change,” and “Hellenism and Christianity.” The second part of the celebration was held September 16 to 18. These days were known as the “Tercentenary Days.” Among the most important aspects of this phase of the celebration was the recep¬ tion given to the 547 delegates from other institutions who came from 46 States and 2 Territories of this country, and 40 foreign countries. The first of this learned delegation to be presented to President Conant was Prof. Saleh Hashem Attia from Al-Azhar University in Cairo. This institution was founded in 970, antedating the founding of Harvard by 666 years. And following the representative from 1 2 BIENNIAL SURVEY OF EDUCATION, 1934-36 Cairo were the hundreds of delegates who streamed by in fine array, ‘‘blue and purple mingling with subtle shades of Oxford, Cambridge, and Sorbonne red; with the dark kimono of Japan, the green and gold braid of the various Academies of the Institut de France; with the fur-edged gown and chain-of-office of the Mayor of the Borough of Southwark, and the uniforms of the service ; with what hundred other gowns and hoods showing scarlet, yellow, orange, lilac ; with uniforms, medals, swords, pacific and military caps; with plumes and pompons, ermine and velvet; with shades and values as if as on some great palette; marvelous and romantic as when Stevenson said, ‘but the Camisards had only bright and supporting visions!’ ” “Bright and supporting visions of faces, persons, minds; of distinction, cultivation, and individuality.” 1 2 On the second day, doubtless the most significant event was the gathering of the members of the Associated Harvard Clubs. In addressing this audience, President Elliot C. Cutler of the Associated Harvard Clubs stated: We meet today as a part of a great session to honor the Universities of the World, to acclaim the value to humanity of the scholarly and inquisitive mind, to uphold free speech, and in particular to do service again to Harvard University. Nothing created by man has had a more vigorous, useful, and prolonged existence than the universities. They have had their ups and downs; political, social, and religious upheavals have pushed them from their forward course, but always they have returned to assume their certain duty — the grouping of students and teachers to inquire, to investigate, to study for the benefit of mankind.3 The closing day was memorable because of the address of President Conant who said, among other things — The future of the university tradition in America — that is the problem that must concern all of us who are assembled here today. But what is this tradition ’r indeed, what is a university? Like any living thing, an academic institution is comprehensible only in terms of its history. For well on a thousand years there have been universities in the western world. During the Middle Ages the air they breathed was permeated with the doctrines of a universal church; since the Reformation in Protestant countries these have undergone a slow and varied metamorphosis. But the essence of the university tradition has remained con¬ stant. From the first foundations to the present, four main streams have watered the soil on which the universities have flourished. These ultimate sources of strength are: First, the cultivation of learning for its own sake; secondly, the general educational stream of the liberal arts; thirdly, the educational stream that makes possible the professions; and, lastly, the never-failing river of student life carrying all the power that comes from the gregarious impulses of human beings. All four streams are easily discerned bringing life to the English universities in the first half of the seventeenth century. For this reason Oxford and Cambridge flourished; and because they flourished, their sons who migrated to this straDge land desired to cultivate the same sturdy tradition even in a wilderness.3 1 Notes on the Harvard Tercentenary: Harvard University Press, Cambridge, Mass. 1930. P. IP- Quoted with permission. 2 Ibid., p. 25. * Ibid., p. 59. HIGHER EDUCATION 3 At the close of his address, President Conant conferred honorary- degrees on 62 of the 72 distinguished scholars especially invited for that purpose, the other 10 having received honorary degrees from Harvard on earlier occasions. During the afternoon session former President Lowell made an address showing developments at Harvard. He led to the climax of the celebration by introducing the Right Honourable Stanley Baldwin, Chancellor of the University of Cambridge and Prime Minister of England, who responded over the radio as President Lowell concluded his remarks. Precise as that electric appointment his message carried clear: 4 As Chancellor of the University of Cambridge it is with special pride that I send greetings to Harvard University on the occasion of its tercentenary. The Cambridge men from the beginning identified themselves with Harvard; and graduates from Trinity, Emmanuel, and Kings were on the first governing body 300 years ago. Above all, it was an Emmanuel man, John Harvard, who supplied the funds for the outward and visible sign of the new college and his admirably chosen library for its inward and spiritual grace. Nor can I forget that it wras a graduate of Harvard — his father and grandfather were Cambridge men — who gave his name to Downing Street 5 in which I live. May God’s providence, which has watched over Harvard since its first horn© had to be fenced in to keep out the wolves, continue to bless it, adorned as it now is with magnificent buildings and celebrated throughout the world as a great center of learning. May Harvard men remain faithful to the great traditions of liberty which are the common glory and heritage of all the English-speaking people of the world, and may we all, as university men, though we cannot hope for the special fame that is John Harvard’s, aspire to be remembered in our time in the moving words applied to him by a contemporary: “The man was a scholar and pious in his life, and endeared to the country ip life and death.” 6 Mr. Lowell in his response said: If a university can have one mother, Cambridge is our mother; for Harvard was founded mainly by her graduates. Six years after landing on these shores our forefathers set up a college, and named the town after the place where they were trained. The University of Cambridge fostered our early days by granting to our degrees equality with her own. From her we have drawn inspiration and example — not least in these latter times. To her sons we owe a vast debt in science and in letters. In the light she has shed we have rejoiced. If she be the mother of Harvard, she is, through Harvard, the ancestress of most of the universities and colleges in the United States. It is right that we should turn to her in gratitude this day; and, now when we have prospered, should seek her approbation. Therefore, in behalf of the thousands of Harvard graduates here assembled, I thank you for the kinds words you have said in bringing to us, on this, our three hundredth birthday, the greetings of our parent university.7 * Ibid., pp. 79-80. 8 Sir George Downing, Bart., M. P., Class of 1642. 8 Notes on the Harvard Tercentenary: Harvard University Press. Cambridge, Mass. 1936. pp. 79-80. 7 Ibid., pp. 80-81. 4 BIENNIAL SURVEY OF EDUCATION, 1934-36 Following these remarks, the President of the United States addressed the audience. Among other things he said: The past of Harvard has been deeply distinguished. This university will never fail to produce its due proportion of those judged successful by the common standard of success. Of such the world has need. But to produce that type is not, I am sure, the ultimate justification that you would make for Harvard. Rather do we here search for the atmosphere in which men are produced wrho have either the rare quality of vision or the ability to appreciate the significance of vision when it appears. Where there is vision, there is tolerance; and where there is tolerance, there is peace. And I beg you to think of tolerance and peace not as indifferent and neutral virtues but as active and positive principles. I am not, you will observe, conceiving of the university as a mere spectator of the great national and international drama in which all of us, despite ourselves, are involved. Here are to be trained not lawyers and doctors merely, not teachers and businessmen merely; here is to be trained in the fullest sense — man.8 The exercises were closed by addresses from President Angell of Yale, and Vice-Chancellor Lindsay of Oxford University and Master of Balliol. In view of the significant statement made by President Lowell regarding the relation of Cambridge University and Emmanuel College to Harvard, it may not be inappropriate in connection with an anniversary of this type to recall in some small detail the early relation of Harvard College to Cambridge University. This will make clearer the relationship of our present-day higher educational system to the institution which has given so much to the American people in various forms of service. 2. Relation of Harvard College to Cambridge University During the reign of Queen Elizabeth, ecclesiastical conditions in England were considerably unsettled. During the three reigns pre¬ ceding there were many sudden changes in matters pertaining to church authority as related to doctrine, religious rites, and ceremonies. This condition of affairs was disturbing to the clergy and resulted in negative attitudes which tended to weaken if not destroy their spiritual leadership. In the face of the controversies within the church there was an increasing demand on the part of the people for spiritual help through preaching. Thinking leaders began to realize that the welfare of England would depend on raising the church to a higher ideal of duty. Consequently, it seemed necessary to emphasize a more scholarly training of the clergy and to prepare them for more active service in preaching the Word. This condition was recognized by Queen Elizabeth who, in a letter written March 1560, states that “the study of divinity and of the Scriptures are at this present much decayed within^ the University of Cambridge.” 9 8 Ibid., pp. 84-85. ( »J3huckburgh, E. S. Emmanuel College, ^London, F. E. Robinson & Co. 1904, pp. 19-20. HIGHER EDUCATION 5 Fortunately, the Queen had among her advisers one who had an extraordinary grasp of the situation. His name was Sir Walter Mild- may. He was Chancellor of the Exchequer and had with ability and tact also served under three Tudor sovereigns, Henry the Eighth, Edward the Sixth, and Queen Mary. Sir Walter therefore determined to set up a foundation which would fully meet the needs of the times. He says — the one object which I set before me in erecting this college was to render as many as possible fit for the administration of the Divine Word and Sacraments; and that from this seed ground the English Church might have those that she can summon to instruct the people and undertake the office of pastors, which is a thing necessary above all others.10 Thus the founding of Emmanuel College in 1584 was the result of an important national movement closely related to the Reformation. The college rose with the rising tide of Puritanism, declined with its decline; contributed more than its just proportion to the seed-plot of the New England in the West; shared to the full in the dawn of a more liberal theology; and through the days of decadence and deadness, though it did not escape their numbing influence, never wholly lost the love of learning or the sense of duty to its trust.11 Some time after founding the college, Sir Walter Mildmay visited the court, and the Queen said, “Sir Walter, I hear you have erected a Puritan foundation.” “No, madam,” saith he: “far be it from me to countenance anything contrary to your established laws; but I have set an acorn, which, when it becomes an oak, God alone knows what will be the fruit thereof.” 12 Fuller continues in his own language, “Sure, I am, at this day it hath overshadowed all the university — more than a moiety of the present masters of colleges being bred therein.” 12 But Emmanuel College not only gave of its sturdy spiritual and intellectual leadership to Cambridge but it sent forth of its own seed nearly a score of graduates who in the space of a few years spread themselves out over Boston and other parts of the New England Colony. It wTas from this transplanting that a group of men decided to set another “acorn” which was destined to grow, wax strong, and to become over the centuries one of the most powerful educational foundations that this world has seen. 3. CHARACTER OF EARLY HARVARD PROGRAM Although greatly influenced by the viewpoint of Emmanuel in the training of a competent clergy, Harvard College never limited its program to that of a divinity school. The program of study began as a course in liberal arts and philosophy. Early documents show 1# Ibid., p. 23. >1 Ibid., p. VIII. Fuller, Thomas. The History of the University of Cambridge, and of Waltham Abbey. London# 1840. Printed for Thomas Tegg. 73, Cheapside. pp. 205-206. 6 BIENNIAL SURVEY OF EDUCATION, 1934^36 that while learned ministers were in great demand by no means all students planned to become ministers. According to the Charter of 1650, the purpose of Harvard College is given as follows: The advancement of all good literature, artes and sciences. The advancement and education of youth in all manner of good literature, artes and sciences. All other necessary provisions that may conduce to the education of the English and Indian Youth of this Country in Knowledge: and godliness.13 It is also doubtless true that the excellent body of Emmanuel men and their friends felt that Harvard College must be in a position to do even more for society than was planned at Cambridge University. Reform in clerical training was good, but there were other elements in English life that they did not wish transplanted to New England so the program of study was placed on the broadest possible basis considering the times. With a new and more perfect civilization as the goal, Harvard College slowly and steadily made progress, and has reached a status which is well expressed in the appraisal of Presi¬ dent Angell of Yale given in his aforementioned address. In the somewhat fatuous and futile comparisons of institutions with one another, so dear to the hearts of certain rather literal and metallic-minded folk, she is often put first, and judged by many criteria she doubtless deserves such a rating; but her essential human significance is not thus to be measured. Rather does it reside in those sterling qualities which are indigenous to her, reflected again and again in her history; vision and imagination tempered by wisdom, high moral courage and candor, unswerving allegiance to intellectual liberty with unquestioning reliance upon integrity of thought, unshakable belief in the ultimate worth of sheer intelligence and in the uncomparable value of the great mind. These are some of the most obvious traits which have brought her un¬ dying fame and won for her three centuries of noble history in which every patriotic citizen must take pride.14 To this we may add that the Tercentenary Celebration came at a time when higher education has been tested to its foundations. By the reaffirmation of fundamental principles upon which true higher education rests, Harvard has been a source of stimulation to its sister institutions and has emphasized anew the true goal of college endeavor. n Morrison, Samuel Eliot. The Founding of Harvard College, Cambridge, Mass., Harvard University Press, 1935. p.248. M Ibid., p. 90. Section II HIGHER EDUCATION AND THE ECONOMIC DEPRESSION 1. Introductory The high sense of national responsibility which characterized the men of Cambridge in crucial moments is typical of the sense of re¬ sponsibility shown by higher educational leadership in this country in relation to the depression and its aftermath. The first effect of the depression appeared in the heavy financial losses of the colleges, followed by decreased enrollments, and the curtailment of the educational and building programs. Perhaps the most serious result was the discouragement of a large number of young people who had looked forward to satisfactory employment after graduation from college. This discouragement also reached thousands of high-school students and graduates who found them¬ selves without funds or without the ability to obtain part-time em¬ ployment which would help in meeting their educational expenses. These conditions led a number of leaders to scrutinize more criti¬ cally not only the policies of Government but also the educational program on which our present-day civilization rests.1 It was felt that the schools and colleges had not always given appropriate train¬ ing to those who were our leaders and that therefore the colleges and universities were to a considerable extent responsible for our troubles. Whatever truth there may be in such observations, it became in¬ creasingly clear that universities and colleges should consider their relations to these new problems and seek to determine more clearly, if possible, their responsibility to the State and society in general. The colleges suddenly became aware of the fact that much of the rapid expansion of educational and building programs was not always based on real necessity but often on the superficial grounds of com¬ petition or local pride. As long as there was some justification — at times the slightest — for expansion, and as long as money and men were easily obtained, this expansion had continued. i Coffman, Lotus D. Education and the Depression: An address, Schoolmen’s Week. University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, Mar. 25, 1932. Published by the university. Butler, Nicholas Murray. Report of the President of Columbia University for 1933. New York, N. Y. Published by the university, pp. 17-18. Graham, Frank P. Report of the President of the University of North Carolina, December 1934. No. 293. University of North Carolina Press, Chapel Hill. p. 9. 7 8 BIENNIAL SURVEY OF EDUCATION, 1934-36 The depression helped to check this. The higher educational forest began to receive a clearing and a pruning which hurt for the time but which doubtless already has been compensated for in part by the results in financial improvement, better administration, improved standards of education, and a more serious attitude on the part of teachers as well as students. 2. Conferences on Higher Education During this period many important conferences were held. Among these there were several that were concerned with higher education and its relation to the economic depression. Attention is called to four conferences, one of which was called by the Government and three of which were under university auspices. The Citizens Conference on Education was called by President Hoover January 5 to 7, 1933, in Washington to consider problems of general education and welfare that were related to the depression. In this conference considerable attention was given to higher educa¬ tion. Ray Lyman Wilbur, then Secretary of the Interior, presided. As a result of the deliberations, a declaration of policy was made which included the following sections on higher education. Rapid and unprecedented development of all forms of higher education during the past two decades especially publicly supported higher education, not only reflects the distinctive character of our democratic idealism, but also furnishes conclusive proof of the reality of the long-recognized principle of the equality of opportunity in American life. From these institutions has come a large propor¬ tion of the trained personnel of the established professions and the leadership of our complex industrial and social life. Furthermore, the results of the scien¬ tific research carried on by such institutions have been of well-nigh incalculable worth to the economic life of the Nation. When viewed from these two stand¬ points alone, the general scheme of higher education of the country must be regarded as a principal productive asset, the conservation and further develop¬ ment of which are matters of permanent concern for the States and for the Nation. The effective economical and nonpolitical operation and adaptation of the plan of popular education, at all levels, from the elementary schools through the universities are fundamental obligations of the American State. During a period of economic stress, such as that now existing, there is imposed upon all of those in positions of responsibility, whether in Government, industry, or cultural activity, a clear responsibility of affirming the inherent basis of our American plan, and of promoting confidence among the people in their educa¬ tional institutions. In particular, efforts are needed to avoid any unnecessary reduction in the educational opportunities now available to American youth. Today, all publicly supported higher institutions, more than ever before, are responsible for the economical administration of their funds. There is abundant evidence that these institutions the country over are capable of making those adjustments in operation made necessary by any reasonable policy of retrench¬ ment. They have already demonstrated their ability and their willingness to share the burden imposed on the economic life of the people. HIGHER EDUCATION 9 If the State is to have during the coming generation institutions adequate to serve its needs, it must not now unwisely weaken the human foundations of these institutions.* 2 Among other conferences, mention is made here of those following: A conference was called at New York University, November 15 to 17, 1932, by Chancellor E. E. Brown. This conference was national as well as international in its representation. The addresses were published under the title “The Obligation of Universities to the Social Order.”3 A conference was called on higher education at the University of Oregon, July 11 to 14, 1934, by President E. V. Boyer. This confer¬ ence discussed the responsibilities of higher education in the light of changing social, political, and economic conditions. The conference proceedings were published by the university.4 The Southwestern Conference on Higher Education was held at the University of Oklahoma, November 14 to 16, 1935, in connection with the tenth anniversary celebration of the presidency of Dr. W. B. Bizzell. This conference gave considerable time to the study of educational and social problems of regional and national interest. The addresses were published under the title “Higher Education and Society.” 5 3. Action of the Federal Government a. College Student-Aid Programs As the result of the economic depression, many thousands of young men and women were hindered in obtaining a college education. Thousands of appeals were made to the President and to many Govern¬ ment offices for various forms of assistance. The decline of college enrollments had two disadvantages, the loss to the student whose life purposes were being frustrated and the loss of income to the colleges, many of which were operating under other adverse conditions likewise induced by the depression. In the fall of 1933 the Federal Emergency Relief Administration supplied $60,000 on a dollar-for-dollar basis to the University of Minnesota, to be used in assisting needy college students. The success of this experimental program led to its expansion and application on a Nation-wide scale during the last half of the school year 1933-34, when 65,000 students received aid. ... 6 The Federal Emergency Relief Administration enabled over 100,000 students to earn their way through college in 1934-35 by providing funds for part-time jobs on socially useful projects. . . . * Citizens Conference on the Crisis in Education. Report of proceedings by the Agenda Committee, American Council on Education, Washington, D. C. 1936. pp. 12-13. * Published by the New York University Press. 1933. 4 Proceedings of the Conference on Higher Education, University of Oregon, July 11-14, 1934. University of Oregon Commonwealth Series, vol. I., no. 2, July 1934. * Published by the University of Oklahoma Press, Norman, 1936. * Hopkins, Harry L. Report on the Works Program, Works Progress Administration, Oct. 15, 1936. p. 42. 25973—38 - 2 10 BIENNIAL SURVEY OF EDUCATION, 1934-36 Funds for the student-aid program were allotted to each State by the Federal Emergency Relief Administration, upon application by the State relief adminis¬ tration. Each State was entitled to Federal aid for 12 percent of the total en¬ rollment in its colleges as of October 1934, at the rate of $15 per month for each student. The colleges chose, however, to spread the money over a larger number of students, resulting in an average, per student, of slightly more than $13 a month. . . . This program has raised the morale of young people who were discouraged and gave them new hope and enthusiasm. College presidents have done all they could to cooperate in making the work effective. Out of a total of 1,649 institutions of higher learning in the United States, 1,466 have participated in this program during the past 2 years.i * * * * * 7 On June 26, 1935, President Roosevelt established the National Youth Administration as a division of the Works Progress Adminis¬ tration. The National Youth Administration, as a part of its pro¬ gram, continues the work of the College Student- Aid Program of the Federal Emergency Relief Administration. In March 1936, 119,000 college students and 4,700 graduate students were participating in this program. The amount allowed to graduate students averages from $25 to $30 a month but not more than $40.8 In May 1936, the maximum number of university and college students enjoying this form of Federal aid was 131,925. Of these, 125,625 were undergraduate students and 6,300 were graduate students.9 The student-aid program of the National Youth Administration on the whole has not tended to lower standards of scholarship, in spite of the physical as well as mental strain in carrying on work and study programs at the same time. Although, doubtless, in certain cases, difficulties of this kind are bound to arise, yet the investigations of the Office of Education and other authorities show in most cases su¬ perior scholarship on the part of students who are working under the student-aid plan. Of the total number of institutions, as many as one-half (441) reported that the average intellectual ability of the students receiving Federal aid was greater than that of the other students. Their intellectual ability in the other half of the colleges was reported as approximately equal to the regular students. In average scholastic ability, the Federal Emergency Relief Administration students were reported as being higher than the regular students in approximately 53 per¬ cent of the institutions. One of the explanations of this superiority is that these students, notwithstanding the fact that they are compelled to work several hours a day to earn the Federal aid, are a more serious-minded group and realize that the Federal Government is giving them their only opportunity to obtain a higher education. The policy of many of the colleges to select students of high scholar¬ ship to receive the aid is another influencing factor.10 i Hopkins, Harry L. The Emergency Education Program and College Student-Aid Program of the Federal Emergency Relief Administration, April 1935. p. 25. s - Report on the Works Program, Works Progress Administration, Mar. 16, 1936. Washington, D. C. pp. 34-35. » Ibid, Oct. 15, 1936. p. 41. M Kelly, Fred J., and McNeely, John H. Federal Student-Aid Program. United States Department of the Interior, Office of Education Bulletin 1935, No. 14. p. 28. Bulletin of the American Association of Collegiate Registrars; July 1936. Case of Nebraska Weslyan University, p. 345. Case of the University of Buffalo, School and Society, 45: 24, Jan. 2, 1937. HIGHER EDUCATION 11 b. Federal Emergency Administration of Public Works The effects of the depression greatly reduced the amount of build¬ ing for educational purposes throughout the country between 1930 and 1932. As a measure to offset the difficulties resulting from this situation the Federal Emergency Administration of Public Works made possible loans and grants to educational institutions. Between 1933 and 1936 the amount made available to universities and colleges for building construction reached the sum of $71, 370, 244. 11 c. Civilian Conservation Corps Camps and the Colleges 12 In the spring of 1936, about 325,000 young men were enrolled in the CCC camps of this country. Of these, 15 percent or nearly 50,000 were either high-school graduates or had spent some time in college. Of these, 6,020 took courses in colleges and universities that were located near the camps, and 23,417 took correspondence and extension courses offered by State University Extension depart¬ ments. Between 1934 and the present time colleges and universities gave a great deal of real assistance to young men in the CCC camps. Twenty-five colleges offered special scholarships to qualified CCC camp enrollees who were prepared and desired to continue their college studies. These scholarships ranged in value from $50 to $300 per year. Forty universities made correspondence courses available to these enrollees at a low rate of charge. Twenty-five institutions conducted extension classes and special lectures for enrollees either free or at a low rate of charge. Twelve colleges permitted enrollees in nearby camps to use their classrooms and laboratory equipment. Ten institutions permitted these youths to use their library books, and eight institutions loaned visual instruction equipment. Many other evidences of cooperation might be listed. d. The Emergency Colleges Although not counted among the enrollments of regular colleges and universities, a great many youths and adults were able to obtain instruction of college grade through the agency of the so-called emergency colleges.13 These used the services of teachers who were on the relief rolls, and offered from 1 to 2 years of college work, usually under the sponsorship of some standard college. Approxi- 11 Allotments for Educational Building Construction. Federal Emergency Administration of Public Works. Projects Division, Research Section. Dec. 1, 1936. 13 Data supplied by CCC Camps Education Office. 13 Swanson, H. B. Education for those out of school. U. S. Department of the Interior, No. 18— III. Office of Education. Bulletin 1936. 12 BIENNIAL SURVEY OF EDUCATION, 1934-36 mately 15,000 were enrolled during the spring of 1935. The lowest enrollment of this type reported was 12 and the highest 684. Some of these colleges were called freshman colleges, emergency junior colleges, emergency colleges, and Federal junior colleges. State pro¬ grams of emergency colleges were carried on during 1935 in the following States: Michigan, Ohio, New York, New Jersey, and Con¬ necticut. Individual communities in many other States established them. e. Project in University Research The Federal Government through the Works Progress Administra¬ tion instituted in April 1936 a program of cooperative research under the administrative direction of the Office of Education, United States Department of the Interior. Eighty-five universities participated in the project known as the Project in Research in Universities. This program made available opportunities for professional employment to several hundred needy former college and graduate students in 33 important research studies of various kinds. Among the studies undertaken are those on “Student Mortality in Institutions of Higher Education,” the “Economic Status of College Alumni,” the “Relation between Certain Factors in High-School Education and Success in College,” “Teaching Loads in Engineering Schools,” “Professional Recognition of Engineers,” and “Teacher Opinion of Graduate Work.” Section III ADMINISTRATION AND CONTROL OF HIGHER EDUCATION 1. The Closing and Merging of Higher Institutions of Learning One of the apparent results of the economic depression was the closing or merging of a number of institutions. According to figures for the years 1933-34 to 1935-36, obtained from the Annual Directory of Higher Education, 31 institutions were closed and 22 institutions were reduced to 11 through merging. Of the institutions that were closed during the 3 years indicated, 18 were junior colleges, 3 were senior colleges, 6 were normal schools, 2 were teachers colleges, and 2 were professional schools. The principal loss was found for the junior colleges in 1933-34 when 10 were closed. On the other hand, twice as many mergers took place in 1935-36 as in 1933-34. Considering the fact that the grand total of higher institutions of learning reporting to the Office of Education in 1935-36 was 1,706, the changes indicated above do not appear to be very significant. 2. Administration of Higher Educational Institutions a. Increase oj Federal Aid to Higher Education Beginning with the passage of the Morrill Act of July 2, 1862, for the establishment and support of colleges of agriculture and the mechanic arts in the several States, Congress has passed 19 acts which are of financial benefit to higher educational institutions in this country. Of direct help to the land-grant colleges was the passing of the Bankhead- Jones Act on June 29, 1935. This act is “to provide for research into basic laws and principles relating to agriculture and to provide for the further development of cooperative agricultural extension work and the more complete endowment and support of land-grant colleges.” This law is administered in part by the Secre¬ tary of Agriculture and in part by the Secretary of the Interior. It provides initial sums for the three aspects of the bill beginning with 1936, as follows: For research, $1,000,000; “and for each of the 4 fiscal years thereafter $1,000,000 more than the amount authorized for the preceding fiscal year, and $5,000,000 for each fiscal year thereafter.” 13 ■ 14 BIENNIAL SURVEY OF EDUCATION, 1934-36 For cooperative agricultural extension work in agriculture and home- economics, beginning with the fiscal year 1936, $8,000,000, “and for the fiscal year following . . . the additional sum of $1,000,000 until the total appropriations authorized by this section shall amount to $12,000,000 annually, the authorization to continue in that amount for each succeeding fiscal year.” For the more complete endowment and support of the land-grant colleges beginning with the fiscal year 1936, $980,000 and “for the fiscal year following the first fiscal year for which appropriation is made, as just indicated, $500,000, and for each of the 2 fiscal years there¬ after $500,000 more than authorized to be appropriated for the pre¬ ceding fiscal year, and for each fiscal year thereafter $1,500,000.” 1 The total amount available from Federal sources to the land-grant colleges in 1934 was slightly more than $18,000,000. By the time the provisions of the Bankhead-Jones Act become fully available, the total income from Federal sources will reach the sum of more than $35,000,000. The Columbia Institute for the Deaf, located in Washington, D. C., is a national institution which has had the support of Congress since 1857.2 The Federal appropriation for 1936 was $132,000. This does not include $34,000, which is appropriated by the District of Columbia for the subcollegiate department. Howard University, Washington, D. C., has received Federal aid almost continuously since 1879. On December 13, 1928, Congress passed a law legalizing annual appropriations to Howard University which serves on a Nation-wide basis the needs of Negroes for higher and professional education. A 20-year program of cooperation of Congress with the trustees of the university involves a first-class build¬ ing program and additional funds for instruction and maintenance. The amount appropriated by the Federal Government in 1935-36 was as follows: For operation, $665,005.79; for buildings, $667,232.76; a total of $1,332,238.55. b. Changes in the Form of Higher Educational Administration in the States One of the major problems confronting the States for many years has been the need for the reorganization of the agencies of control of State-supported higher institutions of learning. The demands for greater efficiency and economy in college administration led at least 34 States to effect some form of consolidation of their boards of higher educational control prior to 1929. Between the latter year and 1937, i (H. R. 7160), Public, No. 182, 74th Cong. * Hill, David Spence, and Fisher, William Alfred. In Federal Relations to Education. Report of the National Advisory Committee on Education, pt. II. 1931. Pp. 72-74. 744 Jackson Place, Washington, D. C. HIGHER EDUCATION 15 five more States passed laws which unified the boards of control of higher educational institutions — Oregon, Georgia, North Carolina, Mississippi, and Rhode Island. Oregon, in 1909, tried to solve the problem by creating a State board of higher curricula. Although this proved helpful in eliminating certain duplications of curricula in competing institutions, neverthe¬ less the State saw fit in 1929 to abolish the board of higher curricula and also the governing boards of all State higher institutions of learning and in then* place set up a State department of higher education. This was directed by a board of nine members who were given authority to control the five institutions supported by the State. This new board was specifically charged with the unification of the functions of the institutions. Full power was given to the board to reorganize the work of each institution so as to eliminate unnecessary duplication in equipment, courses, schools, extension activities, summer sessions, offices, laboratories, and publica¬ tions. The law empowered the board to allocate all State funds for the support of higher education to the several institutions with this specific purpose in view.8 Georgia, in 1931, through its legislature abolished the separate governing boards for each of the 25 institutions of higher learning and research under State control. It created instead a single board of 11 members to control all of these institutions under the name “The Regents of the University System of Georgia.” This board came into legal existence in 1932. The executive officer of this board is known as the chancellor.3 4 North Carolina, in the same year, enacted a law abolishing as separate entities the State university, the agricultural and engineering college, and the women’s college. These three were then consoli¬ dated into a single unit known as the University of North Carolina. The separate boards of trustees were abolished and a single board assumed control of the new organization.5 Mississippi, in 1932, abolished the boards of trustees of the separate institutions of higher learning of the State and set up a single board known as the board ot trustees of State higher institutions of learning, to have the sole supervision and control of the university and the colleges supported and maintained by the State.6 Rhode Island, in 1935, created a division of colleges in the State department of education. In this department was set up a single board of regents consisting of 10 members who control Rhode Island State College and Rhode Island College of Education.7 This board replaced the separate boards of these two colleges. 3 McNeely, John H. The Problem of Duplication, U. S. Interior Department, Office of Education, Bull. 1934, No. 19, pp. 13-14. 4 Ibid., pp. 6-7. 3 Ibid., p. 10. • Mississippi Code, 1930, Annotated. 1933 Supplement, ch. 173. Art. 5. Secs. 7214-1 to 7305-4. 7 Rhode Island Public Laws, 1935. May Session, ch. 2250. 16 BIENNIAL SURVEY OF EDUCATION, 1934-36 c. State Reorganization Affecting Higher Education Although the changes just indicated have been made in the interest of efficiency or economy, in a number of States boards of trustees or regents have lost a part of their independent power through new or reorganized administrative units of State governments. Thus, the financial administration of a university, its personnel administration, or its purchasing departments, are brought under the corresponding divisions of the State executive authority so that the president and the board of trustees have lost much of their autonomy and freedom to act in matters of specific educational concern. Of particular interest ,are the cases where the governing board or boards of all higher institutions of learning were incorporated as one of the departments of the State government. In Georgia the board of regents of the university system of Georgia became in 1931 one of 13 departments of the government. In Maryland in 1932, the State University was incorporated within a department known as the 4 ‘State board of agriculture and regents of the University of Maryland . . . the teachers colleges were incorporated within the Department of Education.” Since 1925 New York has controlled all higher educational institutions through the State department of education. In eight other States governing boards of all State institutions of higher learning were incorporated within State administrative depart¬ ments and in all but two instances the change took place between 1929 and 1933. There are seven States in which some State executive official or agency other than the governing board has the authority to classify faculty members and to fix salary schedules. There are two States where this official may approve or disapprove salaries of faculty members as well as promotions, and there are four States where approval of additions to faculty is in his power. Furthermore, during the present year 1936-37, New York, Texas, and Arkansas, through their respective legislatures fixed salaries of all faculty members in the appropriation acts. d. Wayne University In 1933, the Detroit Board of Education united several higher insti¬ tutions of learning within the city under the name of Wayne Univer¬ sity. This coordination of higher educational units became the cap¬ stone of the Detroit public-school system. This organization is the only institution of its kind under the control of a city board of educa¬ tion chosen by the direct vote of the people. Under this type of management the several colleges have set up programs which meet the special needs of many different types of HIGHER EDUCATION 17 students. As Detroit is a vast industrial center it has been possible to utilize the many types of industrial, scientific, business, and municipal activities in the service of research and study. Under the present plan of administration the superintendent of schools is president of the university. However, the deputy super¬ intendent of schools is the executive vice president who actually administers the university. e. Higher Educational Finances (1) Income. — The financial situation of universities and colleges during the past few years has been exceedingly difficult. In 1919-20, the total income of higher institutions of learning, including universi¬ ties, colleges, teachers colleges, and normal schools was $240,141,994. Ten years later in 1929-30 this had nearly trebled having reached the sum of $631,130,337. Two laters later in 1931-32 the effects of the depression became apparent, the figure for that year being $451,996,- 833. In 1933-34 this dropped again to $388,680,849. Compared with 1929-30 this shows a loss in income of nearly 39 percent.8 Beginning with the year 1929-30, we find that the publicly controlled institutions had an income of $234,934,148. This figure dropped to $220,015,154 in 1931-32 and dropped further in 1933-34 to $183,547,- 506. Privately controlled institutions in 1929-30 had an income of $396,196,229; in 1931-32 this dropped to $231,981,679 and in 1933-34 it fell to $205,133,343, barely more than half of the income received 4 years before. (2) Increases indicated. — Reports from 296 universities and colleges for the year 1935-36 show an increase of 12.6 percent in receipts over 1933-34, including those for capital outlay.9 As these institutions are representative, it may be expected that college income will regain in the near future much that has been lost. (3) Income of privately controlled universities and colleges. — As pri¬ vately controlled institutions of higher learning depend to a large extent on income from endowment, it is of interest to observe the trends that have taken place respecting such income over a period of years, including those years which marked the economic depression. Comparative figures prepared by Walter Crosby Eells 10 show that for 176 institutions, each with endowments of $1,000,000 or more, there has been a steady rise in rate of income from endowments from 1920 to 1926 when the rate reached the high point of 5.08 percent. In 1933-34 the income was only 3.8 percent. It may be observed 8 Figures from Biennial Survey of Education for the years indicated. 6 College Receipts and Expenditures, 1935-36. Washington, U. S. Department of the Interior, Office of Education, Circular No. 167. 10 Income from Endowments. Journal of Higher Education, Vol. VII, No. 9, December 1936. Colum¬ bus, Ohio. Figures based on Statistics of Higher Education furnished by the Office of Education. 18 BIENNIAL SURVEY OF EDUCATION, 1934-36 that income from endowment had begun to decline considerably, even before the depression. Taking a selected group of institutions, each with endowments of $10,000,000 or more, it was found that the rate of income in 1919-20 was 4.69 percent. For each year following, the rates changed mostly upward until 1928-29 when the rate reached 5.37 percent. By 1932-33 it dropped to 4.38 percent. In 1933-34 it showed 4.39, a very slight increase. f. Higher Educational Institutions and Insurance and Annuity Plans Among the important problems of college administration that relate to the efficiency of the teaching staff and other institutional employees are those concerned with protection in old age. A recent study of the Office of Education has brought together valuable information show¬ ing the extent to which plans for the financial security of college and university personnel have been adopted.11 This study shows the growth of interest in the problem of social security, an interest which has recently received Federal recognition through the Social Security Act. Inquiry was made in 1934 of 642 colleges and universities. This number did not include junior colleges, separate teachers colleges, or normal schools. Returns showed that annuity or retirement plans were in operation in 313 institutions. College pensions were given to a limited extent as far back as colonial times, but modern interest in this service appears to have begun in 1890 and in the years immediately following when Columbia Univer¬ sity, Yale University, University of California, Harvard University, and Randolph-Macon Woman’s College, among others, set up pension systems for retired teachers. The pension plan for college teachers set up by Andrew Carnegie in 1906 was the first attempt to attack the problem of suitable college pensions on a broad scale. By 1918, the free pension plan of Car¬ negie as administered by the Carnegie Foundation was changed into a plan in which the teacher and college cooperated in making joint pay¬ ments on policies. This plan is operated under the Teachers Insur¬ ance and Annuity Association of America. At the same time, higher institutions of learning were beginning to utilize group insurance plans and other methods of insuring such as State teachers retirement systems and general State retirement sys¬ tems, which include among other State employees the care of faculties of publicly-controlled universities and colleges. To these should be added pension systems set up by denominational organizations. 11 Flanagan, Sherman E. Insurance and Annuity Plans for College Staffs, Office of Education Bulletin, 1937. No. 5. HIGHER EDUCATION 19 Today, 49 publicly controlled higher educational institutions have some form of pension or retirement system. Of these, 20 participate in public-teachers retirement systems, 16 use the plan of the Teachers Insurance and Annuity Association, and 11 have other forms of pro¬ tection. Of the 49 institutions mentioned, 37 have group-life insur¬ ance and 6 have group health and accident policies.12 Of the privately controlled institutions, 105 have retirement plans. Of these, 78 utilize the arrangements of the Teachers Insurance and Annuity Association and 27 utilize other plans. Fifty-four of the 105 institutions utilize the group insurance plans and 11 utilize group health and accident insurance.12 Among denominational colleges and universities, 56 depend on church resources as the basis for college retirement funds and 40 utilize other plans. Among teachers colleges 148 publicly controlled institutions and 1 privately controlled college had provisions for teachers’ pensions or retirement. Among Negro colleges, 13 were found to have made retirement pro¬ visions for their personnel. Summarizing, we find that of the 313 institutions under considera¬ tion, 106 utilized the retirement plans of the Teachers Insurance and Annuity Association; 94, State or city retirement systems; 56, church pension plans; 25, nonfunded plans of pay out of current income; 12, annuity plans administered by commercial companies; 15, funded plans administered by the institutions; 13, Carnegie pensions only.12 g. Personnel Work Personnel work in recent years has come to be one of the most important aspects of the services that the college renders to the student. Intimate relations often existed between teacher and student a half a century ago. There was a greater consciousness of the per¬ sonalities of his students, on the part of the professor and even the old-time college president was ex officio general father and adviser on all matters relating to student welfare. With the new century came such an increase in the number of students that some forms of mass teaching seemed necessary. Many of the intimate relations that grew up between students and teachers became more limited and students had to shift for themselves when it came to finding wise counsel on the many problems that are a part of their rather complicated educational life. The answer to this problem has been the development of personnel service which has undertaken to overcome the difficulties mentioned » Ibid. 20 BIENNIAL SURVEY OF EDUCATION, 193^36 and still better to give the student a much more complete type of assistance regarding his general needs in college. The growth of personnel work and its attendant problems has become phenomenal, especially during the past 10 years. In checking a recent bibliography on the subject, 618 items were found and 293 of these were reported between 1930 and 1934. Many of these were research studies. In fact, personnel service has come to be considered one of the three great functions of the college, the other two dealing with classroom instruction and with administration. (1) Number oj institutions reporting personnel departments . — Accord¬ ing to a survey 13 based on a study of 563 colleges that are members of the American College Personnel Association, 85, or 15 percent, of these have personnel departments. Table 1. Number and percentage of colleges and universities distributed according to enrollments reporting personnel service 1 Enrollment of college Number of colleges Colleges reporting per¬ sonnel service Number Percent Above 15,000 . . . . 5 5 100 10,000 to 15,000 . . . . . 9 7 78 6,000 to 10,000 _ _ _ _ _ 22 11 50 1,000 to 5,000 . . . . . . . . . 128 35 27 Oto 1,000 _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ 399 27 7 Total. . . . . . 563 85 15 1 Strang, Ruth. Personal Development and Guidance in College and Secondary School. New York and London. Harper and Brothers, Publishers, 1934, p. 33. It will be observed that the larger the institutions the greater proportions there are with personnel departments. (2) Principal types oj personnel organization. — Regarding this topic, reference is made to the comprehensive study of Ruth Strang. This indicates that as a personnel officer the dean of women stands first as far as numbers are concerned. Other types of officials include the dean of men, the registrar, the academic dean, the psychologist, faculty advisers, the college president, and student counselors. Strang has summarized the best methods of evaluating personnel work and has also assembled criteria of evaluation. Also studies relating to the selection and orientation of students as well as those relating to educational guidance have been summarized and evaluated in such a way as to aid the personnel worker in selecting the right data for the specific purpose in mind. Space does not permit a more complete study of developments in the field of personnel service in recent years. Nevertheless, attention is called to an important study is Walters, J. E. A Study of Personnel Activities in the Colleges and Universities that are members of the American College Personnel Association. In the Study of the Individual Student, Report of the Ninth Annual Meeting of the American College Personnel Association, 1932. pp. 7-18. HIGHER EDUCATION 21 of the personnel side of Negro colleges entitled, “A Background Study of Negro College Students’’, by Ambrose Caliver, senior specialist in the education of Negroes in the Office of Education. (Bulletin 1933, No. 8.) The data for this study concerns background factors and psychological scores of 1,880 Negro college freshmen taken from 33 Negro colleges distributed in 16 States and the District of Columbia. h. Measurement 14 In view of the far-reaching changes taking place’ in the purposes of collegiate education and the type of students now seeking collegiate education, it is not surprising that the newer methods of testing, some¬ times called objective testing, which developed first on the elementary and secondary levels have been extended to the college field. The use of the new-type test in college has expanded in many directions and has gone hand in hand with the expanding scientific approach to the selection and guidance of college students. The expansion has taken place in so many directions in the last few years that it is difficult to mention them all in a brief statement. With the backing of the American Council on Education, the Cooperative Test Service began a few years ago its work of test con¬ struction in the college field. This service in the last few years has developed some five forms of tests in each of the principal freshman college subjects and some others. More recently this service has inaugurated consultative assistance for aid in using its tests. These cooperative tests have been used widely for instructional and guidance purposes as well as for final examinations. To date this service has restricted its work to the measurement of achievement. The work of the Cooperative Test Service has recently been reviewed by a com¬ mittee of the American Council on Education 15 to determine what new directions this test service will take. The use of comprehensive tests has increased tremendously since the University of Chicago began its experiment of having students in their first 2 years of work study more or less independently and having these students examined in a few general fields rather than in specific courses. The main purpose in using such tests is to get at the larger principles involved in instruction, rather than the details of specific courses. E. S. Jones of the University of Buffalo recently made a study of this continued development.16 The use of general intelligence examinations and placement exami¬ nations in the admission and guidance of college students has continued h This section was prepared by David Segel, educational consultant and senior specialist in Tests and Measurements of the Office of Education. 15 The Testing Movement. American Council on Education Studies, Series I, Vol. I, No. 1 (February 1937). u Jones, E. S. Comprehensive Examinations in American Colleges. New York, Macmillan Co. 22 BIENNIAL SURVEY OF EDUCATION, 1934-36 to grow. The American Council on Education Psychological Exami¬ nation, the new Teachers College Psychological Examination issued bjr the Teachers College Personnel Association, the Thorndike Intelligence Examination for High School Graduates, the Ohio Psychological Examination, the Carnegie Mental Ability Test, and the Iowa Place¬ ment Examinations may be mentioned particularly in this connection. The development of scientific personnel work in colleges has been made possible through the use of different types of tests and rating procedures. Yale, Buffalo, Smith, Columbia, Stanford, and many others have either regularly organized personnel departments or individuals attached to the registrar’s or admission offices carrying on analyses of students’ abilities and interests through tests and ratings. Minnesota has created a special test division for carrying on testing activities. The organization of the Cooperative Test Service for the construc¬ tion of achievement tests has already been pointed out. However, not only has there been noted accomplishment in the organization of national testing services, but the new-type test in the college area has been considerably improved through studies made by Tyler and others. Tyler’s method is to get members of a college department ta cooperate in analyzing their course or courses into specific desired outcomes. Testing situations are then built to cover these outcomes. Through this method, a much better relation comes about between instruction and testing — one truly becomes integrated with the other. Tests better fitted to discover reading difficulties have been devised so that remedial instruction can be planned. Interest questionnaires- have been developed by Strong, McHale, Manson, Cleeton, and others- as an aid in guidance. Personality measurement and ratings are being experimented with in many institutions. A machine 17 has been developed which will make it possible to combine weighted scores on different tests instantly without mental computation or mechanical manipulation beyond that of inserting into the machine a sheet of paper, upon which the original scores have been recorded. The importance of this for the guidance movement in institutions which have large numbers of students to counsel is very great. Many studies of the use of tests and measurements in the college field or on the college-admission problem are being carried on. One of the most important of these is the Pennsylvania study sponsored by the Carnegie Foundation for the Advancement of Teaching. But President Walter A. Jessup of the Carnegie Foundation has stated recently “that we ought not to be too well satisfied with mechanical standards that are so easily measured.” 18 ” International Business Machine Corporation. is Jessup, Walter A. The Integrity of the American College from the Standpoint of College Administra¬ tion. Bulletin of the Association of American Colleges, March 1936. HIGHER EDUCATION 23 3. Educational Standards a. Standardizing Organizations The control of educational standards in colleges and universities differs greatly throughout the United States. Control of these standards does not in any case lie within the province of the Federal Government. It has come to be exercised in at least three different ways: First, through the States either through State departments of education or public instruction or through the State universities, or both; second, through privately controlled regional accrediting associ¬ ations; and, third, through national accrediting associations including the Association of American Universities and a number of associations, concerned with the professions. b. Changes in Standards of the North Central Association oj Colleges and Secondary Schools This extraordinary development of accreditation of higher institu¬ tions during the past 30 years led to the setting up of quantitative standards which enabled the associations to accredit readily the insti¬ tutions desiring recognition. As time went on, it was found that the standards used gave too much attention to the formal, easily measured factors such as the size of the endowment or income, the physical plant, formal education of teachers, number of books in the library rather than by the extent to which their programs achieved the realization of their objectives. After 3 years of careful study, the North Central Association adopted a new program for accrediting institutions of higher education April 1934. This program rests on the following basis: An institution will be judged for accreditment upon the basis of the total pattern it presents as an institution of higher education. While institutions will be judged in terms of each of the characteristics noted in this statement of policy, it is recognized that wide variations will appear in the degree of conformity realized. It is accepted as a principle of procedure that superiority in some characteristic may be regarded as compensating to some extent, for deficiencies in other respects. The facilities and activities of an institution will be judged in terms of the purposes it seeks to serve.19 Under the new plan, it is expected that the accrediting committees will serve to stimulate improved practices on the part of colleges rather than merely act as policemen in enforcing some formal standards. 19 Zook, George F., and Haggerty, M. E. The Evaluation of Higher Institutions of Education. Vol. I. Principles of Accrediting Higher Institutions, pp. 97-98. 24 BIENNIAL SURVEY OF EDUCATION, 1934-36 c. Accrediting of Engineering Curricula In 1932, an organization known as the Engineers' Council for Professional Development was established. The organization includes representatives of the five national engineering societies, the Society for the Promotion of Engineering Education, and the National Council of State Boards of Engineering Examiners. The general objective of the E. C. P. D. is the enhancement of the professional status of the engineer. To this end, it aims to coordinate and promote efforts and aspirations directed toward higher professional standards of education and prac¬ tice, greater solidarity of the profession, and greater effectiveness in dealing with technical, social, and economic problems. An immediate objective, now apparently practicable of attainment, is the development of a system whereby the progress of the young engineer toward professional standing can be recognized by the public, by the profession, and by the man himself, through the development of technical and other qualifications which will enable him to meet minimum professional standards. In the attainment of the objective of cooperation of the engineering profession and the engineering schools, there has been set up a committee on engineering schools which has for its purpose the accrediting of engineering schools. As there are now at least 35 States in which licensing of practicing engineers is required by law, it has become im¬ portant to help the engineering schools to realize those standards that will ade¬ quately prepare engineers to meet State licensing requirements. After careful consideration, the idea of accrediting institutions as a whole was abandoned in favor of accrediting the different undergraduate curricula. Thus, an institution might be able to meet the standard in one curriculum but not in another. The quantitative data required is obtained through approved forms and other factual sources while qualitative criteria is obtained by personal inspection through com¬ mittee groups especially chosen for the curricula or educational phases under investigation. In addition to the usual quantitative criteria, the following quali¬ tative criteria are used: Qualifications, experience, intellectual interests, attainments, and professional productivity of members of the faculty. Standards and quality of instruction, both in actual engineering departments and in scientific and other cooperating departments in which engineering students receive instruction. Scholastic work of students. Records of graduates both in graduate study and in practice. Attitude and policy of administration toward its engineering division and toward teaching, research, and scholarly production.20 There will be no rating of schools on the A. B. C. basis. By October 1936, 35 engineering schools had availed themselves of the services of the examining committee of the E. C. P. D. d. Universities and Colleges for Negroes In spite of many handicaps, the past 6 years has seen remarkable progress in Negro higher education. This is partly shown by the 20 Journal of Engineering Education, May 1936. pp. 695-697. HIGHER EDUCATION 25 number of institutions that have been accepted by the Southern Association of Colleges and Secondary Schools for inclusion on its accredited list as for December 4, 1936. In 1930, there were only five institutions listed as belonging to class B. By 1932, 14 institutions had been listed in the B class. By 1936, these 14 schools in addition to 2 others had obtained recognition as class A institutions. There are now listed 23 colleges, universities, and teachers colleges on the class B list. Between 1931 and 1936, four institutions were placed on the class A list of standard 2- year junior colleges. There are three junior colleges that are on the B list. These groups do not include a number of institutions for Negroes that are already on the lists of other regional accrediting associations. 25973- 38 - 3 Section IV THE STUDENT BODY 1. Gains and Losses in College Enrollments a. The Office oj Education Report The enrollments in higher educational institutions in 1929-30 were 1,121,154, but enrollments reached their peak in 1931-32 with 1,154,117 students. In 1933-34 the number dropped to 1,055,360, but only 1,418 institutions reported in 1933-34 as against 1,460 in 193 1-32. 1 The following table shows percentage gains and losses in enrollments for the biennium reported.1 Table 2. — Higher educational enrollments — Percent of gain or loss between 1931-82 and 1933-84 in all institutions reporting Institutions of higher learning Publicly con¬ trolled— percent Privately con¬ trolled— percent Total percent Gain Loss Gain Loss Gain Loss * 2 3 4 5 6 7 All institutions _ _ _ _ _ _ 6 g 7 Colleges of arts and sciences _ _ 1 5 Undergraduate professional schools _ 3 8 Graduate schools and departments of arts and sciences. Graduate professional schools and departments . 11 8 20 2 Summer sessions of degree-granting institutions _ 21 Degree-granting teacher-training institutions, regular sessions . . . . . 15 Degree-granting teacher-training institutions, sum¬ mer sessions . . . . . . . . 35 Non-degree-granting teacher-training institutions, regular sessions . . . . . . . 30 Non-degree-granting teacher-training institutions, summer sessions . . . . . 49 Examination of the table shows that the loss for all institutions was 7 percent. The publicly controlled colleges of arts and sciences are the only ones that registered an increase and only a slight one — 1 percent. In the publicly controlled graduate schools and depart¬ ments of arts and sciences and graduate professional schools, the losses are much greater than those under private control. The figures for summer session enrollments for degree-granting institutions not including teacher-training institutions show a loss of 1 For a complete study of the statistics of higher education see ch. IV of the Biennial Survey of Education in the U. S. Statistics of Higher Education. U. S. Department of the Interior, Office of Education, Bull. 1935, No. 2. 26 HIGHER EDUCATION 27 21 percent, in degree-granting teacher-training institutions 35 percent, and in non-degree-granting teacher-training institutions 49 percent. The figures for the regular sessions of degree-granting teacher¬ training institutions show a loss of 15 percent, and in non-degree¬ granting teacher- training institutions 30 percent. These losses were in part responsible for considerable activity on the part of the colleges to overcome them. These losses doubtless would have been much greater had it not been for the policy of the Federal Government in providing means by which needy students could help themselves financially while in college. Furthermore, recruiting of the students by the colleges was carried on in many places to an extraordinary extent. Partial reports seem to indicate that enrollments will return this year to the level of the year 1931-32. b. President Walters' Report In the annual report on enrollments in 593 approved universities and colleges, President Raymond Walters of the University of Cin¬ cinnati found that for the year 1936 there had been an increase in full-time enrollment over 1935 of 6.5 percent and in grand total enroll¬ ment of 7.3 percent. The number of freshmen enrolled in the fall of 1936 was 4.7 percent higher than in 1935.2 c. Factors Influencing Increase in College Enrollments Although enrollments in higher institutions have apparently in¬ creased during 1934-35 and 1935-36, there is some evidence that in the not distant future a stationary point in college enrollments may be reached. Rufus D. Smith, provost of New York University, gives as evidence the following developments: The birth rate has dropped so precipitously since 1921 that America faces during the current phase of its national life a slowly increasing, even a stationary popula¬ tion, in contrast to a rapidly increasing one. . . . All data point to the approaching end of American population growth. . . . Because of the decrease in the actual number of children born — a characteristic of the last 10 years — the school will be among the first of the social institutions to face adjustment. High-school enrollments have increased enormously throughout the United States, are still increasing, and should increase for several years to come. But by 1937 or 1938, generally speaking, losses in the elementary grades should be reflected in the freshman or ninth year, although the total high-school enrollment may continue to increase for a year or two longer due to the larger numbers in the upper years. College and university enrollments should continue to increase generally until the early years of the next decade. 2 Walters, Raymond. Statistics of Registration in American Universities and Colleges. School and Society, Dec. 19, 1936. 28 BIENNIAL SURVEY OF EDUCATION, 1934-36 It may well be that advanced and graduate enrollments in institutions of higher learning will increase for a number of years due to the stiffer competition for secure professional positions.* 3 Pointing to a trend related to the foregoing, we find the following statements prepared by Fred J. Kelly, Chief of the Division of Higher Education of the Office of Education: Although the increase in college enrollments has been marked, the percentage of high-school graduates entering college since 1900 has decreased. ... In 1900, the ratio was 1 college student to 2.2 secondary school students; in 1910, it was 1 to 3.3; in 1920, 1 to 4.2; in 1930, it was 1 to 4.4; and in 1934, it was 1 to 5.8. The ratio of secondary school students to college students, therefore, more than doubled in the 34 years.4 The factor of greatest significance in determining college enrollments is, however, entirely independent of the two observations noted above, namely: What per¬ centage of young people will continue their education beyond high school? And the related question, What percentage of adults will find in college and university the place for their continued education from time to time? There is much evidence that increasing percentages of youth will extend the period of their education to include college years. There is also evidence that colleges will play an ever-increasing part in programs of adult education. Until these two tendencies are appraised, it is impossible to say to what extent the lowering birth rates will result in the near future in stopping the increase in college enrollments.4 Attention is also called to the study made by President Wilkins of Oberlin College.5 d. Scholarships and Fellowships In 1931 the Office of Education published a report regarding scholar¬ ships and fellowships available at institutions of higher learning in this country as for the year 1927-28. The data obtained from colleges, universities, and professional schools not including, however, teachers colleges and normal schools, indicated that 402 institutions offered scholarships and fellowships and that 110 did not, although there were a number of schools that failed to give the necessary data. The 402 institutions reported awarding 34,013 scholarships, fellowships, and assistantships for that year. The range in annual value was from less than $50 to more than $1,500. Of these awards 21,168 were to men, 8,834 were to women, and in 4,011 cases the sex was not indicated. Undergraduate students were recipients of 28,928 awards, mostly scholarships, and 4,370 awards, mostly fellowships, were granted to graduate students. Of these recepients, 5,419 were required to render some form of service.6 * Smith, Rufus D. Population and Schools. The Journal of Educational Psychology, April 1936. Vol. IX, No. 8. New York University, New York, N. Y. 4 Kelly, Fred J. Statistics of Higher Education, School Life, October 1936. U. S. Department of the Interior, Office of Education. See also Kelly: Statement prepared especially for this section. » Wilkins, Ernest H. Major Trends in Collegiate Enrollments. School and Society, vol. 42, No. 1083, Sept. 28, 1935. « Ratcliffe, Ella B. Scholarships and Fellowships. U. S. Department of the Interior, Office of Education, Bulletin, 1931, No. 15. HIGHER EDUCATION 29 In 1936 the Office again published a report on scholarships and fellowships based on data for 1934-3 5. 7 In this report scholarships and fellowships are considered separately and teachers colleges and normal schools are included. Six hundred and seventy-four institutions reported available 66,708 scholarships as for 1934-35. The value of these was $8,863,082. One hundred and ninety institutions reported available 5,797 fellow¬ ships. The value of these was $2,577,478. (1) The Rhodes scholarships. — According to a statement by Frank Aydelotte, American secretary to the Rhodes trustees, the system of selection of Rhodes scholars in the United States was changed in 1929 so as to provide a certain flexibility as between the various States. Up to that time each State automatically received the same number of appointments, with the result that stronger candidates were neces¬ sarily refused in some States than those receiving the appointments in others. After a careful discussion, a plan was recommended to the Rhodes trustees by the ex-Rhodes scholars living in the United States and by a large number of American educational leaders, providing for a more flexibile system of selection. Thirty- two scholarships are assigned annually to the United States of America. The States of the Union are grouped into 8 districts of 6 States each for the purpose of making these 32 appointments. There is competition every year in every State. In each State there is a committee of selection which may nominate two candidates to appear before the district committee. Each district committee then selects from the 12 candidates so nominated not more than 4 men who will represent their States as Rhodes scholars at Oxford. The first selection under this new plan was made in 1930. The results during the 6 years since that time have surpassed all expecta¬ tions. The best Rhodes scholars are no better than they were before 1930, but the average of the whole group is very much higher, both as concerns intellectual attainment and the general personal qualifications which Mr. Rhodes specified in his will. 2. Recruiting of Students In view of the decrease in income of colleges, as well as the decrease in enrollments during the depression, many colleges felt obliged to stimulate attendance by various means of recruiting. The recruiting of college students has long been practiced with little criticism, but the results of the depression led a number of colleges to carry recruiting practices to extremes. The use of commercial high-pressure sales- 7 Scholarships and Fellowships. Washington, U. S. Department of the Interior. Office of Education, Bulletin, 1936, No 10. 30 BIENNIAL SURVEY OF EDUCATION, 1934-36 manship methods, misrepresentation of other colleges by recruiting agents of certain institutions, the using of scholarships as bait instead of using these for worthy and needy students, overenthusiastic state¬ ments by the field representative as to opportunities as his institution, the “underbidding” of tuition and other fees by a school when a student has practically decided to matriculate in another college, duplication in high-school visiting by various colleges, the offering of monetary inducements to prospective students are among some of the practices which have come under condemnation. In view of the exceptional competition among many of the colleges in Ohio, The Ohio College Association, October 1934, laid plans for a critical fact-finding study to deal with the problem of student recruit¬ ing. The results of this investigation were made public in the “Report of the Committee on College Entrance Commissioned to Study Student Recruiting” by R. W. Ogan, chairman of the Ohio College Association Committee on College Entrance. Fifty-eight colleges of the State gave full cooperation and seven gave partial cooperation in submitting the data requested. The inquiry covered five main points: The student capacity of the college or university, enrollment and graduation trends, the recruiting methods and practices of the institution, recommendations of the college, and cer¬ tain general questions as to future financial and educational policies such as ; ( a ) the good purposes that the student recruiting program is destined to serve, ( b ) what modifications in recruiting and high-school guidance policies are needed in order to effect a more satisfactory college enrollment; and (c) what practices would doubtless be listed as being unworthy of the high standards of professional ideals which befit institutions of higher learning. With respect to question (a) the answers were quite varied. A few are quoted: “to make the high-school graduate acquainted with the university”; “to awaken young people to a greater realization of the values and possibilities of higher education”; “personal contacts through recruiting give the college added information as to fitness of students for admission and of need for financial assistance”; “to help parents see the value of college education.” With respect to question (6), the following answers are significant: “Recruiting agents should not misrepresent other institutions”; “the underbidding of tuition and other fees by agent when student has already matriculated . in another college should be banned”; “the baiting of students with offers of scholarships when they should be offered only to the needy is very objectionable”; “undue stress on the importance of a particular college rather than on the value of college education is also objectionable.” HIGHER EDUCATION 31 As to question ( c ) the answers indicate disapproval of the above- mentioned practices as well as many others.8 In the minds of some, improper student recruiting began to be emphasized when agents started to solicit high-school athletes as football stars. Rivalry for football material led to the offering of jobs, scholarships, and money. These tactics are coming to be used in the selection of basketball players, bandmasters, track stars, and so on. At the same time, it is recognized that recruiting agents are paid to get results, consequently many agents have in self-protection gone to some extremes. As a remedy, it has been suggested that the approach to students should be made by a college in cooperation with other colleges. Interest in the student should come ahead of interest in a college.9 « Ogan, R. W. Report of the Committee on College Entrance Commissioned to Study Student Recruit¬ ing. Ohio College Association, 1935. # Bulletin, American Association of Collegiate Registrars, July 1936. p. 313. Articles by President Charles J. Turck, Center College, Kentucky, and Bland L. Stradley, Ohio State University, Columbus. Section V THE TEACHING STAFF 1. Gains and Losses in Teaching Staffs The statistics of higher education of the Biennial Survey of Education indicate that there was only a negligible decrease in the number of teachers employed in all higher educational institutions between 1931— 32 and 1933-34. Although there was a 7-percent loss in enrollments during the same period, it is evident that teachers were not hit so hard by the economic depression as were the students. As indicated in a following section, the colleges resisted as much as possible any staff reductions, although many teachers suffered salary cuts. The tendency to reemploy teachers who had been dropped naturally followed as soon as conditions improved. In fact, universi¬ ties, colleges, and professional schools showed a slight gain while teach¬ ers colleges showed some loss. But a considerable part of this loss can be attributed to the change in status of several large State teachers colleges, which became State colleges, without any real change in their organizations or functions. Consequently, the losses and gains in these groups are more apparent than real. 2. Academic Freedom of Speech, and Tenure In connection with the World War, considerable feeling was aroused by the expression of intense opinion and by arbitrary acts of institu¬ tions and individuals. At that time, the issues relating to academic freedom of speech and tenure, had not as yet been clearly defined and this added to additional misunderstanding and ill-feeling in higher educational circles. In view of this situation a number of prominent university presidents as well as the American Association of University Professors carefully analyzed existing conditions and the latter or¬ ganization made defense of the rights of college teachers, and also recommended what it considered to be a proper procedure in dealing with cases involving academic freedom. For a full decade the seas of academic freedom remained reasonably calm and only about 30 cases came before the association for considera¬ tion during that time. But with the advent of the depression, prob¬ lems relating to economic and social conditions of the country multi¬ plied and many cases arose in our higher institutions of learning where individual theories came into conflict with institutional tradi- 32 HIGHER EDUCATION 33 tions. The extent to which these cases relating to academic freedom increased between 1928 and 1935 is shown in the following table: Table 3. — Cases relating to academic freedom and tenure between 1928 and 1935 1 1928 1929 1930 1931 1932 1933 1934 1935 > *1 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 Cases pending Jan. 1 . . . . . . 10 5 10 8 20 7 8 11 New cases opened during the year . . . 19 17 27 63 66 69 40 56 Old cases removed . . . ... ... 3 1 4 9 12 7 Total cases dealt with during the year _ 29 25 38 75 86 85 60 74 Cases apparently closed during the year _ _ 24 15 30 55 79 77 49 61 Cases pending Dec. 31. .. _ _ 5 10 8 20 7 8 11 13 Table 4. — Methods of handling cases 1928 1929 1930 1931 1932 1933 1934 1935 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 Cases withdrawn . . . . . . . 2 6 11 7 20 16 5 18 Cases reported requiring no action _ ... . 14 3 9 42 41 32 28 Cases in which statements have been made or planned without visit _ _ _ 6 6 3 7 3 6 0 2 Cases in which visits of inquiry or investigation have been made or planned . . . . . . 2 7 6 9 12 9 10 14 Cases otherwise handled _ . . _ _ _ 5 3 9 10 10 22 17 13 Total cases.. . . . . . . 29 25 38 75 86 85 60 74 1 Bulletins of the American Association of University Professors, 19: 91-9?, February 1933, and 23: 103- 104, February 1937. With respect to table 3, if we consider the total number of cases dealt with during the 3 years 1928 to 1930 with those dealt with from the 5 years 1931 to 1935, we find that the average number for the 3 years wras approximately 31. For the 5 years following, the average is 76 each year, or considerably more than double the average for the 3 years preceding. The largest number of cases considered were in the years 1931, 1932, 1933. In the year 1934 there was a large drop, with some increase again in 1935. The handling of these cases as enumerated in table 4 indicates that much of the agitation which developed prior to 1930 had begun to subside by 1931 as showm by withdrawals, the large number of cases rejected for consideration by the American Association of University Professors, and the number that required no action. That so many of the complaints could be disposed of without action on the part of the association is an indication of the natural desire of institutions and individuals to settle their difficulties privately. Nevertheless, dissatisfaction on the part of the public as wrell as on the part of thinking men is but the natural result of existing condi- BIENNIAL SURVEY OF EDUCATION, 1934-36 34 tions. President Frank P. Graham, of the University of North Carolina, pointed out that — The break-down of our economic order, recently accepted as one of those automatic, inevitable, and cyclical depressions, is coming to be considered the result of an undue lack of social intelligence and guidance. . . . We of the colleges and universities, in which leaders in church, State, industry, and business are trained, must share heavily in the responsibility for this social drift and economic break-down. A host of men and women leave college every year with too little understanding of the ethical implications of the social drift and the human con¬ sequences of economic disorder.* 1 (a) Views oj leaders on academic freedom. — In view of the evidences of unrest in the academic world it may be of interest to call attention to statements from a number of leaders in government and education. At Howard University on Charter Day, March 2, 1936, Harold L. Ickes, Secretary of the United States Department of the Interior said: So necessary is education to the upholding of our institutions that we should not let any crisis, however great, interfere with its orderly progress. . . . Education must be free from any upheaval that would seek to poison or dilute the sources of truth in order to build up a body of opinion that either would be at the willing service of special interests or inimical to the ideals upon which our Government was founded. There must be no curtailment of academic freedom — freedom to trail truth into its most secret hiding place; freedom to proclaim the truth when found and verified; freedom to live one’s life with the window of the soul open to new thoughts, new ideas, and new aspirations. Certain people today are not only encouraging, they apparently are leading what appears to be a deliberate and concerted onslaught on academic freedom. In the final analysis, our colleges and universities are citadels, not only of our liberties but of civilization itself. Chancellor Samuel P. Capen of the University of Buffalo has pointed out that — Democracy is committed by its very premises to toleration of differences of opinion. Out of the clash of conflicting opinions, accompanied by unrestricted discussion, popular decisions are crystallized. As the result of these decisions changes are deliberately repudiated. The democratic method is the opposite of the method of the propagandist. The propagandist is a person with a formula and a closed mind. The democratic method is experimental and connotes open- mindedness. And yet democracy tolerates the propagandist because it stands for the right of everyone to express his own opinion no matter how abhorrent the opinion may be to the majority, and even though the opinion may be demon¬ strably wrong. Democracy does not deal in repressions at all. Inherent in it is the thesis that dissenting minorities shall suffer no disability. It uses force only against those of its citizens who contravene its laws or who seek by violence to overthrow it.2 The statement made by Chancellor Chase of New York University before the National Industrial Conference Board on a recent occasion regarding the responsibilities involved in academic freedom is also significant. > Graham, Frank P. Report of the President of the University of North Carolina. December 1934. No. 293. University of North Carolina Press, Chapel Hill, N. C., p. 9. i Capen, Samuel P. Address at the University of Buffalo, June 9, 1935. HIGHER EDUCATION 35 Referring to the fact that some foreign universities have become training schools of propaganda, he also pointed out — that every freedom carries with it its responsibility. On the part of a member of a university faculty that responsibility involves the obligation not to confuse propaganda with education; on the platform of the advocate with the chair of the lecturer. There are individuals who have forgotten that responsibility. Just as individual bankers and individual industrialists who have forgotten that their freedom also included a responsibility to the public. But to indict faculties as groups is just as absurd and preposterous as to indict bankers as a class or indus¬ trialists as a class. One of the growing tendencies and, I think, one of the most disturbing tendencies is the tendency to distrust and to regiment the many on account of the failures of the few. Moneychanger and college professor have both come in for their share of that indoor sport.* 3 At the tercentenary celebration of the founding of Harvard University, President Roosevelt in addition to President Conant and President Angell emphasized the importance of freedom of thought. 3. The Effect of the Depression on Faculty Members A careful study of the effect of the depression and recovery on higher education has been made under the direction of Committee Y of the American Association of University Professors. The plan of the report of this committee is comprehensive and the final study should prove to be of great value in helping to understand numerous problems that have come to the surface in recent years in higher educational institutions. At this time attention is called to certain of the findings of the committee particularly as they relate to employ¬ ment, salaries, promotion, and tenure, as well as general effect of the depression. A selected number of institutions, 96 all told, representing colleges, universities, and teachers colleges was the source of factual data. Territorial institutions, Negro institutions, independent professional schools, normal schools, and junior colleges were not included. Of the 96 institutions, 47 were eastern, 15 were southern, and 34 were western; 45 were publicly supported, 31 were privately supported, and 20 were church supported.4 a. Employment The total staff of the combined (96) institutions is for the academic year 1935-36 slightly larger than it was in 1930-31, in which year, according to testimony, most institutions were unaffected by depression circumstances. Gross staff size actually showed an increase in 1931-32 over 1930-31. There is some evidence to suggest that 1931-32 represented a peak year in faculty size. The committee data show that the drop in faculty size occurred in the years 1932-33 and 1933-34. 1 Chase, Harry Woodburn. Before the National Industrial Conference Board. May 28, 1936. Twentieth Annual Report of National Industrial Conference Board, New York, N. Y. 4 Bulletin of the American Association of University Professors, 22: 168-181, March 1936. 36 BIENNIAL SURVEY OF EDUCATION, 1934-36 Since then there has been an increase in aggregate staff to a point higher than any year for which data are available. This “recovery” appears to follow about 2 years behind the beginning of the general business up-swing, which is commonly dated as occurring in the summer of 1932. Instructors were the ones that suffered the most in the decline of employment. Those of higher rank than instructors, on the whole, held their positions. Between 1934 and 1936 the number of instruc¬ tors increased again, but the losses have not been quite made up. b. Salary Reductions Eighty of the ninety-six institutions cut salaries, 15 did not, and one reply “indicated no cut, but failure to pay in full.” Of those that did not cut, 14 of the cases were in the East and 1 was in the South ; 1 1 were private institutions, 2 were public, and 2 denominational. Size does not appear as a significant fac¬ tor conditioning the reduction of salaries. c. Salary Restorations Forty-five of the eighty-one nstitut ons that reduced salaries had made no restoration of the reductions up to November 1935; 32 had; and no information was given in 4 cases. . . . The analyzers of the restorations reveal that the East is leading. In the South the proportion of restorations is only slightly smaller than for the East. In the West only 35.3 percent of the institutions in the sample have restored previous cuts in whole or in part (East, 43.8 percent; South, 42.9 percent). Sen¬ sitive to changing economic conditions in the first instance, the western educa¬ tional institutions exhibit a greater inertia in later readjustment. d. Promotions More promotions carrying a salary increase were made effective in 1935-36 than were made for 1931-32. e. Appointment Policies Thirty of the ninety-six institutions failed to reappoint instructors as an economy measure between 1930-31 and 1935-36. . . . In 47 of the institutions under consideration there was failure to fill vacancies above the rank of instructor as an economy measure. . . . f. Tenure Policy In 47 of the 96 institutions all appointments are now made for 1 year regard¬ less of rank. At 48 of the institutions some differential prevails. There was no information in one case. The model pattern for differential appointments is: Professors and associate professors, indefinite terms of service; assistant profes¬ sors, 2 to 3 years of service; instructors, 1 year, almost without exception. . . . HIGHER EDUCATION 37 g. The Reaction oj Faculties to the Depression A partial statement summarizing some of the findings of Commit¬ tee Y as to the actual effect of the depression on faculty members is given herewith: Few college faculty members and their families felt actual want or privation. Their problems were, rather, those of adjusting a standard of living and an “overhead” built on the assumption of continued and increasing income to a suddenly decreased income. A second impression emerging from a reading of the personal statements is that “appearances” loom large in the life of faculty families. There were many institutions in which adjustment to the depression was made without friction between staff and administration. At other institutions there was hidden hostility that took many forms, all of which were conducive to the destruction of faculty morale.5 4 Bulletin of the American Association of University Professors, 22: 377-389, October 1936. Section VI COLLEGE ORGANIZATION AND INSTRUCTION 1. The Junior College Among higher institutions of learning in this country, the junior colleges are reaching a position of increasing importance. Latest statistics (1936) show that there are now at least 554 junior colleges of all types, which is nearly a third of all institutions of higher learning. According to a recent study 1 (from which the four following para¬ graphs are quoted with slight changes), of the junior colleges listed and classified for 1935, 441 are for white students of which 190, or 43 percent, were publicly controlled; 153, or 34.7 percent, were under church control; and 98, or 22.3 percent, were under independent con¬ trol. To these may be added 22 for Negroes, 15 branch colleges, and 57 miscellaneous small colleges as well as quite a number that have not been classified. Privately controlled independent junior colleges predominate in New England and the Middle Atlantic States; denominational or church junior colleges are most frequent in the South Atlantic and East South Central States; publicly controlled junior colleges are most common in the West North Central, Mountain, and Pacific States; while in the East North Central States the junior colleges, although fewer in number than in other areas, are about equally distributed among the three types. According to figures for 1933-34, 149 public junior colleges were operated as follows: 51 were administered as independent units in the public system of education ; 64 were administered by a separate execu¬ tive under the city superintendent of public schools; 29 were adminis¬ tered as a part of a high school; and 9 were administered otherwise. The majority of these institutions (128) were organized on a basis of 2 years above high-school graduation, while 21 claimed other organiza¬ tion plans including 1 to 4 years of high school in addition to a 2-year junior college. State laws governing the establishment of public junior colleges generally con¬ sider the public junior college as an upward extension of the high school and treat the junior college as a part of the secondary school system. 1 Greenleaf, Walter J. Junior Colleges. U. S. Department of the Interior, Office of Education, Bulletin 1936, No. 3. 38 HIGHER EDUCATION 39 A recent survey of the junior colleges of California * 2 shows to a large extent, at least for that State, that the junior college is a ter¬ minal institution for a large proportion of its student body. Of the 6,962 junior college students that expected to enter a higher educa¬ tional institution of their choice, only 1,956, a little more than a quarter of these, entered, and only 1,160 finally graduated from the institutions named. Of all the students who planned to enter some California university or college, 29 percent entered, but only 17.5 percent actually graduated. Of the 16.9 percent who entered some college or univer¬ sity outside of California, only 7.7 percent actually graduated. Of 252 junior college students who expected to enter teachers colleges, 102 entered and 68 actually graduated. Of 273 who expected to enter the major professions, 54 entered and 36 graduated. Of the 6,437 remaining who expected to enter some other type of college, 1,795 entered and 1,056 graduated. In Mississippi,3 it was found that of 534 junior-college sophomores who in January 1934 expected to enter other institutions after gradua¬ tion, only 313, or less than 60 percent, actually did so. Although the depression doubtless had a negative influence on the students by hindering some in carrying out their objectives, neverthe¬ less these facts seem to indicate that the terminal function of the junior college is of great importance especially in the case of publicly controlled schools. a. Success oj Transfer Students from Junior Colleges in a State University Another important aspect of the relation of the junior college to later education has recently been studied at the University of Arkan¬ sas.4 A comparison was made of the educational work of junior college students who transferred to the University of Arkansas and entered the junior class, with those students who took all their work at the university. Between 1928 and 1932, 215 transfers to the university were made from State, city, and private junior colleges. The number of students in the control group who did all their work at the university was 436. Without discussing the technique or other details we call attention to certain findings. Transfer students made significantly higher marks during their junior-college years than did the native students during their first 2 years at the university. The native students made significantly higher marks during their senior-college years than did the transfer students. The probable explanations of these differences are: (a) Less rigid marking standards in the junior colleges than in the university, and (6) Less satisfactory status of transfer than of native students on one or more of such factors as training ability, interests, etc. 3 Eells, Walter Crosby. Intentions of Junior College Students. The Junior College Journal, vol.XII, No. 1, October 1936. 3 Kirby, P. Walker. A Check of Student Expectations. Junior College Journal, 5: 345-346, April 1936. * Kerr, Fred L., and Gerberich, J. R. College Scholarship and Persistence of Transfer Students from Junior Colleges. Bulletin of the American Association of Collegiate Registrars, 11: 1-17, October 1935. 40 BIENNIAL SURVEY OF EDUCATION, 1934-36 2. The Liberal Arts and Sciences a. Subject-Matter Organization versus The Individual Student Historically, the pendulum has tended to swing between the values assigned to a well-knit curriculum with definitely limited subject matter and the values assigned to new and rapidly developing knowl¬ edge which has not been organized or utilized in traditional fashion. It appears that there is destined to be an eternal struggle between traditional subject-matter and that which is new and evolving. In either case, the problem is one involving the adjustment of the student. The problem or problems might be relatively simple if either of the elements — the subject matter or the student — remained more or less constant. That is, if the student body continued to be more homogeneous and of high caliber, a wiser utilization of subject matter might be made; or, if subject matter was not so changing or spread out, different types of student abilities might more readily be brought into adjustment. The Middle Ages and the early Modern Period of history had a relatively limited but well-organized content of knowledge, and the universities of the period were crowded with vast numbers of students of all types and ages, far greater in attendance than is the case even in our largest universities. Yet, by a simple yet severe series of examinations, theses and disputations, the talented and perseverant ones obtained their degrees whether baccalaureate, master’s, or doctor’s. But the latter part of the nineteenth century and the beginning of the twentieth have showed unbelievable expansion in nearly all fields of subject matter, and this subject matter has not been limited to the use of a relatively few great universities such as those typical of medieval times, but tins vast educational deposit has been more or less appropriated by hundreds of small colleges and would-be univer¬ sities in addition to the relative^ few institutions properly manned and equipped for real college and university activity. This condition might have been overcome had the relative homogeneity of the student body been maintained such as it was during the colonial period of our history, but the vast and swelling movement of democracy caught hold of our higher institutions of learning before a rational and easy control of subject matter was possible. So the individual student has suffered accordingly. The movement headed by President Eliot in 1870, who sponsored at Harvard the elective system, was perhaps the first real attempt to adapt the great masses of subject matter to the individual. In many cases under wise counsel such adaptation was successful. Under poor counsel or supervision the elective system was a failure and much of HIGHER EDUCATION 41 the history of higher education during the past 30 years has been the matter of trying to overcome the weakness in the elective system. One of the main evils of the elective system not immediately obvious was the credit-hour or semester-credit plan. This gradually brought college education under a mechanical system which, combined with existing teaching methods tended to tlrwart the development of scholarship and the proper recognition of the student’s personality. Although the traditional classical homogeneous 4-year college curricu¬ lum had begun to surrender to more modern needs, the challenge to liberal arts and sciences did not appear serious until the time of the World War about 1917 and following. New* readjustments of society called increasingly for a practical or utilitarian type of education. Practical and immediate applications of scientific and economic theories were everywhere in demand. Since the World War all through the period of prosperity up until about 1930, specialized courses and curricula in general and profes¬ sional fields were being multiplied. The popularization of secondary education and the demands of business for college-trained men were responsible for the vast flood of students wdio, with good reason, saw in college education a means to an immediate livelihood and financial reward. It is during this period that the liberal arts colleges in their different forms found themselves under a competition that was decidedly threatening. On the one hand they were coming into competition with professionalized education, technical and commercial education, and the junior colleges, and on the other hand the accrediting agencies were making it increasingly difficult for many of the colleges to meet the financial as well as the educational standards set up. Such conditions tended to kill the spark of intellectual and spiritual life in the colleges. While caught in this powerful vise, the leaders in the arts and science institutions began to seek escape. Some of these difficulties began to be disposed of when the North Central Association began to revise, in a fundamental manner, its method of accrediting. Again, the leaders sought to create a national movement to overcome the difficulties. b. Experiments in College Education Accompanying this outward activity, which has the support of the Association of American Colleges and other agencies, we find another form of activity in behalf of liberal arts education which is of great significance. A large number of colleges began a serious study of the problems relating to education in the arts and sciences. Experi¬ ments were undertaken and changes were made with the purpose of correcting defects in existing theories and practices. Although a 25973—38 - 4 42 BIENNIAL SURVEY OF EDUCATION, 1934-36 number of experiments had been undertaken during the earlier period, yet experimentation did not take on its present extraordinary scope until about the time of the beginning of the depression. In 1930 there was a real feeling of alarm among the colleges, nevertheless the literature published during the past 5 or 6 years seems to show that the fears of the liberal arts colleges have not materialized as earlier predictions seemed to indicate. The great increase in the number of junior colleges, the expansion of urban universities, the growth of professional and technical schools have drawn no doubt on liberal arts college attendance and support. Nevertheless, partly as the result of the trying period of the depression much of the expansion in the aforementioned fields received some check. Specialized curricula and schools are expensive and money was not so readily available. The sobering effects of trial or suffering have seemed to teach many students as well as teachers that “man cannot live by bread alone” even in educational life. And utilitarian courses having partially failed in their utility, the more permanent or more funda¬ mental values began to receive increased recognition. Statistical evidence is not available nor possible in support of some of these observations, nevertheless many utterances and activities of higher educational leaders in all types of higher educational insti¬ tutions add their weight of evidence. (1) Character of recent experiments and changes. — Most of these ex¬ periments, if not all, have been brought together, classified, and evaluated in the Thirty-first Year Book, Part II, of the National Society for the Study of Education under the title “Changes and Experiments in Liberal Arts Education.” These authors, after careful study of the evidence, came to the conclusion that the phases of experimental change most significant for the improvement of liberal arts education were these: Deviations from the 4-year homogeneous unit; the reorganization of content to emphasize fields of learning; honors work, the tutorial method, and general examinations; the adjustment of the curriculum to the indi¬ vidual student; learning through experience; the junior year abroad; achievement tests and substitutes for course credits. Reference is made in the Year Book to 128 experiments and changes, and of these 57 types have been summarized. But this does not sig¬ nify so much unless there is realization of the large number of colleges and universities that have been experimenting or that have made changes in one or more phases of liberal arts college activities. We find that under the first general topic, “Care and Direction of Students,” there are 12 types of changes and experiments in which there are 405 cases of institutional participation; under the second general topic, “Curriculum and Instruction,” there are 25 types of changes and experiments in which there are 688 cases of institutional participation; under the third general topic, “Organization and Ad- HIGHER EDUCATION 43 minis tration,” there are 20 types of changes and experiments in which there are 229 cases of institutional participation. When we consider that 315 colleges of liberal arts were participants, it is evident that many institutions have been experimenting and changing in more than one type of activity or function, the rough average falling be¬ tween four and five for each college. c. Present Trends In the fight of the critical attitudes of expert authorities as to the existing conditions in the colleges, it is somewhat difficult to generalize with truth as to present-day tendencies. Yet, the examination of the viewpoints of a number of leaders seems to indicate that there is ordered progress in most of our colleges. There is evident agreement that the needs of the individual student are of paramount importance and that a general education is of the highest significance in the development of the student from the stand¬ point of the growth of his own nature and from the standpoint of preparation for specialized and professional training. Different types of colleges may differ as to the best methods of attaining these objectives.* * * * 6 In a number of independent 4-year colleges and in a few colleges connected with larger universities, the needs of the student are met by close contact of the student with his teacher or tutor. It may take the form of a variant of the Oxford plan such as exists at Harvard and Yale or in such colleges as Swarthmore and Olivet. In another group of universities where residence halls and tutorial methods are not practicable, the student receives valuable help through personnel organizations which look after his special interests and needs. In other universities, the horizontal division of the 4-year college into the 2-year so-called General College, or the junior college and the senior college, serves the purposes of general education and at the same time functions in the selection of more homogeneous student groups from a scholastic standpoint. Notable examples of this type are found at the University of Florida and the University of Minnesota. This appears to be in fine with a tendency to divide the 4-year college unit,6 although Robert L. Kelly indicates that about 500 institutions recognize no significant horizontal division. In 4-year technological institutions, whether independent or a part of a larger system, the tendency is to reconsider objectives from the standpoint of general training and their relation to specialization.7 * McHale, Kathryn, and Speek, Frances Valiant. Newer Aspects of Collegiate Education. American Association of University Women, 1634 I Street, NW., Washington, D. C.f 1936. a Gray, William S. Recent Trends in American College Education. Chicago, Ill., University of Chicago Press. 1931; also Wilkins, E. H. Current Trends in Higher Education. In Bulletin of the Association of University Professors, Vol. XVII. No. 2, February 1931. 7 John, Walton C. and Hammond, H. P. Graduate Work in Engineering in Universities and Colleges in the United States. U. S. Department of the Interior. Office of Education, Bulletin 1936, No. 6, pp. 65-68. 44 BIENNIAL SURVEY OF EDUCATION, 1934-36 It is the view that specialization in a field of study must involve thorough mastery, consequently, for such specialization study beyond the undergraduate level is required. This allows for a more complete and thorough grounding in the general or fundamental subjects. There is also a tendency toward a greater synthesis in the college curriculum. Administratively, this has been accomplished in part by the breaking down of narrow departmental barriers and to group and coordinate subject matter in a more purposive manner. Nearly 400 colleges have effected such coordinations.* * 8 Warning has been given, however, that the tendency to increase offerings in the liberal arts courses is dangerous as specialization will tend to follow to such an extent as to professionalize the college. It has been pointed out that 20 percent of liberal arts courses might well be abolished and 20 percent transferred to the graduate school.9 Although recognition must be given to a certain amount of special¬ ization in the college, it is evident that few can gain sufficient knowl¬ edge and wisdom during the 4-year undergraduate program that will enable them to pass critical judgment on the complicated problems of our society. Education should teach us the place of expert knowledge or opinion. In this day of specialization, only those who devote their lives to the given specialty can be expected to possess adequate information to counsel wisely on any great field of human interest. We do not regard it necessary to read the medical journals and the mining journals in order that we majr have an informed opinion on these questions. No, we take the word of scholars in these fields and teach it in the schools.10 A good college education should give, therefore, the bases for critical judgment of what constitute the essential problems, and the value and meaning of expert advice of the specialist as well as the ability to correlate and synthesize some of these factors appropriately. Finally, in the words of President Aloysius J. Hogan of Fordham University, “The great purpose of a general education is to give the student a view of life and an attitude toward life in its totality, because the difficulty oj the modern trend in education is caused largely by the fact that it has tried to departmentalize education as men have tried to departmentalize life.” 11 Such a difficulty largely may be overcome by a reemphasis on attitudes and purposes. s Kelly, Robert L. Current Curriculum Trends. Bulletin of the Association of American Colleges, Vol. XXI. No. 4. December 1935. 8 Hibbard, Addison. School and Society, Aug. 20, 1932. i® Kelly, Fred J. How Education Can Assume Its Responsibility for Social Betterment. Before Na¬ tional Council of Education of the N. E. A. June 30, 1932. p. 11. National Education Association, Wash¬ ington, D. C. 11 Statement made to author. HIGHER EDUCATION 45 3. Adult Education in the Colleges a. Changes in Enrollments Adult education on the higher educational level has become in¬ creasingly important within recent decades. In 1932 there were 265,205 students enrolled in extension or correspondence courses in universities, colleges, and teacher-training institutions. As the fig¬ ures reported prior to 1932 included noncollegiate students, it is im¬ possible to make any earlier comparison with the figures of 1932 and later years. In 1934, the number reported was 208,507 indicating a considerable drop, doubtless to be attributed to the depression.12 It should be understood that the colleges in many cases have been offering noncollegiate correspondence and extension courses. In 1932, 174,296 persons were taking advantage of such offerings. b. Urban Universities The Association of Urban Universities included 32 universities, colleges, and technical institutions that have large and important urban or municipal constituencies. Among the most significant aspects of the programs of these institutions is the special extension or off-campus courses that are available to the adult members of their constituencies. Statistics 13 show that the total enrollments of the institutions represented by this group in 1930-31 wTas 198,973. In 1931-32 this figure dropped to 181,654, a loss of 8.1 percent. In 1932-33 the figure increased to 183,804, or 1.2 percent over the pre¬ ceding year. In 1933-34 a large increase w&s shown, the figure being 193,623, or an increase of 5.3 percent over the preceding year. This figure lacks little of the total for the year 1930-31 already referred to. The number of students taking extension courses in institutions of this group in 1930-31 was 67,474; in 1931-32 it dropped to 57,542, or a loss of 11.6 percent. It dropped to 55,938 in 1932-33, a loss of 2.7 percent. By 1933-34 it increased to 61,458, or 10 percent over the year preceding.14 Figures were given for campus and off-campus enrollments for the years 1932-33 and 1933-34. In 1932-33, 68,041 were reported in campus classes and 6,136 in off-campus classes. In 1933-34, 71,485 were reported in campus classes and 5,095 in off-campus classes.14 12 Biennial Survey of Education, 1930-32, table 3, p. 5. 13 Proceedings of the Twenty-first Annual Meeting of the Association of Urban Universities, 1934. Twelfth Report, pp. 91-94. n Figures incomplete in a few institutions. 46 BIENNIAL SURVEY OF EDUCATION, 1934-36 c. Adult Educational Courses In many of the institutions included in this group, the economic depression accentuated interest in two types of courses: Those that deal with immediate economic and social problems; and those that relate to better use of leisure. Among the first group of courses may be mentioned current economic controversies, lectures in the social sciences, organization and operation of city government, astronomy, English, contemporary English literature, stock market operation, money, banking and commercial crises, municipal accounting, income- tax procedure, courses relating to adult education, child welfare, retail merchandising, refrigeration, air-conditioning, elementary aero¬ nautics. Among the second are fine arts, lecture recitals in music, popular art lectures, book reviews, medieval architecture, photog¬ raphy, play production, and other subjects related to hobbies. Many of these courses are noncredit courses. Leaders in business and society, both men and women, along with those less-privileged economically, take advantage of these courses. One of the gratify¬ ing results of these adult educational programs is the number who come to study for self-improvement without particular interest in formal degree requirements. The adult education program of the Works Progress Administration with its more than 40,000 teachers and 1,000,000 participating adults has been maintained independently during 1935 and 1936, but the colleges and universities have cooperated in many ways with those in charge. Section VII GRADUATE STUDY AND RESEARCH 1. Graduate Study Although enrollments in graduate schools and departments register a slight decline comparing the figures for 1931-32 and 1933-34, and although the number of graduate degrees also has shown a similar decline, there is no reason to believe that these conditions are indica¬ tive of more than a temporary set-back resulting from the economic situation. Partial reports seem to show that graduate enrollments have overcome this loss already, and will continue to increase. a. Master’s Degree A special analysis of the number of masters’ degrees granted in the years mentioned above indicates that the principal decrease in the number of masters’ degrees granted is found in the larger State and privately controlled universities while the increase in masters’ degrees granted is shown in a large number of smaller institutions.1 Marsh made a careful selection of typical institutions for the groups under consideration. He found that in 12 State universities between 1931-32 and 1933-34 the total number of masters’ degrees granted decreased by 602, or 15 percent; in 12 endowed universities 682 degrees, or 11 percent; in two of the largest teachers colleges — Teachers College, Columbia University and George Peabody College for Teachers, 471, or 19 percent. On the other hand, in 12 typical liberal arts colleges the number of masters’ degrees increased by 66, or 28 percent; in 3 Negro universities, 48 degrees, or 192 percent; in 12 tax-supported State teachers colleges, 110 degrees, or 42 percent; in 32 urban univer¬ sities, 287 degrees, or 6 percent. In an earlier study, Dean Homer S. Dodge of the Graduate School of the University of Oklahoma had found interesting data in a study of institutions offering the master’s degree in nine States of the South¬ west. It was found that there were 26 institutions that are not approved by the Association of American Universities that are offering graduate work. “This means that these institutions, which on good * Marsh, C. S. Some Comments on the Master's Degree. Proceedings of the 22nd Annual Meeting of the Association of Urban Universities, Detroit, Mich., Nov. 9, 1936. Pp. 8-19. 47 48 BIENNIAL SURVEY OF EDUCATION, 1934-36 authority are not even able to prepare students properly for graduate work, are undertaking to carry on a graduate program.” At the same time it is stated that “there are 11 institutions on the approved list which do not feel the necessity of offering work for the master’s degree and deserve to be commended for taking this position.” With respect to the doctorate in this area, a conservative attitude is gener¬ ally held.2 If these figures are typical, it is evident that the smaller institutions, many of which are inadequately prepared, are not restricting to any marked extent the granting of the master’s degree. And it is probable, in view of the increasing demands of State and city school systems for teachers that hold the master’s degree, that due to economic necessity as well as convenience, many of these smaller colleges will be tempted to offer the master’s degree without adequate personnel or equipment. Subject for many years to increasing criticism, the master’s degree has been studied by various groups and associations with the aim of clarifying its objectives and strengthening its standards. In 1932, the American Association of University Professors through its com¬ mittee made a report wdiich included the following general recom¬ mendations: The committee believes: 1. That the widespread dissatisfaction with the present status of the master’s degree is justified. 2. That the demand for the degree is nevertheless great and in many quarters increasing. 3. That immediate standardization of requirements is impracticable in view of the several useful purposes which the degree now serves in different institutions. The report includes a summary of typical standards; length of the course, requirements for the minor or minors, foreign language require¬ ments, thesis and final examinations. The purposes of the master’s degree were indicated under three headings: (1) For teacher training for secondary schools; (2) research training; and (3) a postgraduate course.3 After several years of study, the committee on problems relating to the master’s degree of the Association of American Universities made its report to the association on November 7, 1935, at the Thirty- seventh Annual Conference of the Association of American Universi¬ ties held at Cornell University. This report was accepted unani¬ mously by the association and although the standards suggested are not mandatory, it represents the best views of the committee and association on the subject. The committee recognizes the confusion that exists with respect to the purposes, standards, nomenclature, and administration of 2 Dodge, Homer L. Graduate Study in the Southwest. In Higher Education and Society. Norman, University of Oklahoma Press, 1936. Pp. 85-90. 3 Bulletin of the American Association of University Professors, 18: 169-170, March 1932. HIGHER EDUCATION 49 the master’s degree. It recognizes the purposes of the degree to prepare for research, professional training, teaching, and for cultural advancement. Recommendations are made also respecting final examinations, transfer of credit, nonrecognition of correspondence work, character of the thesis, nomenclature of the degree, administration of the degree, and nonapproval of granting honorary master’s degrees.4 b. Doctor’s Degree (1) General trends — Number and distribution of doctorate degrees. — It is fortunate that records of the number of doctorates granted in the principal fields have been compiled over a period of at least 11 years. The analysis of these records shows certain tendencies which are of importance to research as well as to the administration of graduate study.5 In the following table, the number of doctorates granted in 47 major fields or subjects between 1925-26 and 1934-35 are given in order of rank according to totals over the 10-year period. Table 5. — Number and distribution of doctorates by fields for 10 years , 1925-26 to 1934-85 , inclusive Subject or field Number of doc¬ torates Rank Subject or field Number of doc¬ torates Chemistry _ _ 3,565 24 Geography _ _ _ 114 Education.. _ 2, 646 25 Law.. _ 107 /English studies. . 1, 166 26 Public health... .. 85 /Economies.. _ _ 1, 166 /Metallurgy _ _ _ _ 84 Modern history.. _ 1,068 27 /Entomology _ 84 Physics _ 1,028 28 General literature . . 83 Zoology _ _ 982 29 Astronomy _ _ 82 Psychology _ 866 30 Art and archeology _ 81 Botany. . 793 / Anthropology _ 75 Mathematics _ 660 31 /Medieval history . . 75 Romance studies _ 518 32 International law and relations.. 66 Religion. . 500 33 Medicine and surgery _ 54 Philosophy. 485 34 Horticulture.. _ . 48 Geologv.. _ _ 483 35 Paleontology _ _ 47 Physiology _ _ 454 36 Genetics... . _ 40 Engineering .. 438 37 Pharmacology _ 37 ("Political science 407 38 General history... 22 /Sociology. .. _ _ 407 39 /Mineralogy _ _ 18 Classical studies _ 384 /Music _ 18 Agriculture. . 375 40 Library science _ 14 Bacteriology _ _ _ 330 41 Seismology.. _ _ 7 Pathology _ _ 201 42 Meteorology _ 5 German ie studies 168 Anatomy . 141 47 Total . . . . 20,580 Oriental studies _ _ _ 123 Examination shows the preponderating interest of the graduate student in the field of chemistry. Next in order is education with about two-thirds the number of doctorates compared with chemistry, 4 Journal of the Proceedings and Addresses of the Thirty-seventh Annual Conference of the Association of American Universities, 1935, at Cornell University, pp. 32-33. 8 Marsh, Clarence Stephen. American Universities and Colleges, Third Edition. American Council on Education, Washington, D. C., p. 74. 50 BIENNIAL SURVEY OF EDUCATION, 1934-36 while English studies and economics are paired for third place with one-third the number for chemistry. Political science and sociology are paired with 407 doctorates each; metallurgy and entomology with 84 each; anthropology and medieval history with 75 each; and mineral¬ ogy and music with 18 each. A more general tabulation based on statistics for 1933-34 to 1935-36 shows interesting trends by major subject groups.* 6 Subject groups Number of doctorates Gain or loss, 1934 and 1936 1933-34 1934-35 1935-36 Number Percent 1 2 3 4 5 6 1. Physical sciences. _ _ _ _ _ _ 811 771 766 -45 -5.5 2. Social sciences _ _ _ _ _ 648 693 667 +19 +3.0 3. Biological sciences . . . . . 625 636 658 +33 +5.2 4. Literature and art _ 316 339 386 +70 +22.1 5. Earth sciences . . . . . . 104 104 103 -1 -0.9 6. Religion _ _ _ 62 56 54 -8 -13.0 7. Philosophy . . . . 54 50 49 -5 -9.0 It will be observed that the rankings of the subject groups are the same for each of the 3 years and that gains or losses are consistent for these years except in the case of the social sciences where there is a slight falling off in 1935-36 from the 1934-35 figure. This table shows the dominant interest in science, although it is interesting to note that the literature and art group has gained considerably in the 3 years under consideration. Total doctorates by years. — Tabulations show that for the years 1925- 26 through 1935-36 (11 years) the following number of doctorates were granted.7 1925- 26 _ 1,368 1926- 27 _ 1,504 1927- 28 _ 1,548 1928- 29 _ 8 1, 912 1929- 30 _ 2,078 1930- 31 _ 8 2, 183 1931- 32 _ 2,368 1932- 33 _ 2,462 1933- 34 _ 2,620 1934- 35 _ 2,649 1935- 36 _ 2, 683 During the 11 years, 1925-26 to 1935-36, the number of doctorates increased from 1,368 through 2,683, or 96 percent. (2) Differentiation of the doctorate. — During the last few years, new forms of the doctorate have appeared which parallel the degree of doctor of philosophy. The most common of these new degrees is the doctor of education now granted by more than 20 leading higher insti¬ tutions of learning. Of these more modern degrees the following may be mentioned: Doctor of religious education, doctor of science, doctor « Gilchrist, Donald B. Doctoral Dissertations Accepted by American Universities. New York, N. Y. H. W. Wilson Co., 1936. i Ibid., p. XIII. 8 Complete records of University of Texas not available. HIGHER EDUCATION 51 of the science of law, doctor of law, doctor of jurisprudence, doctor of engineering, doctor of medical science, doctor of public health, doctor of science in hygiene, etc. These differ but little from the usual Ph. D. except for two characteristics: First, less emphasis is usually given to original research; and, second, the candidate must generally have had a period of practical or field experience some time before receiving the degree. As in the case of the master’s degree there is a tendency to differen¬ tiate the doctorate in the various professional fields. In the field of mathematics, studies have been made of the relative productivity on a quantitative basis of Ph. D. graduates. Figures given by R. G. D. Richardson, dean of the graduate school of Brown University, show two things: First, over a period of 35 years, it has been found except for about 10 years near the middle of this period, foreign-trained doctors produced practically twice the number of pages of research produced by American- trained doctors; second, that among 1,188 persons in the United States who took the Ph. D. in mathematics between 1862 and 1933, after graduation 46 percent prepared no published papers; 19 percent only 1 paper; 8 percent only 2 papers; 11 percent 3 to 5 papers; 6 percent 6 to 10 papers; 6 percent 11 to 20 papers; 2 percent 21 to 30 papers; and 2 percent more than 30 papers. Dr. Richardson, however, fully recognizes that such quantitative measures are inadequate in determining scholarly production. Nevertheless, in general for this group, it may be said, that con¬ siderably less than one-third of the persons taking the doctor’s degree in mathematics have made substantial contributions to research as would be evidenced by the publication of three or more research articles.9 As a large proportion of doctoral candidates are found in teaching positions, it has seemed wise on the part of the Mathematical Asso¬ ciation of America to recommend two new types of doctorate degrees: Type I, which is an improvement over the existing doctorate with research as the main objective; and type II, in which other work may be substituted for the research thesis. In both types, special consideration is given to specialized preparation for teaching mathe¬ matics. Three suggestions are offered as to the names of these two degrees: (1) For type I, the usual Ph. D.; for type II, Math. D. (2) For type I, Ph. D. (in research); type II, Ph. D. (in course). (3) Type I, a new degree; type II, Ph. D.10 # Richardson, R. G. D. The Ph. D. and Mathematical Research. American Mathematical Monthly, April 1936. Oberlin, Ohio. 10 Report on the Training of Teachers of Mathematics by the Commission on the Training and Utilization of Advanced Students of Mathematics of the Mathematical Association of America. American Mathe¬ matical Monthly, May 1935. Oberlin, Ohio. 52 BIENNIAL SURVEY OF EDUCATION, 1934-36 c. Developments in Advanced Degrees at Columbia University and Harvard University (1) The doctorate at Columbia University. — Beginning with 1934 the provisions for obtaining the doctor’s degree at Columbia University have taken on added interest because of the program of the newly established Advanced School of Education at Teachers College. In addition to the Ph. D. degree conferred for graduate study and research in the several departments of the faculties of political science, philosophy, and pure science, and also through the joint committee on graduate instruction,11 “Columbia University offers through the Advanced School of Education of Teachers College two doctorates for students in education maintained with equal standards and at the same height of excellence: The degree of doctor of education and the degree of doctor of philosophy.” The first emphasizes the highest type of training relating to professional problems, the second empha¬ sizes preparation in research. The degree of doctor of education is administered by the faculty of the advanced school through the department of advanced professional education. The degree of doctor of philosophy, for the majority of students seeking this degree through the advanced school of education, is administered by the department of educa¬ tional research, under the faculty of philosophy of Columbia University. The work leading to the degree of doctor of philosophy for advanced school students specializing in practical science is administered by the department of practical science research, under the auspices of the university joint committee on graduate instruction.12 Both the degrees mentioned may be obtained in the field of religious education in cooperation with Union Theological Seminary.13 (2) The new teachers degrees at Harvard University. — Harvard has created a new Ph. D. degree in the history of science and learning. This is in answer to the demand of teachers who are working in fields of history of ideas and history of systematized knowledge.14 A new degree of master of arts in teaching was recently established at Harvard University under the joint authority of the Harvard Graduate School of Arts and Sciences and the Harvard Graduate School of Education. Under the new plan, the departments of the faculty of arts and sciences will set up the standards and examine the candidate’s knowl¬ edge of the subject matter which he proposes to teach, and the faculty of education will have charge of the study of educational material and of apprentice teaching.15 11 Columbia University, Bulletin of Information, Graduate Announcements, Faculties of Political Science, Philosophy, and Pure Science, 1937-38. p. 15. 13 Teachers College Bulletin, 26th Series. No. 8. June 1935. The Advanced School of Education, 1935— 36. New York. pp. 15-16. 13 Teachers College Bulletin, Columbia University, 1935-36. February 1935. p. 11. 14 Harvard University Alumni Bulletin, May 17, 1935. p. 965. J5 Ibid., Apr. 10, 1936. p. 810. HIGHER EDUCATION 53 These examples of adjustment of the doctoral programs at Harvard and Columbia are indicative of a more discriminating attitude respecting the functions of the doctor’s degree. d. Report of Committee on Graduate Instruction , American Council on Education In view of increasing interest in the development of graduate study- in this country, the American Council on Education appointed a committee on graduate study in 1933. This committee undertook among other matters to ascertain the number of adequately pre¬ pared graduate schools in the principal subject-matter fields. The chairman of this committee was President R. M. Hughes of Iowa State College. The final report of the committee’s investigations included 35 fields of knowledge, and with the aid of large committees of the national learned societies representing these fields, the institu¬ tions were checked which had adequate staffs and facilities for pre¬ paring students for the doctor’s degree. It was possible in this manner to find those schools that were outstanding in particular fields as well as those that were competent. This study is one of the most important that has been made bear¬ ing on standards relating to graduate schools and although it has been subject to some criticism, the lists of approved schools for sev¬ eral fields have stimulated a great deal of interest and have led to the strengthening of departments or in some cases the abolition of departments that were inadequate in personnel or in facilities.16 e. The Study of Graduate Work in Engineering by the Society for the Promotion of Engineering Education In 1931 the Society for the Promotion of Engineering Education appointed a special committee to consider the question of graduate work in engineering. Under the chairmanship of Dean Dexter S. Kimball, of the School of Engineering of Cornell University, the committee spent a year of study on some of the major issues involved, and made a report to the society in 1932. As a result of the com¬ mittee’s recommendation, a Nation-wide survey of graduate work in engineering was undertaken by the society in cooperation with the Office of Education. The study included 83 of the 155 schools of engineering listed as of 1932. All of the 83 schools granted the master’s degree in engineering or its equivalent, and 34 also granted the doctorate in engineering. The findings of the survey have been published in a bulletin entitled Graduate Work in Engineering in 16 American Council on Education. Report of the Committee on Graduate Instruction, Washington, D. C., April 1934. 54 BIENNIAL SURVEY OF EDUCATION, 1934-36 Universities and Colleges in the United States.17 The conclusion of the report contains the following statements: (1) There is apparent need for clarification of the issue between the extension of the undergraduate program into a fifth year, and of the two-stage program of four undergraduate years followed by advanced work of genuine graduate nature. (2) There is need for recognition of the fact that many of the procedures as well as the content and method of graduate work have been the result of adapting the forms of the older fields of philosophy and pure science without regard to the special attributes or needs of engineering. Herein, distinctive features of gradu¬ ate work seem likely to evolve. (3) A problem is before us in connection with the functional aim of graduate work: Should it be directed almost solely to preparation for the design and research function of the profession — with incidental values as preparation for teaching; or should there be proportionate development of the administrative function? (4) The extent to which the characteristic methods of undergraduate instruc¬ tion should be carried over into the graduate field seems to be something of a problem; it is not clear that original and self-motivated work on the part of the student is a basic idea in the operation of many graduate programs, particularly for the master’s degree. In this connection, it would seem that consideration might be given to the adoption of the honors group plan of work for gifted under¬ graduates of the junior and senior years as a means of promoting original and self-motivated work in the graduate school. (5) There are evidently problems of administrative supervision and control of graduate work in engineering, particularly where the engineering division is part of a larger institution. These problems differ, even in the same institution, as to work for the master’s degree and for the doctor’s degree. (6) The most pressing at present is the problem of selection and of develop¬ ment of teaching staffs in the graduate field, a condition aggravated by the rapidity of the growth of graduate work and by financial conditions. (7) Consideration should be given to the possibilities of cooperation among institutions in the development of complimentary programs of graduate work and in promoting transfer of students from institution to institution. The conclusions further suggest other specific problems which should be given consideration. f. Graduate Work in Teachers Colleges In view of the rapidly growing number of teachers colleges that are offering graduate work, the American Association of Teachers Colleges laid plans in 1936 for a discussion of standards and practices. These include quantitative elements, qualitative elements, distinctly pro¬ fessional elements, minimum standards and desirable goals, prepar¬ ing new standards, financing a study of standards, and the investi¬ gation of standards for graduate work. It was also proposed to set up standards for the accrediting of graduate work in teachers colleges.18 w John, Walton C. and Hammond, H. P. Graduate Work in Engineering in Universities and Colleges in the United States. U. S. Department of the Interior, Office of Education, Bulletin 1936, No. 8. 18 Brandenburg, W. A. Fifteenth Year Book. The American Association of Teachers Colleges, 193& Pp. 19-20. HIGHER EDUCATION 55 A report was made by the committee appointed to make a survey of member institutions of the American Association of Teachers Colleges under the direction of President W. A. Brandenburg, Kansas State Teachers College. The survey included 12 State teachers col¬ leges, 13 schools of education in universities and colleges, 1 private teachers college, and 1 municipal college. A general statement regarding the findings is quoted herewith: The scope of graduate study in the colleges of this survey differ so widely that it is difficult to give a picture applicable to each. Graduate study in each of the 13 schools of education in universities and colleges is usually under the supervi¬ sion of and complies with the standards and practices of the graduate school in the institution of which it is a part. Four of the State teachers colleges grant master’s degrees from the department of education only, and 5 grant degrees which do not require education as a part of the graduate program. There is little agreement among the 12 State teachers colleges as to major fields outside of education. The work is distributed over 27 majors. One school offers 12 majors, and another 11. Most, however, limit their offerings to a much smaller number. There seems as yet, to be no tendency to enter fully into the training of teachers of academic subjects at the graduate level. Considerable confusion exists as to the nature of a transcript that admits to graduate status for a major in an academic field. This may be due to the fact that the types of degrees do not seem to be well defined.19 g. Graduate Study for Negroes The rapid expansion of elementary and secondary schools for Negroes throughout the South has led to improvement of standards for Negro teachers in that region. Opportunities for graduate study and professional improvement in the field of education have not been adequate in approved Negro colleges and universities, although in a number of institutions excellent programs have been made available leading to the master’s degree. In several States in which such op¬ portunities are not available in Negro institutions, laws have been passed and means provided which enable graduate students and students of such professions as law and medicine to attend institutions in the North without greater cost than if such instruction had been provided in the particular States. According to the latest informa¬ tion available, 5 States have made such provisions in the interest of equalizing educational opportunities for Negroes: Maryland, Missouri, Tennessee, Virginia, and West Virginia. 2. Research The promotion of research is one of the major functions of the graduate school, and next to the training of teachers it is probably the most important. There are approximately 300 colleges and uni¬ versities in the United States that confer the degree of master of arts » Ibid., p. 38. 56 BIENNIAL SURVEY OF EDUCATION, 1934-36 and among these nearly 80 grant the doctorate. It is probable that some form of investigation or research is carried on from time to time in most of the institutions that grant the master’s degree. In the institutions offering the doctorate, research occupies an important place. According to data prepared by President Raymond M. Hughes in his study of graduate instruction in 76 universities that grant the Ph. D. degree, there were 4 universities that granted the doctorate in 30 to 33 different fields of study; 15 covered between 25 and 29 fields; 5 covered between 20 and 23 fields; 15 covered between 15 and 19 fields; 18 covered between 10 and 14 fields; 11 covered between 5 and 9 fields; and 11 covered between 1 and 4 fields.20 In 1931-32, the total amount of money spent for organized research separately budgeted in institutions of higher learning of all types reporting was $21,977,441, of which $102,332 was spent in teachers colleges and normal schools.21 In 1933-34, the amount reported was $17,063,860, of which $89,897 was carried on in teachers colleges and normal schools.22 This type of research does not, of course, include the large amount of research conducted as a part of regular departmental programs of instruction and research. a. Stimulation and Coordination oj Research Although each institution may have its own research program and may be working in cooperation with one or more societies or associa¬ tions concerned with specific fields of research, yet fostering of re¬ search activities on a national basis is among the purposes of several major research organizations that help to stimulate and coordinate much of the research that is being done in their respective areas of subject matter. The leading organizations of this type include the following: The American Association for the Advancement of Science, the American Council of Learned Societies, the National Research Council, the Social Science Research Council, the American Council on Education, Office of Experiment Stations, United States Department of Agricul¬ ture, and in close relationship to the latter, the committee on projects and correlation of research of the Association of Land-Grant Colleges and Universities. Engineering Experiment Stations are included in 20 Graduate Study in Universities and Colleges in the United States. U. S. Department of the Interior, Office of Education, Bulletin, 1934, No. 20., p. 57. 21 Biennial Survey of Education, 1931-32. U. S. Department of the Interior, Office of Education, Bulletin 1933, No. 2, p. 113, table 16. 22 Ibid., 1933-34. U. S. Department of the Interior, Office of Education, Bulletin 1935, No. 2, p. 108, table 16. HIGHER EDUCATION 57 the latter Association. Important also are the Carnegie Foundation for the Advancement of Teaching and the Carnegie Corporation. (1) The American Association for the Advancement of Science. — The American Association for the Advancement of Science has a member¬ ship of more than 18,000 in this country. The province of the asso¬ ciation includes the stimulation of research in the following sections, 15 in number, namely; Mathematics, physics, chemistry, astronomy, geology and geography, zoological science, botanical sciences, anthro¬ pology, psychology, social and economic sciences, historical and philo¬ logical sciences, engineering, medical sciences, agriculture, and educa¬ tion. Affiliated and associated with these sections are a large number of scientific societies and State academies of sciences. Small grants were made available to students and research workers through the State academies of science beginning with 1935. In this year, $1,925 was available; in 1936, the same amount. In 1937, $2,325 will be available. The total appropriations for grants to students during the past 5 years have been as follows: 1930-31, $3,400; 1931-32, $2,000; 1932-33, $2,300; 1933-34, $1,870; and 1934-35, $3,050.23 (2) The American Council of Learned Societies. — The American Council of Learned Societies has been established to provide infor¬ mation regarding those American societies and organizations that are concerned with the humanities. In this country there are approxi¬ mately 300 organizations that are devoted to the humanities. The constituent organizations of the American Council of Learned Socie¬ ties include the American Philosophical Association, the American Academy of Arts and Sciences, the American Antiquarian Society, the American Oriental Society, the American Philological Association, the Archaeological Institute of America, the Society of Biblical Liter¬ ature and Exegesis, the Modern Language Association of America, the American Historical Association, the American Economic Asso¬ ciation, the American Philosophical Association, the American Anthro¬ pological Association, the American Political Science Association, the Biographical Society of America, the American Sociological Society, the American Society of International Law, the History of Science Society, the Linguistic Society of America, and the Medieval Academy of America. The American Council of Learned Societies is a member of the Inter¬ national Union of Academies. In addition to its many special research projects and studies, the American Council of Learned Societies has rendered assistance to 23 Data furnished by Henry B. Ward, Permanent Secretary of the American Association for the Advance¬ ment of Science. 25973—38 - 5 58 BIENNIAL SURVEY OF EDUCATION, 1934-36 scholars through grants-in-aid and research fellowships as shown in the following tabulation: 24 Year Number of grants-in-aid Value Number of research fellowships appointed Receipts of the council 1 2 3 4 5 1931 . . - _ _ _ 37 $18, 300 19, 000 18, 890 14 $245, 822. 15 310, 742. 00 237, 907. 51 283, 894. 40 309, 818. 87 283, 274. 06 1932 _ _ _ 38 14 1933 _ _ _ _ _ _ 41 16 1934... _ _ _ _ _ 50 22, 760 21, 500 7, 600 12 1935 . . . . . 43 14 1936 . . . . . 23 The council has suspended its support of post-doctoral research fellow¬ ships, the last having been given in 1936. In place of this, the council has constituted a system of study-aids for the training of research personnel. This aid may be given to the individual in any stage of the doctoral period of training as well as the post-doctoral. It is expected that this aid will supplement the usual university graduate- school fellowships. In 1936, 14 of these aids were awarded on the recommendation of the advisory committees of different fields of study. (3) The National Research Council. — The National Research Council has for its main purpose the promotion and cooperative coordination of scientific research rather than the actual conduct of research under its direction, although the council has not hesitated to assume the responsibility of carrying on a number of important specific projects of investigation. The membership of the council includes, in addition to professional scientific men, a representation of men of affairs and businessmen interested in industry and engineering who recognize the importance of fundamental or “pure” science on which applied science depends. “The actual membership of the council appointed by the president of the National Academy of Sciences, 282 persons, is chiefly composed of accredited representatives of 77 national scien¬ tific and technical societies nominated directly by these societies. Constant and stimulating contact with the colleges and universities of the country is maintained, as also with the Government’s various scientific bureaus.” The council also represents in this country the International Research Council.25 The following table shows the amounts and percentages of money spent for research and other activities of the council for the years 1930-31 through 1934-35.26 24 Based on Summary of Activities of the American Council of Learned Societies for the years 1931, 1932, 1933, 1934, 1935, and other material furnished by Waldo G. Leland, permanent secretary of the A. C. L. S. 25 Report of the National Research Council for the year 1930-31. Washington, U. S. Government Printing Office, 1932. P. 1. 28 Based on Reports of the National Research Council for the years 1930-31, 1931-32, 1932-33, 1933-34, 1934-35. Washington, U. S. Government Printing Office. Data furnished by Albert L. Barrows, executive secretary of the National Research Council. HIGHER EDUCATION 59 Spent for— Spent in aiding affiliated Year Research fellowships Designated projects organizations Amount Percent Amount Percent Amount Percent * 2 3 4 5 6 7 1930-31 . . . $365, 542. 78 377, 130. 45 36.4 $364, 673. 63 36.3 $108,032.79 79, 977. 43 10.7 1931-32 . . . . 40.0 323, 038. 98 34.7 8.5 1932-33 . . . 313, 904. 70 360, 238. 74 226, 368. 84 37.7 286, 743. 45 240, 775. 48 34.4 89, 224. 44 112, 770. 61 119, 721. 96 10.7 1933-34 _ _ - 44.4 29.7 13.9 1934-35 _ _ _ 33.8 228, 291. 97 34.0 17.9 (4) The Social Science Research Council . — The Social Science Research Council had its origin in 1921 in the American Political Science Association. Among the purposes the Council had in mind were the giving of a larger opportunity to students of Government in carrying on a fundamental type of research and in publishing and making public the res alts of such research. The Social Science Research Council includes in its membership the American Economic Association, the American Statistical Associa¬ tion, the American Psychological Association, the American Anthro¬ pological Association, the American Political Science Association, the American Historical Association, and the American Sociological Society. The council has been the custodian of large grants which have been used for surveys and the planning of research publications of original investigations. It also administers grants-in-aid to individuals. In 1930-31 there were 36 advisory project committees cooperating with the committee on problems and policies. Emphasis has been laid on the promotion of cooperative projects. In 1929-30 the objectives of the council were more adequately considered, and seven objectives were listed: I. Improvement of research organization; II. Development of research per¬ sonnel; III. Discovery, enlargement, improvement, and preservation of research materials; IV. Improvement of research methods; V. Improvements of facilities for dissemination of the materials, methods, and results of research investigations; VI. Extension of the bounds of knowledge of direct methods of facilitating the carrying out of specific research projects; VII. Enhancement of public apprecia¬ tion of the significance of the soeial sciences.27 The Social Science Research Council expended the following sums for investigations in social science for the years 1931 to 1935, inclusive, as indicated herewith. 1931 _ $494,792.85 1932 _ 422, 653. 91 1933 _ 487, 343. 64 1934 _ 439, 832. 89 1935 _ 353, 410. 18 27 Annual Report. New York, N. Y. The Social Science Reseach Council, 1930-31. p. 62. 60 BIENNIAL SURVEY OF EDUCATION, 1934-36 Table 6. — Summary of fellowships and grants-in-aid of the Social Science Research Council 1 Year Research fellowships in univer¬ sities Southern fellowships Fellowships in agriculture, economics, and rural sociology Grants-in- aid to research students Southern grants- in-aid * 2 3 4 5 6 1930-31 _ _ _ _ _ 30 26 24 40 1931-32 _ _ 25 19 20 34 41 9 1932-33 . . . . . . 31 17 22 17 1933-34 . . . . 18 43 1934-35 _ _ 16 46 1935-36 J _ 15 49 i Including renewals or extensions. 1 Predoctoral field fellowships, 21; fellowships for graduate study, 8. The number of research fellowships in universities shows a marked decline since 1932-33, but the number of grants-in-aid to research students has increased. View of Social Science Research Council on research in colleges. — There is an impression in some quarters that a fundamental cleavage exists between the inter¬ ests of research and the interests of good teaching, particularly on the college level. There is no denying that, under the guise of devotion to research, serious abuses of the teacher’s responsibilities have in some cases occurred; and it is, of course, no service to research to blunt the interest of the oncoming generation of social science investigators by dull and perfunctory hours in the classroom. The council maintains, however, that even on the college level this conflict between teaching and research is more apparent than real; that, in fact, the best teaching tends to come from minds engaged in stimulating first-hand contact with significant research problems. The council has accordingly passed the following resolution; The Social Science Research Council is thoroughly in accord with the view that the primary functions of the American college relate to teaching rather than to research, but the council is deeply concerned nonetheless with the policies under which American collegiate education is being conducted. Improvement of college teaching in the social services bears directly upon the council’s interest on at least two points. In the first place, more general under¬ standing among college graduates of the complexities of social life will promote the development of the sympathetic and enlightened public opinion which con¬ stitutes an important conditioning factor in many lines of social research. In the second place, better undergraduate instruction in the social sciences will contribute in important ways to the development of the larger body of competent research personnel upon which effective future presentation of social inquiry so largely depends. It is because the council is so vitally interested in the quality of undergraduate instruction in the social sciences that it cannot be indifferent to the wise and deliberate cultivation of research activities among members of the collegiate teaching faculties. From some points of view, teaching and research are conflict¬ ing objectives; certainly, either may become so engrossing an interest as to result in the manifest neglect of the other. But from a different point of view, teaching and research are inseparably joined. Teaching is unlikely to remain vital and sound over the years unless the teacher not only keeps abreast of his subject but HIGHER EDUCATION 61 maintains a modest program of research or creative work. Such a program need not issue in imposing monographs nor in works of outstanding authority; but tangible evidence of intellectual growth is indispensable. Research opportunities exist close at hand in every community. Encouragement of research within appropriate limits is an essential condition for the maintenance of collegiate teaching efficiency.28 Possession of a decade of invaluable experience in coping with the most funda¬ mental strategic problems involved is the attempt to advance the frontiers of our understanding of man in his complex social relations. Out of that experience have come conclusions which to the Council appear incontrovertible. Of these conclusions, the first is that no social fact, policy, or act stands alone. All are interrelated parts of a close-knit web of human intercourse. Whatever point may be selected as a focus of attention is but a center of widely ramifying relationships. A second conclusion is that social questions require informed consideration in all their important aspects. It is essential to bring to bear on any social problem the pertinent knowledge, skills, and viewpoints of different sciences in their richest variety. A third conclusion is that while existing knowledge, techniques, and personnel may be drawn on at any time for their potential contribution to immediate public problems, the primary need in the social studies is the continued development of scientific resources, of scientific quality, of ways of working that produce more exact, more certain, and more useful knowledge.29 (5) The Agricultural Experiment Stations. — The Office of Experi¬ ment Stations of the United States Department of Agriculture con¬ ducts a program of agricultural research on a Nation-wide basis in the several States and in our insular possessions. This research is conducted in 54 different stations. The income of these stations is shown for the 37ears 1930-31 to 1934-35, inclusive.30 Year Income from— Total income States and other sources Federal Government 1930-31 . . . . . . . $13, 466, 082. 07 12. 658. 133. 83 11,114, 072. 98 9, 757, 482. 19 10. 615. 325. 84 $4, 340, 000 4, 587, 030 4, 462, 560 4, 430, 973 4, 456, 936 $17, 806, 082. 07 17, 245, 163. 83 15, 576, 632. 98 14, 188, 455. 19 15, 072, 261. 84 1931-32 . . . . . 1932-33 . . . . . . 1933-34 . . . . . . . 1934-35 . . . . . In 1935, 7,000 research projects were in progress and included studies in the fields of farming and rural living, including land use and con¬ servation; crop adjustment; economical production, distribution, marketing, and use of plant and animal products, and improvement in the quality of such products; protection against animal and plant diseases, insects, and other pests; tenancy, taxation, and other matters 18 Social Science Research Council, Annual Report, 1929-30, pp. 21-22. 88 Ibid., 1933-34. p. 2. »o Based upon the Reports of the Agricultural Experiment Stations, United States Department of Agri¬ culture, for the years 1931 to 1935, inclusive. 62 BIENNIAL SURVEY OF EDUCATION, 1934-36 affecting the efficiency of farm business management; and the better¬ ment of the rural home and rural life. There is evidence of increasing emphasis on efficient and remunerative production and on the econo¬ mic and social aspects of rural life. These projects are a great source of stimulation to the land-grant colleges and universities with which the stations are affiliated and bring scientific research in these into close grips with the reality of national service.31 (6) The American Council on Education.- — The American Council on Education, now in its nineteenth year of existence, has carried on an extensive program of research and counsel relating to higher educa¬ tion.32 In October 1935, it expanded its program of interests to in¬ clude the primary and secondary schools of the country. The council among other services has made valuable contributions to higher education through its studies of the measurement of student achievement. It has also given much attention to the subject of personnel administration and it has prepared Cumulative Record Cards for elementary, secondary, and college students which are now widely used. The council, on April 29, 1936, made public the Report of the Com¬ mittee on Review of the Testing Movement. Very useful are the services rendered by the council through the Educational Record which every quarter keeps its constituency in touch with developments in those fields of special interest to its members, and through the volume American Universities and Colleges. The latter gives an unusually adequate picture of the status of higher education in general, besides giving characteristic data for all approved colleges and universities. During the period included in this report, the American Council has spent, on the whole, an increasing amount of money for the adminis¬ tration of its general program as well as for special projects involving a large amount of research. The table following shows the use of its fund between 1930-31 and 1935-36. Year Amounts spent primarily for administration Amounts set aside for special projects Year Amounts spent primarily for administration Amounts set aside for special projects 1930-31 . . $45, 088. 37 53, 762. 38 47, 326. 00 119, 962.72 132, 778. 34 106, 408. 07 1933-34 _ _ $42, 779. 13 58, 979. 89 81, 057. 26 $184, 469,54 348, 465. 31 397, 372. 66 1931-32 . . 1934-35 . . 1932-33 . 1935-36 _ (7) The Carnegie Foundation for the Advancement of Teaching. — Among the projects of the Carnegie Foundation for the Advancement of Teaching that have been carried out during the past 5 years that Report on the Agricultural Experiment Station, 1935. U. S. Department of Agriculture, pp. 8, 12. 32 The American Council on Education, History and Activities, Third Edition, November 1936. Wash¬ ington, D. C. HIGHER EDUCATION 63 relate to higher education are the following: A Study of Art, An Inquiry into the History of Units and Credits and Related Matters, the Cooperative Study of the Relation of Secondary and Higher Education in Pennsylvania. A study of graduate instruction through certain unitary assignments has recently been authorized. The Foundation reports the completion of nine researches and projects which it has sponsored. The results of six of these studies have been made available in published form and include the following: A handbook on examinations entitled, The Construction and Use of Achievement Examinations; research in the higher mental process entitled, Education as Cultivation of the Higher Mental Processes ; appre¬ ciation of pictures entitled, How People Look at Pictures', the support of a research conference on problems, techniques, and results of research in higher education in various universities ; the support of the National Conference of Bar Examiners and the National Bar Exam¬ iner; a study of Correspondence Study in Rural High Schools; a study of Factors in the Failure and Success of College Teachers; a study of the Colleges and the Courts ; and a study of Surveys of Higher Education. Many other projects of interest directly or indirectly to higher education are being carried out by the Foundation. Table 7. — Amounts spent for educational research hy the Carnegie Foundation and hy the Carnegie Corporation for Educational Research , 1929-30 to 1934-35 Year Spent by the Carnegie Foun¬ dation for the Advancement of Teaching Spent for joint- educational proj¬ ects by the Car¬ negie Founda¬ tion and the Car¬ negie Corpora¬ tion of New York Total 1920-30 . . . _ . . . . $115, 825. 97 68, 593. 77 76, 438. 77 55, 400. 61 62, 108. 17 90, 224. 69 $9, 000. 00 54, 000. 00 126, 000. 00 106, 250. 00 144, 350. 00 112,700.00 $124. 825. 97 122, 593. 77 202, 438. 77 161, 650. 61 206, 458. 17 202, 924. 69 1930-31 . . . _. . . . __ 1931-32 1932-33 _ 1933-34... 1934-35. . . . . . . . Notwithstanding the large drop in the amount spent by the Founda¬ tion in 1930-31 compared with the year preceding, and notwith¬ standing some fluctuation in the amounts spent, the year 1934-35 shows a remarkable increase over the last 5 years.33 (8) The engineering experiment stations. — Research in engineering has been carried on for a great many years in the land-grant colleges and universities. The larger part of this research has been conducted in connection with the engineering experiment stations of which there are 38 (1934-35). The total number of projects reported in 1934-35 was 389. The total amount of money spent on this work amounted to $516,291, or 33 The Carnegie Foundation for the Advancement of Teaching. Thirty-first Annual Report, 1936. New York. 64 BIENNIAL SURVEY OF EDUCATION, 1934-36 $6,837 less than for the preceding year. Of the $516,291, $367,256 came from university funds and $149,335 from other sources. The staffs included 125 full-time and 428 part-time workers. Sixty-six publications were reported between November 1, 1933, and November 1, 1934, and prior to that time the total was 1,076. 34 A certain amount of engineering research was carried on at 11 land- grant institutions that have no formally established engineering experiment stations. At these stations, $33,900 was spent in 1934-35 in connection with 46 projects. This amount was $25,000 less than the amount spent the year before. Fourteen land-grant institutions also conduct some engineering research in the agricultural experiment stations. The amount spent in 1934-35 on 93 projects was $76,455, an increase of $5,624 over the year preceding.35 34 Proceedings of the 48th annual convention of the Association of Land-Grant Colleges and Universities, November 1934. Published 1935. Pp. 201-203. 33 Ibid, 204-205. Section VIII PROFESSIONAL EDUCATION 1. Introductory During the period covered by this study professional education has reacted to the depression in a variety of ways. Schools of theology, dentistry, pharmacy, and institutions for the training of teachers show losses in enrollments generally slight, while small increases are shown in the enrollments in medical schools and law schools. One of the most interesting developments is the attention given to standardization and to the general improvement of the professions along broader educational lines. This is shown particularly in the fields of theology, medicine, dentistry, agriculture, home economics, and engineering. Other evidences show that the professions have taken advantage of the economic crisis to make important adjust¬ ments. It appears that professional education like liberal arts education has suffered somewhat from the evils of undue specialization. The pro¬ fessions are coming more and more to see that while specialized train¬ ing is highly important, it loses much of its value and efficiency unless the general nature of the persons with whom professionals deal is more fully understood and a sympathetic understanding of human per¬ sonality made the basis of further specialized effort. Such a view is noted in the following statement of Richard E. Scammon, dean of medical sciences and professor of anatomy of the University of Minnesota, in speaking to the American Association of Dental Schools: It seems to me the third discipline we need is the social discipline. We need it pretty badly in the professions because we live in a new world of interrelation. A recent writer summarized the situation very well when he said: “While man’s relationship with nature is bathed in the clearer light of science, his social rela¬ tionships, his relationships with his fellow men are still shrouded in obscurity and mysticism. Man, in a word, has not really conquered his environment at all. He has only conquered the nonhuman part of his environment. He is still, in the main, as ignorant as any terrified savage of his relationship to his fellow men, and not until he has made this second conquest will he be able to do without the com¬ forting but questionable illusions of life.” It seems to me that the social discipline in the health sciences spreads not only into the preparation but into the profes¬ sional attitude as well. Think of the range of psychological and social make-ups 65 66 BIENNIAL SURVEY OF EDUCATION, 1934-36 your patients present to you, and the need of social knowledge and background in dealing with them.1 Other important testimony goes to show that professional education in many fields is coming to consider the importance of the larger objectives and purposes, and this is further shown by the tendency to give increased emphasis to fundamental studies, such as humanistics and the basic sciences as illustrated in a number of the following sections. 2. Theology In 1934 there were listed 224 theological schools and theological seminaries in this country,2 but only slightly more than half of these report to the Office of Education, and these do not include a large number of bible institutes and theological colleges. a. Enrollments in Theological Schools The figures given herewith refer to theological institutions of all types that have reported to the Office of Education. Year Number of Undergraduate enrollments Degrees schools Total Men W omen 1 2 3 4 5 6 1929-30 . . . . . 159 13, 045 12, 074 971 1, 251 1931-32 . . . . . . . 133 11,060 10, 087 10, 304 756 1, 850 1, 637 1933-34 _ _ _ _ _ 121 9, 327 760 According to the above table, there has been a decided falling off in the number of theological schools. Between 1929-30 and 1933-34, 38 have gone out of existence or failed to report due to straitened cir¬ cumstances or extremely small enrollments. The enrollments show a corresponding loss, although the number of degrees granted in 1934 indicate, on the whole, a considerable increase; a large jump is indi¬ cated between 1930 and 1932, and a small decline between 1932 and 1934. As to the figures given in this table, attention is called to the fact that it contains both Catholic and non-Catholic institutions as far as number of institutions and enrollments are concerned. The number of degrees, however, does not include the non-degree graduates from Catholic and other institutions. 1 Proceedings of the Eleventh Annual Meeting of the American Association of Dental Schools,. March 1934. Pub. 1935. pp. 136-137. a May, Mark A. The Education of American Ministers. Vol. 1. Institute of Social and Religious Research, 1934. New York. HIGHER EDUCATION 67 b. Protestant Theological Schools Protestant theological education has developed four types of schools, namely, the bible school or institute, the theological college, the department or school of theology, which is a part of a university or college, and the theological seminary.* * 3 (1) Standardization in theological schools. — Denominational indi¬ vidualism has kept theological education from the influences of the standardization movement which has prevailed in nearly every field of higher and professional education during the past 25 years. In¬ fluences have been at work, however, which have brought a large group of theological institutions together for the consideration of mutual educational problems. Barker states that, There are several factors now operating to enforce standards: First, the ten¬ dency of seminaries, formerly independent, to affiliate themselves with colleges and universities; second, the tendency to grade the curriculum upward toward postgraduate instruction; third, a desire to make the various theological degrees represent standard types of professional training.4 The Methodist Episcopal Church since 1925 has maintained a body of standards relating to its theological schools and seminaries. In 1924, a comprehensive study of theological education was made by Robert L. Kelly.6 The interest engendered by this study was doubtless to a large extent responsible for the exhaustive and critical survey of theological institutions made under the direction of Mark A. May, already referred to. The results of this survey were pub¬ lished in 1934 in the 4-volume work entitled The Education oj Ameri¬ can Ministers. This survey led to the reorganization of the existing Conference on Theological Schools into the American Association of Theological Schools. In 1936, the committee on standards of admis¬ sion reported on the questions of the — Preseminary curriculum, defining desirable fields and units of preparatory college work; with entrance standards concerned with accredited and unaccredited col¬ leges, conformity to preseminary requirements and the like; and with personality and aptitudes, declaring against the use of intelligence tests, but at the same time expressing concern that the most capable persons be trained. According to the study on the Education oj American Ministers , which includes 61 of the larger and better organized institutions, we find the following distribution of enrollments of college and non¬ college students for 1929-30. 3 Barker, Earl. Accreditation of Theological Colleges. Peabody Journal of Education, 14: 170, January 1937. * Ibid., pp. 170-171. 3 Kelly, Robert Lincoln, Theological Education in America. New York, George H. Doran Co., 1924. 68 BIENNIAL SURVEY OF EDUCATION, 1934-36 College Noncollege Total Men.. _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ 4, 804 511 1,613 322 6, 417 833 Women . . . . . Total . . . . . 5,315 1,935 7, 250 A comparison of the totals of this table and the one on page 66 seems to indicate that there are nearly 3,000 theological students who are studying in relatively small schools. The committee on accrediting institutions set up a commission on accrediting theological seminaries and theological colleges. This committee has already set up those standards by which it is expected that the commission will revise its list of accredited schools. c. Catholic Seminaries 8 There are two kinds of Catholic seminaries. The major seminary trains students in the sacred sciences in preparation for ordination. The preparatory or minor seminaries prepare young men for entrance to the major seminaries. In 1932, the number of major seminaries was 93, but in 1934 only 88 were reported. Of the latter, 22 trained secular priests, 55 trained for religious orders, and 1 1 trained students for both types of work. (1) Courses oj study. — The length of the curriculum of the diocesan seminary was definitely fixed by the Third Plenary Council of Balti¬ more: “In all seminaries the course of study shall embrace not fewer than 6 years, 2 of which shall be devoted to the study of philosophy and 4 to that of theology.” An examination of the reports received from the 88 major seminaries in 1934 shows that 55 have departments of philosophy and theology, 19 have only a department of theology, and 14 have only a depart¬ ment of philosophy. Of those that have a philosophy department, 61 give the full 4-year course, 4 give a longer course, and 9 do not give the complete course. ... In seminaries that have a depart¬ ment of philosophy, 53 give a 2-year course and 16 give a longer course. The course in theology is then pursued. (2) The survey oj the curriculum oj the major seminary . — In 1935, a survey was published showing the curricular offerings of 30 major seminaries as relate to the training of the diocesan clergy in the United States. This survey analyzes the relative apportioning of time of the subjects of the curriculum with the purpose of developing “a plan for the unification of courses into a minimum program.” * * 7 8 Based on Major Seminaries, Preparatory Seminaries published by the National Catholic Welfare Con¬ ference, Department of Education, 1312 Massachusetts Ave., Washington, D. C. 1936. 7 Ibid. HIGHER EDUCATION 69 (3) Instructional staff. — The total number of instructors in the 88 major seminaries was given at 900 in 1934, an increase of 17 over 1932. Of these, 644 belonged to the religious-order clergy, 227 to the secular clergy, and 29 were lay teachers. (4) Student body. — The total number of students enrolled in the seminaries was 7,800 in 1934, or 73 more than in 1932. Of these, 3,222 were training for the religious orders, and 4,578 for the secular clergy. (5) Graduates. — The number of graduates in 1934 in the major seminaries was 1,305. The number receiving the degree of bachelor of arts was 374; master of arts, 68; licentiate in philosophy, 23; doctor of philosophy, 2 ; bachelor of divinity, 77 ; lector of sacred theology, 43 ; other degrees, not designated, 100; the remaining institutions are unclassified. (6) Preparatory seminaries. — The curriculum of the preparatory seminaries is classical and usually includes 4 years of high school and the first 2 years of the college classical course. There were in 1934, 81 preparatory seminaries. Of these, 35 were accredited by recog¬ nized accrediting associations or by certain Catholic universities.7 d. Courses in Bible and Religion in American Universities and Colleges In 1935 a national survey was made of courses in Bible and religion offered by universities and colleges in the United States. Eight hundred and twenty-eight institutions participated, including the following types: State and municipal institutions, 116; State teachers colleges, 152; independent institutions, 83; Protestant institutions, 352; and Catholic institutions, 125. The survey gives information regarding admission and transfer credits in Bible and religion as well as the relation of these subjects to graduation requirements. The types of courses offered are enumerated and classified. Other topics include, Chapel and Assembly Periods, and the Status of the Staff That Teach Bible and Religion.8 3. Law There are now in the United States 195 law schools. Of these, 88 are approved by the American Bar Association, and 81 of these are members of the Association of American Law Schools. Figures for 1936, although not quite complete, indicate that there is no change in the number of law schools. i Ibid. 8 Wickey, Gould, and Eckhart, Ruth A. A National Survey of Courses in Bible and Religion in American Universities and Colleges.” Reprinted from Christian Education, October 1936. 70 BIENNIAL SURVEY OF EDUCATION, 1934-36 a. Enrollments The number of approved law schools in the United States was 81 in 1930-31 ; in 1934-35, this number increased to 88. The enrollments in approved schools was 17,483 in 1930-31 and reached 20,430 in 1934-35, showing an increase of 2,947. The number of unapproved law schools was 101 in 1930-31; in 1934-35, it reached 107. The enrollments for each of these years, respectively, was 21,934 and 21,490, showing a loss of 444. The total number of law schools was 182 in 1930-31; in 1934-35, it reached 195. The enrollments for 1930-31 were 39,417, and in 1934-35 there were 41,920, or an increase of 2,503. Statistics further show that the proportion of approved part-time or mixed-law schools is somewhat greater in 1934-35 than in the year 1930-31, while there is only a slight increase in the proportion of full-time schools of law, either approved or unapproved, for the corresponding periods. It is also worthy to note that the total enrollments in approved law schools in 1930-31 was 17,483 while total enrollments in unapproved law schools was 21,934. In 1934-35, the situation for the approved law schools is somewhat better. The enrollments in the latter group reached 20,430 while the enrollments of unapproved law schools declined to 20, 490. 9 b. Tendencies in Legal Education Legal education as other forms of education has been influenced by changing social and economic conditions generated by the World War and the economic depression. Some of the present-day tendencies, as indicated by Dean Roscoe Pound of Harvard University Law School., are as follows:10 There is a significant trend in the direction of experiment; increased enrollments and instability in the subject-matter taught have unsettled the accepted standard methods of university law schools of a generation ago. More scientific business training is being called for; pressure for increased research toward the development of the law has been increasingly exerted; law is to be studied as one of the social sciences or should be associated with these in the teaching program; the standard curriculum and the whole content of the course of study are being subjected to scrutiny and overhauling. Students now come to law school with ideas and methods of study which do not readily fit into the ideas and methods by which instruction in law had been carried on. . . . One pressing problem of exceptional difficulty is to provide some substitute for the old-time contact of student with the leaders of the profession during his formative years, and the handing down in this way of the traditional ideals and » Annual Review of Legal Education for 1935. American Bar Association, Chicago, El., p. 64. 15 This section is adapted from Present Tendencies in Legal Education by Roscoe Pound in Annual Review of Legal Education, 1935. Published by the American Bar Association. HIGHER EDUCATION 71 the professional standards of the bar, which were an outstanding achievement of the Inns of Court in the Middle Ages and were the best features of the apprentice system which prevailed in England from the seventeenth to the nineteenth century and developed in America along with the beginning of our law. . . . A real danger to the most effective legal education is developing incidentally in the uncoordinated endeavor to improve the requirements of admission to the profession. Not infrequently bar examiners not only prescribe the subjects of examination but prescribe that the candidate must have had formal instruction in those subjects before being admitted to the profession. 4. Medicine a. Statistics of Medical Schools In 1934-35, 7,887 licenses to practice were issued to doctors of medicine in this country. Of these, 5,707 licenses were issued on the basis of examination, and 2,180 through reciprocity and endorsement. These numbers do not represent 7,887 individuals, as a number of individuals were licensed in more than one State. In 1934-35, a total of 5,500 were added to the medical profession, or 49 more than for 1933-34. Table 8. — Students and graduates enrolled in medical schools, 1930-31 to 1935-36 Enrollments Enrollments Year Colleges Students Gradu¬ ates Year Colleges Students Gradu¬ ates 1930-31 . 76 21, 892 22, 135 24, 466 4, 735 1933-34 _ _ 77 22, 799 22,888 22, 564 5,038 5, 101 1931-32 76 4, 936 1934-35 . . 77 1932-33 _ 77 4,895 1935-36 . . 77 5, 183 The statistics given in the table above show the addition of one medical school during the 6 years indicated. Enrollments of medical students have remained remarkably constant but there has been a grad¬ ual increase in the number who have graduated.11 b. Tendencies in Medical Education In the year 1933, the Council on Medical Education and Hospitals of the American Medical Association laid plans for a resurvey of medical schools in the United States and Canada. The cooperation of the Association of American Medical Colleges and the Federation of State Medical Boards was obtained by the council in this survey. In connection with this survey, a special committee has been as¬ signed the duty of reappraising the aims and methods of medical teaching. 11 Based on the annual educational numbers of the Journal of the American Medical Association for the years given. Also Medical Licensure Statistics, April 25, 1936. A. M. A. 72 BIENNIAL SURVEY OF EDUCATION, 1934-36 The report of the council for 1935-36 shows that the visitation of the medical schools in connection with the survey has been completed. Preliminary observations appear to indicate that many schools are overcrowded and understaffed. Speaking generally, the problem of securing clinical facilities adequate in kind and amount, under university control, so far as the appointment of clinical teach¬ ers is concerned has not been satisfactorily solved. Correlation of the training and experience of teachers with the degree of responsibility assumed has still to be achieved. The selection of students on a qualitative basis rather than a purely quantitative basis, is a problem calling for the best efforts of admission authorities. Improvement of medical libraries, and greater encouragement of medical research is pointed out. The didactic methods appear to be used to excess in teaching clinical subjects. The raising of salaries in the lower brackets is recommended, and greater financial support of medical education is essential if superior medical education is to result. For 1936-37, 45 of the 77 medical schools of this country have en¬ trance requirements in excess of the minimum of 2 years of general college education. Four require a degree, 36 require 3 years, 1 requires 4 years, and 3 schools will admit students with 3 years of college work if the baccalaureate degree is con¬ ferred in absentia at the end of the first year in medicine, and 1 school has a re¬ quirement equivalent to 2J4 years.12 5. Dentistry a. Statistics of Dental Schools In 1931, there were 43 dental schools according to the Dental Educational Survey.13 In 1935-36, 39 dental schools were reported by the Dental Educational Council.14 During the fall of 1931, a total of 8,312 students were admitted to dental colleges, including all regular classes. Of these, 8,054 were undergraduate students, 81 were graduate students, and 177 were post-graduate students (advanced students taking special unit courses not leading to degree). In 1930-31 first degrees in dentistry were con¬ ferred onl, 915 students;13 in 1935-36, 1,736 received first degrees in dentistry — of these, 16 were women. The enrollment in the 39 dental schools for 1935-36 was 7,369, of whom 63 were Negroes. Of the 7,306 white students, 7,241 w^ere men, and 65 were women.14 In the year 1930-31, of 2,358 first-year students, 783 entered dental schools with 1 year of college preparation, 944 with 2 years, 350 with 3 12 Report for 1935-36, p. 661. 13 American Association of Dental Schools. Survey of the Dental Curriculum. Progress Reports of the Curriculum Survey Committee submitted to the American Association of Dental Schools, Mar. 23, 1932. 14 Blauch, L. E. Dentistry as a Career, from Bulletin of the Chicago Dental Society, June 11-18, 1936. pp. 18-20. HIGHER EDUCATION 73 years, 257 with 4 years, and 24 with graduate work in arts and sci¬ ences.13 There are some dental schools at this time (1936) that admit students with only 1 year of general college preparation. In 1937, however, all dental schools will require 2 years of college work for admission.14 b. Dental Survey The evolution of dentistry from a handicraft into a full-fledged pro¬ fession with the major objective of health service is one of the most interesting developments in higher education. Joining itself closely to medicine in its service of health, dentistry has laid its foundations in the sciences, and more recently has emphasized the importance of a broad liberal education as an essential part of the dentist’s training. Dental Education received great benefit from the survey made by Dr. William J. Gies, which was completed in 1926. More re¬ cently, a comprehensive survey of the dental curriculum was begun in 1930 with the assistance of the Carnegie Corporation of New York. Altogether, $30,000 was appropriated for this purpose. The work of the survey was completed in 1935. 15 The main results of this study are found in the Report of the Curriculum Survey Committee of the American Association of Dental Schools entitled, A Course of Study in Dentistry .16 6. Pharmacy a. Statistics of Schools of Pharmacy There are at the present time 71 colleges of pharmacy in the United States. Of these, 55 are members of the American Association of Colleges of Pharmacy. Through the influence of this association and the American Council on Pharmaceutical Education, standards have been raised. In schools that are members of the American Association of Colleges of Pharmacy, short courses have been elim¬ inated, and since 1932 the minimum requirement of a 4-year course has been effective. Most of the non-member schools give a 3-year course, although some are offering a 4-year program. Year Enrollment Degrees 1930 _ 10,906 2,599 1932 _ 9, 782 2, 391 1934 _ 7, 813 1, 073 13 American Association of Dental Schools. Survey of the Dental Curriculum. Progress Reports of the Curriculum Survey Committee submitted to the American Association of Dental Schools, Mar. 23, 1932. h Blauch, L. E. Dentistry as a Career, from Bulletin of the Chicago Dental Society, June 11-18, 1936, pp. 18-20. 15 Blauch, L. E. Trends and Problems in Dental Education. Journal of Dental Education, 1: 63-71, December 1936. 16 Course of Study in Dentistry. Curriculum Survey Committee, American Association of Dental Schools, 311 East Chicago Avenue, Chicago, Ill., 1935. 25973—38 - 6 74 BIENNIAL SURVEY OF EDUCATION, 1934-36 The figures for the 4-year period show a decided loss in the total enrollments in pharmacy and also a larger proportionate loss in the number of those who received degrees in this subject. In view of the increasing demand for advanced study, more schools are offering graduate work in pharmacy than in the past. The following figures of the American Association of Colleges of Pharmacy are of interest because they refer to the number of enter¬ ing students and to the number graduating, in the colleges that are members of the association (55 in number): 17 Year Entering students Graduating classes Total High- school gradu¬ ates Special students Number with previous college training Number graduat¬ ing Advanced degrees granted M. S. Ph. D. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 1930-31 . 2,779 2, 758 21 515 2, 142 1931-32 _ _ _ _ 2, 788 2,754 34 517 1, 934 45 5 1932-33 _ _ 1,780 1, 773 7 418 1,639 41 11 1933-34.... . 2,174 2, 169 15 600 1,641 27 11 1934-35 . 1,902 1,894 g 500 1935-36. . 2, 347 2,330 17 1,066 11 15 The data on entering classes show a very heavy drop in beginning enrollments in 1932-33. There was a considerable gain for 1933-34 with a small drop for 1934-35, and a large increase for 1935-36. The vast majority of these entrants are high-school graduates and the number of entrants that also have had previous college training shows that the proportion of these has been increasing from about one in five in 1930-31 to one in three in 1935-36. The number of graduates has dropped 50 percent during the 6-year period indicated. The number of M. S. degrees lias decreased by three-fourths and the number of Ph. D.’s has tripled during the same period. 7. Nursing Since 1921, there has been an increasing interest in the advance¬ ment of nursing education, particularly on the college level. A number of important studies have been made and organizations estab¬ lished to help raise and maintain suitable standards of nursing edu¬ cation. In 1933, the Association of Collegiate Schools of Nursing was organized and a year later stated its objectives as follows: 17 Letter to author Feb. 11, 1937, from Zada M. Cooper, Sec.-Treas., American Association of Colleges of Pharmacy. HIGHER EDUCATION 75 To develop nursing education on a professional and collegiate level, To promote and strengthen relationships between schools of nursing and institutions of higher education, To promote study and experimentation in nursing service and nursing edu¬ cation. In 1935, the National League of Nursing compiled a list of ac¬ credited schools, 245 in number. In 64 of these schools, 70 curricula were found leading to degrees and of these 36 were established since 1930. The number of students now enrolled in degree programs is 1,832. Of the 70 curricula, two led to the master’s degree and the others to the bachelor’s degree.18 8. Engineering a. Enrollments Statistics of engineering enrollments show the negative influence of the period of the depression. Between 1925-26 and 1930-31, we find a great increase in engineering enrollments. In 1925-26, 54,337 were enrolled in 143 engineering schools. In 1930-31, 73,386 were enrolled in 145 schools. Between 1927-28 and 1930-31, there was an increase of 10,363, showing the extraordinary interest in engi¬ neering. Between 1930-31 and 1932-33, the total enrollment sud¬ denly dropped to 63,119, or a loss of 10,267, practically the same as the gain of the 2 years preceding.19 Present-day statistics appear to indicate that enrollments are increasing on a more normal basis, the reports for 1934 showing 65,406 engineering students. b. Engineering Degrees In 1929-30 the total number of degrees granted in engineering was reported at 10,535. Of these, 9,817 were first degrees and 718 were graduate degrees. The number of engineering degrees reported in 1934 was 12,375. c. Advancement oj Engineering Education The past 12 years have witnessed extraordinary activity in the field of engineering education. In 1924, the Society for the Promotion of Engineering Education under a grant from the Carnegie Founda¬ tion for the Advancement of Teaching undertook a major survey of engineering education including practically all the engineering schools 15 Petry, Lucile. Basic Professional Curricula in Nursing Leading to Degrees. American Journal of Nursing, 37: 2-5. March 1937. 19 Based upon special study of engineering enrollments reported in Journal of Engineering Education, November 1933. p 88. 76 BIENNIAL SURVEY OF EDUCATION, 1934-36 of the country. This survey was completed in 1929. In 1931, a supplementary survey of these schools was made in cooperation with the Office of Education. This helped to evaluate the practical results of the earlier survey. In 1931 the Society for the Promotion of Engineering Education began preliminary studies of graduate work in engineering under the direction of a committee of which Dean Dexter S. Kimball, of the Engineering School of Cornell University, was chairman. This study led to a Nation-wide survey of graduate work in engineering which was begun in 1934 and the final results were published in 1936 in a bulletin entitled, Graduate Work in Engineering in Universities and Colleges in the United States.20 In view of the serious results of the depression on the employment of engineers, a survey of the engineering profession was made in 1935 by the Bureau of Labor Statistics of the United States Department of Labor, under the direction of Isador Lubin, Commissioner of Labor Statistics, at the request of the American Engineering Council. This study was based on reports made from 52,589 professional engineers throughout the country. Some of the more significant facts and findings are quoted or abstracted as follows: 21 ... it may now be said that at the end of 1932 more than one-tenth of the engineers were simultaneously unemployed, that at one time or the other between the beginning of 1930 and the end of 1934, more than one-third of the engineers had some period of unemployment, and that half of those who became unemployed were out of work for more than a year. There are, unfortunately, no comparable data for the other professions. 1. Between the end of 1929 and 1932, the percentage of engineers who were unemployed increased from 0.7 to 10.9. At the end of 1934 the percentage was 8.9. 2. At no time was direct relief extensive among engineers, but the develop¬ ment of work-relief programs after 1932 became an important factor. Although 10.9 percent of all engineers reporting were unemployed on December 31, 1932, less than one-fifteenth of those unemployed were on work relief. On December 31, 1934, 4 percent of all engineers reporting had work relief, i. e., almost half of the total number of engineers unemployed at that time. 3. The largest number unemployed at any one time was about 11 percent of the total, but more than a third of the engineers had some period of unemploy¬ ment within the 5 years, 1930 to 1934. 4. Among those who became unemployed at some time during these 5 years, half were out of employment (except as they found work relief) for more than a year. 5. This experience with unemployment was common to all professional classes of engineers. In 1932 unemployment ranged from 10.1 percent among chemical and ceramic engineers to 11.6 percent among electrical engineers. In 1934 ap- 20 U. S. Department of the Interior, Office of Education, Bulletin 1936, No. 8. 21 Unemployment in the Engineering Profession. By A. F. Hinricks, chief economist, and Andrew Fraser, Jr., of the Division of Wages, Hours, and Working Conditions. Monthly Labor Review, 44: 37-38, January 1937. See also the report of Commissioner Lubin before the forty-fourth annual meeting of the S. P. E. E. at Madison, Wis., June 26, 1936. HIGHER EDUCATION 77 proximately 8 percent of the electrical, mechanical, and industrial and of the mining and metallurgical engineers were unemployed. The percentage of unem¬ ployment dropped most among chemical engineers, of whom 6.8 percent were unemployed in December 1934. There was a slight increase in unemployment among civil engineers from 1932 to 1934. 6. The most marked differences as regards unemployment are those found among the various age groups. The greatest frequency of unemployment was among those who attempted to enter the profession after 1929. Approximately half of them were unemployed at one time or another from 1930 to 1934. Older engineers, who were already professionally established prior to 1929, were less frequently unemployed, though even among those with 20 or more years of expe¬ rience one-quarter had some unemployment. 7. When the older engineers became unemployed, however, unemployment lasted longer than it did with the younger engineers. Thus, the median period of unemployment for engineers graduating in 1925-29 was 12.1 months, whereas the median for those graduating prior to 1905 was 23.1 months. d. Ideals of Engineering Education Long before the economic crisis, industry as well as engineering education called attention to the importance of character and ideals in the engineering profession. It was shown by Dr. C. R. Mann, in his Study of Engineering Education published in 1918, “that several thousand employers made it a practice to give upward of a 75-percent weighting to those characteristics which fall broadly within the term 'character’, and only 25 percent to the combined techniques and skills of the engineers.” 22 This emphasis on character has become increas¬ ingly important ever since the economic depression because the in¬ creasing lack of employment of engineers, and the competitive atti¬ tudes of employers have created “the spirit of discouragement and defeatism” which has been very prevalent among younger engineers and many of the older ones.23 Having these conditions in mind, the Society for the Promotion of Engineering Education, at its forty-fourth annual meeting held at the University of Wisconsin, June 23-26, 1936, gave the greater part of the time of the general program to the discussion of the “Spiritual Adjustment of the Engineering Student.” President Douglas S. Anderson pointed out that — . . . the term spiritual adjustment, as here used in its broader sense, is intended to refer to all the influences which may be effective either objectively or sub¬ jectively in developing, in broadening and refining the students’ qualities of mind and heart, as well as bringing him an abiding sense of social responsibility ; qualities which it is recognized may be already inherent in his nature to a greater or less degree, acquired by heredity and previous environment.2* !! Quoted by Gen. R. I. Rees in his address on the Maturing of the Engineer before the S. P. E. E., at Madison, Wis., Journal of the S. P. E. E., September 1936, p. 39 13 From address of Daniel W. Mead, president, A. S. C. E., at the above-mentioned meeting. Opus cit., p. 31. 14 From his presidential address at the afore-mentioned meeting. Ibid., pp. 9-10. 78 BIENNIAL SURVEY OF EDUCATION, 1934-36 9. Agriculture Agriculture on the college level is taught almost entirely in the 51 colleges of agriculture which are a part of the group known as land- grant colleges and universities. Agriculture is also taught in the 17 land-grant colleges for Negroes. a. Enrollments Enrollments in general agriculture in colleges primarily for whites according to the following table shows a slight decline from 1930 to 1934: Table 9. — Resident college enrollments in agriculture, not including forestry and veterinary medicine Year 51 land-grant colleges Other non-land- grant institutions Total Grand total Under¬ gradu¬ ate Grad¬ uate Under¬ gradu¬ ate Grad¬ uate Under¬ gradu¬ ate Grad¬ uate i 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 1929-30 . . . 12, 722 1931-32.. . . . 12, 219 2, 347 383 3 12, 602 2,350 14,952 1933-34 . . . 11, 469 1,829 139 0) 11,548 1,829 13, 377 • Included in 139. It will be noted that of the total number enrolled in 1931-32, 386 were not enrolled in land-grant institutions. The proportion of under¬ graduate students to graduate students for the years indicated shows the following: 1931-32 undergraduates, 84 percent; graduate students, 16 percent; 1933-34 undergraduates, 86 percent; and graduate students, 14 percent. b. Degrees Notwithstanding the decrease in enrollments in agriculture, the number of degrees granted in that field has somewhat increased. In 1930, 1938 first degrees in agriculture were granted by the 51 white land-grant colleges; in 1932 this figure increased to 1,987; and in 1934 it reached 2,152. In 1932, 52 agricultural degrees were granted by non-land-grant schools. c. The Agricultural Curriculum According to a recent survey made under the direction of the com¬ mittee on instruction in agriculture, home economics, and the mechanic arts of the association of land-grant colleges and universities, information was obtained showing significant trends.25 2S Proceedings of the 48th Annual Convention of the Association of Land-Grant Colleges and Universities, Washington, D. C., 1934. HIGHER EDUCATION 79 It is generally recognized that agricultural colleges have made more adequate adjustments in their curricula to changing needs during the past 20 years than formerly. Among these adjustments the following are most noteworthy: d. Humanistics and Agriculture Of the 28 institutions included in this survey, 14 indicated that trends in agricultural curricula were toward humanistic and basic science courses as against the more distinctly technical courses; 9 institutions also gave affirmative replies with certain qualifications; and 2 indicated a negative answer.25 e. Specialization “The time when students make a choice of their fields of specializa¬ tion varies considerably.” Of 26 reporting, 15 reported that students select their special field within the general field of agriculture at the beginning of the junior year; 7 at the beginning of the sophomore year; 3 at the beginning of the freshman year; and 1 at the beginning of the senior year. It was also indicated by nearly all the schools that — ... it is the purpose of the 4-year course in agriculture to graduate generally informed students with reasonable emphasis on some portion of the field rather than to graduate students with a relatively high degree of specialization in one or more phases of the general field.27 A majority of these institutions believe there is a central core or irreducible minimum of technical subject matter which may rightfully be expected of any student graduating in agriculture. . . . But there is a distinct absence of uniformity of opinion as to what the subject matter of this minimum should be. f. Graduate Work Twenty-six of the twenty-eight institutions said they offered courses in agriculture designed especially for graduate credit.27 The difference in subject matter content between graduate and undergraduate courses consists in having the former do more work in specialized subject matter and with assigned problems. Where both classes of students are enrolled in the same class the graduate student is required to do a higher quality of work and in some instances a special problem on the outside. As to the differences in teaching methods there is less formal teaching done with graduate students. They are assigned problems and are required to make reports on such assignments. Graduate students meet their instructors in conferences more frequently than do undergraduate students, and since graduate students devote a considerable part of their time to special problems there appears to be less need for formal assignments when classes meet. 38 Proceedings of the 48th Annual Convention of the Association of Land-Grant Colleges and Universities, Washington, D. C., 1934. p. 251. » Ibid., p. 272. 80 BIENNIAL SURVEY OF EDUCATION, 1934-36 10. Home Economics a. Statistics of Home Economics The great majority of students of college courses in home economics are found in the land-grant colleges. According to the following table, undergraduate enrollments in home economics have declined slightly between 1930 and 1934. In the table following, attention is called to the fact that figures showing graduate enrollments were not available for 1929-30. In 1931-32 and 1933-34, figures show the enrollments in home economics in land-grant colleges as well as in non-land-grant schools for both undergraduate and graduate students. Table 10. — Resident college enrollments in home economics Year Land-grant colleges Other institutions Total Grand total Under¬ graduate Graduate Under¬ graduate Graduate Under¬ graduate Graduate > 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 1929-30 . . . . 8, 958 1931-32 . . 8,932 480 1,545 84 10, 477 564 11,041 1933-34 . . . . . . 8, 074 364 2,047 (9 10, 121 364 10, 485 1 Included under 2,047. Degrees. — The number of first degrees in home economics reported in 1929-30 was 2,260. This number, however, did not include degrees granted to those that majored in home economics in arts and science colleges. Of this total number, 1,552 were granted by land-grant colleges. In 1931-32, a total of 3,102 first degrees in home economics was granted. Of these, 1,302 were granted by arts and science colleges to those with majors in home economics, and 1,800 were degrees con¬ ferred by professional or independent schools. Of the total, 1,550 were granted by land-grant colleges. In 1933-34, a total of 3,166 first degrees in this subject was con¬ ferred. Of these, 1,405 were granted to those majoring in home economics in arts and science colleges, and 1,761 were granted by professional or independent schools. Of the total, 1,520 were con¬ ferred by land-grant colleges. HIGHER EDUCATION 81 b. Objectives With respect to home economics education, attention is limited in this report to the activities of the committees set up by the Association of Land-Grant Colleges and Universities.28 In 1935, the subcommittee on objectives of the Core Curriculum in Home Economics made its report. The basic objectives which are being further developed according to the four main groupings are as follows:28 The objective of all education is the offering of means and opportunity for the evolution of conscious life, which is accepted as the wide goal preeminently desired. On this basis the following objectives are offered for the core curriculum in Home Economics. I. The establishment of attitudes essential to rich and significant living. II. The acceptance of standards of enjoyment and ideals of living, satisfactory to the individual and profitable to society. III. The development of that questioning scientific attitude of mind which enables the individual to solve problems intelligently and independently. IV. Mastery of an adequate body of functioning subject matter that will give to the individual factual basis for and facility in meeting those responsibilities that are essentially woman’s for the continuance of life, its care and protection, its enrichment and fulfillment. More specifically, there would be included in this body of subject matter: 1. Basic physical and biological sciences through which one gains an insight into and a knowledge of the natural laws governing life, in both its physical and mental aspects. 2. Humanities which present the characteristics of our present culture and civilization, and afford an interpretation of the significance of these both to the individual and to society. 3. Basic economic and social sciences that may lead to an understanding of the character of our social and economic order, and the resulting pressures exerted thereby on the home and its members. 4. Basic Home Economics subject matter dealing with: Personal and family health, both mental and physical; child development; relationships within the family group, and between the family and the community; the manage¬ ment of the home and its resources; responsibilities of the consumer-buyer; adequate, wholesome, and palatable food; satisfactory clothing; healthful, comfortable, aesthetic, and satisfying housing for the family; the conserving of the racial culture through the home; and the wise use of leisure time. The programs for specialization in the various professions in the field of home economics are definitely built upon such core curricula. Thus college students have an opportunity in many institutions to select from among several major fields for special preparation. These include teaching, dietitian work, institutional management, research in textiles and foods, nursery school direction, and several types of business. *8 Proceedings of the 49th Annual Convention of the Association of Land-Grant Colleges and Universities,. Washington, D. C., November 1935. Pp. 316-23. 82 BIENNIAL SURVEY OF EDUCATION, 1934-36 11. Teaching a. Statistics of Teacher Education Without question, the largest single professional group in the United States is that of teachers. Until recently, the growth of this group has been phenomenal.29 In 1933-34, there were 1,018,522 from kindergarten through college levels. Certain types of private school teachers are not included in this total. Table 11. — Distribution of teachers for 4 periods Teachers in— 1920 1930 1932 1934 Men Women Men Women Men Women Men Women 1 2 3 4 5 6 8 9 Public elementary schools . 63, 024 513, 222 67, 239 573, 718 67, 122 573, 332 74, 246 545, 147 Private elementary schools (estimated) _ 6, 322 38, 977 2 1, 466 2 60, 101 3, 761 62, 509 4, 236 47, 239 Public high schools. _ _ 32, 386 69, 572 i 74, 532 i 138,774 80, 768 150, 385 87, 703 140, 024 Private high schools _ _ 5,698 9, 248 2 8, 157 2 13, 631 9, 859 15, 194 8,130 12, 587 Universities and colleges: Preparatory departments.. 2,714 1,568 1, 564 1,251 1, 643 1, 314 1, 251 1,000 Collegiate departments _ 21, 644 6, 469 39, 735 14, 460 1 Other departments . 982 1, 239 0 0 \ 60,298 17, 226 59, 438 17, 658 Professional schools... . . 10, 603 312 2 15, 562 3 652 f Teachers colleges and normal schools, public . 2,963 5, 161 5,315 7,588 3, 842 6, 061 3,663 5, 337 Teachers colleges and normal schools, private . . . 597 866 680 880 299 446 355 463 Commercial and business schools. . . . . 2,976 3, 189 * 1,863 « 2, 211 7 1, 464 7 1, 767 1,464 1, 767 Schools for defectives and de¬ linquents _ _ _ 5 1, 165 * 2, 744 8 1, 578 8 6, 571 1,004 4,182 1,004 4, 182 Indian and Alaskan schools _ 141 652 447 1, 132 441 1,113 515 1, 113 Kindergartens: Public 0 10, 022 Private 0 717 Total, including un¬ distributed items _ 8 151, 215 8 663, 958 9 217, 138 9 820, 467 if 229, 701 io 833, 275 242, 005 776, 517 Grand total . . 815,173 1,037,605 1,062,976 1,011 5,522 1 Includes teachers in junior high schools. 8 Does not include 1,832 men and 817 women, 2 Figures for 1928. duplicates, in universities, colleges, and professional 2 Professional departments. schools. * Figures for 1929. 8 Does not include 1,000 men and 502 women, 5 Figures for 1918. duplicates, in universities, colleges, and professional 8 Figures for 1927. schools. 7 Figures for 1931. As to the total number of teachers reporting, the figures above show a steady increase in the number of men teachers from 1920 to 1934. Women teachers gained in numbers until 1932, but they registered a heavy loss in 1934. (1) Elementary-school teachers. — The figures show that 1932 was the peak year as far as the total number of elementary teachers report¬ ing is concerned; the number was 706,724. In the public elementary schools, there was a steady increase in the number of men teachers 29 Adapted from table 6, Biennial Survey of Education, 1932-34. U. S. Department of the Interior, Office of Education, Bulletin 1935, No. 2. Statistical Summary of Education, p. 10. HIGHER EDUCATION 83 from 1920 to 1934, except for an insignificant decline in 1932 over 1930. There was a normal increase in the number of women teachers until 1930, the decline beginning in 1932 and falling more by 1934. In private elementary schools, the number of men teachers dropped excessively between 1920 and 1928, with indications of a rapid recovery in the direction of the 1920 figures. The number of women teachers, on the other hand, has increased in more normal fashion, but there was a marked drop in 1934. (2) High-school teachers. — Figures show that the total number of high-school teachers reported practically doubled between 1920 and 1930. A slight drop is indicated between the peak year 1932 and 1934. In public high schools, the number of men teachers reported more than doubled between 1920 and 1930, and between the latter year and 1934 the increase was large. At the same time, although the number of women teaching in high schools more than doubled between 1920 and 1932, a decline was noted for 1934. In private high schools, 1932 was the peak year as to the number of teachers. In the cases of both men and women teachers, there was a slight decline between 1932 and 1934. (3) Teachers in universities , colleges , and professional schools. — The figures in the aforementioned table show an exceedingly small decline in the number of college teachers between 1932 and 1934. The figures in this table refer to teachers engaged in resident instruction reduced to a full-time basis and do not include administrative officers and other staff members not engaged in giving instruction. If the latter are included, a slight gain is shown for this group. Public teachers colleges and normal schools show a slightly greater loss in teachers during the same 2-year period, but the private insti¬ tutions of this group show a considerable gain. Attention is called to the table for the changes in other types of schools. (4) Students in teacher-training institutions. — Among the main sources of the training of teachers for the schools are teachers colleges and normal schools. Attention is therefore called to the changes in enrollments reported in these institutions: Year Resident students in— Total Regular session Summer session 1929-30 . . . . . . . . 161, 524 153, 794 136, 184 138, 856 123, 674 86, 721 279, 195 271, 628 222, 905 1931-32 . . . . . . . . . . 1933-34 . . . . . . According to the table above, enrollments of resident students in regular sessions of teachers colleges and normal schools have steadily 84 BIENNIAL SURVEY OF EDUCATION, 1934-36 declined between 1930 and 1934. This is true for both regular and summer sessions. Figures have been compiled showing the total number of students of education reported in universities, colleges, teachers colleges, and normal schools for 1931-32 and 1933-34. In the former year, the total resident enrollment in the regular session was 227,447 and for the latter year, 197,411. b. Changes in Institutional Types In the main, teacher education is now confined to three types of institutions: The school or college of education in the university, the privately endowed or church-supported liberal arts colleges, and the State teachers college.30 McConnell reports certain changes that have taken place among teacher-training institutions over a period of years. The following table 30 shows a great decline in the number of normal schools with an extraordinary increase in teachers colleges: Type of institution Number in— Type of institution Number in — 1900 1933 1900 1933 State normal schools. _ 125 50 State teachers colleges _ 2 146 Private normal schools . 134 35 Private teachers colleges _ 11 City normal schools . . 27 16 City teachers colleges _ 7 He states that in 113 teachers colleges there had been a decrease during the period 1927-35 of 13,148 2-year graduates and an increase of 8,385 in degree graduates. There are now 175 teachers colleges in addition to the colleges of education in the universities. Six years ago there were 140 teachers colleges and 16 years ago only 46. Twenty- nine teacher-training institutions have developed graduate schools. In the 2-year period, 1932-34, the number of masters degrees granted in these colleges doubled.30 Recent studies go to show that curriculum trends in teacher-training institutions point to a discontinuance of shorter courses. A study 31 recently made by President Karl L. Adams of the Northern Illinois State Teachers College, reports findings from 69 teacher-training institutions in 24 States in all parts of the United States. He found that 19 percent of these institutions still have 1-year curricula; 66 percent have 2-year curricula; 30 percent have 3-year curricula; 95 percent have 4-year curricula; and 27 percent have 5-year curricula. As the institutions lengthened their curricula, the new courses which were introduced were largely subject-matter courses. The first 2 years in the 4-year 30 From Recent Trends in the Development of Teacher Training by Robert E. McConnell, president, Washington State Normal School, Ellensburg, Wash. In Educational Administration and Supervision, November 1936. 31 Unpublished study. HIGHER EDUCATION 85 curricula consist largely of academic or background courses. Prerequisites play a part in all institutions with about half of the institutions giving attention to orientation courses in the various departments of instruction. A large majority of the curricula have the same core. The longer curricula allow for greater free¬ dom of choice through electives and through substantial majors and minors . . . The minimum requirements in professional education and student-teaching essential to teachers of high-pchool subjects vary among the States all the way from 8 seme9ter-hours in Connecticut to 20 semester-hours in Michigan and West Virginia. The most common hours are 15 and 18. Similar requirements hold for elementary-school certificates on a basis of 4 years of college preparation. Referring to the general pattern for professional work in substantial institutions as given in the summary volume of the National Survey of the Education of Teachers, President McConnell points out the following major trends: 1. A lengthening of the period of collegiate education for teachers in training — a high percentage of teacher-training institutions offer a 4-year curriculum and State certifying agencies are rapidly setting 4 years as the minimum. 2. A curriculum expansion with more consideration given to the cultural and academic background, especially in the junior college years. 3. An improvement in the education of the college staff with the master’s degree as the minimum requirement. 4. An expansion in library collections. 5. The introduction of curricula for educating teacher-librarians. 6. An improvement in personnel service to college students. 7. An expansion in physical plants. c. The Depression and Teaching The teaching profession began to feel the results of the depression following 1931 when the average teacher’s salary reached its peak. According to Frazier 32 the beginning of the depression was largely an academic matter but— . . . after 1932, the downswing became less and less an academic matter, and more and more an increasingly distasteful experience with reduction in salaries, short¬ ening of school terms, greatly increased oversupply of certificated teachers, intensified competition for teaching positions, and actual loss of jobs formerly thought secure. It became evident that boom-time expansion had gone in reverse. The psychological effects of this reversal have been to confuse or halt administra¬ tive plans affecting teacher personnel and to bewilder and discourage the teachers themselves. Long-time trends, rather than depression tendencies, are the best guides to the making of personnel policies by school administrators and to the making of professional plans by individual teachers. For a more complete discussion of this topic attention is called to the special section of the Biennial Survey of Education that deals with the relation of the depression to education. 32 Frazier, Benjamin, W. Depression Tendencies versus Long-time Trends Affecting Teachers. The American School Board Journal, 91: 19-20, September 1935. 86 BIENNIAL SURVEY OF EDUCATION, 1934-36 d. The Improvement of Teaching The importance of the teaching profession with the complex problems which have arisen in recent years in advancing the standards of teaching in different levels has led to a number of important studies. The first is that of the National Survey of the Education of Teachers conducted under the auspices of the Commissioner of Education. The associate director of this survey was Dr. E. S. Evenden of Colum¬ bia University who had immediate charge of the project. This major investigation was begun in 1930 and was completed in 1935 including the publication of the survey reports in six volumes.33 In 1933, the committee on college and university teaching of the American Association of University Professors under the direction of Dr. Homer P. Dodge, dean of the graduate school of the University of Oklahoma, prepared a comprehensive study of the problems of the teacher on the higher educational level.34 In 1935, the committee on instruction in agriculture of the Associa¬ tion of Land-Grant Colleges and Universities presented a brief but well-organized statement as to the Present Status of Programs to Improve College Teaching in Agricultural Divisions of Land-Grant Colleges.35 Report of the Committee on Program and Graduate Study which Insti¬ tutions of Higher Education Should Organize for the Preparation of Secondary School Teachers.™ — This report was prepared by a committee of the Association of American Universities and presented at the annual meeting of the association at the University of Texas November 5-6, 1936. The committee included Dr. Charles H. Judd, Dr. William J. Robbins, and President Lotus D. Coffman. The purpose of this report was to suggest suitable means by which some of the conflicting situations that have developed in the training of high-school teachers may be overcome. The recommendations of the committee which were approved by the association are as follows: 1. The trend toward the requirement of study beyond the baccalaureate degree for all teachers in secondary schools is to be highly commended. 2. A systematic program of study beginning with the junior year of college should be recommended to all candidates for teaching positions in secondary schools. Such a program should be based on a broad foundation of cultural studies largely completed by the end of the sophomore year. It should include (a) preparation in one or more fields of study rather than intensive specialization in a single department and (6) special professional preparation adequate to insure that the candidate will be able to conduct secondary- school classes intelligently. 33 National Survey of the Education of Teachers. U. S. Department of the Interior, Office of Education, Bulletin 1933, No. 10. In 6 volumes. 34 Report of the Committee on College and University Teaching, Bulletin of the American Association of University Professors, May 1933. 35 Proceedings of the Forty-ninth Annual Convention of the Association of Land-Grant Colleges and Universities, November 1935. pp. 287-305. 36 Published by the Association of American Universities, 1936. HIGHER EDUCATION 87 3. Each institution engaged in the preparation of secondary school teachers should undertake a study of the problem of assisting secondary schools in the light of its local conditions. Such a study should be a joint effort on the part of members of subject-matter departments and those interested in, and acquainted with, the professional aspects of education. 4. Educational institutions which prepare teachers for secondary schools should be equipped to give courses of high scholarly grade. Such institutions should insure the cultivation in students of a professional attitude and a profound respect for the teaching profession. 5. No institution which tolerates lack of coordination, or exchange of petty recriminations, between the departments concerned with the preparation of secondary school teachers should be regarded as competent to prepare teachers. e. Education oj Teachers in Vocational Agriculture, Home Economics, and Trades and Industries (1) Teachers oj agricultural education. 37 — The National Vocational Education Act made the preparation of teachers a primary objective of the law in order that the States take advantage of its other provi¬ sions thus giving emphasis to the importance of teacher-training. The Vocational Division of the Office of Education through the Agricultural Education Service cooperates with State boards for vocational education in the pre-employment training of teachers of vocational agriculture and in certain forms of in-service teacher train¬ ing. State boards for vocational education frequently delegate re¬ sponsibility for pre-employment training of teachers of vocational agriculture and for certain types of in-service teacher training to designated colleges and universities. Practically all pre-employment teacher-training for vocational agriculture is carried on through the land-grant colleges and universities, there being 51 institutions for the training of white and 14 for the training of Negro teachers of vocational agriculture. Developments in the field of teacher-training in agriculture are cited in relation to the principal functions of teacher-training as provided in many colleges and universities: 1. To provide pre-employment facilities for the training of teachers of agriculture. This function includes: (a) The recruiting of trainees to insure an adequate supply of capable, well- trained beginning teachers. (1) Administrative provision for careful selection of trainees as well as to provide for the elimination at any point in the training program of any person unsuited to continue in training. (2) Provision for a qualifying or requalifying plan based upon additional technical and professional training for college graduates desiring to enter the field of vocational teaching in agriculture. 17 Prepared by H. B. Swanson, Specialist in Teacher Training. Vocational Division of the Office of Education. TJ. S. Department of the Interior. 88 BIENNIAL SURVEY OF EDUCATION, 1934-36 (b) The providing of training (technical and professional) based primarily upon participating experiences and carried to the point of developing “doing” ability. This includes activities such as: (1) The maintaining of a proper relationship with fellow teachers, school officials, and public. (2) The organizing and teaching of all-day classes. (3) The organizing and teaching of part-time classes. (4) The organizing and teaching of evening classes. (5) The supervising of farm practice for all groups reached by systematic instruction. (6) The keeping of official records and reports. (7) The serving as adviser to a Future Farmers of America chapter. (8) The working with adult community organizations. (9) The preparing of exhibits, fairs, etc. (10) The preparing of articles for the press. (c) The placing of all persons as teachers of vocational agriculture upon the completion of training and under circumstances affording opportunity for advancement. A noteworthy development is the increased emphasis given to par¬ ticipating types of teaching experience in the pre-employment teacher- training program. To supplement practice teaching of a day-school classroom type, considerable progress has been made with cadet and apprentice programs for teacher training in which the trainee is placed in a community removed from the college, thus devoting full time to gaining experience in many teacher activities including work with adults under the direction of competent critics. To afford greater opportunity for participating types of training the 5-year program is being introduced with a year of cadet or apprentice experience pro¬ vided between the junior and senior years or following the senior year of resident instruction. Many teacher-training institutions have introduced changes in the technical training program to provide balanced instruction cutting across the several major technical divi¬ sions rather than adhering to highly specialized majors for teachers of vocational agriculture. This development has led to degree courses designed to prepare for the teaching of vocational agriculture, county agent work, general farming, and for public service. 2. To develop teaching aids for teachers in service. This includes: (a) The preparing of professional and technical teaching materials to embody new developments and to bring together data bearing on significant units of instruction. (b) The participating in district and State conferences for the purpose of redeveloping professional and technical materials of value to employed teachers. The great wealth of teaching materials in the field of agriculture developed by many different agencies has led a number of teacher¬ training institutions to make provision for the preparation of technical and professional materials for the use of employed teachers. This service has had the most marked development in the States of the HIGHER EDUCATION 89 southern region, where in many instances from one-half to two full¬ time workers per State are giving their time to this phase of teacher training. 3. To provide continuing education for teachers in service. This includes: (a) Regular term graduate courses in professional and technical fields. (b) Short courses of 2-3 weeks’ duration, both professional and technical (on the campus and off campus) . (c) Technical skills units (on campus and off campus) . Teachers of vocational agriculture are employed for a 12-month year. This has created a serious problem with respect to providing forms of training designed to keep teachers abreast of new develop¬ ments in both the technical and professional fields. Many teacher- training institutions have introduced short courses of 2 to 3 weeks, duration and technical skills units of even shorter duration to supple¬ ment the regular term graduate programs. These shorter units frequently provide graduate credit and are offered either on the campus or at convenient points in the State as off-campus courses. 4. To follow-up resident teacher training through a field service for the purpose of checking the effectiveness of all units of instruction thus leading to the improvement of the teacher-training program. This type of follow-up is best carried on with beginning teachers. A valuable teacher-training development taking place in agricul¬ tural education is the provision whereby the resident teacher trainers have opportunity to follow their product in the field and on the job. Many of the teacher-training institutions have developed a plan of rotating the teacher trainers by quarters, semesters, or the full year between resident instruction and field service. Where such a plan of rotation is not followed, there frequently is an exchange of duties worked out between the State supervisor and the teacher trainer making it possible for the resident teacher trainer to have active contact with the developments taking place in the schools of the State. 5. To improve residence instruction (professional and technical) based upon the objectives for vocational agriculture in the State and upon the abilities needed by teachers of vocational agriculture. Field studies relating to the technical need of employed teachers, the use of committees of employed teachers and surveys have been pro¬ ductive of marked changes in technical content of teacher-training programs in many States. The most marked changes have been made in the direction of providing better balance and more complete coverage in the several technical fields and in increasing the time given to studies in the social science group. 6. To conduct research and studies having for its purpose a direct contribution to the development of the program in vocational agriculture of the State. 25973—38 - 7 90 BIENNIAL SURVEY OF EDUCATION, 1934-36 The growth of vocational agriculture in the several States has warranted teacher-training institutions to make more adequate provision for research and studies in the field. Recent development indicates a number of cases where teacher trainers in agriculture are devoting part time to research. In a few instances experiment station funds now are being used for investigations of a professional character as contrasted with technical studies in the field of agricul¬ tural education. (2) Teachers of home-economics education ,38 — One of the most sig¬ nificant developments in the last 5 years in the college program in home economics is the attention being given to an intensive study of their curriculum by members of the college staff. Instead of making decisions to change courses and credits for courses, with only limited consideration of the program as a whole, several departments have begun to study critically the objectives which should dominate a college program in home economics, to get facts on the number who have dropped out of college in different years, the vocations they and graduates have followed, and their reactions to the college program which they have pursued. Several institutions have also been getting reactions of students to their present programs and there is a beginning of more counselling and guidance in aiding students to set their own goals, to plan their programs to meet their own individual needs, and to evaluate the progress they are making toward their goals. Some institutions have set up as their core the courses needed for home living and suggested variations from this to meet other vocational needs. An intensive study has been made of some of the science require¬ ments, and among the course changes which have been reported there have been several instances where the requirements in natural science have been reduced, the offerings in social science have been increased, and work in housing, in family relations, in consumer education, and in art increased. A few institutions are trying the plan of offering courses in which several departments cooperate. Reports from institutions indicate that a greater variety of ex¬ periences are being provided for students as a part of their college work. These include observation in the nursery school, more ex¬ perience in the home-management house and in homes, cooperation with the local hospital in clinics, with the county nurse on health problems, with local stores in testing, selling, and judging merchan¬ dise, with community organizations in furnishing houses within a limited cost range, and with organizations in assisting in well-children’s clinics and in emergency nursery schools in the community. The developments during the last 5 years indicate that college faculty members are becoming more conscious of problems in the 38 Prepared by Beulah I. Coon, agent, Studies and Research in Home Economics, Vocational Division, Office of Education, U. S. Department of the Interior. HIGHER EDUCATION 91 field and working more closely with these. For example, many insti¬ tutions have employed “itinerant teacher trainers” who spend half or more of their time in the field visiting teachers and coming back to the college to report to other college faculty members on strengths and weaknesses of graduates and to revise their own courses in the fight of their findings. Some of the subject-matter staffs have begun to visit graduates for the same purpose. The State- wide curriculum revision program is being directed jointly in some States by the State department of education and representatives of the teacher-education institutions. In the professional education program for teachers, there have been two major trends: (1) The more careful selection of candidates for training, and (2) a wider variety of experiences for student teachers in situations typical of those to be met in the field. The plans used for selecting candidates vary widely but many are based on a certain scholarship standard, a background of information in the subject matter to be taught, and evidence of certain personal qualities thought to be important. Facilities for student teaching have been changed so as to include rural schools, consolidated schools, and other situa¬ tions similar to those where the beginning teacher will be likely to be employed. Experience in observation and also in teaching adult classes is being increasingly provided, as is experience in visiting homes, in assisting pupils with their home projects either during the summer or during the year, in teaching classes for boys as well as girls, and in cooperating in school and community programs, and with community organizations. There has been a trend toward arranging for student teachers to have experience in observing and teaching classes throughout the full school day or the full school week, and of having them five in the community where the student teaching is being done. Two institutions have increased the length of the student teaching experience to 18 weeks, using selected schools in various parts of the State as centers. One State provided scholarships to allow for a fifth year of apprenticeship under strong teachers in three centers. Student teachers in a few States have participated in the State- wide curriculum revision program. These trends in general seem to indicate an increased interest on the part of college staff members in studying critically the objectives of college work in home economics and in providing an increasing variety of vital experiences as a part of the college program. (3) Teachers of trade and industrial subjects.™ — In the preparation of teachers for service in vocational trade schools, it is essential that candidates have adequate training and experience in the trade which they are to teach. In most cases, this training, with the minimum amount of trade experience which is acceptable, will cover a period 3) Prepared by James R. Coxen, agent, Western Region, Trade and Industrial Education, Vocational Division, Office of Education, U. S. Department of the Interior. 92 BIENNIAL SURVEY OF EDUCATION, 1934-36 of from 6 to 8 years. Since the ages at which persons are usually accepted into apprenticeship are about the same as those most com¬ mon for college entrance, it follows that a relatively small number of tradesmen are college graduates. It also follows that comparatively few students in higher institutions have the necessary trade training and experience necessary to qualify as trade teachers. For these reasons, the work of providing professional training for trade teachers has been largely carried on by agencies other than the usual teacher¬ training institutions. During the past few years, however, there has been increasing interest and activity in this field of work by colleges and universities. One interesting development has been the offering of special cur¬ ricula for competent trade workers by which they may secure degrees. In some institutions there has been recognition of the educational value of trade training and of industrial and supervisory experience; and methods of evaluating these in terms of college credits have been developed. Special courses to supplement the training received in industry have also been developed. Where such plans have been utilized, adequate provision has been made for courses in educational psychology, principles of teaching, philosophy of vocational educa¬ tion, curriculum construction, methods of teaching, and supervision and administration of vocational education. The University of Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania State College, Oregon State College, the University of California, Colorado State College, Texas Agricultural and Mechanical College, Purdue University, and the University of Tennessee have all given attention to training of this kind, although not all of them have worked along the same lines. Another plan that is widely followed by many institutions is that of providing extension courses for trade teachers and for tradesmen who wish to become trade teachers. In work of this type emphasis is placed on the needs of the teachers rather than on special courses which give credit toward degrees. In some instances work of this kind is offered at the institution either in evening classes or in summer sessions. Yale University, the University of California, the Univer¬ sity of Texas, the University of Wisconsin, Pennsylvania State Col¬ lege, the University of Pittsburgh, and many other institutions have provided service of this kind. A considerable number of colleges and universities have also made provision for itinerant training of trade teachers. One or more teacher trainers are employed and these persons conduct teacher- training courses in various centers where the number of teachers will justify such work. In some cases, these persons do some supervisory work and furnish individual assistance to teachers in need of special service. o UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR HAROLD L. 1CKES *. SECRETARY OFFICE OF EDUCATION : J. W. STUDEBAKER COMMISSIONER ADULT EDUCATION being Chapter IV of Volume I of the BIENNIAL SURVEY OF EDUCATION IN THE UNITED STATES : 1934-36 BULLETIN , 1937 , No. 2 [advance pages] By MARIS M. PROFFITT Educational Consultant ( Assisted by persons named in the text) UNITED STATES GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE WASHINGTON I 1938 For sale by the Superintendent of Documents, Washington, D. C. Price 10 cents . . . ■ CONTENTS Page Foreword _ v Recency of the adult education movement _ 1 Determination of needs for adult education _ 3 The philosophy of education for adults _ 6 Continuing ability to learn _ 19 Emergency education program _ 22 Education in the CCC camps _ 28 Vocational education for adults _ 35 Civilian rehabilitation (federally aided) _ 38 Workers’ education _ 39 Parent education _ 43 University extension - 56 Prison education _ 64 Adult civic education through public forums . 68 Conclusion _ 72 m i.l - • '*i-( . ’ i j i :• j iufl ’ r • -!. * .K/i-j ubj - .noiaiifoudoD FOREWORD Developments in adult education during the past few years have attracted general public interest. Reports, based upon scientific studies, that ability to learn efficiently continues until late in life, were given widespread dissemination. The significance of this fact for education was readily comprehended not only by schoolmen but by the lay public. This together with a combination of conditions — arising out of the depression — which emphasized the needs for adult education, and at the same time provided favorable opportunities for organizing programs to meet the needs, resulted in a stimulation to adult education heretofore unexperienced. Previously there had been some sporadic efforts to provide educa¬ tional opportunities to meet the glaring deficiencies in population groups such as illiterates and aliens. However, there had not de¬ veloped the realization that adult education should be an integral part of our educational program necessary to meet needs that can best be provided for during adulthood. This survey report reviews developments in adult education, and from an analysis of current practices and prevailing thought, sum¬ marizes trends and indicates a developing philosophy underlying the determination of objectives and programs. It is believed that it will not only be valuable to workers in this specific field of education, but owing to the fact that it gives consideration to adult education as a part of a complete program for an educated citizenry, it will be of interest to school administrators and professional persons who are in a position to influence educational thought. Bess Goodykoontz, Assistant Commissioner oj Education. v . which probably means that as many more are “functionally illiterate.” Table 4.— WPA EDUCATION PROGRAM REPORT ON LITERACY AND NATURALIZATION FOR MARCH 1937 State Number of— State Number of— Teachers Classes Enrollees Teachers Classes Enrollees 1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4 Alabama _ 186 552 4,705 New Jersey _ 142 239 2,861 Arizona _ 35 61 980 New Mexico.. . 31 106 1,244 Arkansas 87 783 5, 241 New York _ _ 81 227 1,99a California _ 145 2, 198 7, 989 North Carolina _ 251 1,070 8,032 Colorado _ 53 161 2, 119 North Dakota _ 22 78 1,025 Connecticut _ 21 44 490 Ohio... . 298 784 13,034 Florida 118 291 3,054 Oklahoma _ 65 291 4,588 Georgia. _ 303 684 11, 634 Oregon . . 40 103 1,650 Idaho . . 8 33 194 Pennsylvania _ 328 1, 437 17, 600 Illinois ... . 335 934 14, 052 Rhode Island _ 35 183 2, 07a Indiana _ 101 238 4,330 South Carolina . 285 2,413 13, 02a Iowa _ _ 47 164 1,299 South Dakota _ 5 5 73 Kansas _ 14 35 312 Tennessee.. _ _ _ 132 681 10, 623 Kentucky .. _ 180 834 8, 159 Texas _ _ _ 542 1,269 18, 561 Louisiana _ 194 946 9, 092 Utah . . . 14 36 694 Maine _ _ _ 35 35 433 Vermont. _ _ 5 87 346 Maryland 21 43 757 Virginia _ _ _ 270 506 8,614 Michigan _ 44 388 4,884 Washington . . 57 593 7, 337 Minnesota _ 24 66 1, 753 West Virginia _ 88 319 2,756 Mississippi 266 696 13, 437 Wisconsin _ 39 80 946 Missouri 147 363 6, 113 Wyoming ... 8 44 990 Montana _ _ 17 28 595 Nebraska. . . . 42 122 1,525 District of Columbia- 18 59 723 N evada 1 6 37 New York City. . . 591 2, 375 17, 999 14 89 1, 061 New Hampshire . Total. . 5,785 22, 779 241,048 Some States operate their regular adult education program and an emergency program. The data below taken from The Emergency Education Program , California State Department of Education Bul¬ letin No. 5, March 1, 1936, show an- interesting comparison of these two programs for that State in 1935: BIENNIAL SURVEY OF EDUCATION, 1934-36 26 Table 5.— NUMBER OF TEACHERS EMPLOYED IN THE EMERGENCY EDUCATION PROGRAM AND THE REGULAR ADULT EDUCATION PROGRAM, BY FIELD Field Number of teachers employed Enrollment Emergency education program Regular adult edu¬ cation pro¬ gram Emergency education program Regular adult edu¬ cation pro¬ gram 1 2 3 4 5 Parent education _ 57 227 405 1, 168 190 459 1, 656 2,628 3,226 6, 863 10, 503 43, 016 7, 381 14, 400 58,981 91, 733 Literacy education _ . Vocational training _ General adult education _ Total . . . . . . . 1, 847 4, 933 63, 668 172, 495 The effects of the emergency education program upon the adult education movement have been rather generally discussed by leaders in this field of education. Below are given the conclusions from a meeting representing the Northwestern States: Advantageous effects of the emergency adult education program™ (1) The emergency adult education program, while primarily conceived and inaugurated as a relief measure, became definitely an educational pro¬ gram in the Northwest States in spite of its relief features. (2) The emergency adult education program has offered worth-while edu¬ cational opportunities to many thousands of adults and studies made of the enrollees in the classes indicate that a large percentage are willing to help support a permanent program of adult education through the payment of class fees. (3) The emergency adult education program has proved a stimulus to the training of a corps of adult education teachers, thus providing a nucleus for the establishment of a State program of adult education in each of the Northwest States. (4) On the whole, the emergent adult education program, through stim¬ ulating interest in and appreciation of the values of adult education and through arousing the latent desire of many adults to continue their study, has made marked progress in the direction of the establishment of a per¬ manent program of State-supported adult education in the Northwest States. Detrimental effects of the emergency adult education program. (1) In some few communities, poor teaching in some adult classes has resulted in a cynical, critical attitude toward adult education in general. (2) The association of adult education and relief built up in the minds of some people may ultimately prove detrimental to the establishment of a permanent program of adult education in a State. (3) The emergency adult education program, if continued through another year or two without careful planning and direction, will very likely result in a lowering of the present effectiveness of the classes due to the fact that cur¬ tailed relief funds, necessitating tighter relief qualifications for work, will eliminate numbers of the more successful adult education teachers and the 89 First yearbook of the Pacific Northwest Association for Adult Education. Report of fifth annual meeting, Alaska, Idaho, Montana, Oregon, and Washington, held at Spokane, Wash., April 7-10, 1936. ADULT EDUCATION 27 use of a greater proportionate number of teachers with less ability, thus lowering the general efficiency of the entire adult education program. The New York Adult Education Council arranged and held at the New York School for Social Research, New York City, on October 22, 1935, a panel discussion on the question: How has the expenditure of emergency funds for adult education affected the chances for a stable and growing adult education program? Excerpts from this discussion as reported in the January 1936 number of the Journal of Adult Education indicate the trends of the thinking of that group relative to the importance of the emergency adult education program. Jennie M. Flexner, readers’ adviser, New York Public Library: I see a more specific result that I consider favorable. Hundreds of thousands of persons who are eager for more education could not have been persuaded to go into the formal classrooms of the night high schools or continuation schools, but they have flocked into the emergency classes where the instruc¬ tion has been informal and, being intended to distract the student’s mind from his troubles, has been centered around the things that he was interested in and the things that he could do. Caroline A. Whipple, supervisor of adult education, New York State Department of Education: I see still another good thing. Never before have so many people been working full time on adult education. In the public schools and colleges adult education has always been a part-time job. Among the emergency teachers we have men and women who are completely ab¬ sorbed in this one job, whose bread and butter depends upon it, and who are especially sympathetic with the persons they teach because they are all meeting the same economic difficulties. Philip N. Youtz , director, Brooklyn museums : I want to add another good word for the emergency program. I think it has taken education somewhat out of the hands of the educators, who were in danger of becoming a sort of priesthood, and has secularized it once more by transferring some of the initiative and the control to the people who are to be educated. Mrs. Lucy Wilcox Adams, executive secretary, California Association for Adult Education. — A good adult-education program has been developed when and only when, the educational feature has been stressed. With trained administrators the program has had some chance of success, but in small communities where adult education was new and where teachers were chosen solely on the ground of their need for jobs, I should say that the emergency education program has been a failure. And where that has happened, I can testify from my personal observation, reluctance to give support to adult education and even animosity toward the whole idea have developed where there was only indifference before. * * * In one place in California where we had a large adult-education program that offered mainly elementary and vocational subjects we saw the program discontinued without protest from any but the people who had attended the classes, and that protest was unheeded. In another California community where the night school had been developed as a community center with a forum and a variety of classes, though fewer people were reached, their influence in the community was important enough to block an effort to do away with the program. Instead, it was actually enlarged. 32866—38 - 3 28 BIENNIAL SURVEY OP EDUCATION, 1934-36 Jerome H. Bentley, activities secretary , Y. M. C. A. of the city of New York. — Our people in this country are about 95, or perhaps 99 percent persuaded that tax money is properly spent for the education of young children, and possibly 60 percent of them approve its expenditure for secondary education. Less than 5 percent, I think, are convinced that public money should be spent for adult education. And yet, if we are going to have adult education on a scale at all commensurate with our need of it, we must spend tax money for it, and to do that we must have a much larger percentage of our people educated to see the wisdom of such expenditures. The emergency education program, where it has been successful, has advanced us a long way in that direction, I believe. Large numbers of people who have known nothing of adult education in the past have now come into interesting contact with it as teachers or organizers or students, and these contacts have undoubtedly done much to create an adult-education-minded public. Among important conclusions that seem evident as a result of ex¬ periences growing out of the emergency adult-education program are: 1. Adults will take advantage of educational opportunities if pro¬ gram and methods of instruction are provided in accordance with their needs, interests, and methods of learning. The results indicate very clearly that adults are eager for additional educational privileges. 2. The scientific establishment of the ability of adults to learn has been carried beyond the laboratory, and the fact that adults do learn has been demonstrated on a larger scale and in a wider range of sub¬ jects than was ever done before. 3. Persons engaged in various lines of occupational work may be found who can teach successfully, especially if given short intensive training in the principles of instruction, classes of adults enrolled in courses prepared to meet their specific needs. The importance of the adult emergency education program is emphasized by L. R. Alderman, Director of the Education Division of the WPA, in a report made by him March 31, 1937: The education program has demonstrated that adults can learn and that they want to learn. Many educational leaders now see that our regular school systems have not provided adequate service for adults. They are moving to extend the services of public schools to include mature men and women. But some of our needs for adult education are so urgent that we cannot afford, as a Nation, to await the necessarily slow development of State and local educational services. At such a time the WPA education program is doing far more than any other single agency to serve the needs of the Nation. Millions of men and women feel that the emergency program was started for them, that it is suited to their needs, and that it should be continued until their needs have been met. Nothing has ever occurred more encouraging to those who realize that the preservation of democracy depends upon the continuous education of its citizens. EDUCATION IN THE CCC CAMPS 30 On March 31, 1933, Emergency Conservation Work was authorized by Congress and 5 days later was established by the President. Robert Fechner, of Boston, Mass., was appointed as Director, and 3° Prepared by Howard W. Oxley, director of CCC camp education. ADULT EDUCATION 29 the Secretary of War, the Secretary of Agriculture, the Secretaiy of the Interior, and the Secretary of Labor were designated to appoint a representative of each of these Departments to act as an advisory council to the Director. Originally the number of men to be enrolled was fixed at 250,000. Twenty-five thousand of these men were to be veterans and approxi¬ mately 11,000 were to be Indians. No age or marital limitations were imposed on these groups. The balance, approximately 215,000, were to be men between the ages of 18 and 25 years, physically fit, unem¬ ployed, unmarried, and selected from families on relief rolls. The Labor Department became responsible for the selection of the junior enrollees and the Veterans’ Administration for the selection of the veterans. The selection of Indian enrollees and the adminis¬ tration of their camps was handled entirely by the Department of the Interior, Bureau of Indian Affairs. The War Department was re¬ sponsible for the enrollment of both veterans and juniors and for the construction and administration of the camps. These administrative duties included providing transportation, shelter, clothing, food, med¬ ical care, compensation, recreational, educational, and religious ac¬ tivities, and adoption and enforcement of a disciplinary code. The Department of Agriculture and the Department of the Interior plan and execute the work projects of all camps, excepting a small number for which the War Department is responsible. According to the Second Report of the Director of Emergency Conservation Work (April 5, 1933, to March 31, 1934): Initial educational activities in the corps were of an extremely informal nature. Generally, a camp would produce at least a small group of men who were interested in asking questions about their own work or some other kind of work. Usually, the Army officers or the work-supervising personnel, or all together, would try to answer some of the questions of the interested group or perhaps make a series of informal lectures on many subjects. In many instances enrollees who were illiterate have been “taught their letters’' by interested officers or work personnel. In some cases the corps area commanders laid out provisional courses of instruction which camp commanders were required to present to enrollees. In some instances, as many as 20 courses were prepared and recommended. On December 7, 1933, a plan for an amplified educational program was approved by the President, which provided that the Office of Education would act in an advisory capacity to the War Department in all matters affecting the educational program. A director of CCC camp education was appointed by the Commissioner of Education to select and supervise corps area and camp educational advisers, and to recommend to the Secretary of War the outlines of instruction, teaching procedures, and types of teaching materials for use in the camps. The original plan also provided for the appointment of a corps area educational adviser in each of the nine corps areas to act in an ad- 30 BIENNIAL SURVEY OF EDUCATION, 1934-36 visory capacity to the corps area commander on educational matters. An assistant corps area adviser was authorized and assigned to each of the nine corps areas in July 1935. Until that time corps area educational advisers were called upon to supervise the educational work of all the camps in their corps areas. The authorization of district educational advisers during this year completed the chain of organization and provided for more adequate supervision of the work. District commanders, aided by their district advisers, were able to provide better training for camp advisers and thus to develop more satisfactory programs. The quota of camp advisers varied greatly since the beginning of the educational program, due to the fluctuation in the size of the corps, as is shown by the following table: Table 6.— QUOTA OF CCC CAMP ADVISERS, FEBRUARY 1934 TO JULY 1936 February 1934 July 1934 February 1935 July 1935 February 1936 July 1936 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Number of companies . . . 1, 466 1,466 625 1,579 1,085 1, 079 1, 638 1,267 1,263 2,270 2, 000 1, 336 2,158 1,900 1,880 2, 109 2, 109 1,999 Quota of advisers _ Number of advisers on duty . . A study of the personnel records of 1,321 advisers appointed during the fiscal year, July 1935 to June 1936, revealed that all are college graduates, 74 percent having bachelor’s degrees, 23 percent master’s degrees, and 3 percent doctor’s degrees. More than half of them have majored in education and the social sciences during their college years. Approximately 60 percent had previous experience in teaching, and 12 percent had administrative school work. About 40 percent had business or industrial experience. The duties and responsibilities of camp educational advisers may be classified briefly under six major headings: 1. To have general supervision of the educational activities in the camp. 2. To develop an educational program suited to the needs and interests of the men in his camp. 3. To secure supplementary educational facilities from schools, colleges, and other organizations, for the camp program. 4. To supervise the work of the assistant leader for education. 5. To recommend to the company commander opportunities for coordinating the educational program with the work and recreational programs of the enrolled men. 6. To advise and counsel with enrollees on their educational program and vocational development. ADULT EDUCATION 31 Committee on Education. In order to obtain the active interest and cooperation of the military and technical personnel, committees on education have been organized in a large number of camps. In several corps areas these committees were organized in all camps by order of the corps area commander. The committee consists of the company commander, project superin¬ tendent, educational adviser, and an outstanding enrollee. Its pur¬ pose is to develop the educational program in all its phases, during the work hours and in the leisure time of the enrollees. Counseling and Guidance. The success of a camp educational program depends primarily upon the effectiveness of the camp adviser’s work in counseling and guid¬ ance. The first duty of the adviser in this respect is to interview enrollees upon their first arrival in the camp. Enrollees having com¬ mon interests are then organized into groups for work under competent leaders. Those requiring individual treatment receive personal at¬ tention from competent persons. The CCC educational program is designed to meet the needs and interests of more than a million and a half enrollees who have been members of the corps since its inception. EDUCATIONAL ACTIVITIES Two and one-half years of experience in CCC camp education indi¬ cates unmistakably the predominant interests of enrollees in preparing for and getting a job in normal civilian life. This is shown by the enrollment in the three major types of educational activities offered in the camps. At the present time more than 64 percent of the enroll¬ ment is in some form of occupational training. The following table indicates the trend in this direction over a period of 9 months: Table 7.— ENROLLMENT IN VOCATIONAL TRAINING IN CCC CAMPS OVER A 9-MONTH PERIOD October 1935 January 1936 June 1936 ^School level Enrollment Percent Enrollment Percent Enrollment Percent 1 2 1 2 4 5 6 7 Academic courses . 202, 815 33 199, 357 26 166,848 25 Occupational training . 351, 176 57 463, 852 61 430, 962 64 Recreational activities . 62, 266 10 96, 529 13 76, 523 11 Academic Courses. Educational level of enrollees. — The educational level of enrollees varies considerably in each camp and corps area, but on a country¬ wide basis there has been little or no change from month to month in the percentage of enrollees on each level. The proportion for each school level is given in the following table: 32 BIENNIAL SURVEY OF EDUCATION, 1934-36 Table 8. -PROPORTION OF CCC ENROLLEES BY SCHOOL LEVEL School level October 1934 July 1935 October 1935 January 1936 June 1936 1 2 3 4 5 6 Illiterate _ 0) 26 2.5 2.5 2.5 2. 5 Elementary _ 23. 5 28.5 28.4 28. 5 High school _ 56 55.0 52.7 53.0 54.0 'College _ _ 18 18.4 16.2 16.0 15.0 i No report available. Elimination of illiteracy. — The above table reveals that approxi¬ mately 2 y2 percent of the enrollees are illiterate. Naturally, elimina¬ tion of illiteracy has been considered one of the primary objectives of the program. In October 1935 the Office of Education issued a publication suggesting a number of techniques and materials that had been found to be of value in instructing illiterate enrollees. The Ninth Corps Area educational adviser’s office published a text designed specifically for use in the CCC camps. Results achieved in this field are shown in the following table: Table 9.— NUMBER AND PERCENT OF CCC ENROLLEES TAUGHT TO READ AND WRITE November 1934 July 1935 October 1935 January 1936 June 1936 * 2 3 4 5 6 Number of illiterates . . . Number learning to read and write... . Percentage . . . . . (9 2, 062 0) 7,369 6, 521 88 11, 283 9, 078 80 10, 927 9,169 84 7, 595 7,018 92 1 No report available. It is estimated that 40,000 enrollees have been taught to read and write since the start of the CCC. Elementary , high-school , and college courses— Reports on the Enroll¬ ment in the various types of courses were not secured until July 1935. The following table indicates the enrollment in academic courses for 3 selected months during the year: Table 10.— ENROLLMENT IN ACADEMIC COURSES IN CCC CAMPS October 1935 January 1936 June 1936 1 2 3 4 Elementary subjects . . . . . . . . High-school subjects _ 80, 016 114, 728 8, 071 90, 695 101, 584 7,078 77, 343 83, 485 6, 020 College subjects _ ADULT EDUCATION 33 Occupational Training. Occupational training in CCC camps divides naturally into two major activities: Training on the job and general vocational educa¬ tion. Training on the job. — There are more than 60 major types of work in which the Civilian Conservation Corps is engaged. These major classifications may be broken dowm into more than 300 jobs for training purposes. The number of enrollees receiving such planned instruction is shown in the following table: Table 11.— NUMBER OF CCC ENROLLEES RECEIVING JOB TRAINING April July October January June 1935 1935 1935 1936 1936 1 2 3 4 5 6 Number of enrollees receiving job training. 88,231 135, 065 188, 783 234, 706 215, 320 Vocational education. — To supplement the vocational instruction gained through job training, courses have been arranged in the camp schools which contain more detailed and advanced vocational material. To help improve the content of these courses, the Office of Education issued to the camps 15 lesson outlines dealing with such subjects as agriculture, auto repair, carpentry, cooking, mechanical drawing, radio servicing, and plane surveying. A Manual for In¬ structors was also distributed to all companies. The enrollment in these vocational courses is as follows: Table 12.— NUMBER OF CCC ENROLLEES IN VOCATIONAL COURSES July October January April June 1935 1935 1936 1936 1936 * 2 3 4 5 6 Enrollment in vocational courses . . i 120, 000 162, 393 229, 146 206, 962 215, 642 1 Figure for July 1935 is estimated. Agricultural education. — It is estimated that approximately 40 percent of CCC enrollees are from rural communities and in all probability the larger proportion will engage in farming as their life work. Agricultural education was stressed during the spring of 1936. The interest and cooperation of the Department of Agriculture’s Extension Service and of the Vocational Division of the Office of Education were secured and suggestions for establishing or improving agricultural courses were sent out to all camps. The formation of practical projects in gardening, poultry raising, dairying, and other agricultural activities was encouraged. As a result, about 50 percent of the companies now* offer agricultural courses. 34 BIENNIAL SURVEY OF EDUCATION, 1934-36 Recreational Activities. The importance of recreational and avocational activities has not been neglected in the scheme of CCC camp education. The obvious value of arts and crafts, music, and dramatics lies, of course, in the development of the capacity of the men in the camps to entertain themselves during their leisure time. These activities also contribute to an improved morale in the camps. A secondary value is the possibility of an enrollee’s developing skills in a craft or in music or dramatics, enabling him to earn a living in these fields. Thus a number of talented enrollees have been employed by the Federal Radio Project as actors and musicians. Likewise, a number of enrollees have been given try-outs by the major league baseball clubs and several of them have been retained as promising rookies. Table 13.— ENROLLMENT IN RECREATIONAL ACTIVITIES IN CCC CAMPS Activity October 1935 January 1936 April 1936 June 1936 « 2 3 4 5 Arts and crafts _ _ 18, 693 31, 360 12, 213 29,355 47, 759 19, 415 29,864 39,823 14, 771 29,501 35, 444 11, 578 Music _ Drama _ _ _ _ _ Total . . . 62, 266 96, 529 84, 458 76, 523 Miscellaneous Activities. In addition to the academic, vocational, recreational, and agri¬ cultural activities going on in the camps, there are a number of equally important activities which cannot be classified under these heads. Thus, the enrollment in health, first-aid, lifesaving, and safety courses averaged more than 100,000 per month. A recent survey indicated that more than half the camps have organized discussion, forum groups, or debating clubs. More than 1,600 camps now publish camp newspapers, and these newspapers form the nucleus for a number of other educational activities. Organized courses of instruction in the duties and responsibilities of citizens are given in a large number of camps. Approximately 75 percent of the camps have organized training groups for the development of enrollee leaders. Attempts to inculca'te wdiolesome habits are made in a variety of ingenious ways on the work job, on the plajdng field, in the dining hall, in the barracks, and in visits to local towns. Camp libraries have been expanded to the extent that 350,000 books are circulating monthly to more than 150,000 enrollees. Nearly 10,000 educational films dealing with a wide variety of subjects are being shown to enrollees every month. ADULT EDUCATION 35 CCC Instructors. Teachers are drawn from the military and technical personnel in the camps, from the enrollees themselves, and are often supplied by the Federal Emergency Education Program or by the State or local community in which the camps are located. Reports indicate that the number of persons offering instruction increased from 15,922 in April 1935 to 31,545 in June 1936. The increase is particularly noticeable in the growing interest and cooperation of the military and technical personnel. On a per company basis, the number of Army officers acting as instructors increased 50 percent and the number of technical personnel increased 150 percent. The number of instructors of various types is indicated in the following table: Table 14.— NUMBER OF INSTRUCTORS IN CCC CAMPS April 1935 October 1935 January 1936 June 1936 1 2 3 4 5 Educational advisers . . . . . Assistant educational advisers _ Military staff . . 1,407 1, 282 2.431 4, 155 3, 693 1, 184 702 1, 068 2,027 1,916 3, 975 6, 617 5, 830 1, 321 903 1,317 1, 924 1,929 4, 542 10, 714 8,014 1,762 1,177 1, 353 1, 835 1,846 4, 380 11, 935 8, 002 1,949 398 1, 185 Technical staff _ _ _ _ _ Enrollees _ _ _. EEP teachers _ _ _ _ Regular school teachers _ Others.. _ _ _ _ _ _ _ Total . . . . . . . 15, 922 23, 906 31, 635 31,545 Placement Activities. The basic purpose of the educational program is to return enrollees to their home communities better equipped mentally and morally for their duties as citizens and with a better knowledge of the Govern¬ ment under which they live and of all that that Government means. The CCC officials, therefore, in addition to offering educational opportunities to the enrollees while in camp, are making intensive efforts to assist enrollees to find employment upon their return home. To assist in the work of satisfactorily adjusting enrollees to com¬ munity conditions and in helping them locate work, advisers in several corps areas have fostered the formation of community guidance and placement councils. The efforts of CCC officials to help CCC men bridge the gap between camp and employment are undoubtedly winning substantial results. Camp authorities are deeply gratified over a recent report from Director Fecliner’s office stating that 145,531 men left the corps during the year of 1935 to accept employment. VOCATIONAL EDUCATION FOR ADULTS During the past few years there has been an increasing emphasis in vocational education placed upon training opportunities for adults. This has resulted from a better understanding on the part of employers, 36 BIENNIAL SURVEY OF EDUCATION, 1934-36 the general public, and the workers themselves of the importance of upgrading persons engaged in vocational and professional occupations. Without doubt this better understanding has been quickened by effects arising oat of the depression. Competition among workers for jobs has directed their attention to self-improvement and occupational competency as an asset for opportunities for employment; competition for orders on the part of manufacturing companies has pointed to re¬ duced production costs through better-qualified workmen ; competition for practice among professional people has convinced them of the value of increased technical knowledge and skill in selling their services. Occupational training for adults takes many forms and is carried on by various agencies. Industrial plants may provide foremanship courses at their own expense and on company time, apprentice training for young workers, and instruction for upgrading journeymen work¬ men in special operations or for adjusting them to meet the require¬ ments of new processes or changes in occupational skills. Professional schools, both public and private, may provide courses for keeping practitioners abreast of the developments in their professions. The public schools may provide training in technical knowledge and skills in part-time and evening classes in any line of work which they are equipped to give that is regarded as a worth-while social service. Literally, the butcher, the baker, the “electric-light maker” are going to school. During the year 1936 occurred the greatest expansion in the part- time program in vocational education. As high as 95 percent of the agricultural teachers in some States organized vocational agriculture classes for out-of-school farm youth 16 to 25 years of age. In the field of trades and industry special emphasis has recently been placed upon providing training opportunities for persons temporarily out of employ¬ ment. For such persons many part-time classes have been organized in shop and related subjects having for their purpose instruction that will help the worker to keep up with new developments in both mate¬ rials of instruction and processes as these pertain to a given occupation. The Federal Committee on Apprentice Training, in the Department of Labor, which was provided with funds to carry on its work through the National Youth Administration, is promoting the development of agreements and collecting information on which to base legislation for the furtherance of desirable apprenticeship regulations in trades and industry. The work of the Committee is supplemented by the Office of Education, United States Department of the Interior, in its admin¬ istration of national vocational-education laws in building up adequate apprenticeship- training programs under State plans for vocational education. As a part of the program for adult homemakers, consider¬ able emphasis has been placed upon the development of special courses for household employees and for special groups including Spanish Americans, mountain people, and Negroes. ADULT EDUCATION 37 The enrollment in public-school classes operated under State plans for vocational education of farmers, trade and industrial workers, and homemakeis, in evening classes for the year ending June 30, 1936, totaled 391,168. These persons were adults taking work to improve their efficiency in daily vocational duties. For the same year, 334,513 young people employed in the same vocational fields were enrolled in part-time classes to secure instruction that wrould supple¬ ment what they were learning in employment. Below are given enrollments in classes organized under State plans for vocational education for the types of instruction in the years indi¬ cated. The data are taken from Digest of Annual Reports of State Boards for Vocational Education to the Office of Education, Division of Vocational Education for the Fiscal Year Ended June 30, 1936. EVENING CLASSES Year Agriculture Trade and industry Home eco¬ nomics 1 Men Women Men Women > 2 3 4 5 6 1932 . . . . . 83, 802 94, 241 103, 329 102, 626 5,600 6,400 6,848 6,748 144, 132 121,810 146, 556 117, 905 14, 927 17, 923 17, 900 9,893 152, 444 129, 485 136, 361 153, 996 1934 . . . . 1935 . . . 1936 . . . PART TIME (TRADE EXTENSION) 10, 730 62 34, 090 11, 344 38, 818 13, 162 111 25, 480 13, 807 31, 694 23, 253 679 51, 225 22, 169 38, 744 22, 191 210 97,853 31, 455 37, 080 i No men registered. Below are given data on reimbursement from Federal money for salaries of teachers in the different types of vocational courses indi¬ cated: EVENING CLASSES Year Agriculture Trade and industry Home eco¬ nomics > 2 3 4 1932 . . . . $67, 244 42, 520 78, 805 39, 448 $334, 816 234, 577 331, 218 253, 071 $211,303 131, 623 157,540 175, 967 1934 . . 1935 . . . 1936 . . . . . - . PART-TIME (TRADE EXTENSION) 1932 . .. . . . 6,502 6, 338 17, 105 10, 258 417,803 332, 700 585, 207 661, 714 46, 496 87, 166 45, 934 41, 399 1934 . . . . . . . . . . . 1935 . . . 1936 . . . . . . 38 BIENNIAL SURVEY OF EDUCATION, 1934-36 CIVILIAN REHABILITATION ( FEDERALLY AIDED) f The Federal Government has assumed the responsibility for cooper¬ ating with States in providing opportunities for the rehabilitation of civilian persons physically handicapped that will prepare them for suitable employment. The Government aids in this work through appropriations made to States on the basis of population. In order to participate in this fund a State cannot spend less than the amount furnished by the Federal Government. Forty-five States, the District of Columbia, the Territory of Hawaii, and the island of Puerto Rico have now accepted the Federal plan and are carrying on cooperative programs. The program in a State is administered by the State board for vocational education in accordance with a plan approved by the Office of Education, United States Department of the Interior, which Office administers the Federal acts. The importance of such a pro¬ gram is apparent when it is considered that approximately 300,000 persons are permanently disabled by accident or disease yearly. Many of these persons, if provided proper opportunities, can be suc¬ cessfully rehabilitated for employment and may thus become not only self-supporting but contributors to our national welfare. Many, if left to their own efforts, are unable to make the necessary adjustments for entering vocational employment and frequently become a charge upon public or private charity. During the year 1936 there were 10,338 persons rehabilitated under this cooperative plan of the Federal Government and the States. At the end of that year, 44,625 disabled persons were enrolled in these rehabilitation programs. The rehabilitation rolls have very percepti¬ bly increased during the past few years, which fact may be largely accounted for by increased funds made available for the purpose by a grant of $70,000 per month from the Federal emergency relief funds — which was discontinued on June 30, 1935 — and from the supple¬ mentary annual appropriation of $841,000 provided under the Na¬ tional Security Act. The total amount of money expended on these cooperative programs during the year ended June 30, 1936, was $2,602,676, of which sum $1,358,100 was expended from State and local funds. Below are given the number of disabled persons vocationally re¬ habilitated on June 30 of the years indicated and also the amount of money expended. Number rehabilitated j Expenditures Year Total Men Women 1 Total Federal State and local 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 1932 . 5, 550 5, 613 8,062 9, 422 10, 338 4, 367 4,432 6,319 7, 527 8, 152 1, 183 1,181 1, 743 1,895 2, 186 $2, 189, 140 2, 176, 125 2, 079, 905 2, 247, 947 2, 602, 676 $997,811 999, 459 915, 659 1, 031, 818 1, 244, 576 $1, 191, 329 1, 176, 576 1, 164, 245 1, 216, 129 1, 358. 100 1933 . 1934 . 1935 . 1936 . . . . ADULT EDUCATION 39 The distribution, according to certain items, of the 10,380 persons rehabilitated in 1936 is interesting. Of this total number 8,152 were men and 2,186 were women. Their distribution according to age was as follows: Under 21 years of age, 2,617; 21-30 years of age, 3,667; 31-40 years of age, 1,884; 41-50 years of age, 1,362; 50 and over 888. Of the total number 6,103 were single; 3,780 were married; and 455 were widowed, divorced, or separated. The distribution according to dependents was as follows: No dependents, 5,776; one dependent, 1,407; two dependents, 1,146; three dependents, 858; four or more dependents, 1,151. The amount of education completed by these rehabilitated persons was: No schooling, 142; completion of grades 1-3, 250; grades 4-6, 1,197; grades 7-9, 3,687; grades 10-12, 1,689; high-school graduates, 2,226; post high school, 1,147. The above data are taken from A Digest of Annual Reports of the State Boards for Vocational Education to the Office of Education , Division of Vocational Education , for the Fiscal Year Ending June 30, 1936. Vocational rehabilitation as a comparatively new service being rendered by the Federal Government and States is confronted by a few problems some of which will require special arrangements for their solution. Some of these special problems are described in the report just mentioned: The special problems with which State rehabilitation services are faced in the vocational rehabilitation of the handicapped may be classified under two major headings: (a) Those connected with the preparation of such persons for employment, and (6) those involved in securing employment for them after their preparation has been completed. Approximately 60 percent of the handicapped who are eligible and feasible of rehabilitation are young persons who* have had no vocational experience. * * * Increasing competition for jobs is tending toward an exclusion of larger and larger numbers of the handicapped. The time is approaching when industry and commerce will employ only the most highly trained, skillful, and less seriously disabled. This tendency has been accentuated in most States through laws intended to promote social and economic security. * * * In order that a more successful approach may be made to the whole problem of rehabilitating the handicapped, it will be necessary for rehabilitation -workers to equip them¬ selves with the best possible working knowledge of all the fields involved in the diagnosis, treatment, and placement of the handicapped. A number of developments which have a definite relation to the rehabilitation program have taken place during the past few years. New methods of treating disease have been developed; new methods of manufacturing and fitting artificial appliances have been devised; new provisions for training apprentices in the trades have been adopted; and a new conception of the functions and opera¬ tions of public employment offices have growm up. The scientific approach is needed to understand the best methods of utilizing these new developments in the rehabilitation of the handicapped. WORKERS’ EDUCATION The term Workers' Education in its general connotation means educational opportunities to meet the needs of a special group of adults, namely, industrial workers. Its program is characterized by 40 BIENNIAL SURVEY OF EDUCATION, 1934-36 the attention given to the problems arising out of the daily activities of these workers and citizens and to their needs for further general educational and cultural training. As such, workers’ education is not new either in this country or in Europe. However, its form of organ¬ ization and its emphasis as well as the extent to which it has existed have varied from time to time, and as a movement has been greatly augmented during the past 1 5 years. Its early development in America was manifested by the establishment of mechanics’ institutes and the organization of evening classes which were largely effected by workers themselves through trade unions and other agencies interested in promoting the welfare of industrial workers as a group. By 1900 labor colleges were coming into existence and in 1921 the Workers’ Education Bureau of America was established by a group composed of members of trade unions and of teachers for the purpose of serv¬ ing as a clearing house of information and as a guide in the develop¬ ing movement of workers’ education. The Bureau has exercised a large influence in directing the aim of workers’ education, in develop¬ ing appiopriate methods for instruction, and in creating suitable in¬ structional materials and a supply of literature on subjects of study prepared to meet the needs of the student workers. The Workers’ Education movement has developed various forms of instructional organization and techniques. Among these may be mentioned: (a) The study class which is a group of union workers holding 10 to 20 weekly meetings, under the direction of an instructor, for the purpose of systematic study of problems of special interest to occupational work and employment. While these meetings are in¬ formal in character, they represent a serious effort on the part of the workers to improve their understanding of many of the problems that affect their welfare. The meetings are usually held in the union hall or in some public building such as a library or school building. A group of such study classes bound together under the direction of a board created by a central labor union constitutes a nonresident trade-union college. In 1936 it was estimated that as many as 150,000 workers under the guidance of 2,500 teachers were enrolled for study in these informal groups. ( b ) A few resident labor colleges are now in existence which are exclusively for the purpose of provid¬ ing appropriate instruction for workers. Such subjects as economics, the history of labor, and journalism receive emphasis. Some colleges operate for only 3 months in the year; others provide courses of from 1 to 3 years in length, (c) The summer school is operated in a num¬ ber of places in connection with collegiate institutions, including some for women. The sessions range from 6 weeks to 2 months in length. The instruction is devoted largely to social and economic problems. Four schools of this kind are now (1936) associated and operated as affiliated schools for workers. ( d ) A number of labor institutes have been conducted cooperatively by State universities and State federa- ADULT EDUCATION 41 lions of labor. Each institute usually lasts from 3 to 5 days and discusses labor problems. A few examples will serve to show the nature of the organization and the kinds of programs carried on by institutions conducting pro¬ grams in workers’ education: Commonwealth College, Mena, Ark. A nonfactional, nonsectional resident labor college; 1-vear curric¬ ulum which includes labor orientation, political economy, courses in social studies, practical art techniques, public speaking, drama, re¬ search, field projects. School operates four quarters per year. Average enrollment, 50. Bryn Mawr Summer School for Women Workers in Industry Conducted in 1935 at Mount Ivy Camp, Pomona, N. Y. Resident summer school for women workers in industry. Students representing many different trades and backgrounds, recruited from important industrial centers in this country and abroad. Students are from 20 to 35 years of age, with at least 2 years’ experience in industry and school preparation through sixth grade. The purpose of the school is to study liberal subjects and to stimulate an active and continued interest in problems of our economic order. Subjects include: English, public speaking, literature, general science, social hisfcuy. Enrollment, 100. Labor Institute, Rutgers University, New Brunswick, N. J. Three- to five-day labor institute conducted by university in co¬ operation with New Jersey Federation of Labor and "Workers’ Educa¬ tion Bureau, held annually during summer. Lectures and discus¬ sion forums on some general topics such as labor and world economic problems. Registration in 1935 was 110. Brookwood Labor College, Katonah, N. Y. Nonfactional progressive labor college. Six months’ resident course. Trains workers for more effective activity in labor movement. Prepares pamphlets and books written especially for workers. School for Workers in Industry, University of Wisconsin, Madison, Wis. Purpose is to prepare industrial workers to meet economic issues intelligently and effectively through their organizations. Six-weeks’ summer school on campus and winter program of institutes through¬ out the State in cooperation with local central labor bodies. Summer curriculum includes economics, English, and history. Requirements: 20 years of age, at least eighth-grade education, and at least 2 years’ experience in industry. Attendance, summer 1935, was 46; attend¬ ance at 10 winter institutes, 6,000. The above accounts are based on reports found in Handbook of Adult Education in the United States, 1936. 31 si Rowden, Dorothy, editor. Handbook of Adult Education in the United States, 1936. New York, American Association for Adult Education, 1936. 42 BIENNIAL SURVEY OF EDUCATION, 1934-36 In a brief account of the Workers’ Education program in operation at the University of California Mr. Kerchen says: On the outer fringe of recent adult education history is the latest arrival, workers' education. * * * Today workers’ education is generally accepted because it cannot be ignored. * * * In the State of California workers’ edu¬ cation is a joint enterprise between the California State Federation of Labor, on one hand and the extension division of the University of California on the other. The direction is under the control of a joint committee on work¬ ers’ education, composed of nine members, five of whom represent labor and the remainder the University of California. The reason for labor control on this committee was to make the plan eligible for affiliation with the Workers’ Education Bureau of America, which is the official organ of the American Federation of Labor. The expenses entailed in the promotion of this plan imposes no obligation s upon labor. The salary of the director of Workers’ Education as well as his organizational expenses is carried by the extension division of the uni¬ versity. The cost of instruction, however, is paid by the class taking the work, or frequently by the union, or sometimes shared by each.32 The program includes labor institutes and class instruction in such subjects as: Labor history, labor economics, labor law, unemploy¬ ment problems, English, speech making, wage studies, and modern literature. Spencer Miller, Jr., director, Workers’ Education Bureau of America, says: The modern workers' education movement completes in 1936 fifteen years of activity. In this decade and a half it has evolved from a vague aspira¬ tion into a tangible movement; it has developed a reasonably clear philoso¬ phy and it has brought forth a vast body of material; it has made a substan¬ tial contribution to the techniques of teaching adults; it has even enlisted the cooperation of the Federal Government through the development of the emergency educational program. Today the movement stands as one of the most vital parts of the entire adult education movement in the United States. It has won a significant recognition from labor on the one hand and from educational institutions on the other. It bids fair to exercise an increasing influence on the direction of American public education.33 In addition to the program in Workers’ Education conducted by the University of California, the public schools of the State, under the direction and supervision of the California State Department of Education, are providing programs in workers’ education. The total State enrollments in these programs for the period from October 1934, to August 1935, ranged from 2,888 in the month of June to 7,899 in the month of February. The number of teachers engaged in workers’ education for the period ranged from 97 to 204. These teachers were given special preparation for their work by means of schools of instruction conducted during the summers of 1934 and 1935 under the auspices of the California Association for Adult Education, Cali- ** Kerchen, John L. Grants-in-aid for State support of workers’ education in California. Workers’ Education, 14: 10-11, April 1937. 13 Miller, Spencer, Jr., In Handbook of Adult Education, Dorothy Rowden, editor. New York, American Association for Adult Education, New York, 1936. p. 340. ADULT EDUCATION 43 fornia State Federation of Labor, Extension Division of the State University, Bureau of Workers’ Education, and Division of Adult Education of the State Department of Education. The need for and the programs in workers’ education in the State of Pennsylvania, as set forth in Bulletin No. 78 of the State Depart¬ ment of Public Instruction, is a further illustration of the trend to make public provisions for workers’ education: Workers' education. — The need of educational opportunities for adults is shown further by the growing interest and effort on the part of organized labor in providing a suitable workers' education program. For many years labor colleges and workers’ education classes have been organized and main¬ tained, at times against enormous odds. During recent jmars, this expansion of the educational program by groups of organized and unorganized workers within the Commonwealth has been very apparent. Many unions of the American Federation of Labor are now developing educational work in connection -with their regular union meet¬ ings. Central labor unions throughout the State are sponsoring workers’ classes in the social sciences, in English, in current events, and like fields. In some places labor colleges have recently been organized. Some of our larger organizations of workers have appointed educational directors. Organizations of the unemployed have sponsored classes for their groups. There has been, within the past few months, an increase in the demand from settlements for help in developing classes for workers, and forums have been established in public schools, community houses, and union headquarters. Negro groups are becoming increasingly aware of their prob¬ lems as workers. In this growth in workers’ education, the college and university is playing its part, often making its resources available to workers’ groups. A summer school for workers has been held on one campus in Pennsylvania. Another college has developed a summer institute in coop¬ eration with the American Federation of Labor. Workers’ education has become a significant part of the emergency educa¬ tion program in Pennsylvania. Projects in this field have been developed as an experiment in program and method in four centers. Approximately 1,200 people attended the classes weekly in these centers, in which the work has been carried on largely through close cooperation between organized labor groups and educational and community organizations. The National Recovery Act and the development of the adult emergency relief program have aroused organized labor and wage earners generally to their rights and responsibilities, to which little attention had been given previously. In a period of 6 months the membership of organized labor more than doubled. Given a fair understanding of the fundamental prin¬ ciples of economics through appropriate adult education classes will, result in a concerted effort for the common good of inestimable and enduring value to the Nation. The civic and economic awakening on the part of these hundreds of thousands of adults demands a leadership of high order and places a heavy responsibility not only upon employer and employee, but upon public education as well. PARENT EDUCATION 34 Parent education in its professional aspects had its origin in pro¬ grams made possible by grants of the Laura Spelman Rockefeller Prepared by Ellen C. Lombard, Associate Specialist in Parent Education. 32866—38 - i 44 BIENNIAL SURVEY OF EDUCATION, 1934-36 Memorial. Subsequently many of the programs were continued under grants of the General Education Board, although in some in¬ stances the respective institutions either assumed wholly or in part financial responsibility for the programs under way. Research in child development or in family relationships was con¬ ducted in these programs and professional leaders were trained to take administrative or teaching positions in the field of parent educa¬ tion. Experiments in organizing and conducting parents’ study groups were also a part of these programs. Considerable progress was made during the period 1930-36 covered by this report, although parent education is still in the experimental stage. Leadership in this field has been of a high quality. The employment by superin¬ tendents of schools of trained directors of parent education in many city school systems gives evidence of confidence in the movement. Universities and colleges in which the grants were used for graduate studies in child development and parent education and the preparation of professional leaders were: The Child Development Institute, Teachers College, Columbia University; the Institute of Child Welfare, University of Minnesota; the Institute of Child Welfare, University of California; the Iowa Child Welfare Research Station, State Univer¬ sity of Iowa; the Clinic of Child Development, Yale University; Western Reserve University; University of Michigan; University of Chicago; Harvard University; and the Merrill-Palmer School. For supervision in a program of parent education developed in connection with the Federal Emergency Relief Administration, a grant was made by the General Education Board. To the whole emergency program of nursery schools and parent education the board granted $128,500. Funds were also provided by the board in 1933 for the preparation of teaching materials by the Bureau of Child Study and Parent Education of the New York State Department of Education. Research provided by funds of the general education board is limited to the problems of physical and mental growth during the periods of infancy, early childhood, and adolescence. Grants for both fellowships and child study in 1934-35 totaled about $62,000 and in the following year $59,000. Among the most significant happenings, which no doubt influenced greatly the development of the parent education movement, was the unparalleled growth in membership of the parent-teacher organization, the National Congress of Parents and Teachers. More than 2 million members throughout the Nation have been at work, to a greater or lesser degree, upon parent education programs. Other agencies and organizations, such as universities and colleges, State departments of education, local school systems, health and medi¬ cal organizations, churches and religious organizations of a national and international character, college women’s clubs — State and national, ADULT EDUCATION 45 National Council of Parent Education, the American Library Asso¬ ciation, the Progressive Education Association, and the Child Study Association of America, have taken an important part in one way or another in the parent education movement. Other forces have cooperated in the interest of effective work. NEEDS IN THIS FIELD OF EDUCATION During the rapid changes in social and economic life of the past decade the equilibrium of the family was upset. Parents were unpre¬ pared to meet and solve the serious problems with which they were suddenly confronted. Economic insecurity frequently weakened their morale and parents often felt a sense of relief when organizations outside the home assisted in the care of their children. The ancient authority of the church and the home suffered impairment during this period without an adequate substitute being supplied for the stabiliz¬ ing influence which that authority exercised over family and social life in general. In view of the need for a better understanding of their own problems, parents have sought help upon their own initiative, individually and collectively. Parent education is the response to their expressed needs. Gruenberg34a says that — The significance of parent education as a vital part of adult education lies not so much in our discovery that parents are people as in the recent gen¬ eral recognition of the fact that most people are parents. No plan of edu¬ cation for adults can be complete that does not take into consideration this important aspect of adult life and interest. Scientific study of child development, family behavior, and family relationship, has resulted in the accumulation of a great deal of infor¬ mation which has been issued during the past 6 years in books, pam¬ phlets and monographs, and other forms of presentation for the use of professional workers. But as yet only a little of this material is written in such terms that it can be easily read by the average parent. One of the outstanding needs which leaders and parents are constantly pointing out is for scientifically sound books or pamphlets in which the facts of mental hygiene, psychology, biology, nutrition, and soci¬ ology are presented so simply that they need not be interpreted by a specialist. There is also a manifest need for library service to the millions of persons in this country living in areas having no library facilities. Parent education must depend, as does all adult education, upon adequate library services. These needs have been repeatedly emphasized by conferences and committees of parents, educators, and librarians. They have been the outstanding deterrents to success in the parent education movement. 34a Gruenberg, Sidonie Matsner. Child Study Groups for Parents. In Adult Education in Action. New York, The American Association for Adult Education, 1936. p. 192. 46 BIENNIAL SURVEY OF EDUCATION, 1934-36 There is need for a better understanding and cooperation between the home and the school on the one hand and parent education activities on the other. In general, teachers are not prepared by teacher-training institutions to participate in the development of prac¬ tical and successful cooperative parent-teacher relations. To meet this need, special instruction should be provided through institutes and conferences and units of work both in summer schools and in regular sessions of teachers colleges and normal schools. Colleges and universities have been slow in recognizing the potentialities in this field. However, several universities have provided such courses. Among those which may be mentioned are: State universities of Maryland and Florida; Vassar College, Institute of Euthenics; University of Michigan; and the State University of Iowa. Many teachers colleges conduct institutes, but teachers are seldom found in attendance because no credit is given for the work. There is also need for coordination of community organizations in this field of education. Opportunities for family and individual counseling are as yet inade¬ quately developed. There is a lack of trained personnel for this serv¬ ice. However, the outlook is hopeful as teacher-training institutions are offering courses for this purpose. At the present time such services are being undertaken by librarians, nursery school teachers, physi¬ cians, classroom teachers, and workers in religious and social organizations. SOME TRENDS IN PARENT EDUCATION A study of the parent education movement during the past half dozen years reveals some rather well-defined trends. Among these may be mentioned the following: 1. There is a growing tendency to make the results of research work the basis of studies in parent education. — A review of the programs of the past few years in parent education shows a shift from discussions of a purely empirical character to studies based upon research findings in such fields as physical and mental growth, child guidance, health, nutrition, child care, and child psychology. The director of the National Council of Parent Education says: The subject matter for all these different types of parent education activity consists of the advice of professional workers who have something to tell homemakers and parents, and of material derived from the reports of research in child development, home economics, education, psychology, mental hygiene, sociology, and other related disciplines. The labors of research workers, have in turn stimulated educators, welfare workers, and clinicians to observe children and family life more objectively and to offer more sys¬ tematic guidance. All these different types of study and research are sources - of parent education subject matter today.35 35 Bridgman, Ralph P. Parent and Family Education. In Handbook of Adult Education in the United * States, 1936. New York. American Association for Adult Education, 1936. p. 137. ADULT EDUCATION 47 2. Programs oj 'parent education are expanding. — The number of •organizations interested in parent education and the scope of their programs are both increasing. In the United States today some organized program of adult education for family life and parenthood may be found in every city, in many towns, and in about 60 percent of the rural counties, conducted or sponsored generally by one or more organizations working together. Subjects discussed vary from the structure of the nervous system to the newest hypotheses of psycho¬ analysis, from sewing baby clothes to designing clothes to bring out person¬ ality, from the history of matrimonial institutions to the effects on family relationships of contemporary industrial organization . 36 3. Literature on parent education is increasing. — It has been esti¬ mated that books dealing with parental problems are appearing at the rate of 100 per year. In addition to magazines devoted to this special phase of education, there is an increasing number of both educational and lay periodicals and also newspapers that find parent education sufficiently interesting to their readers to warrant publish¬ ing occasional articles on the subject. 4. Increasing attention is being given to the needs oj young people for training in parent education. — The importance of providing opportuni¬ ties for young people, and especially for those out of school, to study the problems of family life and parent education, is receiving increas¬ ing consideration. University extension services, associations for young men and for young women interested in their development and induction into adult-life responsibilities, churches, and welfare organizations are among the agencies now attempting to meet these specific needs of young people. 5. School counseling with parents is increasing. — Not only are more opportunities than formerly being provided for a parent and teacher to counsel relative to the problems of the child, but teacher-training programs are including instruction on such services by teachers. 6. The number of public schools that have organized work in parent ^education with a director of parent education in charge is increasing. 7. There is an increasing tendency for local organizations dealing with problems in parent education and family life to cooperate for iffie improvement of parent education services. THE FEDERAL GOVERNMENT AND PARENT EDUCATION Several departments of the Federal Government have made con¬ tributions to parent education. The Department of the Interior, through the Office of Education, has called conferences of educators, parents, librarians, and leaders to consider means of developing parent education ; made studies of existing programs ; evaluated books and other literature; prepared reading courses for parents and bibliog¬ raphies for leaders in parent education projects. Publications issued 19 Op cit., p. 132. 48 BIENNIAL SURVEY OF EDUCATION. 1934-36 during tlie year 1935-36 by the Office of Education on parent educa¬ tion or related subjects include: Parent Education Opportunities; Significant Programs oj High-School Parent-Teacher Associations; Essentials in Home and School Cooperation; and Bibliographies on Parent Education, Child Development, Education for Family Life, and United States Government Publications for Parents and Leaders of Parents' Groups. The Office of Education, through its vocational home economics program, has extended its activities to cover the organization of classes of parents and the training of teachers of adult groups to meet the growing demand for leadership in child study programs of parents. In 1935 there were six States in which workers in parent education were employed either to cooperate with State supervisors in home economics or to work under supervision in preparing teachers to give service in parent education. The United States Department of Agriculture, Cooperative Exten¬ sion Service, works in parent education through State and county programs of home economics extension work. Many popular bulletins reporting studies of conditions affecting child life were issued and distributed by the United States Depart¬ ment of Labor, Children’s Bureau. These publications constitute an important addition to the literature of particular importance to parents’ study groups. The program of parent education in the Federal Emergency Relief Administration (now WPA) opened opportunities for the employment of unemployed and needy teachers in 1933. Additional funds pre¬ viously mentioned supplemented Federal funds to insure the employ¬ ment of trained State supervisors for emergency parent education work. The program gave opportunities for experimentation in methods and materials. In many instances it brought together in study groups persons living in remote rural areas, not ordinarily reached by educational influences, many of whom were living under limited economic conditions. The program is conducted under the supervision of a specialist in nursery school and parent education with a special worker in charge of parent education. Statistics for the year 1936-37 indicate that 672 teachers were employed in 4,072 classes and that there were 66,372 persons under instruction in the classes. ORGANIZATIONS SUPPORT PARENT EDUCATION PROGRAMS American Association of University Women. — The American Asso¬ ciation of University Women continued its program of service in parent education to individual members and to groups of members. Since 1930 guidance materials for parents’ study groups have been issued on The Infant, Pre- Adolescence, Adolescence: Its Problems and Guidance, A Course for the Preparation of Lay Leaders oj Parent Study ADULT EDUCATION 49 Groups, The Mental Health of Parents and Children, and many other publications. It also has carried on a book service. Association for Childhood Education. — The Association for Childhood Education has carried on for years a continuous program of parent education. The committee on parent education of this organization in 1932-33 conducted, with the cooperation of elementary school teachers in Kalamazoo, Mich., an inquiry as to the questions and problems parents bring to the teacher. In 1934, the parent education committee undertook the task of editing a series of five books for parents on Childhood — The First Eight Years. Study classes and discussion groups for consideration of parents’ problems with their children and with the school are conducted during conventions of this organization. Publications of particular interest to parents have been issued by the Association for Childhood Education. Among them are: Broadening Field of Teacher Activity, Science and the Young Child , Music and the Young Child, Art for Today1 s Child, The Practical Value of Early Childhood Education, and Home and School Cooperation in Nursery School, Kindergarten, Primary. American Home Economics Association. — The American Home Economics Association conducted a program of child development and parent education, under a foundation grant for 5 years, until August 1934 which was directed by an advisory committee on child development and parent education of the Association. A full-time field worker was employed to hold conferences with college home economics departments in connection with the development of work in child growth, family relationships, and parent education, but since 1935 the work has been conducted by a part-time worker. Publica¬ tions issued were Living Together in the Family and Pictures of Family Life, both of which have been used for high school, college, and adult stud y groups. American Library Association. — The American Library Association has been cooperative for many years in regard to the library needs of parent-teacher associations and of parents’ study groups. A joint committee of the National Council of Parent Education and the American Library Association has been at work since 1934 to discover ways of securing better facilities, to meet the growing needs of parents’ groups, and to point out definite studies and experiments which might be made in the future. American Social Hygiene Association. — A division of family rela¬ tions has carried the program of the American Social Hygiene Asso¬ ciation. The particular contribution of this organization to parent education has been through the issuance of such pamphlets as Your Daughter1 s Mother, Education for Marriage, Choosing a Home Partner, Marriage and Parenthood, Is Family Counseling a Profession, and Marriage and Morals. In 1934 a Conference on Education for Marriage and Family Social Relations was held under the sponsorship 50 BIENNIAL SURVEY OF EDUCATION, 1934-36 of this association, Columbia University, and the American Home Economics Association. Child Study Association oj America. — A continuous program of child study and parent education was conducted by the Child Study Association of America. Activities at the headquarters of this organization include study groups, lectures, conferences, family guidance and consultation, and library service. The association has been working on a study in parent education broadcasting since early in 1936. Cooperation in this project is received from the National Council of Parent Education and the National Advisory Council on Radio in Education. Some of the publications issued by the association since 1930 are Community Programs for Summer Play Schools, Summer Play Schools , Music and the Child, Radio and Children, and the magazine Child Study. Federal Council of Churches. — Since 1930 the program of the Fed¬ eral Council of Churches in family and parent education has been under the direction of a committee on marriage and the home. Its purposes are to study the problems of marriage and divorce and to find means of safeguarding marriages through the development of an educational program and through counseling, to promote Christian family life, and to collect and disseminate denominational literature dealing with marriage and family life. Methods of procedure have been set up in outline and addresses have been given at State and local meetings, at colleges and seminaries; and conferences with inter¬ denominational and other groups have been conducted. International Council of Religious Education. — A joint committee on parent education was formed in 1933 by the International Council of Religious Education which prepared as basic materials a curricu¬ lum guide on Christian education for adults. Part II of this guide deals with family life and parenthood in regard to situations that are common in families and with family problems and requirements for leadership in parents’ groups. The council issued in 1935, jointly with the Federal Council of Churches, a bibliography on Education in Family Life, Marriage, Parenthood, and Young People’s Relation¬ ships, and in the same year the council issued a service bulletin on Home and Church Sharing in Christian Education. National Catholic Welfare Conference. — At least two departments of the National Catholic Welfare Conference have conducted pro¬ grams of interest to parents — the family-life section and the National Council of Catholic Women. The family-life section has made prog¬ ress since 1930 in the preparation and publication of leaflets and pamphlets relating to the home and family life. Such pamphlets as the following were issued: Christian Marriage and the Family, the Family, Christian Education of Youth, the Integrity of the Home, Concerning Your Children, Some Guiding Thoughts for Parents. In 1933 the conference prepared study outlines containing courses for ADULT EDUCATION 5], study clubs on health education, parent and child, and on the family. Numerous other publications have been issued by this section. A convention of the Catholic Conference on Family Life was held at Holy Cross, Ind., in 1936. A part of the program was devoted to matters of interest to teachers giving courses in family life and to leaders of study groups. The National Council of Catholic Women has furnished publica¬ tions for the development of parent-teacher associations in parochial schools, such as Suggestions for Catholic Parent-Teacher Associa¬ tions, Developing Character in Our Children, and has prepared a study outline on Parents and Children, for the use of parents. Among the important publications issued by the council in 1933 were two leaflets entitled “Motion Pictures, a Problem of the Nation” and “The Motion Picture Industry.” National Congress of Colored Parents and Teachers. — The National Congress of Colored Parents and Teachers has had a steady growth in membership. In 1930 the number of members was 11,381 and in 1935, 19,470. The congress has been encouraging the organization of classes in parent education. In 1931 the president at the Oglethorp Practice School of Atlanta University met a group of young mothers and organized a parent-education class. The course of six lessons was conducted in the respective communities in which the mothers lived. A resolution adopted by the congress in 1935 was to the effect that parent-teacher associations everywhere place considerable emphasis upon homemaking and parental education. National Congress of Parents and Teachers. — The parent-education program of the National Congress of Parents and Teachers has been extended to meet growing demands for service. Each year since 1930 a parent-education yearbook has been issued for the use of study groups, and, in addition to this, a parent-education guidebook has been prepared and published to aid leaders in the organization of study groups, methods of conducting groups, and to suggest projects suitable for these groups. In 1931 the National Congress of Parents and Teachers cooperated with the Office of Education in a joint conference on parent educa¬ tion, called by the Commissioner of Education, in Hot Springs, Ark. Specialists in education and professional leaders in parent education took part in the conference in which the main subjects discussed related to changing backgrounds of home and family life, parent- education problems at different levels, professional training of leaders in parent education, and to utilizing forces for parent education. A report of the conference on parent education was issued under the title “Education for Home and Family Life.” A program of parent education is gaining strength in this organiza¬ tion whose membership reported in 1937 in all States aggregated 52 BIENNIAL SURVEY OF EDUCATION, 1934-36 2,056,777. In this same ^ear 148,450 parents were organized in 8,039 study groups. Guidance publications are issued annually by this organization. Some of the more recent ones are listed as follows: Home Play in Rural Areas, Young Lives in a Modern World, Why Your Child Needs a Health Examination, High-School Associations, the Rural Parent-Teacher Association, and numerous other pamphlets and leaflets. National Council oj Parent Education, Inc.—- The National Council of Parent Education, Inc., has depended for the most part for its financial support upon the grants of the Laura Spelman Rockefeller Memorial and the General Education Board. It has given an advisory service, called conferences of parent education workers, developed standards of procedure, informed parent-education workers as to what is going on in this field, worked to coordinate community agencies having parent-education projects, has sponsored research projects, and has created materials which may be used to aid in planning activities for community organization. A bimonthly service bulletin called Parent Education is distributed to members of the council and other organ¬ izations. Protestant Episcopal Church. — The N ational Council, Department of Religious Education of the Protestant Episcopal Church, experimented in 1933 with outlines which had been prepared for leaders of parents' discussion groups on the subject Helping Parents Solve Their Prob¬ lems and other pertinent subj ects. In the same year a study in parent- church cooperation was made under the auspices of the child-study commission of the church. A list of pamphlets and books on child development and family life and a leaflet containing an outline on the Parent-Teacher Relationship were issued in 1936. United Parents’ Associations. — Parent education is the major pur¬ pose of the United Parents’ Association of New York City, Inc., a central federation of parent-teacher associations, or mothers clubs, connected with public or private schools. In 1934-35 it was reported that 207 public and private-school associations were members of the federation. Of these, 27 were high-school groups, 94 were parents’ associations, 61 were parent-teacher associations, and 25 were mothers' clubs. PARENT ED UCA TION IN STATE DEPARTMENTS OF ED UCATION New York State Department of Education. — The New York State De¬ partment of Education is one of the two State departments in which there is a unit, of administration and service in parent education. Eor 5 years the work of the bureau of child development and parental education of this department was financed by grants from the Laura Spelman Rockefeller Memorial. These funds terminated in 1933 and coincidently a bill authorizing the bureau under public support was passed by the legislature. The work of this bureau is in charge of a ADULT EDUCATION 53 director and one assistant who are both trained specialists in the field of child development and parent education. Services have been given to universities and colleges in such activities as providing courses in parent education and family relations; organizing facilities for co¬ operation in training lay and professional leaders of parents’ groups; formulating and administering research studies in connection with parents and children. Included in the program for community services were the following activities: Organizing and conducting study groups for lay leaders and parents; providing courses in family relationships; developing opportunity for consultation service; assisting in the organization of parent-education councils, committees, institutes, conferences, and parent- teacher associations; and other activities, such as addressing meetings, arranging for newspaper publicity, and giving radio talks. Annual State conferences in child development and parent education were held under the auspices of the State department of education. These brought together lay leaders, professional leaders, and parent- education workers for joint discussions. Reports of these conferences from year to year indicate that special emphasis is placed upon the need to insure growth in leaders and in community parent-education programs. The Bureau of Child Development and Parent Education has pre¬ pared and issued in printed form a circular on Types of Parent Edu¬ cation Groups and its reports from year to year present detailed information as to the progress that is being made. California State Department of Education. — The California State Department of Education also established a successful project in parent education under foundation grants. The project included the active cooperation of State and local parent-teacher associations and the use of existing organizations. State, county, and local school funds were used in developing the program. When the grants were terminated in 1931, the bureau of parent education began operating under appro¬ priations in the State budget for education. The department gives an advisory and counseling service, provides supervision and training for leadership and guidance in the selection of subject matter, and prepares guides and other materials. During the year 1935-36 a new program for the director of parent education was instituted in order to interpret parent education to pro¬ fessional groups. The director gave most of the time during the year to service at institutes and instruction in State teachers’ colleges. Some of the materials issued by the State Department of Educa¬ tion for this work since 1930 are: Objectives for Parent Education in California, Objectives and Procedures for Parent Education, Public Schools and Parent Education, The Emergency Education Program in California, Handbook for Rural Parent-Teacher Associations, California Parent-Teacher Handbook on Secondary Education. 54 BIENNIAL SURVEY OF EDUCATION, 1934-36 Pennsylvania State Department of Public Instruction. — In 1931 the' superintendent of public instruction of Pennsylvania appointed a subcommittee “to appraise current parent-education programs and activities and to study the needs and objectives of parent education and to formulate ways and means of promoting, organizing, har¬ monizing, and continuing parent education.” Meetings and confer¬ ences in 1933 resulted in the formation of the Pennsylvania Council for Parental Education. The council met in 1934 and organized with representatives of 30 organizations and planned projects which, included the development of leadership training centers in connection with colleges and universities in the State. In 1935 it was reported that the membership of parents in study groups in Pennsylvania had reached about 25,000. The State department of public instruc¬ tion issued as one of its Pennsylvania curriculum studies a bulletin entitled “Parent Education,” to help school people desiring to create a program of parent education. State vocational home-economics programs include parent education. — Parent-education programs are conducted in State departments of education as a part of the home-economics programs under voca¬ tional-education funds in Texas, Oklahoma, Arkansas, and many other States. In the three States named there are many cities carry¬ ing strong parent-education programs in public-school systems under the guidance of trained directors of parent education. Some of the cities having programs are: Fort Worth, Dallas, Houston, Lubbock, Tyler, and El Paso, Tex.; Little Rock and Fort Smith, Ark.; and Tulsa and Oklahoma City, Okla. STATE AND CITY COUNCILS FOR PARENT EDUCATION State and city councils for parent education have been formed to* coordinate activities and to reduce overlapping and duplication of work of groups having programs. These councils seem to be gradually increasing. State councils. — In at least six States — Colorado, Iowa, Massa¬ chusetts, New York, Pennsylvania, and Vermont — State councils were functioning in 1935. In addition to the coordinating functions of these councils, they sponsor in some instances annual or periodical conferences and some of them issue printed news bulletins or sponsor weekly radio broadcasts. They formulate plans and policies for the development of sound methods and practices in parent education and also set up worth-while objectives for groups needing and desiring suggestions for programs in this field of education. City councils. — “Council,” “conference,” and “committee” are terms that seem to be used interchangeably to designate parent- education units organized for coordinating purposes in cities where many agencies are working alone on parent-education programsu. ADULT EDUCATION 55 'City councils have been instituted in Boston, Buffalo, Pittsburgh, .Schenectady, Syracuse, St. Louis, and in Toronto, Canada. In Rochester, N. Y., there is a conference on parent education. In Schenectady there was at first a parents’ committee which developed into the Council for Adult Education. This council now consists of representatives of 35 separate agencies. Some of the councils report that they act as a center of information •on all phases of parent education and child development; finance lay- leadership classes; encourage instruction and research in this field; conduct institutes and demonstrations; give publicity to parent- education problems; and discover State and local parent-education .needs. PARENT EDUCATION IN CITY SCHOOL SYSTEMS Many city school systems in New York State, Texas, Arkansas, Oklahoma, and in California have inaugurated parent-education proj¬ ects under public-school funds. These projects have been successful in Albany, Amsterdam, Binghamton, Mount Vernon, Rochester, ^Schenectady, and Syracuse, N. Y.; in Berkeley, Long Beach, Los Angeles, Pasadena, and other cities in California; in Fort Smith and Little Rock, Ark.; and in Dallas, El Paso, Fort Worth, Houston, Lubbock, and Tyler, Tex. In Austin there is a parent-education project conducted under the extension division of the University of Texas. Oklahoma City and Tulsa, Okla., have directors in charge of parent education. State leadership is furnished in the State home- economics program. In most of the cities named above, directors of parent education are employed by the boards of education. In some cities persons working in a related field such as home economics or adult education give part-time service in parent educa¬ tion and some superintendents of schools report that they give part- time service to the work. The parent-teacher association is an important asset in arousing interest in the developing programs of parent education in city school -systems. According to reports, parent education is generally ini¬ tiated into the school system in response to the demands and interests of parents’ organizations. Many superintendents of schools depend upon their directors of parent education to keep parents informed of the purposes of the school’s program and particularly of the changes that become neces¬ sary in a progressive school system. In the Binghamton public schools, for instance, the director of parent education prepared outlines for a course for parents’ study groups on new trends in education by which parents were made aware of why changes are necessary in education, in subject content, and in teaching methods. Another course was prepared on home-school relationship. 56 BIENNIAL SURVEY OF EDUCATION, 1934-36 UNIVERSITY EXTENSION University extension work is of wide variety and comprehensive as to the adult needs which it serves. It employs for its purpose such techniques of instruction as conferences, demonstrations, lectures, institutes, exhibitions, correspondence study, and various kinds of classroom practices. Instruction of a credit and noncredit type in an increasing number of subject-matter fields is offered on the college level (including graduate work), the secondary level, and without reference to any specific level. In the last case the educational experiences are provided with a purpose peculiar to the needs of adult groups and their ability to profit by instruction. Bittner,37 writing on university and college extension work in 1936, says: * * * almost every section of the population is at times brought into contact with some phase of extension. In the formally organized class and correspondence courses the number of adults whose average age is about 30 is variously estimated to be between 200,000 and 300,000, the latter estimate including part-time students in afternoon and evening classes at the college seat. In 48 institutions the total enrollment in 1934-35 was 285,548; the total number of individuals, 181,498. Thirty-six of these institutions re¬ ported an enrollment of 67,114 in distinctly noncredit classes. The informal “general” extension services reach many hundreds of thousands, and, if agri¬ cultural extension is included, the total runs into millions. In the same article Bittner further says: During the depression university and college extension in most States increased its scope, serving new groups in special ways. A notable develop¬ ment was the adaptation by the State universities of Nebraska, Indiana, Minnesota, followed by others, of correspondence courses for use in locally supervised classes — group study by mail for students unable to attend college. The data on enrollments in various types of university-extension work, presented on the following pages, are from the Report of the Committee on Statistics and Research of the National University Extension Association:38 37 Bittner, W. S., in Handbook of Adult Education, 1936, the American Association of Adult Education, New York. 38 Bittner, W. S., Indiana University, Bloomington, Ind. ' . 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 BIENNIAL SURVEY OF EDUCATION, 1934-36 ENROLLMENTS IN VARIOUS TYPES OF Extension Total in credit Total in noncredit classes classes Institution En¬ In¬ En¬ In¬ roll¬ divid¬ roll¬ divid¬ ment uals ment uals 2 3 4 5 University of Alabama _ _ _ 2,492 145 2,492 116 0 0 University of Arizona _ 536 428 44 44 University of California _ _ _ 27, 912 5,373 1, 058 15, 376 249 7, 304 3, 557 630 13, 062 7,079 University of Chicago _ _ 558 232 Columbia University _ i 5, 084 University of Denver _ _ _ _ _ 101 1, 370 1,302 4 252 914 Harvard University _ 970 University of Hawaii _ 4 218 415 415 University of Idaho _ University of Illinois _ 421 380 0 0 Indiana Universitv _ __ 8, 997 3, 810 887 850 Iowa State College _ 298 844 State University of Iowa _ Kansas State College _ University of Kentucky _ 717 490 20 20 Louisiana State University . . . . 4, 720 * 27, 394 3, 812 3, 102 405 405 Massachusetts Department of Education _ University of Michigan _ 3,284 2 5, 291 300 733 563 University of Minnesota _ 8, 096 632 2,588 > 1, 692 University of Missouri _ University of Nebraska _ 537 366 842 554 Universitv of New Mexico _ 179 117 University of North Carolina _ 2,577 125 870 University of North Dakota _ 125 Ohio University _ _ 1, 358 179 740 University of Oklahoma _ _ _ 77 Oregon State System of Higher Education _ 4, 197 4,982 3,787 10, 725 » 2, 431 48 2, 323 2,237 Pennsylvania State College _ _ _ 9, 098 52 5,461 52 University of Pennsylvania _ _ _ _ 3, 787 University of Pittsburgh _ 4, 292 1,081 32 Rutgers University _ » 676 338 University of South Dakota _ _ Syracuse University. _ 3, 068 1, 252 522 1, 644 30 22 University of Tennessee _ _ 750 575 462 Texas Technological College _ 458 155 142 University nf Texas 575 462 University of Utah _ 1, 590 2,021 190 1, 416 51 51 University of Virginia _ _ 1, 394 141 * 141 State College of Washington _ _ _ University of Washington _ 1, 611 4,163 40 > 1, 472 878 775 Washington Universitv . . .... .... _ 3, 255 14 1, 757 1, 382 West Virginia University _ - _ 1, 954 1,954 College of William and Mary _ 210 200 University of Wisconsin _ 8, 666 6,248 6, 023 2,525 ADULT EDUCATION UNIVERSITY EXTENSION WORK, 1935-36 59 Correspondence or home study Correspondence or home study Active enroll¬ ments College credit Noncredit courses High-school courses Reading courses New enroll¬ ments for the year En¬ roll¬ ment In¬ divid¬ uals En¬ roll¬ ment In¬ divid¬ uals En¬ roll¬ ment In¬ divid¬ uals En¬ roll¬ ment In¬ divid¬ uals En¬ roll¬ ment In¬ divid¬ uals En¬ roll¬ ment In¬ divid¬ uals 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 3,090 282 1, 625 3, 422 4, 213 2, 728 2 2, 500 83 2,255 2, 105 175 1, 393 2, 380 3,577 1,671 2 2, 500 3,090 282 1,494 2, 457 3, 852 1,967 (3) 83 2, 105 175 1, 2j76 1,638 3, 271 1, 249 (3) 2, 354 432 1,055 2,939 2,116 1, 763 741 1, 603 341 904 2,034 2 1,796 1,119 576 23 965 92 27 (3) 20 742 2 78 27 108 97 259 74 2 220 48 10 8 660 28 5 347 1, 668 5 687 512 1, 994 5 584 476 1, 616 5 5 613 463 1, 621 539 432 1, 313 512 1, 495 476 1, 518 8 8 91 90 173 153 1, 978 1, 006 725 981 1, 838 794 630 707 1, 978 701 701 978 1, 838 552 613 705 820 1,110 569 633 4,298 703 2 820 521 445 25 3 23 3 247 21 195 14 33 24 1, 502 3, 108 1,316 3, 759 209 1,032 859 719 2,251 1, 590 1, 617 825 2, 513 2 1, 260 2, 296 165 2 804 700 1, 415 2, 772 1,200 2, 062 209 993 725 991 1, 176 1,272 1, 247 775 2, ‘216 2 1, 160 1,429 87 99 2 50 90 237 116 1,695 207 2 100 871 1,687 1,419 2,518 209 1, 469 1,443 1,234 1,503 165 1,077 3 2 774 600. 726 897 1,028 848 39 30 134 100 248 1, 786 973 934 1,585 1, 251 1, 140 1, 075 243 20 688 176 18 1, 170 771 670 75 300 47 264 2,320 50 10 2 989 446 139 121 764 1, 074 1,792 597 81 820 788 544 755 1, 434 507 73 750 1,032 1,749 566 81 537 722 1, 399 477 73 1 1 13 42 36 29 7 33 29 28 50 1,254 2,020 447 71 800 893 1, 634 372 63 7 2 6 2 232 232 15 15 679 761 654 12 11 14 8,657 8,068 4, 649 4, 324 8 4, 008 8 3, 744 4,076 3,707 32866—3 5 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 BIENNIAL SURVEY OF EDUCATION, 1934-36 ENROLLMENTS IN VARIOUS TYPES OF UNI Correspondence or home study Institution College credit courses Noncredit courses Enroll¬ ment Individ¬ uals Enroll¬ ment Individ¬ uals 18 19 20 21 University of Alabama. . . . . . University of Arizona . . . . University of Arkansas . . . . . . University of California.. . . University of Chicago . . University of Colorado . . Columbia University . . . . University of Denver.. _ _ University System of Georgia - .... Harvard University . . . . . University of Hawaii . . . University of Idaho _ . . University of Illinois.. . . Indiana University... . . Iowa State College . . . . . State University of Iowa . . Kansas State College _ University of Kentucky. . . Louisiana State University _ _ Massachusetts Department of Education.. University of Michigan.. . . University of Minnesota . . . . University of Missouri . . . University of Nebraska . . . . University of New Mexico.. . . University of North Carolina _ University of North Dakota . . . . Ohio University . . University of Oklahoma _ _ Oregon State System of Higher Education. Pennsylvania State College. . . University of Pennsylvania . . University of Pittsburgh . . Rutgers University . . . University of South Dakota . . Syracuse University . . . . University of Tennessee . . Texas Technological College . . University of Texas... . . . . University of Utah _ University of Virginia.. . State College of Washington... . University of Washington . Washington University . West Virginia University.. . _ _ _ ... College of William and Mary.. _ University of Wisconsin . . . 2, 354 432 978 2,210 1, 937 1,203 (7) 1, 603 341 839 1, 473 2 1, 645 830 (7) 15 729 43 17 12 561 2 36 17 (7) (7) 1, 482 1, 129 1, 482 1, 229 463 432 . . . I.. I . 1, 528 1, 228 5 5 820 812 553 630 703 2 612 512 443 16 2 9 2 2 1, 512 1,237 1,286 209 1, 429 400 (7) 719 774 606 1, 281 1,081 849 51 51 3 2 05 O M tC O CO 40 38 (7) 490 (7) (7) 639 8 55 8 26 500 177 150 306 175 241 192 1, 185 1,970 430 71 485 685 837 . . 1, 593 8 355 1 63 . 612 9 7 1 9 * 2, 173 9 2, 007 9 1, 903 9 1, 780 footnotes at end of table. ADULT EDUCATION 61 VERSITY EXTENSION WORK, 1935-36— Continued Correspondence or home study Short courses, institutes, etc. High-school courses Reading courses Short courses Institutes j Lecture series Foreman training En- In- En- In- En- In- En¬ In¬ En¬ In¬ En¬ In¬ roll- divid- roll- divid- roll- divid- roll¬ divid¬ roll¬ divid¬ roll¬ divid¬ ment uals ment uals ment uals ment uals ment uals ment uals 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 62 12 91 25,395 17, 755 250 129 2 109 7 2 6 192 101 2 3, 000 122 68 30 6 475 242 1, 954 3, 606 22 22 326 326 39 39 88 80 90 88 120 120 50 50 300 300 2,472 3, 511 3, 511 175 262 8 184 20 2 15 175 14 7 25 25 3 2 1, 369 1, 369 150 150 1,374 1,358 18, 355 (10) 2 6, 130 U116.120 124 111 8 782 8 635 182 154 1,229 636 18 1, 350 85 67 1, 067 680 144 106 11 10 50 10 1, 693 1, 693 1, 303 1, 303 885 885 748 748 « 1, 016 1, 016 475 672 672 387 104 104 188 630 22 69 56 2 120 8 120 1,800 1,079 2 200 42 34 21 21 136 136 1,892 1,079 200 54 54 16 16 232 232 500 8 500 15 12 11 236 236 1, 103 1, 103 258 214 34 34 2, 053 2, 053 358 358 270 2,045 345 1 g2 BIENNIAL SURVEY OF EDUCATION, 1934-36 ENROLLMENTS IN VARIOUS TYPES OF UNIVERSITY EXTENSION WORK, 1935-36— Continued 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 Institution Short courses, institutes, etc. Other types Total short courses, etc. Enroll¬ ment Individ¬ uals Enroll¬ ment Individ¬ uals ‘ 34 35 36 37 University of Alabama _ 1,405 1, 405 1, 405 1,405 University of Arizona _ 324 n 125, 395 17, 947 250 2,532 3. 606 324 University nf Chicago _ . 3, 101 122 3,940 2,532 1,986 University System of Georgia _ _ Harvard University _ University of Hawaii _ 22 22 University nf Tdfl.hr> . _ _ _ University of Illinois _ _ _ 2 50.000 2 1, 431 2 40,000 2 1, 390 2 50, 365 1, 901 2, 472 12,046 175 25 1,519 2 40, 365 1,870 Indiana, University. . - __ ___ Iowa State College _ State University of Iowa _ 8, 535 8, 535 12,046 175 25 2,351 Kansas State College _ University of Kentucky, _ _ _____ _ __ Louisiana State University _ 832 Massachusetts Department of Education _ University of Michigan _ 2 52, 400 72, 129 1, 161 7, 488 116, 755 Universitv of Minnesota _ University of Missouri _ University of Nebraska _ __ University of New Mexico _ Universitv of North Carolina _ 1,350 University of North Dakota _ __ Ohio University _ University of Oklahoma _ _ _ _ _ Oregon State Svstem of Higher Education _ Pennsylvania State College - 15, 070 2 15, 070 19, 699 19, 699 University of Pennsylvania _ University of Pittsburgh _ _ 1, 016 932 804 104 1, 016 1, 806 Rutgers University.. _ 260 417 659 University of South Dakota _ _ _ _ _ Svracuse University. _ _ _ 104 62, 814 120 3, 943 1, 254 2 1, 700 University of Tennessee _ _ _ _ 61, 974 Texas Technological College _ _ University of Texas . .. _ 86 175 1,000 1, 922 175 2 1, 000 2,199 1, 254 1, 700 University of Utah. _ _ University of Virginia _ State College of Washington _ _ Universitv of Washington _ _ _ _ 1, 597 2,087 358 1, 553 2,087 358 Washington University.. _ West Virginia University _ College of William and Mary _ University of W isconsin . . _ _ 2,315 1 Includes enrollments in both credit and noncredit courses. 2 Estimated. s Included in active enrollments. « Adult education division conducts afternoon and evening campus school. Enrollment, 2,358; indi¬ viduals, 792. 5 Special examinations given. 6 Includes high-school courses and reading courses. 7 Included in new enrollments for the year. 8 W PA adult education classes and classes in workers’ education were conducted under the auspices of the general extension division of the Oregon State System of Higher Education; also the WPA project in correspondence study (No. 628) which began Jan. 6, 1936. 9 432 different lectures. 70 379 different lectures, u Estimated attendance. 12 Includes institutes. 13 Offered only in summer session. 14 Attendance. The program of the Indiana University Extension Division is illus¬ trative of the services rendered by a well-developed plan of extension ADULT EDUCATION 63 work by a State higher educational institution. The division renders two classes of services, the extension teaching service and the public welfare service. The former service includes correspondence courses, regular class courses, and lectures. The correspondence work is organized as a bureau of the division giving courses both in high-school and college subjects for credit and also college courses without credit. A total of 250 courses was offered by mail in 1935, with a total course enrollment of 9,956, and an individual student enrollment of 5,283. Half the credits required for the A. B. degree may be earned in exten¬ sion class and correspondence courses. In 1935 there were 1,073 individuals and 1,342 course enrollments in correspondence work. Class instruction by means of extension centers is given in many places in the State. If in any Indiana community as many as 20 persons organize for the purpose of pursuing a subject included as an extension course, the university will provide an instructor on a weekly or biweekly basis. In 1935 there were 463 classes in extension work with a class enrollment of 8,614, and an individual student en¬ rollment of 4,210. The lecture bureau of the extension division renders service on a State-wide basis to communities and groups of persons desiring to keep abreast of the times on current questions. The bureau fee for a lecture is $15, and no charge is made for travel. On this basis, staff members from nearly every department of the university are thus made available for lecture purposes. The public welfare service of the extension division gives direct services and cooperates with agencies throughout the State that have for their objective services to meet community needs of a welfare nature such as those related to health, child welfare, and civic con¬ ditions. The general types of activities carried on by this service include aid to organizations, clubs, and public and private agencies engaged in welfare and educational work; for example, the State Health Council, the Indiana Federation of Music Clubs, and the Indiana Federation of Art Clubs. In addition, the public welfare service includes a bureau of parent- teachers associations, a bureau of child welfare, a public discussion bureau, and a visual instruction bureau. Included in the services rendered by the parent-teachers association bureau is aid to the Indiana Congress of Parents and Teachers “in coordinating and standardizing the various study and reading courses and in setting up a certification system for these courses.” The bureau of child welfare works with agencies and organizations in the State, carrying on child-welfare activities, rendering advisory services, and supplying informational material, including motion-picture films, exhibits, and package libraries. The public discussion bureau assists, local organi¬ zations in providing programs for the discussion of educational, civic, 64 BIENNIAL SURVEY OF EDUCATION, 1934-36 and social problems. It furnishes reading and study materials and gives counsel in the selection of current problems of public interest. The extent of this service is indicated by the following data, taken from a report for 1934-35 of the Indiana University Extension Divi¬ sion: Package library loans, 5,881; plays lent for inspection, 2,812; club study package loans, 334. The visual instruction bureau sup¬ plies on loan a large number of lantern slides, motion pictures, and exhibit materials to both schools and community agencies. Com¬ munity agencies, representing adult education activities, included in the services of this bureau, numbered 209 in the year 1934-35, and the number of groups served approximated 650. PRISON EDUCATION While the detailed reports on the education programs of many of the prisons throughout the country reveal a pathetic situation, the study of the programs in the prisons over a term of years is encouraging. Contrast, for example, what Austin H. MacCormick said in 1931 with what he said in 1936 relative to prison education. In the former year he asked the question, “What is being done in the fruitful educational field represented by the hundred thousand inmates of our prisons and reformatories for men and women, who are for the most part under- educated adults with some capacity for education and time to devote to it?” and answered it in the following words: “Taking the country as a whole, we are tolerating a tragic failure. Of all the fields in which the American penal institution gives evidence of futility, education very nearly heads the list. Not a single complete and well-rounded educational program, adequately financed and staffed was encountered in all the prisons in the country. In less than a dozen prisons is the work extensive enough or effective enough or sufficiently well super¬ vised to rise above the level of mediocrity.” 39 In 1936 Mr. MacCormick wrote: 40 The millenium in prison education has not yet arrived, but American prisons have unquestionably become education-conscious in the last few years. * * * In current news notes one reads such items as that an all-time high in volun¬ tary enrollments for educational work has been reached at the United States Northeastern Penitentiary; that 71 percent of the prisoners received at the Federal Reformatory at Chillicothe during the past year enrolled in some form of educational work; that the first school in the history of the institution has been started at the Nevada State Penitentiary; that the new school building at the Norfolk (Mass.) Prison Colony has been completed; that in 1936 development of the educational department of the Michigan State Prison at Jackson will surpass its 1935 accomplishments, already substantial enough; that the inmates of San Quentin, largest prison in the country, continue to earn higher grades than those of free students in the University of California extension courses. *8 MacCormick, Austin H. The education of adult prisoners. National society of penal information, 1031. 80 MacCormick, Austin H. Prisoneis’ progress. Journal of adult education, 8: 254-58, June 1936. ADULT EDUCATION 65 Between the two periods reported by Mr. MacCormick progress in prison education was reported in 1933 in the Handbook oj American Prisons as follows: 41 * * * The field of academic education shows a general upward trend. Old-fashioned grade-school curricula and methods are giving way to those more suited to the needs and interests of adults. Individualized instruction, through correspondence courses, and in the classroom, is the predominating note in the reorganization of the educational work in a large number of institutions. Vocational education has not entirely kept pace with academic. Many institutions still preserve the fiction of “trade training,” while others, realizing that it is only fiction, have given it up without having anything to substitute in its place. In view of the relatively small number of prisoners who possess the qualifications of skilled mechanics, the meager opportunity for teaching anything more than the rudiments of a trade under institutional conditions, and the difficulty of a man’s finding employment in a skilled occupation after his release, it seems evident that vocational training in penal institutions will have to emphasize general industrial competence rather than technical skills for the majority of prisoners. Just how the work will be organized on a training level is not yet clear and, unfortunately, any advances along this line must await the solution of the prison labor problem. Reforms in prison education were initiated by the Federal Govern¬ ment in 1930 through provisions for trained educational staffs for its prisons and reformatories. This forward step was followed by im¬ proved practices in instruction and the broadening of the curriculum to include cultural subjects. The State of New York followed the example set by the Federal Government. Major factors in the striking changes of the last 5 years in New York institutions were the surveys and reports of the so-called Lewisohn Commis¬ sion, the appointment of Walter M. Wallack, a trained educator, as director of education in the Elmira Reformatory, his transfer later to the newly created position of director of education in the State department of correc¬ tion, and the appointment by Governor Lehman of a commission on prison education, which included some of the leading educational and penal experts in the State. This commission has been persistent and active; its work has now been consolidated by the inclusion in the current State budget of substantial sums for new educational personnel, equipment, and supplies in all State institutions. The way in which Elmira, the grandfather of educa¬ tional reformatories, has been completely reorganized and revivified is a story in itself * * *. But it is at Wallkill * * * that a demon¬ stration of Nation-wide significance is being carried on. In 1934, by means of a grant from a foundation, there were secured for Wallkill: Two well-trained men, Howard L. Briggs, vocational specialist, and Glenn M. Kendall, curriculum specialist. They were charged particularly with establishing a program of social education: With selecting the content and method of both academic and vocational education. The curriculum labor¬ atory of Teachers College, Columbia University, prepared special teaching material with that end in mind * * *. 41 Handbook of American Prisons and Reformatories. New York. The Osborne Association, Inc., 1933. 66 BIENNIAL SURVEY OF EDUCATION, 1934-36 Classes are held during both the day and evening hours. In the evening also well-organized dramatic, musical, journalistic, and public-speaking groups meet. An avocational shop is available for those who wish to use their leisure time in pursuing hobbies. Prisoners have free access to the library and can spend their spare time in its attractive reading rooms. None of the educational work at Wallkill is compulsory, with the excep¬ tion of that for a few illiterates. Yet 56 percent of the prisoners are enrolled on a voluntary basis; last year the figure was only 21 percent. Eighty-two percent use the library.42 With reference to the Wallkill program, Howard L. Briggs, speaking before the meeting of the Adult Education Association in 1936, said: Much research is necessary to determine the effectiveness of the work, and that effectiveness will probably always depend, to a large extent, upon the treatment of the prisoners during their period of parole. Our job within the prisons is basically one of the reformation of attitudes and the providing of skills that will enable our inmates to adjust themselves happily and effectively to a free society when they are restored to it. No account, however brief, reviewing progress in prison education would be complete without a statement concerning the program in the United States Industrial Reformatory at Chillicothe, Ohio. This is one of the newer Federal penal institutions, established in 1926. While the institution receives first offenders who are more than 17 years of age, 90 percent are not over 35 years of age while most of them are not more than 25 years old. The dominant objective is “socialized education,” adapted to the conditions of penal life and the needs of the inmates. Both general and vocational courses are included in the program. The day school of this institution, in which attendance is compulsory, is conducted on a half-day basis and is devoted to teaching the tool subjects to illiterates and near illiterates through the fifth-grade level as determined by the new Stanford achievement test. In the evening school work in the elementary grades is continued and selective courses are provided in such subjects as science, health, occupations, citizenship, and government, as these apply to everyday life. In addi¬ tion, instruction is given in such regular school subjects as arithmetic, English, and history. Vocational work that is carried on in the class¬ rooms includes the theory of electricity, drafting, typing, and short¬ hand. Vocational training in construction and maintenance is given by means of work about the buildings and grounds. The practices followed in instruction, the selection of curriculum subjects, and the examination and testing of the inmates for the pur¬ pose of classifying them and providing suitable programs for their rehabilitation, all give evidence of careful experimental and research work in prison-educational problems. An outstanding piece of work 2 3 4 5 Total enrollment of public rural schools _ . . . 13, 027, 237 12, 887, 992 50.2 13, 024, 021 49. 3 -0.02 Percent of total public-school enrollment ----- - - - 52. 7 Enrollment of rural public elementary schools 11,947,231 91. 7 11, 450, 261 88.8 10, 821, 777 83. 1 -9.4 Percent of total rural school enrollment- Enrollment of rural public high schools 1 . _ _ 1, 080, 006 1, 437, 731 2, 202, 244 16. 1 +103. 9 Percent of total rural school enrollment- . . _ _ 8.3 11.2 Percent of children 14-17 years of age attending high school:3 Rural _ _ - .- -.- 29.7 39.5 60.5 Urban _ _ _ _ _ 53. 6 58.0 67.9 Enrollment of 1-room schools 3 _ _ 3, 553, 682 29.9 3, 483, 062 30.4 3, 202, 476 29.6 -9.9 Percent of rural elementary enrollment . Enrollment of 2-room schools 3 _ . 1, 213, 670 10.2 1, 319, 265 11. 5 1, 432, 671 13.2 +18.0 Percent of rural elementary enrollment 2- . _ Average length of school term in days: 1-room schools 150 162 160 +6.7 +6.7 -.5 2-room schools. 151 156 161 City schools _ . _ _ 183 184 182 1 Upper 4 grades. 3 Partially estimated. NUMBER AND PERCENT OF TEACHERS EMPLOYED IN VARIOUS TYPES OF RURAL SCHOOLS Due to the increase in the number of teachers of high-school subjects in rural communities the total number of rural teachers has increased slightly during the 8-year period (table 3). Pupils per teacher are growing fewer in rural elementary schools while the numbers are increasing in the rural high schools. The latter is especially true since 1930. Before the recent economic depression there were relatively few men in the rural elementary schools. Since 1930 the number has been increasing. Probably when agricultural and industrial con- 8 BIENNIAL SURVEY OF EDUCATION, 1934-36 ditions are favorable, comparatively few men accept rural elemen¬ tary teaching positions while seeking them during unfavorable seasons, often on a part-time basis, thus augmenting their income from farming and other occupations. In the rural high schools the ratio of men teachers to all teachers employed followed the same general trend as in the rural elementary schools but the total number of men increased during both periods. The increase of men teaching in rural high schools has, since 1930, more than doubled that of the previous 4 years. Due in part to depression conditions and consequent increase in unemployed qualified teachers, in part to certification laws, and in part to the efforts of teacher-education institutions, the last two discussed elsewhere in this bulletin, the educational and professional qualifications of teachers have improved definitely during the past 8 years. Among teachers in 1- and 2-teacher schools where un¬ qualified teachers were found in large numbers, as the last two items on table 3 show, significant progress in this direction has been made. In these, as in all rural schools, the goal toward which States have long aspired, namely, a minimum of 2 years of higher education for all teachers, has been reached by nearly half the teachers in the 1-room schools and nearly two-thirds of those in the 2-room schools. Since about two-fifths of all rural teachers are employed in the two types of schools indicated, improvement in their qualifications is of real importance. Table 3.— TEACHERS IN DIFFERENT TYPES OF PUBLIC RURAL SCHOOLS Types of schools 1926 1930 1934 Increase or decrease, 1926-30 1 2 3 4 5 Total number of teachers _ _ Percent of total public-school teachers - - Pupils per teacher _ -- - _ _ 456, 915 57.4 28.5 397, 567 87.0 30.1 69, 348 13.0 18.2 16, 531 35.3 40, 270 69, 955 17.6 25, 262 42.6 462, 465 54.9 27.9 392, 289 84.8 29.2 70, 176 15.2 20.5 148, 711 32.2 46,580 10.1 60,865 15.5 28,222 40.2 45.9 39.5 23.3 36.4 461,953 55.2 28.2 383, 416 83.0 28.2 78, 537 17.0 28.0 138, 542 30.0 48, 822 10.6 64, 559 16.8 35, 117 44.7 J 24. 2 3 17.0 3 42. 1 3 60. 1 +1.1 Elementary teachers 1 - Percent of all rural teachers _ _ _ -3.6 Pupil55 per teacher _ _ _ _ Secondary teachers _ _ - -- - _ +32.3 Percent of all rural teachers Pupils ppT teacher _ _ Total teachers in 1-room schools _ _ - -14.2 Percent of aU rural teachers . . _ Total teachers in 2-room schools 1 _ ... . . Percent of all rural teachers +21.2 Men teaching elementary rural schools 1 - Percent of rural elementary teachers - - -- - - Men teaching in rural high schools 1 - Percent of all rural high-school teachers - Percent of teachers with high-school education or less: 1-room schools -7.7 +39.0 2-room schools Percent of teachers with 2 years of normal school educa¬ tion or more: 1 -rnnm'sphools _ ^.fnnm schools _ _ i Partially estimated. 3 Data for 1935. RURAL AND OTHER SPARSELY SETTLED AREAS 9 TEACHERS’ SALARIES AND OTHER FINANCIAL STATISTICS The trend in teachers’ salaries has been steadily downward since 1930, doubtless as a result of depression conditions. Between 1926 and 1930 (table 4) some salary increases, generally inadequate, were reported. Nearly one-half of the teachers in 1-room schools and more than one-third of those in 2-room schools received salaries of less than $500 per year in 1935. Many receive less than $400 per year and an annual wage of $200 is not uncommon. Among the small rural schools for Negroes over one-fourth received an annual salary of less than $200 in 1935. Teachers employed in the consolidated schools and in the villages and towns have undoubtedly fared better, since if they are included in determining the average salary for all rural teachers the reduction since 1926 is but 8 percent. The average salary of the teachers employed in schools located in centers of more than 2,500 population has been reduced less than 3 percent for the 8-year period. Table 4.— TEACHERS’ SALARIES AND OTHER FINANCIAL ASPECTS OF PUBLIC RURAL AND URBAN SCHOOLS 1926 1930 1934 Increase or decrease, 1926-30 1 3 3 4 5 Median salaries of 1-room teachers 1 . . . . $761 $788 $517 -32.1 Percent paid less than $500 . . . _ . 14. 1 9. 7 47. 1 Median salaries of 2-room teachers i . . . . $754 $829 $620 -17.8 Percent paid less than $500 . . . . 25.9 18.4 34.2 Average salaries in rural schools . . $855 $979 $787 -8.0 Average salaries in city schools.. _ .. . . $1, 785 $1, 944 $1, 735 -2.8 Average current expense per pupil attending: Rural... . . . . . . $62. 72 $72. 01 $53. 31 -15.0 Urban . . . . $100. 31 $100. 95 $92.68 -7.6 Average capital outlay per pupil attending: $12.29 $11.94 $2.74 Rural _ _ _ _ -77.7 Urban. . . . . $29. 51 $22. 75 $2.55 -91.4 Average value of school property per pupil enrolled: $99.00 Rural . . . . . . . $148. 14 $151.00 +52.5 Urban . . . . $299. 00 $336. 36 $347. 00 +16.1 1 Salary data are for 1925, 1930, and 1935. General expenditures show for the most part the same trends as to teachers’ salaries. The average cost per pupil has been reduced approximately twice as much in rural as in urban schools. Capital outlay has practically ceased in both types of communities, except insofar as construction was undertaken in cooperation with the Gov¬ ernment’s Public Works Program. City schools reduced such out¬ lays more drastically than rural communities, but previous expendi¬ tures had been much higher. For the first time in many years annual expenditures for building and equipment are now approxi¬ mately equal for urban and rural communities. In the total per pupil value of school property the 3 to 1 disparity formerly existing 10 BIENNIAL SURVEY OF EDUCATION, 1934-36 between urban and rural schools is now sharply reduced, though the value of rural school buildings and equipment is less than half that in urban communities computed on a per pupil basis. Section II. The State and the Kural Schools In each of the States citizens as well as school officials are accus¬ tomed to look to the chief State school officer and the State depart¬ ment of education over which he presides for leadership in educa¬ tional progress, for the establishment and maintenance of educational standards, and for the assumption of responsibility for educational activities in general concerned with publicly supported elementary and secondary schools. In rural and other sparsely settled areas such leadership from the State department of education and the efficient functioning of administrative responsibilities assumed by it are of primary importance. The very nature of their situations such as restricted financial resources, relatively limited adult population and correspondingly limited choice in the selection of leaders, civil and educational, relative isolation from important centers of culture, definitely restrict the possibilities for securing locally, high-grade professional leaders and the assurance of modern practices in educa¬ tion which should result from this leadership. In general, such communities look to the chief State school officer for guidance in educational policies, standards, and practices. Chief State school officers in turn recognize a special responsibility to schools in sparsely settled communities, which extends beyond professional leadership and direction. In the majority of States, more nearly adequate financial resources and more effective school administrative organization, State and local, are basic needs if edu¬ cational conditions are to be improved and increased educational opportunities made available in small, therefore generally economi¬ cally handicapped, districts. Chief State school officers and their staffs are, therefore, increasingly assuming considerable responsibil¬ ity for securing the legislation usually necessary to achieve these ends. In an increasing number of States the chief State school officer has an established prestige and a recognized leadership in educational affairs among State civil officials such as governors and legislators as well as educators which enable the State departments of education to influence materially legislation affecting the interests of schools. Only school legislation approved or sponsored by State school officials receives favorable consideration in many well- organized States. In all States the State departments of education have well-estab¬ lished relationships, in some States full, in others at least a measure of control over State-supported higher institutions of learning. Par- RURAL AND OTHER SPARSELY SETTLED AREAS 11 ticularly important are its relationships with teacher-education in¬ stitutions. Cooperation with these higher institutions enables the chief State school officer in many States to enlarge his sphere of service especially among the schools which are most in need of assistance. While opportunities for the exercise of educational leadership centered in State departments of education vary among States, being necessarily dependent somewhat on the legal provisions of the respec¬ tive States, on the kind and amount of appropriations available, both for distribution among States and for the employment of the pro¬ fessional staff of the department and on other factors, the chief State school officer and his assistants represent the most significant educa¬ tional influence among schools in sparsely settled areas in nearly all of them. During the period under consideration in this chapter the State has assumed a position of increasing importance in education. Par¬ ticularly has its influence been felt in extending more adequate and more equitable educational opportunties to rural communities within its borders. A brief discussion of the increased influence of the State as a school administrative unit and of State school officials concerned with school support and with the improvement of instruction follows. SCHOOL SUPPORT IN SPARSELY SETTLED AREAS During the past decade, especially during the second half of it, from about 1930 to 1936, a widespread movement toward reorganiz¬ ing State-wide systems of school support has been strongly in evi¬ dence. Plans for achieving the desired objectives differ among States. Practically always they include provisions for improving educational opportunities in underprivileged communities and con¬ sequently are of special significance in maintaining schools in rural and other sparsely settled areas. Despite differences in methods, certain major trends are apparent. At least four are of special importance in the field of education covered in this chapter. First, the trend toward increasing the share of school support provided from State sources ; second, that toward devising and adopting more equitable methods of distributing State funds made available under the newly adopted plans; third, the trend toward relieving general property of an undue burden of taxation; and, fourth, that toward assuring a school program in all districts meeting certain prescribed minimum standards set up by the State. The causes underlying the need for this rather general movement toward more generous and more equitable school support considered from a State- wide standpoint are of long standing. The multiplicity of small districts locally supported with property taxation as the 12 BIENNIAL SURVEY OF EDUCATION, 1934-36 chief source of revenue over a period of years has resulted in inade¬ quacy of educational opportunities in many of them. Thoughtful laymen, legislators, and students of education have long realized the inefficiency of the methods of financing schools now in force in many States, especially those for financing schools in small rural commu¬ nities. The economic depression served to emphasize the seriousness of the situation and in at least some of the States hastened to a culmination of plans previously considered though not materialized for the revision of the prevailing methods and systems of school support. Property taxation ’which had reached almost prohibitive proportions even before the depression proved wholly inadequate as a source of school support under depression conditions. Something had to be done. The result was that State after State, recognizing the break-down in local support, enacted legislation designed first to increase the State’s contribution to the total cost of schools and, sec¬ ond, to secure funds from new or at least other than real property sources of revenue. Generally accepted principles as well as the prevailing situation contributed toward the realization that the State is a logical source of revenue for school support. All States either in their constitutions or by statutory provision accept in principle that public education is a State responsibility. Nearly all States provide or at one time pro¬ vided some type of State school funds, in many States a permanent school fund, to which Federal grants of land contributed. What¬ ever the purpose that animated Federal grants, the original purpose which led States to establish permanent school funds was undoubtedly to enable the State to assume an appreciable share of the responsibility of financing schools, thereby relieving local districts of the full burden of school support. While the accepted theories indicated were never fully realized in practice it was not until about 1890 that the failure of the State to assume an adequate proportion of school support became serious enough to forecast the necessity of a change in practice to a nearer approach in actuality to what had been accepted in theory. Beginning about 1890 certain trends in financing public education began to raise increasingly serious problems. Throughout the decades immediately following, the percentage of total school support con¬ tributed from State sources continuously declined while the pro¬ portion of local support increased. At about the same time the cost of maintaining schools began and continued to rise, partly owing to attendance increases and partly owing to enriched school offerings. The change was especially marked from 1890 to 1920 when the per¬ centage of State contribution reached its lowest point and that of local contributions its highest point in the scale representing their respective contributions to total school costs. During the year 1890 RURAL AND OTHER SPARSELY SETTLED AREAS 13 State contribution to school support, exclusive of permanent funds and lands, for the country as a whole, averaged 18 percent of the total cost. In 1900 it had fallen to 17.2 percent; in 1910 to 14.9 percent; and in 1920, when the lowest point was reached, it was 13.8 percent. During these decades the cost of education rose steadily from $17.23 per year per child in 1890 to $64.16 in 1920. Since State contributions are in general fixed in amount, changes are achieved slowly and with difficulty, while local tax-raising possibilities are relatively flexible, the percentage of local contribution inevitably increased as the cost of education increased. In 1890 county and local sources contributed 67.9 percent; in 1900, 68 percent; in 1910, 72.1 percent; in 1920, 78.2 percent to the total cost of maintaining schools. This does not mean that the State contributed less in actual amount of money. It does mean that States as such failed to adjust their financing systems to meet the rising cost of education and con¬ sequently contributed increasingly lower percentages of the total cost. Beginning about 1925 a direct reversal of the conditions indicated above set in. In 1925, State sources contributed 14.1 percent of the total school cost, an increase of 0.3 percent over the contribution of 1920. By 1930, however, the State contribution had reached 15.8 percent of the total; for 1932, it was 18.6 percent; and for 1934, 22.2 percent.3 If one compares the number of States which increased the amount actually contributed to school support rather than percentage of the total cost contributed, for the country as a whole as above, substantial progress is apparent, especially during the last 5 years. In 1930, 7 States provided from State-wide sources more than 30 percent of total public-school revenues within their respective borders. By 1932 the number of States contributing as indicated had increased to 17. In 1935, it was 21 and in 1936 the number is estimated at 25 (complete data not available), a total increase of from 7 to 25 States, 1 more than half the total number. Not all of the States to which reference is made above revised their systems of distributing State funds on a definitely equitable basis at the same time that the amounts of State funds available for school support were increased. Whether or not a State fund is distributed on a basis primarily designed to equalize educational opportunities within the State, if such fund relieves small districts with low tax valuations and correspondingly meager resources from excessive local taxation, it is effective toward improving school conditions and there- 3 Data from U. S. Office of Education, Bulletin 1935, No. 2, Statistics of State School Systems, 1933-34, table 1, pp. 46-47. 131650°— 37 - 3 14 BIENNIAL SURVEY OF EDUCATION, 1934-36 fore has some indirect equalizing influences. However, it is quite generally true that in the States in which the actual contributions to school support from State sources have been increased, efforts toward more equitable methods of distribution than previously prevailed have been adopted. Methods of distribution differ widely among States. There are, however, distinct and major trends in methods of distribution recently adopted in at least two directions, both of which have equal¬ izing objectives and, to some extent, equalizing tendencies. One method provides enough money from State funds to support a uni¬ form minimum program for a given term in all school systems of the State. North Carolina is an outstanding example of a State which has moved in this direction. North Carolina first provided State funds for a minimum term of 6 months for all schools, then during the depression undertook to provide a minimum term of 8 months. Unfortunately, however, the funds which were made avail¬ able by the State kept teachers’ salaries low and limited other phases of the program, a result aggravated by the fact that at the beginning, at least, voting local supplements was difficult. A second method requires a fixed local tax rate in every school unit. The amount so raised is then supplemented from State funds to the extent necessary to finance the established minimum program. This method is not new, having been followed for a number of years in several States of which New York is a pioneer. However, there are certain distinct variations in the method. In one variation of the plan no direct attempt is involved to influence or change in any way the organization of local districts. It measures needs as districts are now organized. Another variation of the plan is that followed in West Virginia. Reorganization was consummated eliminating all small districts and establishing the county as the unit. The State provides funds necessary to guarantee a minimum program includ¬ ing a term of 8 months in all counties, which are required to levy a given rate of tax. There is still a third variation of this method represented by measures recently enacted in Alabama. Alabama undertakes to set up a complete and balanced minimum program including transporta¬ tion capital outlay, whereas many of the earlier plans were based directly on teacher units alone and left capital outlay entirely to local initiative. Since the need for transportation in sparsely populated areas is likely to represent a greater proportion of the total cost of the program than in densely populated areas, districts of the former type which attempted to do much in the way of improving the organi¬ zation of schools were thereby forced to provide an undue proportion of total school costs from local resources. According to the Alabama plan the need for transportation is determined separately from the RURAL AND OTHER SPARSELY SETTLED AREAS 15 need for teacher units and is based on different factors. Likewise, the need for capital outlay is determined separately. After the cost of the complete and balanced minimum program has been determined and the funds available from a uniform local tax levy are ascer¬ tained, the State undertakes to provide sufficient funds to assure the complete program in all areas. The State, moreover, fixes require¬ ments to keep the minimum program balanced; for example, no school system may expend funds for capital outlay which are needed for teachers’ salaries. When the expenditures for any one phase of the program are increased above the budgeted program, the increase must come from special local tax effort. A provision of equal importance in the reorganization of school support and one considered in the plans adopted by practically all States which have achieved financial reorganization since 1930 is concerned with the sources from which State funds, in addition to income from permanent funds and lands, are to be derived. In recent revisions of systems of school support there has been a marked movement toward the elimination of real property as a source of securing the desired increase in income. States can collect taxes from various sources of revenue utilization of which, if enforced by local units, would involve cumbersome machinery — an income tax, for example — and many States have availed themselves of this ad¬ vantage. A few States have eliminated the property tax entirely as a State source of revenue for schools leaving that source for local taxation purposes. Among these States are California, Delaware, North Carolina, Oregon, and Pennsylvania. In other States the per¬ centage of total school costs provided from property taxation has been substantially reduced. Reductions in property taxes are of particular significance in rural communities since excessive taxation works a special hardship on farmers. Wealth centers in cities to a large degree within States and when the State assumes an increas¬ ing percentage of school support, drawing its money from sources other than property taxation, schools in rural communities benefit thereby. The trend toward newer sources of revenue for school sup¬ port, collected on a State-wide basis, is of special significance, there¬ fore, in equalizing opportunities as well as tax burdens in States with large rural populations. Among sources of revenue adopted by States, proceeds from which in whole or in part go to school sup¬ port, are the following: Individual or corporation income taxes; general or special sales tax ; severance, inheritance, corporation taxes ; tobacco or motor fuel tax. In a number of States funds are appropriated also for stimulating approved school practices. The New York plan is an example. New York has provided liberally from State funds during the period under consideration to stimulate centralization of districts and in 16 BIENNIAL SURVEY OF EDUCATION, 1934-36 most cases centralization of schools also. An account of this move¬ ment is given later in this chapter. In a number of States the cost of local supervision of rural schools is paid in large part from State funds. While this type of stimulation began before the period here discussed it has been extended during recent years. Virginia and California are examples of State stimulation of local school super¬ vision. During recent years the number of supervisors and the number of schools supervised have increased substantially. Instruc¬ tional supervision is practically State-wide in both States. On the whole, trends during the period have been in the direction of assuming a larger percentage of school support on the part of States; toward equalizing educational opportunities within States by providing financial assistance, particularly to the less able dis¬ tricts; and toward stimulating good practices, especially in the ad¬ ministration of schools. Stimulation funds naturally presuppose at least some regulation and supervision of expenditures and, therefore, results in an opportunity for increased leadership and for promo¬ tion of improved standards in school programs on the part of State officials. THE STATE AND THE IMPROVEMENT OF INSTRUCTION It is apparent that important as are leadership and direction offered by the State in administrative aspects of education, it is in the influence of its officials on the improvement of instruction in the schools of rural communities that the heart of the education problem is attacked. Relative isolation, lack of professional administration and supervision, and in too many rural communities lack of trained and experienced teachers, render this service of special importance. Cities on the whole provide such advantages locally and are, therefore, far less dependent on the State than rural schools for definite instruc¬ tional guidance. Among the means used by which the State as such influences the quality of instruction offered in rural schools through its chief State school officer and his staff and its higher institutions of learning, four in which significant progress has been made recently are discussed here. Through State courses of study or curricular revision programs, through regulations governing teacher certifica¬ tion, through the preparation of teachers, and through instructional supervision, State officials in different ways and in varying degrees among States set standards for the quality of instruction offered and guide local schools in maintaining them. CURRICULAR REORGANIZATION All States issue State courses of study. While they are intended to be and are used on a State-wide basis, local courses or adaptations of State courses for local purposes are generally prepared and used RURAL AND OTHER SPARSELY SETTLED AREAS 17 in urban school systems. Rural schools, on the other hand, with but few exceptions, depend almost entirely on State courses. In the ele¬ mentary schools, especially in that large proportion of counties where professional supervision is not furnished or furnished only in exceptional districts, State courses are the chief if not the only guide the teachers have in instructional practices as well as in formu¬ lating the school program. In the secondary schools the influence of State courses is probably equally important, although they are more apt to have the professional guidance of trained principals than the small elementary school and the advantage of three or more teachers for discussion and consultation. The fact that in 42 States the State department of education is responsible for accrediting high schools implies that it has a wide influence on the curriculum. The past decade has been notable for emphasis on curricular ad¬ justments and the issuance of new or revised State courses of study. An unusual interest in curriculum development on a Nation-wide scale began about 1925. More than 30,000 State courses of study are said to have been collected during the decade between 1925 and 1935 in one curriculum laboratory alone. In 1934, 15 States were reported as actively engaged in the construction of new courses of study while continuing revisions of curricular programs were under way in 31 States.4 An examination of State courses of study published between 1930 and 1935 indicates some striking changes in points of view concern¬ ing curriculum construction, in the purposes which State courses of study are expected to serve, in. the principles underlying their prep¬ aration, and in the selection of content material and suggested class¬ room procedures. We have apparently outgrown almost if not com¬ pletely the need for State courses of study which present merely or chiefly outlines of textbook material prepared by a few selected individuals, usually specialists in subject matter, and which are accompanied by directions concerned chiefly with the amount of subject matter to be covered in a given time, indicated by topics or chapters or sections of the adopted textbooks. While ways in which recent State courses of study are prepared, the organization of mate¬ rial followed or suggested, and the like, differ widely among States, certain definite trends are apparent. The changed point of view in the process of curriculum construc¬ tion is manifested specifically first by the growing tendency to con¬ sider the State course of study as an outcome rather than the sole objective of a planned effort on the part of a wide representation of school officials, usually characterized as a curricular program. Whether the process is a long-time one of working through such a 4 Texas. State Department of Education. Handbook for Curriculum Study. Austin, Tex., Bulletin No. 336. 18 BIENNIAL SURVEY OF EDUCATION, 1934-36 “curricular program” or the more immediate one with the definite objective of formulating a course of study, it is a general — almost universal — practice to set forth and discuss at some length the pur¬ poses to be served by the program or the course of study, as the case may be. This first step is apparently intended to insure complete understanding of the principles and practices that are to be followed. In a number of States these- purposes, with the plan of procedure set up, are published in some preliminary, possibly mimeographed, form or in the form of a special bulletin or handbook, the Handbook for Curriculum Development 5 issued in Texas, for example. A State Organization for Curriculum Development. Naturally a number of purposes are stated or implied in the differ¬ ent courses, particularly in those States in which a long-time program is under way. The significant thing, however, is that practically without exception one major purpose is that of improving instruc¬ tion — “the improvement of the professional outlook of teachers”, as one course of study states it. Other purposes, such as “the unification of school programs” and “increasing knowledge and interest on the part of citizens”, are mentioned frequently also. The Virginia State course of study 6 enumerates three objectives of the State curriculum revision pro¬ gram: (1) To produce the best course of study for the children of the State; (2) professional stimulation and growth on the part of teachers through participation in the program; (3) an increased 5 Texas, State Department of Education. Handbook for Curriculum Development. Austin, Tex., February 1936. 0 Virginia. State Board of Education. Tentative Coarse of Study for Virginia Elementary Schools, Grades I-VII. Richmond, Division of Purchase and Printing, 1934. RURAL AND OTHER SPARSELY SETTLED AREAS 19 interest and knowledge on the part of citizens in problems of present- day education to the end that fuller cooperation through wider understanding will result in consummation of the aims of education. The purposes of the curriculum program in Texas 7 are stated as follows : (a) Development and installation of courses of study; (b) unifica¬ tion of various school programs; (c) improvement of professional outlook of teachers; (d) development of a basis for a continuous pro¬ gram of curriculum making; (e) increasing interest on the part of citizens. •Includes grades in junior and senior high schools. A Suggested Organization for Curriculum Work in Counties and Cities in Virginia (Organi¬ zation for Virginia State Curriculum Program, Bulletin, State Board of Education, March 1932, p. 13). Arrangements concerned with practically all programs center round the achievements of this very generally expressed major pur¬ pose of curricular programs or State courses of stud}7, namely, the improvement of instruction. Among such arrangements are those made for State-wide participation on the part of school officials and teachers representing all types of schools, as well as laymen. In at least four States in which curriculum construction is or has recently been under way — Georgia, Virginia, Arkansas, and Texas — the desir¬ ability of lay participation is emphasized and committees of laymen are invited to participate. Long-time programs necessarily accompany provision for State¬ wide participation. Arkansas, Virginia, and Texas are examples of States in which the program was planned or extended to cover a pe¬ riod of from 3 to 6 years. Where long-time programs are provided, special objectives for each year are usually set up by the planning committee. The first year in a number of such States was devoted to 7 Texas. State Department of Education. Tentative Course of Study for Years One Through Six. Austin, Tex., Bulletin No. 359, May 1936. 20 BIENNIAL SURVEY OF EDUCATION, 1934-36 “orientation.” During this year teachers were organized into sec¬ tional, county, or other types of local groups to work under direction of committees with a chairman in charge usually appointed by the central office. The purpose of these committees was that of organiz¬ ing and directing teachers throughout the State for the study of principles underlying curriculum making, objectives to be achieved thereby, desirable procedures, and the like. The different State teacher-education institutions provided curriculum laboratories where groups of teachers under direction of faculty members or of curric¬ ulum advisers or consultants, sometimes employed by the State to direct the whole program, worked on curricular units or sections. These institutions also offered extension and summer courses in cur¬ riculum-making in which teachers enrolled in large numbers. Sev¬ eral States, including Virginia, Arkansas, Georgia, and Texas, reported a high percentage of the total number of teachers employed in the respective States as availing themselves of such opportunities during the orientation year. Wide participation on the part of teachers is provided for in the Texas program. It is described in the Handbook for Curriculum Development for 1936 as follows : Development of material for State courses of study is done primarily by classroom teachers. This is another way of saying that the year 1935-36 is to be devoted to an intensive effort on the part of teachers and those working with them toward the improvement of teaching. During the past year school people and laymen entered into the orientation study in a spirit of cooperation unprecedented in undertakings of this kind. Two thousand enrolled in orientation courses by extension, more enrolled for summer courses. It is estimated that 35,000 engaged in the study of our education program. The first year was spent in orientation work. The second is to be spent in curriculum production. Curriculum development in Arkansas is described in one of its State bulletins, as follows : In 1933 the State board of education authorized a 4-year cooperative program to improve instruction directed by a member of the State depart¬ ment of education with two employed consultants. Teacher training institutions, parent-teacher associations, the Arkansas education associa¬ tion, superintendents, principals, and several thousand teachers are now cooperating (1935). The first year was devoted to organization of the study ; the second year to refinement of aims and production ; the third year to preparation of a tentative course as a guide to elementary and secondary teachers. Seven thousand teachers, 3,000 members of the State congress of parents and teachers, and all teacher training institutions participated. The procedures outlined for these two States illustrate the very prevalent trend toward interesting large numbers of professional and lay people throughout the State in curricular-revision programs. In most States committees are formed — State, regional, and local — RURAL AND OTHER SPARSELY SETTLED AREAS 21 some as reviewing committees, some subject-matter committees, some to prepare statements of principles, aims, and objectives, and others for the preparation of content material of varied types. In at least half a dozen States one or more curriculum consultants are employed to direct or advise with the directors of the program. Through a multiplicity of committees in most States opportunity for participa¬ tion of literally thousands of teachers is provided. Organization of the Arkansas Curriculum Program (Texas State Department of Education. Handbook for Curriculum Study, p. 52). It is very general practice also to devote considerable space in recent State courses of study to statements of educational principles ; to discussion of the relative importance of child growth and subject- matter achievement ; to the importance of capitalizing on the child’s experiences, using the immediate environment as a point of depar¬ ture in school activities ; to the wide use of local resources and mate¬ rials; to the fact that content material is subject to constant change; to the need for recognizing individual differences; and the like. 131650* — 37- -4 22 BIENNIAL SURVEY OF EDUCATION, 1934-36 Maryland issues a series of courses characterized as “Goals” in the several school subjects, one of which emphasizes that “Growth should be measured not in terms of subject matter learning but in attitudes, skills, etc.” The California Teachers’ Guide to Child Development is “not a new course of study, rather a venture in State guidance and an aid in development of standards, objectives and procedures.” These two examples illustrate the trend toward emphasizing goals and principles rather than subjects or content except as a means rather than an end. Practically all recent State courses of study discuss the objectives of education, sometimes specifically for the particular State involved, generally both ultimate and immediate ends to be attained for each subject, topic, or unit, as well as outcomes to be expected; standards of achievement; means of evaluating achievements; and the like. Almost without exception courses of study warn against inclusion of static material and formalized practices; emphasize the inevitable¬ ness of changes in social situations and the consequent need for oppor¬ tunity for local and individual initiative in the development of the curriculum. Connecticut is an example of a State with a definite policy on changing materials of instruction. Recognizing the need for continuing changes in materials suitable for school use, the State education department of Connecticut issues no completed course but prepares and distributes mimeographed circulars from time to time concerned with materials and practices. An interesting development noticed in examining the more recent courses of study is the effort made in several of them to promulgate widely an understanding of a “newer” viewpoint in curriculum for¬ mulation and revision. Some courses aim to differentiate between the curriculum and the course of study. In others the two terms are considered synonymous or at least used interchangeably. The Vir¬ ginia State course defines the curriculum as composed of all the experiences which the children have under the guidance of teachers. “Teachers and children”, it states, (at work presumbably) “make the curriculum.” The Texas Handbook, on the other hand, defines the curriculum as a “combination of activities and subject matter content used by the teacher in directing the learning experiences of her pupils.” The West Virginia Elementary Course of Study defines the curriculum as “a body of ideas in the minds of teachers. It cannot be separated from the teachers.” “Curriculum making is a coopera¬ tive task”, the West Virginia course continues. “Committees may make outlines ; teachers must fill in and develop details.” The North Carolina course of study states, “The course is merely a guide to assist the teacher in developing a curriculum and making it effective.” Throughout the newer courses of study one finds less emphasis on RURAL AND OTHER SPARSELY SETTLED AREAS 23 organization of material on the traditional subject-matter basis and more on nontraditional organization both for the content as a whole and within each of the school subjects presented. The Virginia State course of study presents an organization around 11 major functions of social life. “Centers of interest” for each of the school grades or years are selected and suggested material for study of each of the major functions is provided suitable for use in each of the grades or years. In West Virginia four committees were organized composed of outstanding teachers from different sections of the State for the purpose of “integrating and articulating the work of the schools.” These committees are: (1) Language committee; (2) methods of exact thinking committee; (3) broad view of the world committee; and (4) individual needs committee. The Texas “approach” to curriculum organization is characterized in the Handbook 8 as “eclectic”, that is to say, choosing what is thought best from various approaches. The Handbook presents a chart for grades I to XI, inclusive, in which 8 major social func¬ tions are made the basis of organization. They are: Production, distribution and consumption, communication and transportation, government, health, recreation, arts, education. The Tentative Course of Study for Texas, Years One through Six,9 presents also an interest¬ ing “Pattern for Curriculum Construction” which shows “a number of the more important phases of curriculum activity closely related to the dominant themes of the several core areas.” The chart is shown on page 24. The Arkansas organization presents five major functions : 10 Protection of life, property, and resources ; production and consump¬ tion; communication and transportation; recreation; expression and aesthetic impulses; expression and religious impulses; education. Throughout the newer courses much emphasis is laid on the use and desirability of activity units. Suggestive units, materials, and directions for their use are given in abundance in a number of courses. A few courses are organized wholly or in large part on the activity or experience unit basis. California was among the first States to initiate this plan in its Teacher’s Guide to Child Development, pub¬ lished in 1930. Hawaii, too, in that year published an Activity Program for the Primary Grades. 8 Op. cit. 9 Texas. State Department of Education. Tentative Course of Study for Years One Through Six. Austin, Tex., May 1936. 10 Arkansas. State Department of Education. Procedures in the Production of Curric¬ ulum Materials. Little Rock, Ark., 1934. 24 BIENNIAL SURVEY OF EDUCATION, 1934-36 £ O H O P PS H go £ O O s p p p o 2 PS p o pH o p 55 PS p H H < P P <5 PS P £ P O •Texas. State Department of Education. Tentative Course of Study for Years 1 Through 6. May 1936. p. 15. Prepared by Fred C. Ayer, general curriculum consultant :as Curriculum Revision Program, The University of Texas, November 1935. (To be modified and expanded as needed.) RURAL AND OTHER SPARSELY SETTLED AREAS 25 Newer emphases or new organizations of the subjects of instruction are noticeable in nearly all recent State courses of study. The social studies have a prominent place in all of the recent courses. Often a special bulletin or course in the social studies is issued; in some States the social studies are part of the science course ; in others the social studies are included as an added subject in the general course. The trend toward combining geography, history, and civics as an integrated social studies course in the elementary schools has become Nation-wide. Problems concerned with conservation of human and material resources are receiving increased attention in schools if one can judge by the place assigned them in the more recent courses. Safety edu¬ cation, health education with emphasis on health habits, and the importance of character objectives in the school program are stressed in an increasing number of courses. Some States issue special bulle¬ tins on character education. Michigan, Nebraska, and Oregon are examples. Physical education, the natural and general elementary sciences, continue to be of constantly growing importance in the school program. Music and art are other subjects which are taking an increasingly important place in school curricula, while special outlines for teaching agriculture and the influence of alcohol and narcotics are found in nearly all State courses due in part to legis¬ lative action. In several States, State or county libraries are closely associated with the rural schools — even operating through them in the circulation of books among adults as well as school children. In these and a few other States school and library relationships are discussed in courses of study or special bulletins. State courses of study show the awareness of school officials of many special curricular problems peculiar to the respective State or to regions within them. Texas issues a special pamphlet on the teaching of English to non-English-speaking children; Puerto Rico issues a bulletin for teachers on the teaching of English ; Utah has a pamphlet on Suggestions to Teachers for the Use of the School Library; New York has a bulletin on the hot lunch and several bulletins prepared especially for teachers in small rural schools. In a number of States special courses of study or special bulletins outlining suggested adaptations of the general course for small rural schools are prepared. The Pennsylvania State department issued a special handbook for 1 -teacher schools recently, supplemented by suggestions for a four-group organization of 1-teacher schools. Suggestions for adaptations of subject matter to the reorganized school, including daily schedules and programs based on successive steps from the traditional to the new organization are included. North Dakota has special courses for rural schools which include, besides the traditional subjects, social studies, art, health, music, 26 BIENNIAL SURVEY OF EDUCATION, 1934-36 and suggestions for alterations and combinations of grades and sub¬ jects. In Ohio, also, special courses for small schools are issued by the State department of education including courses in music for 1- and 2-teacher schools. In many State courses of study suggestions to teachers concerned with curricular adaptations suited to small rural schools; for reducing the number of classes or of daily recita¬ tions through alternation and combination; for program making, including sample daily or weekly schedules, are included. In gen¬ eral, practice seems to favor the inclusion in the general course of suggested adaptations to the special needs of small rural schools rather than the preparation of separate courses or special bulletins. The freedom given the teachers in the use of the newer courses of study and the arrangements made for wide participation in prepar¬ ing them by teachers in all types of schools, rural and urban, indi¬ cate that they are expected to use their own initiative and solve problems of adaptation more or less for themselves. IMPROVEMENT OF THE PROFESSIONAL STAFF The teachers. — Practically all of the States have been active dur¬ ing the past decade in promoting professional qualifications of teach¬ ers through raising standards of teaching certificates. The move¬ ment toward centralizing authority for certificating teachers in State boards or departments of education noted in 1927 11 has con¬ tinued to practical consummation. In all but five States certifica¬ tion is now governed or controlled through centralized educational authorities, usually State departments of education. Oklahoma and Michigan enacted legislation in 1934 and 1935, placing with State officials full responsibility for setting up certification regu¬ lations (formerly prescribed by legislation) as well as authority for granting certificates. Of still more importance is the trend toward increasing academic and professional requirements for teaching certificates, particularly for the lowest grade of teaching certificate obtainable. Small rural schools, because of their limited resources, practically always pay lower salaries than urban centers and consequently relatively un¬ trained and inexperienced teachers gravitate to these schools. Only the setting up of standards requiring professional training of higher grade for any, even the lowest grade certificate, assures children in, rural communities of adequately prepared teachers. Requirements for the lowest grade of certificates have been in¬ creased during the past decade in more than 25 States. There i£ a definite trend toward demanding graduation from teacher-prepar- 11 State Laws and Regulations Governing Teachers’ Certificates. U. S. Office of Educa¬ tion, Bulletin 1927, No. 19. RURAL AND OTHER SPARSELY SETTLED AREAS 27 ing institutions of higher grade for any, including the lowest grade teaching certificate. Three States now require 4 full years of college preparation, including professional preparation, for alii teachers. Six additional States require 3 years ; another 18 require a minimum of 2 years above high-school graduation making a total of 27 States that require 2 years or more of professional training of higher grade for any type of certificate.12 This represents an increase in the number of States demanding qualifications of the kind indicated for the lowest grade of certificate from 4 to 23 since 1926. Improving qualifications of superintendents. — Efforts toward im¬ proving the professional qualifications of rural school superintend¬ ents, usually known as county superintendents of schools, are notice¬ able in two directions — through the legal requirement of a certificate based on experience and training in education, generally including administration, and through establishment of organized in-service training adapted to the special needs of rural school superintendents. The trend toward demanding special administrative certificates is growing slowly in practice, though more and more widely recog¬ nized as beneficial if not essential, in theory. Usually laws requiring certification apply only to new appointees and staff improvement is accomplished slowly. Louisiana, West Virginia, Kentucky, New Jersey, North Carolina, Pennsylvania, either by law or regulation or established practice, report that rural school superintendents are expected to hold at least the A. B. degree and that all or nearly all have met or exceeded that requirement. There is a definite trend, usually on the part of the chief State school officer, toward encouraging or definitely providing means for promoting the professional growth of rural school superintendents in service. The county superintendent is an elective official in the majority of the States. While professional qualifications and educa¬ tional experience are generally expected of candidates for the office, legal requirements are usually nominal. In States in which the county superintendent is an appointive officer, professional qualifica¬ tions are usually higher and the trend is more marked toward im¬ provement. However, even in States favorably situated in respect to certification and appointment, in-service training is essential to efficient administration. New York is among the States in which the State department of education definitely provides for and encourages professional training for its district superintendents in service. The State de¬ partment cooperates with Cornell University in the conduct of 12 Mimeographed Circular of U. S. Office of Education, September 1935, and vol. 5 of the National Survey of the Education of Teachers. 28 BIENNIAL SURVEY OF EDUCATION, 1934-36 special short courses for district superintendents during the summer session. It encourages superintendents to take occasional leave for work during the school year and provides zone conferences annually for district superintendents during which current supervisory prob¬ lems are discussed. The State department reports 87 percent of the district (rural) superintendents enrolled in professional courses (1933). In Wisconsin, supervisors from the State department of educa¬ tion hold conferences, State and sectional, for superintendents and supervisors. Minnesota employs five elementary supervisors who spend their time in the field visiting schools with county superin¬ tendents and offering them definite help in supervision and through group teachers’ meetings. Iowa and Utah issue mimeographed cir¬ culars to rural school superintendents designed to help them with specific phases of the instructional program. In many States the higher institutions of learning cooperate by offering short intensive courses of a week or more in duration in which pertinent and prac¬ tical problems of rural superintendents are discussed. Texas and Missouri are examples of such States. PROFESSIONAL PREPARATION OF RURAL ELEMENTARY TEACHERS 18 Of the 184 State teachers colleges and normal schools training elementary teachers in 1935, 84 percent offered differentiated work for the preparation of rural teachers. The amount of differentiation varied from the offering of one course such as rural-school manage¬ ment or rural-school practice teaching to the offering of a differ¬ entiated curriculum with rural emphasis throughout. One hundred fifteen State teacher-training institutions offered one or more curricula differentiated for rural teachers, distributed as follows: 1-year, 15; 2-year, 58; 3-year, 4; and 4-year, 38. It is sig¬ nificant that the number of 1- and 2 -year rural curricula has declined since 1926-27, while the number of 4-year curricula has almost doubled.14 Shift of the teacher-training institutions from the status of normal schools to teachers colleges and rising standards of teacher preparation partly account for the change. At present a great ma¬ jority of rural teachers have not had 4 years of professional training before beginning teaching, a situation which probably will not change in the near future. Those interested in rural education must face this fact with the question as to whether or not the first 2 or 3 u Prepared by William McKinley Robinson, director, department of rural education, Western State Teachers College, Kalamazoo, Mich. 14 For further data and discussion of offerings differentiated for the preparation of rural teachers, see Practices and Trends in the Peparation of Teachers for Rural Elemen¬ tary Schools in the State Teachers Colleges and Normal Schools. William McKinley Robinson, 1936, 125 p. RURAL AND OTHER SPARSELY SETTLED AREAS 29 years of a 4-year degree curriculum with its usual majors and minors prepares as well as does the 2- or 3-year curriculum which has been planned as a unit. Courses differentiated for the preparation of rural teachers may be classified in three groups : Professional, background, and subject- matter. In 1934-35 courses were offered as follows in the 184 State teachers colleges and normal schools preparing elementary teachers. Number Percent ofinsti- of insti¬ tutions tutions Professional courses _ 134 13 Rural-school practice teaching - 92 50 Rural-school observation - 67 36 Rural-school administration - 48 26 Rural-school management - 93 51 Rural-school curriculum _ 48 26 Rural-school methods _ 47 26 Rural-school libraries - 4 2 Rural seminar or surveys - 12 7 Background courses - 109 59 Rural-community activities and relations _ 34 19 Rural sociology _ 94 51 Rural economics _ 28 15 Differentiated subject-matter courses _ 53 29 Reading and English _ 17 9 Mathematics _ 8 4 Agriculture and nature study _ 19 10 Elementary science - 3 2 Geography - 9 5 Social sciences _ 6 3 Health and physical education _ 17 9 Home economics _ 12 7 Industrial arts - 12 7 Music _ 18 10 Fine arts _ 11 6 Handwriting _ 1 0. 5 To the courses offered for the elementary teacher might be added those for others in the field of rural education : Rural high school, offered in 6 of the State teacher-training institutions; rural-school supervision, in 24; and rural-school administration for superin¬ tendents of consolidated schools or county superintendents, in 27. It may be noted that rural-school practice teaching, rural-school management, and rural sociology are each offered in one-half of the institutions. There is a tendency toward more intensive periods of rural practice teaching with the added opportunity of participating in community activities. From 11 of the colleges students remain the entire day in the rural school while doing practice teaching. In 8 of the 11 they live in the rural community throughout the time of the assignment. 131650° — 37 - 5 30 BIENNIAL SURVEY OF EDUCATION, 1934-36 During the expansion period in the development of State teacher¬ training institutions, following the World War and extending to the beginning of the depression, there was a steady increase in the num¬ ber of offerings differentiated for rural teachers. In the last few years a reversal of that trend has occurred. The presidents of some of the colleges state that for financial reasons a general curtailment was necessary. It would seem that a few consider rural courses and curricula as added features rather than fundamental parts of the college offering. Some of the others explain the curtailment on the basis of the dwindling need for rural teachers because of the dwindling number of 1-teacher schools. To these few it would seem that rural education is confined to the problems of the “little red school house.” In contrast to that conception is that of the rural education specialists who justify differentiation on the basis of problems peculiar to education in areas of relatively low density of population. The training of rural teachers is considered by their presidents to be the primary function of 18 of the State teachers colleges and normal schools — just twice the number so reported in 192G-27. These institutions, located in areas predominantly rural, are widely scat¬ tered throughout the United States. Nineteen of the institutions require each student in the elementary school curricula to have some preparation for teaching in rural schools. In three States — New Hampshire, New York, and Oregon — such requirement is St ate- wide for the State teacher -training insti¬ tutions. Practically all explain the requirement on the basis that most graduates begin their teaching experience in rural schools. There is a growing recognition of the injustice of making the rural schools the proving ground of the profession, particularly in view of their other handicaps — financial, administrative, supervisory, ma¬ terial, social, etc. Requiring some training for rural school work on the part of all elementary teachers is but to meet an immediate need the better, thereby delaying an ultimate solution of some of the major problems of rural education. To the more formal professional preparation afforded by the dif¬ ferentiated curricula and courses may be added the informal prac¬ tical training for leadership in rural education and community life to be found through participation in the rural-life clubs. Social hours at a minimum of expense combined with serious consideration of rural-life problems usually characterize the activities of these clubs which are frequently among the most popular on the campuses. Twenty-nine of the 43 teachers-college clubs reporting maintain membership in the collegiate section of the American Country Life Association. Through attendance at the annual conferences of the association, students from widely separated points come in contact RURAL AND OTHER SPARSELY SETTLED AREAS 31 with national leaders and experts in their joint study of the problems of the many phases of rural life. Probably one of the most significant developments in the provisions for rural education in the State teachers colleges and normal schools has been the up-grading of the faculty members. Through corre¬ spondence with the presidents it was learned that in 88 of the insti¬ tutions rural education is assigned as a major responsibility to one or more of the faculty members. Data for 1934—85 in the following table are limited to those 75, each of whom is the one carrying the greatest responsibility for prospective rural teachers in his own college, for whom degrees were listed in the college catalogs. From two earlier studies published by the Office of Education are taken comparable data. Degree Percent by year 1917-18 i 1926-27 2 1934-35 Doctor’s degree 4.7 40.6 39. 1 19.6 7.6 50.6 40.5 1.3 21.3 65.3 10.7 2.7 Master’s degree Bachelor’s degree No degree _ 1 Burnham, Ernest. Rural Teacher Preparation in State Normal Schools. 17. S. Office of Education. Bulletin, 1918, No. 77. p. 77. 2 Robinson, William McKinley. State Teachers Colleges and Normal Schools Reporting Courses in Rural Education and Faculty Members Responsible for the Interests of Prospective Rural Teachers. United States Office of Education, Rural School Circular No. 1. Following the report of the National Education Association Com¬ mittee of Twelve on Rural Schools in 1897, higli-school teacher- training classes and county normal schools played an increasingly important role in the preparation of rural teachers until compara¬ tively recent years. In 1922-23, the 1,743 such institutions enrolled more than 32,000 students in 24 of the States. In 1934—35 the num¬ ber of these training groups had dropped to 615, confined to 8 States : Iowa, 170; Kansas, 66; Michigan, 32; Minnesota, 78; Missouri, 9; Nebraska, 207 ; Wisconsin, 44; and Wyoming, 9. The recognition given the importance and seriousness of the prob¬ lems of the training of rural teachers in the National Survey of the Education of Teachers is most encouraging. Of the 20 recommenda¬ tions on Important Problems or Things To Be Done in the Educa¬ tion of Teachers, one in part is as follows : To provide large numbers of teachers better and more specifically pre¬ pared for rural schools. A problem demanding the immediate attention in a majority of the States is that of raising the standards for the prep¬ aration of teachers in the rural and village schools until they equal those held for the urban centers. Standards should be equal in amount and quality but this does not mean identity of content because the rural teachers need special preparation. Rural life and the problems of rural areas are sociologically and economically of such great importance that all 32 BIENNIAL SURVEY OF EDUCATION, 1934-36 teachers should be familiar with them just as rural school teachers should be familiar with similar problems for urban and industrial areas.15 TRENDS IN THE SUPERVISION OF INSTRUCTION 16 Supervision of schools in rural communities is a function for which the State has long assumed some responsibility. The role which the State plays in local supervision differs among States. Sometimes it is confined largely to inspectional standardizing, or stimulating func¬ tions concerned more or less directly with the improvement of instruc¬ tion and usually carried on by members of the staff of the State department of education. In some States higher institutions of learning cooperate with State departments in this work. A few States, usually those which are small in territory or of sparse popula¬ tion employ an adequate number of supervisors on the staff of the chief State school officer to provide supervision for the rural com¬ munities within their borders. Nevada, Vermont, and Connecti¬ cut, with widely varying practices, however, are examples. In other States the practice is established, and it is a growing one, of employ¬ ing supervisors assigned to local communities — local counties or towns, for example — paid from State funds. Wisconsin and New Jersey are examples. The State may and usually does set up stand¬ ards of qualifications, nominate or employ supervisors, or it may dele¬ gate considerable freedom in respect to employment of supervisors to local administrative officials. There are a number of States in which supervision is almost wholly a local matter. Illinois and Indiana are examples. In general in these States few supervisors are employed. Indeed it appears evident that the more important the role the State plays in supervision the greater the progress made both from the point of view of extending supervision on a State¬ wide basis and from that of improving the quality of supervision. Two studies concerned with the number of supervisors employed in rural communities in the United States made in the Office of Edu¬ cation — one in 1930 and one now under way 17 — make it possible to compare progress in this direction during the 5-year period indicated. It is encouraging to find that supervision of rural schools during this period has not only held its own in spite of the effects of the depres¬ sion, but that there is a slight gain in the total number of supervisors for the country as a whole and an encouraging gain in each of several States. In 1930, 945 supervisors were engaged in the schools of approximately 22 percent of the counties in the United States. For 15 National Survey of the Education of Teachers. U. S. Office of Education, Bulletin 1933, No. 10, vol. VI, p. 249. 16 Prepared by Helen Hay Heyl, associate supervisor, rural education, New York State Department of Education. 17 Supervision and Rural School Improvement. U. S. Office of Education, Bulletin 1930, No. 31. Status of Rural School Supervision in the United States in 1935-36. Pamphlet No. 72. RURAL AND OTHER SPARSELY SETTLED AREAS 33 the school year 1935-36, 975 such supervisors are reported in 27 percent of the total number of counties. Another encouraging sign is that increases in numbers of rural- school supervisors are reported over an area covering 16 States. They are California, Illinois, Indiana, Kentucky, Louisiana, Missis¬ sippi, Minnesota, Nebraska, New Jersey, New Mexico, New York, Oregon, Tennessee, Texas, Utah, and Virginia. Notable increases were made in Virginia, Delaware, Louisiana, and California, while Alabama, North Carolina, and Ohio report definite losses in number of persons assigned to local instructional supervision. Summaries of information from the study under way show that, judged by numbers of supervisors employed, progress has been made during the 5-year period 1930-35, in 28 States. In two States, Mary¬ land and Wisconsin, in which the county is the unit for supervision, supervisors are employed in 100 percent of the counties. Rural supervision in both may be said, therefore, to be State-wide in scope. In California 91 percent of the counties employ supervisors. In Pennsylvania and West Virginia assistant county superintendents supervise instruction. They are employed in 84 percent and 74 per¬ cent, respectively, of the total number of counties of these two States. These facts indicate a definite trend toward providing local super¬ vision of instruction for rural schools, actively encouraged and usu¬ ally subsidized to the extent of all or a large percent of salaries by the State. Another fairly definite trend reported is toward variability in the type of service offered by the supervisors. A few years ago the term rural supervisor rather generally connotated a general supervisor of instruction in rural elementary and secondary schools. Today the term is applied to attendance and to welfare officers as, for example, in California where 31 of the 94 supervisors working in special subjects or fields are so listed; to health supervisors or to special health teachers; to art and to music supervisors; to special art or music teachers who divide their time among several schools; to visiting teachers; to supervisors of physically handicapped chil¬ dren; to physical education specialists; and to social studies, pen¬ manship, and elementary science supervisors or teachers who work among the schools of the open country. Are these special subject and special service supervisors persons who guide the teaching of regular classroom teachers or are they, for the most part, teachers of special subjects who travel from school to school? If the former, are they acting as educational consult¬ ants in a generalized program of education which is administered and supervised by a superintendent and by a general supervisor of instruction who unifies and coordinates the efforts of all? If the latter, are they learning to coordinate their teaching with that of the 34 BIENNIAL SURVEY OF EDUCATION, 1934-36 regular teachers? This increasing tendency to employ types of special supervision in rural areas suggests another widespread effort to provide rural children with those services which they have pre¬ viously lacked and indicates a need for careful study of the place and function of the special teacher in the integrated program of modern education. For example, in New York State more than 1,000 1-teacher schools now employ persons to supplement and assist the work of regular classroom teachers in almost every special field mentioned above; but these persons are not listed as supervisors. They are traveling teachers who work in designated groups of 1-teacher schools and who are themselves now asking, “Where do we and our specialty best fit into the program of progressive education in which the total growth needs of every child is being studied?” Probably the greatest change that has occurred in the field of rural supervision, however, lies not in the amount and types of such services or in the various arrangements under which they function, but in the changes in the techniques and emphases in supervision itself, as employed by the great body of general rural school super¬ visors who still dominate the field. In 1928-29 rural supervisors in a few States were attacking the problems of curriculum construction and of inner school reorganiza¬ tion, equipment, and management ; but such movements were limited to a few States and consisted more in guiding the experimental try¬ outs of new courses planned by State department officials or State¬ wide committees than in local planning of curriculum. The efforts of the general supervisor in rural areas were still largely fixed upon the improvement of instruction in the established school subjects, upon the development of mimeographed and printed bulletins in¬ structing teachers how to conduct these improvements, upon group conferences of teachers in which the newer methods of teaching par¬ ticular subjects were demonstrated and upon other familiar super¬ visory devices. Such programs in supervision were measured largely in terms of children’s achievement as determined through a program of standardized achievement tests and group mental tests. As late as 1932, emphasis was still placed upon rating teachers, acquiring stand¬ ard teaching equipment, standardizing school buildings, and the like, as a means of improving the rural child’s educational environ¬ ment in the small school. In at least one State, the State super¬ visors assisted by local supervisors were attempting to develop a standard score card for checking school buildings and equipment in 1936. Through the 8-year period, however, new trends have slowly emerged and these appear to lead in the direction of a more creative type of supervision. Supervisors today vision for their teachers the same opportunities for creativeness and growth that progressive RURAL AND OTHER SPARSELY SETTLED AREAS 35 teachers desire for their children. Among the changed practices indicating these tendencies may be listed the following : 1. The effort of many supervisors to concentrate upon the activities of children rather than upon the activities of teachers. The work done by Sadie Goggins in Alabama in attempting a study of the activity program is an excellent illustration of this tendency. 2. The gradual introduction of activity programs for children, leading to the development of experience curriculums. This change is marked in many sections of the country and does not represent merely the mouthing of new phrases but a substantial change in educational philosophy and program, based upon deepened knowledge of how learning takes place. The underlying principle in this change is a recognition that ex¬ periences which are real to children should provide the content to be studied. Interesting illustrations of this change are reported from two North Carolina counties and from schools in New York State. Accounts of the work carried on contain examples of activity programs developed in rural schools.18 3. The larger participation in curriculum planning by teachers' in local areas as one phase of a democratic supervisory program, and by supervisors in State programs. The planning of curriculum materials with marked partici¬ pation by rural supervisors is well illustrated by the New Jersey State Course of Study in Social Studies and Related Activities, and by the new Virginia course of study. The development of local courses has gone forward in several States, as, for example, in Connecticut where such work has been under the guidance of field supervisors and assistant field supervisors, who are as¬ signed directly by the State Department to work in from two to as many as nine of the smaller towns each and whose duty it is to supervise the schools in these rural communities. 4. The development of working group conferences of teachers in place of the older type of teachers’ institutes or of the typical con¬ ference of demonstration and critique. In some States where the county institute is still maintained, as in Maine and Michigan, there has been a change in the type of institute, so that through the active participation of teachers and principals in planning the program and through frank 18 Gustin, Margaret, and Hayes, Margaret. 4ctivities in the Public Schools. Chapel Hill, Univ. of N. C. Press, 1934. New York. State Department of Education. Cardinal Objectives in Elementary Educa¬ tion. A series of reports. - Curriculum Guides for Teachers of 5-Year-Old Children. - A Guide to the Teaching of Health. 36 BIENNIAL SURVEY OF EDUCATION, 1934-36 discussion of problems from the floor of the institute much has been done to modernize this activity. In other States the working group conference has almost wholly supplanted the institute, as in New York State where last year 916 such work¬ ing conferences were held by teachers themselves, with the assistance of the rural school superintendents of that State. 5. The larger participation of teachers in planning the super¬ visory program. This practice is notably true in New Jersey where commit¬ tees of teachers plan with the supervisors the type of supervisory activity which they wish to have carried on and where pro¬ grams, therefore, are based upon the felt needs of teachers and children. Similar democratic practices are found in many other sections of the country. 6. The long-term program in supervision, with planned shifts in emphasis over a period of years. Such long-term programs view supervision as .educational leadership which involves the cooperation of all or most of the teachers of a group in planning what is to be done, in deter¬ mining how it should be done, and deciding when it shall be done. Any long-term program implies adequate provision for flexibility; allowance for revision of the plan from month to month and from year to year; for bringing each year’s major problems to temporary culmination ; for evaluating method and progress ; and for determining next steps. 7. The study of child development. California, New York, and North Carolina are typical exam¬ ples of States in which rural supervisors and superintendents have carefully guided teachers in a study of children as the basis for determining supervisory programs. Growing out of the recognition of individual differences among children, among groups of children, and in environmental opportunity, such study has led to the growth of a spirit in supervision in which the supervisor becomes a student with her teachers. If the total growth needs of children are to be met — that is, the health and emotional-social needs as well as those of mental development — the supervisory technics and procedures become very different from those employed when the chief aim is im¬ provement in the technics of teaching a particular field of subject matter. 8. The larger participation of parents in educational planning. Organization of parent-teacher associations, mothers’ clubs, school and home clubs, and similar clubs to stimulate school- RURAL AND OTHER SPARSELY SETTLED AREAS 37 home relationships has long been regarded as a proper func¬ tion of rural supervisors. Originally the purpose was to keep parents and school patrons generally informed about the school program, to enlist their aid in the improvement of the school plant and equipment, and to obtain their support for educa¬ tional budgets. With greater understanding of how children learn came an emphasis upon parental education in order that the home might more intelligently reinforce what the school was trying to do. A shift in these emphases in the past few years would indicate that a new trend is emerging, and today supervisors, principals, teachers, and superintendents look to parents not merely for cooperation with the school but that the school may cooperate with the home ; not merely for support in a program planned by the educational group, but for active participation by the parents in this educational planning. Certain trends reported from scattered sections of the country may suggest other tendencies in supervisory practices now emerging. Among these may be listed the effort to develop flexibility rather than standardization in arrangement of school furnishings and equipment; the development of new methods in recording pupils’ progress, as illustrated by numerous new types of report cards and permanent record forms, and by use of the personal diary and anec¬ dotal records; the increasing effort to develop subjective-objective standards for evaluating the total educational program rather than to place emphasis upon the old type of standard rural school score card. Such a set of standards and checks is being developed in rural New York at the present time. Beginning with the Mort- Cornell outline, “A Test of Educational Lag of School Systems,” 19 Burke and Caldwell in 1935 developed, from these standards, their “Tentative Standards and Check List for Studying Local Initiative in the Common School Districts of New York State.” 20 These standards cover the following areas of study: I. Pupil growth and adjustment; II. The teacher; III. The educational program; IV. Physical facilities; V. Administration and supervision. As a sample of the type of content treated in these standards the following is selected from the section on Pupil Growth and Adjustments, Individual Accomplishments in School Activities: Standards 1. There should be evidence that the personality of each individual pupil is being developed as indicated by poise, confidence in his own ideas, critical thinking, and self-evaluation. 19 Mort, Paul R., and Cornell, Francis G. A Test of Educational Lag of School Systems. 20 Burke, Arvie, and Caldwell, Alexander. Tentative Standards and Check List for Studying Local Initiative in the Common School Districts of New York State. 38 BIENNIAL SURVEY OF EDUCATION, 1934-36 2. Individual pupils should develop ability to plan and to execute individual units of work, to work effectively with groups, to locate information in environment and in printed sources, to broaden their viewpoints through observation, and to do original and creative work. These standards are now in process of revision 21 and further adaptation to local needs in New York State by the rural district superintendents of New York and their teachers. Finally, especial emphasis should be placed upon the growing spirit of democracy in rural supervision. Increasingly, rural supervisors have become students with their teachers and children, rather than authori¬ tative officers over them. Supervisors come as helpers, not as inspectors. They come to aid teachers in doing those things that the teachers and their children are eager to do and not to dictate what shall be done. They come also to bring a larger vision of what may be done. The major trend in rural supervision, therefore, can be regarded as definitely the tendency toward a highly democratic practice. This is as it should be. “In a democracy supervision should be democratic.” In summarizing these trends it may be said that the tendencies are : From — Scattered service A single generalized service Domination Rating teachers Following courses of study Formalizing and standardizing procedure Adjusting classes Teaching parents Exploitation of teachers Toward — Nation-wide service Many special services Acting as consultants Studying children and their ac¬ tivities Guiding curriculum planning Freeing and providing for flexibility Adjusting to needs of individual children Cooperation with parents in plan¬ ning the educational program Developing the individual person¬ ality and creative purposes of teachers Section III. Organization for Local Administration and Support Prepared by Julian E. Butterwortii, Professor of Rural Education and Director of the Graduate School of Education, Cornell University Present status of local administrative units. — Although we have been passing through unusually severe economic conditions in which a reorganization of local units of educational administration in our rural areas would seem to> be a logical outcome, there has, since 1928, been relatively little change in this matter. Seldom has there been so great a need for the pooling of financial resources for the maintenance of a minimum educational program. The common- school district is still the prevailing type of administrative unit in 21 New York State Education Department, Tentative Standards and Check List for Studying Rural Educational Programs. RURAL AND OTHER SPARSELY SETTLED AREAS 39 rural areas. According to last reports we still have approximately 127,000 administrative units for educational purposes in the United States. We have approximately 138,000 1-teacher schools. While failure to secure a more effective type of organization in more of our States is disconcerting, the probable major reasons for this inactivity are not difficult to state. In the first place, the rural population is a relatively conservative and independent one and, even in the face of emergency, tends to rely largely upon its own resources. In the second place, it would appear that our profes¬ sional group has not yet learned how to lead rural folk effectively. We have failed to make clear the importance of reorganization or have failed to propose types of reorganization that commend them¬ selves to such a degree that the people are willing to risk possible increases in taxes for educational purposes. The township is still an important rural administrative unit in Pennsylvania, Ohio, New Jersey, and Indiana, though the type of organization differs widely among these States. There are some units of this type in other States such as Iowa, Michigan, and North Dakota. In New England the town, somewhat comparable to the township in size if not in form, is still the local unit. Within these States, as well as within those having the common-school district, are found combinations of territory that bring about some degree of cooperation. Such, for example, is the consolidated school dis¬ trict, the community district, the central district (to be described later), and the union high-school district. In certain States the county is either the local unit or has considerable influence in the administration and support of education. In Louisiana and Mary¬ land, only the largest cities are independent of the county in school organization. In the former State, two cities, in the latter, one — the city of Baltimore — constitute independent districts. In Utah inde¬ pendence of the district (usually the county) organization is ex¬ tended to the larger cities. In Alabama the county organization is the prevaling unit, that is, all schools except those in independent districts are administered by the county board of education. Dis¬ tricts of 2,500 or more in population may become independent or by joint action of the two boards concerned may remain under the county board. There are several cities under county boards in Alabama. There are also two complete county organizations, urban and rural combined, in Mobile and Montgomery Counties. There is, then, a marked limitation in the influence of the county for adminis¬ trative purposes. Certain limitations in control on the part of the county are found also in Florida, Georgia, Kentucky, New Mexico, North Carolina, Tennessee, and Virginia. In certain other States — Oregon, Minnesota, Montana, Nebraska, Texas — there is legislation permitting the establishment of some form of county unit, but only a 40 BIENNIAL SURVEY OF EDUCATION, 1934-36 few counties have adopted this type of organization. In Delaware the State is the unit for educational administration. Recent developments. — Two States have made significant reorgani¬ zations concerned with rural administrative units during this period. West Virginia passed one of the most comprehensive county unit laws in existence, effective on July 1, 1933. The most important provisions of this law can best be presented through a quotation from a report by State Superintendent W. W. Trent : 22 The county unit law provides for one board of education for each county in the State. It distinctly forbids the board to appoint district trustees. The county board consists of five members elected by the people, not more than two of whom shall be elected from one magisterial district. This board is given the authority to appoint a county superintendent who shall be the executive school officer of the county and whose duty it shall be to recommend all teachers and staff members to the board. One can readily see that these provisions of the act added materially to the authority and responsibility of the county superintendent. In fact, it created a distinctly new type of superintendent and prescribed corresponding qualifications. * * * For the remainder of their terms the present county superintend¬ ents were retained in office, but boards of education were authorized to fix their duties and assign such duties as they may desire to other mem¬ bers of the teaching staff. The title of all school property was transferred to the county board but the bonded debt was retained as an obligation of the district which incurred it. According to Superintendent Trent this county unit act was “in a sense a child of the depression.” A drastic tax-limitation act, passed in 1932, made it imperative that governmental costs be markedly reduced. The county unit act was one of the means for getting such reduction. At the same time this action “rested upon a firm con¬ viction that rural children were entitled to the same educational opportunities that urban children were.” As a result 398 units of administration were combined into 55. During the first year the number of teachers was reduced from 16,282 to 15,340. A better distribution of pupils per teacher was made and there was a reduc¬ tion in the costs of transportation, while all expenses were reduced by $4,468,710. In Ohio significant reorganization is under way in part through enforcement of certain legal provisions of an act, effective in 1935, giving the chief State school officer considerable discretion in regard to the distribution of State school funds to small districts in which there is a school with an enrollment of 180 or fewer children, in part through cooperative action of the State and county education depart¬ ments and in part through a State-wide survey of local school ad¬ ministrative organization directed by the Office of Education in cooperation with the State department of education. 22 The Reorganization of Schools Under the County Unit. From the Biennial Report for the Two Years Ending, June 30, 1934. Charleston, W. Va., State Department of Free Schools, p. 8. RURAL AND OTHER SPARSELY SETTLED AREAS 41 The act referred to requires county boards of education to study their respective counties with respect to the possibilities of eliminat¬ ing small schools through transporting children to larger schools (transportation is a State responsibility in Ohio), and with respect to feasible consolidation of schools and school districts. As a result of the study the county board of education must present each April until 1938 a plan for the approval of the chief State school officer of reorganization to be effected during the following year. This officer — in Ohio the State director of education — is authorized to make adjustments as between counties or districts bordering on county boundary lines. In addition to changes which may be ac¬ complished by this plan, the State in its discretion may withhold State aid to small schools, i. e., those enrolling 180 or fewer children, if in the judgment of State officials their discontinuance is feasible. These two methods of promoting reorganization are reinforced, in effect, by the State-wide survey now under way in all of the counties in Ohio. As a result of these efforts State officials report that the number of school districts, of which there are about 1,900, is being substantially reduced. A few other changes in recent years are worthy of note. New Mexico changed the membership of its county board of education from the county superintendent and four persons appointed by the district judge to five elected members. Kentucky reduced the num¬ ber of types of districts from six to two. Iowa repealed a law pro¬ viding for county high schools. Pennsylvania created a commis¬ sion to study functions and costs of local governments. Texas au¬ thorized a county in which the United States Government has 1,000 or more acres of land for reforestation and in which the assessed valuation is at least 40 million dollars to establish a county unit for school administration. Vermont and Maine provided for a re¬ grouping of districts for purposes of supervision. Missouri passed legislation establishing a county school districting board in each county whose major function is to present plans for enlarged school districts. MTiile the actual change in the set-up of administrative units has not been great during this period, much has occurred that holds promise for the future. (1) There is a trend toward clarification of the objectives to be realized in the establishment of local units of control. These objectives tend to recognize, among other matters, the importance of developing an alert group of lay people. As a means of measuring the attainment of these objectives, we have established criteria that, being more definite, have enabled professional and lay men, alike, to see more clearly the implications of a reorganization. 42 BIENNIAL SURVEY OF EDUCATION, 1934-36 (2) We seem to be growing away from the conception that there is one best type of local administrative unit and that this should be established throughout the United States, regardless of the type of governmental unit to which the people have been accustomed, the system of financial support, the state of development of the people as regards local government, and the like. (3) Many specific studies of local situations now available give detailed facts by which we can picture the probable effect of a consolidated district or of a township district or of a county district as it affects transportation of pupils, the establishment of a super¬ visory program, the provision of additional educational facilities, the tax burden for schools, and the like. Some of these studies, it is true, go back as far as the early 1920’s when the Office of Education initiated a few surveys of this type. One has, however, only to examine the bibliography of research studies as published by the United States Office of Education during the last 8 years to realize how much activity along this line has been going on. There are, literally, scores of such studies made by local administrative officials or by students seeking master’s or doctor’s degrees in our higher educational institutions. In virtually every section of every State these studies have stimulated objective thinking and, undoubtedly, both the facts and the method will have profound influence upon the recognition by rural citizens that certain changes are desirable and necessary if proper educational programs are to be established.23 Unless this is achieved, the next 50 years will probably fail to give us the changes so much to be desired. The following data as of 1933 are significant in evaluating these units : 24 Type of unit prevailing Average number of administra¬ tive units per State Average area in square miles per State Average number of school- board members per State Average number of teaching positions per State Average number of teaching positions per unit • 2 3 4 5 6 State (1 State) _ 15 131 65 1, 420 95 County (11 States) _ 145 377 760 13, 412 93 Town or township (10 States) . _ _ 629 28 2, 810 17, 243 27 District (26 States) _ 4, 590 18 15, 094 19, 931 5 Average, including all types for United States _ . __ _ _ _ . 2, 651 23 8, 937 17, 497 7 23 See the following references for functional analyses of democratic leadership and of factors significant in effective leadership : Butterworth, Julian E. Principles of Rural School Administration, chs. X, XI ; Bogardus, E. S. Fundamentals of Social Psychology, especially pp. 409, 471 ; Mumford, Eben. Origins of Leadership, in American Journal of Sociology, XII ; 216-40, 367-97, 500-31 ; Todd, Arthur J. Theories of Social Progress, especially chs. 25—27, 33. 24 Deffenbaugh, W. S., and Covert, Timon. School Administration Units. (U. S. Office of Education, Pamphlet No. 34.) p. 5. RURAL AND OTHER SPARSELY SETTLED AREAS 43 'Which vmits are best? — Even though we may admit that no one type of administrative unit is best for all rural situations, it is sig¬ nificant that studies are being made to measure the relative effective¬ ness of these several units and to isolate the factors that appear to be important in developing an effective school system. Cressman 25 compared seven counties in Maryland, a county unit State, with seven in Pennsylvania where the township and the borough are the prevailing types of units in the rural areas. He summarized the results of this investigation as follows : Finally, the evidence of this investigation indicates that in the following financial aspects of education studied, viz, the distribution of expenditures for the various divisions of the budget, the nonresident high-school tuition situation, the economy of the administration of transportation service, and the equalization of the costs thereof and the general equalization of the weight of taxation, the Maryland plan of county administration is superior to the township, borough, and city plan in Pennsylvania. From the county supervisory point of view there is also distinct evidence of the superiority of the Maryland plan. In the bases used for taxation there are apparent no outstanding advantages for either State, except that Maryland uses general property for State school taxation, an extension of an already existing evil. As a stimulation toward the more rapid closing of one-teacher schools, there seems to be nothing to clearly and definitely indicate that the Maryland county unit plan of administration is superior to the Pennsyl¬ vania plan. In the matter of entrance upon high-school opportunities by graduates of the elementary school, the Pennsylvania counties studied seem to show better results, while in general financial administration, certain rather large savings make the county unit plan of Maryland distinctly superior in this respect to the township, borough and city system of Pennsylvania. Dawson,26 preparing the statement of principles for a conference on the reorganization of school units, in 1935, analyzed the functions of an administrative unit as follows: (a) To provide one or more satisfactory attendance units which can offer in an efficient manner at least 12 years of instruction to all pupils residing within the limits of the administrative unit. (b) To furnish either at local expense or State expense, or both, at a cost that bears a reasonable relationship to the total current cost of the educational program, administrative and supervisory services necessary to facilitate the operation of the whole educational program. (c) To provide, where the State does not guarantee the funds to pay the entire cost of the whole educational program, sufficient financial resources to support a satisfactory educational program. 25 Cressman, George It. Local Units for Educational Administration. The author, Pub¬ lic Schools of Chester County, West Chester, Pa. pp. 238, 239. 26 Reorganization of School Units : A Report of the Proceedings of a Conference Called by the Commissioner of Education, Washington, June 17—19, 1935. (U. S. Office of Education, Bulletin 1935, No. 15.) pp. 7, 8. 44 BIENNIAL SURVEY OF EDUCATION, 1934-36 Butterworth 27 gives four factors that he considers important : 1. The ability of the local district to support the desired educational program. This is determined partly by the wealth of the community, partly by the prevailing standard of educational costs, partly by the sums available through the State for purposes of equalizing opportunities among the various subdivisions of the State. 2. The number of pupils enrolled must be sufficient to provide ade¬ quate curricula at reasonable cost. 3. The stage of the development in cooperation for social ends is also likely to be an important consideration in determining the type of local unit. The group that is to cooperate effectively for the development of a progressive educational program should be large enough to be stimulating. It should be sufficiently small and homogeneous, however, so that genuine cooperation may be developed if it does not already exist. 4. The quality of leadership available in developing an interest in educa¬ tional affairs will be an important factor. Under leadership of the highest type unfavorable conditions may be overcome. Unless there is a fair chance that the available leadership is adequate to compass this, it is a question how far the local unit should go beyond existing bounds until that leadership may be changed. As will be seen later, the differences in these analyses are of con¬ siderable significance in determining the type of administrative unit that should be established. As a result of a study of the “functions and principles of formula¬ tion, organization, and administration of satisfactory local school units,” Dawson 28 proposed specific standards for a local school unit. The following statements present briefly his major standards: (1) An elementary school should have an absolute minimum of 6 teachers or a desirable minimum of 7 teachers, which, with 40 pupils per teacher, will require, therefore, a minimum enrollment of 240 to 280. (2) A 6-year high school should have an absolute minimum of 7 teachers or a desirable minimum of 10 teachers, which, with 30 pupils per teacher, will require a minimum of 210 to 300 pupils. (3) There should be at least 1 supervisor to each 40 or 50 teaching positions. (4) Accepted standards of health work require at least 1 health nurse to each 2,000 school children and at least 1 supervisor of health education for the school system. (5) There should be at least 1 attendance supervisor or officer for not more than 6,000 census children. (6) The number of employees necessary for a standard administrative and supervisory organization, without requiring 1 person to perform two or more specialized services, is 31 persons. Such an organization would accommodate approximately 12,000 pupils. Since it seldom is possible to organize local administrative units of 12,000 or more pupils, it becomes necessary to modify the central administrative and supervisory staff. 27 Butterworth, Julian E. Types of Local School Units. In The Status of Rural Education, 30th Yearbook, pt. 1, of the National Society for the Study of Education. Pp. 204-205. 28 Dawson, Howard A. Satisfactory Local School Units. Field Study No. 7, Division of Surveys and Field Studies, George Peabody College for Teachers. Pp. 39, 59, 60, 82. RURAL AND OTHER SPARSELY SETTLED AREAS 45 Two possible modifications have been presented — the median modification calling for a staff of 17 persons, an organization that can accommodate approximately 6,000 pupils; and the maximum modification calling for 4 persons, an organization that can accommodate 1,750 pupils. (7) * * * the minimum size of a satisfactory local unit is approxi¬ mately 1,600 pupils and 46 teaching units. It has also been found that in order to avoid the performance of two or more specialized services by one individual the size of the local unit of school administration should be approximately 9,800 pupils and 280 teaching units. A segregation of the more important questions involved in the determination of desirable administrative units may help to clarify the problem. Five questions are therefore presented: (1) How far should educational units of organization and adminis¬ tration follow political and geographical lines? There are two dis¬ tinct schools of thought as regards this matter. One would make the township or (preferably) the county the unit, while the other would emphasize factors of social integration leading to the estab¬ lishment of administrative units designated by such varying names as consolidated district, community district, central district, and the like. While the general practice has been to follow political lines in the establishment of larger units, especially where State-wide action is taken, there has, in recent years, been an increasing recognition of social factors. In the New York program of central districts these factors are basic. Studies made in Pennsylvania,29 New Jer¬ sey,30 and Missouri,31 either advocate school units wholly independent of political units or suggest more or less extensive modifications of political units where they are used. The Pennsylvania report states that “an administrative unit shall consist of such an area as by geographic, commercial, and social conditions have a common com¬ munity center. Such an area may include an entire county.” Pro¬ fessor Moehlman32 of the University of Michigan says: The answer to this question as to the type of administrative unit must be sought in the function of the school district. The problem cannot be approached from the standpoint of saving money or a worship of mere size. Schools do not exist either to spend or to save money. They are required to perform an essential social function. They must, there¬ fore, be planned in relation to this function. The purposes of the natural community are economic, social, political, and educational. Its terrain will include three mutually related and more or less dependent groups, now generally operating at tangents if not in direct conflict These groups include the dwellers wdthin the present corporate limits, the suburban fringe of families, and the rural groups 29 Eisenberg, J. Linwood. Tentative Report of Committee on Local Unit of School Administration. (Apr. 19, 1932.) Mimeographed sheets. 30 Report of the Commission to Survey Public Education. State of New Jersey. 1928. Pp. 136-142. 51 Eighty-third Report of the Public Schools of the State of Missouri, 1931-32. 82 Moehlman, Arthur B. The Community School District. University of Michigan School of Education. Bulletin, vol. VII, No. 4, pp. 49-51. 46 BIENNIAL SURVEY OF EDUCATION, 1934-36 related through social or economic ties directly to the incorporated area. Sampling surveys of certain State areas indicate that these communities are now in actual operation but are directly and distinctly handicapped by arbitrary and artificial legal limits and boundaries. Original minor differences between these groups have been magnified in many instances into long enduring conflicts by professional politicians and through the accentuation of alleged vital differences in interest. Moehlman has further expressed the belief 33 that in densely popu¬ lated States it is not possible to use a political unit satisfactorily since the boundaries of these units cut across existing social and economic groups. (2) Closely related to the foregoing is this question: Should units of attendance differ from units of administration? This is a crucial question. Those favoring the county unit would have administration organized on the county basis but would provide for as many attend¬ ance units within the county as conditions made desirable. This is the position taken by the 1935 conference on the reorganization of local units (26, pp. 6, 7). It is difficult to answer a question of this type on the basis of objective data since some of the significant factors involved are psychological and social and, therefore, rela¬ tively intangible. Can a rural territory, the size of a county, bring into an integrated unit, for the maintenance of an educational pro¬ gram, the several smaller cities and competing villages with their contiguous farm areas? Can this larger territory devise methods that will encourage the citizen group to take as active an interest in the determination of the larger educational policies and in carry¬ ing on the resulting educational program as they would have if school control were in the hands of the community ? These questions should, in the judgment of the present writer, be answered in the affirmative in some situations and in the negative in others. This suggests that the answer will depend upon the stage of development of the citizen group and the effectiveness of the leadership employed by school officers. Any answer to these questions should, there¬ fore, be conditional rather than conclusive and final. It is questions such as these that are among the influential ones in determining the so-called “conservative” attitudes of rural people as regards edu¬ cational reorganization. (3) How should the extension of the newer educational services to rural people affect the type of unit? Such services are: Adult education, supervision, health services, vocational education, edu¬ cational and vocational guidance, opportunities for training the various types of handicapped children. If these services are to be provided wholly by the local unit, then obviously it should be con- 33 A Technique for Determining Natural Communities. In National Council on Schocl- house Construction, Proceedings of Thirteenth Annual Meeting. 1935. Pp. 63-66. RURAL AND OTHER SPARSELY SETTLED AREAS 47 siderably larger than the ordinary attendance area. The alterna¬ tive would be to have some of these services established directly by the State or provided through an intermediate unit made up of a number of local administrative units. (4) How far should the system of support for schools in force in the State affect the unit? Cressman (25, p. 92) shows that in Pennsylvania the ability to support education among seven counties studied varies widely, a fact suggesting the need for large units of local administration, unless a State program of equalization is car¬ ried through in a comprehensive manner. In New York, for ex¬ ample, the system of apportionment is such that the size of the dis¬ trict has relatively little effect upon the tax burden for education, but does, of course, have considerable effect upon the extensiveness of the program offered. (5) These several questions point to a fifth problem of consid¬ erable significance. If smaller units of administration, such as the attendance area, are established, it will be almost imperative that several such units cooperate if an adequate educational program is to be developed. This conception of organization contemplates, therefore, three levels of control: The State on the one hand; the locality on the other; and between these two an intermediate unit of such size as may be determined. Actually this type of set-up now exists in many of our States, notably Ohio, New York, and Pennsylvania. Its obvious disadvantage is that it creates a dual system of local control, referring certain matters to the board of education for the locality and others to the board of education for the intermediate unit. One’s philosophy of government is a domi¬ nant factor in the choice made. The several practices and points of view presented in the pre- • ceding paragraphs indicate, in many cases, the recognition of the fact that the type of administrative unit should be determined in the light of the situation to be faced. At least one specific study in this field has recently been made. Rueggsegger,34 analyzing the situation in Michigan, came to the conclusion that in some sections of the State the township unit is most desirable, in other sections the consolidated district, in still others the county unit. Surveys preliminary to the establishment of local administrative units. — It is evident that we cannot, at the present time, secure suf¬ ficiently objective data regarding these several questions that one conclusion is inevitable. These and similar questions should and will be studied further. In the meantime, specific studies have been made in the several States that attempt to indicate the type of unit 34 Rueggsegger, Virgil. Are Conditions in Michigan Such as Make it Advisable to Attempt a Reorganization of Rural Schools, Using Only One Type of Administrative Unit as a Basis? Master’s thesis, Cornell University, 1936. 48 BIENNIAL SURVEY OF EDUCATION, 1934-36 that should be established. Generally the participants in these sur¬ veys have accepted certain assumptions regarding the type of or¬ ganization that should be sought. They could not do otherwise; yet, the need for searching more deeply in many cases is evident. At least two surveys of State-wide or practically State-wide scope have been made. One in Arkansas 35 proposed redistricting the entire State into consolidated districts “conforming to natural eco¬ nomic and community lines.” Although the survey staff preferred the county unit system of administration, there was no law at that time by wThich the county could be so organized, whereas the com¬ munity or consolidated district could be established by the county board of education. In these proposals, as yet not made effective, the existing 3,946 districts were organized into 307 areas in the 75 counties. In Missouri 36 107 of the counties were studied by various groups under the direction of a central staff. These studies, uniform in method, present data regarding population trends, school popu¬ lation trends, assessed valuation trends, enrollment per teacher, grade distribution, tax levy, and the like. In each county a re¬ organization was suggested, the number of districts proposed vary¬ ing from county to county. It was frequently suggested that a part of one county should more appropriately belong to the contigu¬ ous area of another county. A survey report of Mendocino County, Calif., in 1932, proposed a reorganization of the existing districts into four superintendence areas. In 1931 the California Taxpayers’ Association presented a report37 on the Fresno County Schools in which four plans were* suggested, the preferred one setting up two districts, one for the city of Fresno and contiguous territory, the other for the remainder of the county. This report recognizes, as many do not, that some¬ times a desired goal may best be reached through an intermediate step. In 1930 Donaldson38 proposed a reorganization of the 26 districts in Portage County, Ohio, into 8 districts. These districts were determined on the basis of economic and social factors. These studies are cited as illustrative of numerous ones of a similar type that have been made. The local school units 'project. — One of the most extensive attempts yet made to survey the local school units situation with a view of determining possibilities for the organization of more satisfactory 35 Dawson, Howard A., and Little, Harry A. Financial and Administrative Needs of the Public Schools of Arkansas, pt. I. Arkansas State Department of Education, 1930. 36 See note 31. 37 Report on the Fresno County Schools. California Taxpayers’ Association, Report No. 141. 38 Donaldson, Grant H. A Study of the Community Interests of Portage County, with a View Toward Larger High School Centers. Master’s thesis, Ohio State University, 1930. p. 59. RURAL AND OTHER SPARSELY SETTLED AREAS 49 schools, school attendance areas, and local units of school administra¬ tion is the Local School Units Project of the Office of Education made possible by a grant of funds from the Emergency Relief Appropria¬ tion Act of 1935. Although the Office filed its application for funds for 32 States, the project was finally approved for a grant to permit the inclusion of 10 States, viz : Arizona, Arkansas, California, Illi¬ nois, Kentucky, North Carolina, Ohio, Oklahoma. Pennsylvania, and Tennessee. The work within the State is coordinated and guided by the project staff of this Office. In the administration of this project each State, in effect, consti¬ tutes a unit of effort with the State superintendent or commissioner of education designating a member of his department for appoint¬ ment by the Secretary of the Interior as state director of the project. In those States where the need existed the chief State school officer nominated one or more qualified persons for appointment as asso¬ ciate and/or assistant directors. Although this officially appointed personnel assumes direct responsibility for the prosecution of this study, in each instance the project has been considered of such sig¬ nificance that the chief State school officer and staff members of his department have shown a very active interest. In each of the States a complete study of existing educational conditions relating to and involving the organization of local units of school administration is being made. Basic data covering techni¬ cal, geographic, economic, and social conditions affecting local school organization have been collected on the basis of forms suggested in Office of Education Circular No. 156, Handbook of Procedure for Planning the Reorganization of Local School Units. The informa¬ tion resulting from this study is being submitted to the Washington Project Office in a series of reports covering the factors and prob¬ lems involved in a program of organizing more satisfactory schools, school attendance areas, and local administrative units. The steps in the procedure as proposed in the aforementioned handbook are: 1. Collecting, organizing, and analyzing data concerning the present schools and school districts (administrative units). These data include maps and statistical tabulations. 2. Selecting and adopting criteria or standards (minimum and desirable) relating to and revealing the characteristics of satisfactory schools, school attendance areas, and local units of school administration. 3. Planning the reorganization of schools and school districts. 4. Projecting needed school building programs. 5. Planning and estimating the cost of the proposed educational program involving logically needed current expenditures for all services to be provided and required capital outlays. 50 BIENNIAL SURVEY OF EDUCATION, 1934-36 Great care is being exercised to insure that project activities shall lead to practical outcomes in each of the 10 States. In August 1936 a conference was held in Washington of the chief State school officers, the State directors and their associates, the advisory commit¬ tee on the local school units project appointed by the United States Commissioner of Education and the Office Project Staff. The work of this conference resulted in five committee reports, making recom¬ mendations for completing the work of the project, emphasizing par¬ ticularly the objectives of the project as related to State programs of education, and suggesting plans and procedures for securing public support and necessary legislation for the improvements of educa¬ tional conditions in the States. The States will prepare for counties studied reports (typed or mimeographed) showing existing local organizations and project¬ ing plans for more satisfactory organizations. In accordance with the purposes of the study of local school units, each State will pre¬ pare a State report including an evaluation of present school con¬ ditions as affected by and related to existing attendance areas and local administrative units and an outline for the development of a program for organizing satisfactory schools, school attendance areas, and local school administrative units to the end that educational opportunities may be provided for every child from the time he should enter school until he is ready to take his place in adult society. Publications by the Office of Education will coordinate the mate¬ rials from the 10 States participating in the project and present them in such a form that they may be serviceable to all States as a basis for projecting programs of reorganization. A report on the present status of local school units in the 10 States will set forth plans and procedures, on the basis of the experiences of these States, for collecting, organizing, and analyzing data revealing existing edu¬ cational conditions. Other reports will present illustrative plans and procedures for planning and projecting more satisfactory organi¬ zations. Examples of such efforts will be selected from counties or perhaps, even larger areas, studied in these States. Similar projects are being prosecuted either on a State-wide or limited basis in Colorado, Idaho, New Jersey, Oregon, Texas, Utah, Washington, and Wisconsin. Other States that have recognized this problem as demanding careful planning based on a study of present educational conditions are Alabama, Minnesota, Missouri, New York, and West Virginia. Consolidation. — Regardless of the type of local administrative unit that any State may decide upon, it faces the question of bring¬ ing together enough pupils and enough wealth that the educational needs of a particular group may be met. The effort to do this — RURAL AND OTHER SPARSELY SETTLED AREAS 51 varying widely in type — is usually referred to as “consolidation.” There has been a slow but steady increase in the number of so-called “consolidated” districts in the United States. In 1919-20, there were 9,752 consolidated schools, according to the report of the United States Commissioner of Education. In 1929-30 this number had increased to 16,232. In 1934 the number was 17,284. Correspond¬ ingly, the number of 1-teacher schools declined from 189,227 in 1919- 20 to 148,711 in 1929-30, to 138,542 in 1933-34. It is difficult to determine just what these data regarding the number of consolidated schools mean, because of the great variation in definition of terms. Many are doubtless merely combinations of two or more small schools to provide elementary education only; others are relatively small schools providing training for the entire 12 grades; while still others are large combinations that provide not only the minimum essentials of an elementary and secondary education, but additional facilities representing recent educational developments as well. In some cases, these consolidations represent centralization of several administrative units. In others they repre¬ sent consolidation of schools or attendance areas. Considering for a moment the consolidated school as a unit of attendance, the question is at once raised as to how large this unit ought to be and what educational facilities it ought to provide. Ferriss,39 analyzing the curriculum demands as they affect the size of a school, concludes that: “* * * the six year secondary school of the fu¬ ture, to meet its curriculum demands adequately and with reason¬ able economy, should have a pupil enrollment of at least 250 to 400.” On the basis of a pupil-teaclier ratio of about 25 to 1, the minimum enrollment would warrant the employment of 12 teachers and the maximum, 16. With such a teaching force, fairly adequate curricula may be provided. Since, in 1930, 74.4 percent of all high schools had an enrollment of less than 200, the seriousness of the present situation is apparent. Holmstedt,40 studying the factors affecting the organization of school attendance units in Indiana, came to the conclusion that : * * * a desirable minimum size of high school is aproximately 400 pupils enrolled in grades 9 to 12. Below this point costs tend to increase rapidly and curricula become inadequate, particularly where the enrollment drops below 300. Assuming that 15 miles is a reasonable transportation distance, he shows that 8 miles approaches the maximum radius of an attendance area and a unit of this size would include 200 to 250 square miles. 39 Ferriss, Emery N. Curriculum Demands on the Secondary Schools. Education, vol. 53, no. 5, pp. 290-297. 40 Holmstedt, R. W. Factors Affecting the Organization of School Attendance Units. Bulletin of the School of Education, Indiana University, vol. X, No. 3. 52 BIENNIAL SURVEY OF EDUCATION, 1934-36 The relation of such an attendance area to existing political units may be seen in the fact that the area of the median township in Indiana is 36 square miles and of the median county 398 square miles. In the more sparsely populated sections of the State a unit of the size suggested would include approximately 600 elementary and 160 high- school pupils; in the more densely populated sections, 2,800 elemen¬ tary and 1,300 high-school pupils ; in the sections of average density, 1,100 elementary and 460 high-school pupils. Data such as these will vary according to the situation, hence the importance of having similar studies carried out under several types of representative conditions. The attempt, begun about 1920, to get objective evidence regarding the educational achievements of 1-teacher and larger rural schools, continues. In 1928 Covert 41 summarized the results of studies on this problem made in eight States. His tabulations show that of 51 comparisons in reading the large rural schools showed superiority in 76.5 percent of the cases; in arithmetic 83 comparisons showed the large rural school’s superiority in 87.9 percent of the cases ; while in 31 comparisons in spelling, 80.6 percent of the large schools were superior. In 1931, Cole,42 studying city, town, and rural schools in North Dakota, came to the conclusion that “from whatever point of view we study the data, we are forced to conclude that the educa¬ tional accomplishment in our rural schools is very poor.” In 1929 Wilson and Ashbaugh 43 show that the mean achievement scores in the great majority of cases favored the consolidated school, although the differences were slight. Blanton,44 in 1936, made a comprehen¬ sive investigation of the child in the 1-teacher school in Texas and compared these findings with those of pupils in larger schools. The investigation shows that the rural pupils are definitely inferior to the urban pupils in ability, in school achievement, and in socio-eco¬ nomic and physical status. Yan Wagenen 45 found, in studying Min¬ nesota schools, that usually achievement is less as one goes from the large system to the smaller and from the 9-month to the 8-month rural school. In general, these comparisons have been made on the basis of the achievement of pupils in small and large schools as measured by the standard tests. Most of the studies attempt to equate 41 Covert, Timon. Educational Achievements of 1-Teacher and Larger Rural Schools. (U. S. Office of Education, Bulletin 1928, No. 15.) p. 19. 42 Cole, Robert D. Educational Achievement in North Dakota City, Town, and Rural Schools. Departmental Bulletin of the University of North Dakota, vol. XV, No. 2. p. 37. 43 Wilson. W. K., and Ashbaugh, E. J. Achievement in Rural and Consolidated Schools. Educational Research Bulletin, Nov. 6, 1929, pp. 358-363. 44 Blanton, Annie W. The Child of the Texas 1-Teacher School. University of Texas Bulletin No. 3613. 43 Van Wagenen, M. J. Comparative Pupil Achievement in Rural, Town, and City Schools. University of Minnesota Press, 1930. RURAL AND OTHER SPARSELY SETTLED AREAS 53 such factors as length of term, training of the teacher, ability of the pupil, and the like. The problem is complicated, and wholly reliable techniques have probably not yet been established. The fact that the small schools do, in an appreciable number of cases, show superiority to the large schools indicates that in some aspects of an effective pro¬ gram the small school is not inherently inferior and that the direction of intelligent effort would undoubtedly lead to a very great improve¬ ment in its achievements. In at least one factor, the breadth of the curriculum offerings, the very small school clearly has an inherent limitation. The economy aspect of larger school units has naturally attracted the attention of investigators. O’Brien,46 analyzing the situation in Kansas in 1934, stated that, if the enrollment in 1-teacher schools could be raised to 30 pupils, approximately half of those schools in the State could be discontinued. Centralized elementary schools, with an average enrollment of 35 per teacher, would save the State $4,250,000, while a combination of small high-school districts to give an average enrollment per teacher of 30 pupils would save $2,100,000. Gaumnitz 47 presents data from a number of States showing the very small enrollment in some of the small schools and indicates the high per capita cost in them. Little,48 in 1934, after a study of 223 coun¬ ties, presents formulas for estimating the percentage of original cost of schools which might be saved through consolidation. Among the numerous local surveys of attendance units and con¬ solidation may be mentioned: Franklin County, Ky. ; 49 Mercer County, W. Va. ; 50 Marysville, Ohio;51 Washington Parish, La.;52 Milton, Wis.53 Recent legislation shows a tendency to deal with certain aspects of the consolidation problem. Iowa prohibited the establishment of any new school district with a territory of less than four sections of land. Oregon and Illinois provided that two or more union high-school districts might consolidate. Ohio passed legislation making it the duty of the county board of education, with the aid of the State di- 46 O’Brien, F. P. Economies Possible in Larger School Units. Kansas Studies in Education, vol. II, No. 3. 47 Gaumnitz, W. H. Economies Through the Elimination of Very Small Schools. (U. S. Office of Education, Bulletin, 1934, No. 3.) 48 Little, Harry A. Potential Economies in the Reorganization of Local School Attend¬ ance Units. Contributions to Education, No. 628, Teachers College, Columbia University. 49 A Study of School Attendance Areas in Franklin County, Ky. Educational Bulletin, Department of Education, IV, No. 6. 60 Cavins, L. V. An Administrative Survey of the Public Schools of Mercer County, W. Va. West Virginia State Department of Education, 1932. ei Bittikofer, Frederik G. A Super-Consolidation of High Schools, Marysville and Vicinity. Master’s thesis, Ohio State University, 1929. 62 Herrington, J. N. The Economic and Social Value of Consolidation of High Schools in Washington Parish. Master’s thesis, Louisiana State University. 53 Dorr, Charles H. A Study of the Advisability of Consolidation as Applied to a Local Situation. Master’s thesis, University of Wisconsin. 54 BIENNIAL SURVEY OF EDUCATION, 1934-36 rector of education, to make a survey of the county each year and to prepare plans to the end of developing a more effective organization of the various districts. California provided that every elementary- school district and every high-school district having coterminous boundaries and under the jurisdiction of governing boards having identical personnel, shall be merged into unified districts under the direction of one board of education. The National Survey of Secondary Education estimated that there were in 1929-30, about 39 percent of the rural children 14 to IT years of age attending high school as compared with 58 percent of urban children. These data show the importance of any measure that will make high schools available to those who live in the rural areas. In addition to the consolidated school, provision is made in most States for the payment of tuition for those who must attend school outside their home districts. Among the States that have, during the last few years, passed legislation affecting this matter are: North Dakota, in which tuition of nonresident high-school pupils is paid from the State equalization fund rather than by the pupil’s home district; Texas, which permits the payment of this charge from the rural-aid fund if the home district fails to pay or is unable to do so ; and Wisconsin, which authorized the payment of high-school tuition to a high school of another State when such school is at least iy2 miles nearer the pupil’s home than a Wisconsin high school. North Dakota made provision for a complete high-school education by cor¬ respondence free of charge, while South Dakota authorized a high- school district to establish dormitories for non-resident high-school pupils in sparsely settled areas. Florida, Maine, Michigan, New Mexico, Pennsylvania, West Virginia, and Tennessee are among States that have made provision for the education of the children of deceased veterans of the World War. A weakness of consolidations as commonly developed is that they have been effected in localities where the topography, density of population, and wealth gave promise of permitting the development of a successful school with little, sometimes no control over the size of the consolidated district or the particular territory to be included in it. As was to be expected therefore, there has been a tendency to bring together areas in which the consolidation could be effected with minimum cost, neglecting those children who lived in territory contiguous, but of little wealth, where their inclusion would have produced little additional income and serious educational respon¬ sibilities. This type of “Gerrymandering” is still possible in most States although there has been some recognition of the responsibility for controlling the development of such units. RURAL AND OTHER SPARSELY SETTLED AREAS 55 The central rural-school district. — An excellent illustration of State control in the development of such rural-school units may be seen in the central rural-school district of New York. Creation of dis¬ tricts of this type, originally authorized in 1914, because of changes in the law and appropriations for additional State funds, has been markedly stimulated since 1925. The underlying conception in forming central districts is that the area brought together may develop into an integrated school unit, and attention is given to social and economic factors that make for the development of the community under rural conditions. The boundaries of such districts must be approved by the commissioner of education. Probably the greatest stimulus to the creation of these new districts in New York has been the relatively liberal State aid, including not only the equalization quota granted a union f*ee school district in the State but the State aid to which the original districts were entitled also. In addition, the State pays one-half the cost of transportation and one-fourth the cost of a new building when the plans have been approved by the commissioner of education. Since 1925, 185 central rural-school districts have been established in New York State, which include territory formerly included in 1,967 districts. In the beginning, centralizations were relatively small. The 17 districts established in 1925-26 included an average of 4.8 original districts per unit ; in 1930-31, the 56 central districts had an average of 12.8 original districts ; while, in 1935-36, 24 central districts had an average of 14.3.54 Some of these central districts include relatively large areas, a few running as high as 25 to 35 original districts. One characteristic of the New York central district is that the first six grades must be continued in the schools existing at the time of the formation of the central district unless voters determine otherwise. While the great majority of these smaller schools have been given up, there were still operating in central districts in 1935-36, 551 1-teacher, 47 2-teacher, and 42 larger elementary schools. The New York central rural-school district does not always repre¬ sent an attendance area, except for high-school purposes. The ter¬ ritory is, however, a unit so far as administration is concerned, having its own board of education and principal. Transportation. — In the United States 350,100 pupils were, in 1919-20, transported at a cost of $7,960,966. In 1927-28, these figures had been increased to 1,250,570 pupils, transported at a cost of $39,952,502. There appear to be no national data as to the per¬ centage of school costs going into transportation, but illustrations 64 Data supplied by Ray P. Snyder, Director of the Division of Rural Education, New York State Department of Education. 56 BIENNIAL SURVEY OF EDUCATION, 1934-36 from a few States will be useful. A study of 105 consolidations in various parts of the country in 1930 shows that a median of 14 per¬ cent of the income was spent for transportation.55 In 1930, the median percentage expended for transportation in California was 9.58 In 11 Virginia counties 57 8.2 percent was so expended. These percentages are sufficiently high to indicate that transporta¬ tion is rapidly becoming a major item in the cost of maintaining schools in the rural areas. It therefore becomes imperative that these costs be carefully scrutinized to see wherein savings may be made. The first step in studying such costs is to have an adequate system of accounting for the several items of expenditures con¬ nected with transportation. According to the uniform system of accounting now generally used throughout the country, transporta¬ tion is given as one item only in the general category “auxiliary agencies.” These general figures of cost for transportation need to be segregated. Within the last 2 years, New York State has made a significant step in this direction. In the recommended uniform accounting system, one entire sheet is devoted to transportation, in¬ cluding such items as : Insurance cost for public liability, for prop¬ erty damage, for fire and theft, and for collision; capital payments on district-owned buses; salaries of drivers; such supplies as gas, oil, and tires; repairs; upkeep; and storage. Johns, after studying this problem, suggests a more detailed analysis.58 While it is easy to elaborate these classifications to such a degree that they become an undue clerical burden, it is evident that districts and States must become more interested in this problem. Unit costs of various kinds have been computed in an attempt to get a measure of the reasonableness of this item of expenditure. There has been little uniformity as to the type of unit cost computed and as to the method of computing it. Thus we find such unit costs as : The bus per year, month, or day ; the pupil per year, month, or day; the bus per mile; and the pupil per mile. These unit costs have limited validity since transportation costs are influenced by numerous factors. For example, because such fixed charges as in¬ surance, storage, and interest go on regardless of whether a bus travels 10 miles or 60 miles per day, the rate per pupil declines rapidly as the length of the haul increases. This problem has, dur¬ ing the last few years, challenged several investigators in various 65 Covert, Timon. Rural School Consolidation. (U. S. Office of Education, Pamphlet No. 6.) p. 34. 66 Evans, Frank O. Factors Affecting the Cost of School Transportation in California. (U. S. Office of Education, Bulletin 1930, No. 29.) p. 6. 57 Thorpe, H. Wilson. A Study of School Transportation in Five Counties of Virginia. Master’s thesis, University of Virginia, 1933. p. 156. 58 Johns, R. L. State and Local Administration of School Transportation. New York, Teachers College, Columbia University. (Teachers College, Contributions to Education No. 30.) p. 114. RURAL AND OTHER SPARSELY SETTLED AREAS 57 parts of the country; for example, California,59 North Carolina,60 Wyoming,61 New Mexico,62 Arkansas,63 and South Carolina.64 In each of these studies an attempt has been made to get at those factors that are most closely related to costs. The following table makes an interesting comparison of the various factors considered in these several studies: Does factor affect cost as shown by data from a study made in i— Factor Arkansas California North Carolina South Carolina Wyoming 1 2 3 4 5 6 Number pupils transported _ _ Yes.. .. Yes _ Yes _ Yes Yes. Yes. Yes. Yes. Yes. Type of road _. _ _ _ __ No _ Yes _ Yes _ Length of bus route.. _ _ _ Yes _ Yes _ Yes Number of routes per bus. Yes Number of round trips per day _ _ _ Yes.. . .. Number of days operated... _ _ Yes.. _ Seating capacity of bus . No. Yes . Ownership of bus _ _ _ _ ... Yes.. _ Yes _ . Yes.. _ Yes _ Make of bus.. _ ... ... No _ Yes.. _ Cost (new) of bus. _ .... Yes Yes Age of bus driver Yes Occupation of bus driver. . . _. _ Yes.. Yes.. _ Topography of district _ _ _ _ No. Yes Size of district _ _ _ No _ No _ Efficiency of superintendent _ . _ No. . .. Current expense of school... _ _ _ No Purchase of supplies. __ _ No _ Years transportation furnished.. No _ Economic conditions. _ Yes _ i Roberts, Roy W. Estimating the Cost of Pupil Transportation in Arkansas. Doctor’s thesis, Cornell University, 1934. P. 147. The differences in these findings may be attributed to different techniques employed in the investigations, or to the varying influence of a particular factor among the States studied. Although further research is needed, tentative generalizations appear warranted, namely, that three factors are closely related to costs — the number of pupils transported, the length of the bus route, and the owmership of the bus. In each of these studies the investigator has proposed a formula or has given a set of classified costs that enable the school administrator to determine approximately what costs would be reasonable under given conditions. To determine “ideal” standards for transportation practices is obviously difficult. Such matters as length of haul, the plan of 69 See note 40, Evans. 60 Noble, M. C. S. Public School Transportation in North Carolina, 1930-31. Publi¬ cation No. 172, North Carolina State Department of Education. 61 Current Transportation Practices in Wyoming. State Department of Education Pub¬ lication, 1931. 62 Mullins, R. J., and Harmon, Ray L. Delivered by Bus. Nation’s Schools, 16 : 47-49. 63 Roberts, Roy W. Estimating the Cost of Pupil Transportation in Arkansas. Doc¬ tor’s Thesis, Cornell University, 1934. 04 Fulmer, H. L. A Statistical Study of School Transportation in South Carolina. Monograph, State Department of Education, 1931. 58 BIENNIAL SURVEY OF EDUCATION, 1934-36 the transportation route, the type and size of the vehicle, and the provisions for safety may well differ according to the situation to be dealt with. For example, 1 hour on the road each way may be too high as a standard for general practice but may be defensible when essential to get the pupils to a school with adequate facilities. Ideal standards will be arrived at in part as we study standards of practice. The last several years have seen an increasing interest in material of this sort. For example, in New York, Robinson 65 gives for the central districts central tendencies regarding such practices as type of conveyance, length of route, arrangements regarding con¬ gregating places along the route, capacity of bus, time on road, num¬ ber of stops per route, policy of waiting for children, seating arrange¬ ment, and type of disciplinary control. Such standards of practice, when known for representative situations, are useful to school officers in checking their own practices. Interest in safety devices, including specifications for buses, has definitely increased. New York State has recently issued a revised list of such specifications. Callon,66 in 1930, developed a score card for bus materials and type of construction. There has also been an increased interest in the keeping of adequate records of matters other than costs. Some States, like Arkansas and New York, have developed a number of such forms. Fox,67 in 1933, proposed a series of eight forms dealing with the bus driver’s monthly report, the monthly summary of bus operations and repairs, the annual summary of bus operations and repairs, a permanent chassis and body record, a permanent tire service record, a permanent battery service record, a garage invoice, and a record of special trips with school buses. Without attempting to present all of even the significant legisla¬ tion in transportation during the last few years, the following should be noted. New Mexico authorized boards of education, with the approval of the State board of education, to enter into contract for the transportation of pupils for a period not to exceed 4 years. South Carolina required operators of school busses be of the same race as the pupils they transport. Connecticut specified that any town in which a State trade school is not maintained shall provide transportation to any pupil 14 to 21 who attends a State trade school in another town. Nebraska prohibited the giving of gratuities to nonresident pupils residing nearer another school offering a high- 05 Robinson, James R. A Study of Some Transportation Practices of the Central Rural School Districts of New York State, 1932-33. Master’s thesis, Cornell University, 1935. 00 Callon, Albert M. A Score Card and Typical Standards for School Bus Bodies. Master’s thesis, University of Cincinnati, 1930. 07 Fox, C. D. A Cumulative System of Accounting for School Bus Transportation. Master’s thesis, Ohio State University, 1933. RURAL AND OTHER SPARSELY SETTLED AREAS 59 school course. Florida and Vermont passed legislation requiring that insurance be carried on pupils transported, while Indiana, Nevada, New Hampshire, and North Carolina were among those legislating on matters of increased safety in transportation. The rural superintendent . — The county superintendency is an office still in evolution. Newsom 68 gives us a picture of this develop¬ ment down to 1930. His study deals with such matters as the date when the office was first created in a State, the length of term, provi¬ sion for assistants, allowance for expenses, powers and duties, quali¬ fications, salaries, and methods of selection. He shows, for example, that from 1880, when 20 States had citizenship only as an absolute requirement, the number of such States had been reduced to 13 by 1905 and to 5 by 1930. In 1880 no State specifically required the county superintendent to be a college or a normal school graduate. At present several States, including Maryland, Ohio, Pennsylvania, Utah, and West Virginia, have such a requirement for superin¬ tendents entering the service, while in other States the State depart¬ ment has been given authority to fix the qualifications of the office. While graduate work in a college or university is not generally a legal requirement, several States report that many county superin¬ tendents in service have done and are doing graduate study. The general trend as to method of selection has been in the direction of appointment as contrasted with popular election, although the progress has been slow. Butterworth 69 made a study of the status of county superintendents as of 1927-28. His data, covering 60 percent of all such officers in the country, showed the situation to be as follows: 71 percent were men; the median age at time of appointment was 44.8 years; the median educational experience was 19.9 years, of which 9.4 years had been devoted to teaching in grades 1 to 12 ; 18 percent had had no experience in grades 1 to 6, and 6 percent none in grades 7 to 12 ; the total years of experience as county superintendent was 7 years, and as county superintendent continuously, 5.4 years; the median number of years of training above the elementary school was 7.8 years, 50 percent of the number having had between 6.1 and 8.6 years of training; 57 percent held no degree, while 33 had a bachelor’s degree, 9 a master’s, and 1 a doctor’s; the median salary was $2,312, 50 percent having between $1,827 and $2,931. On the average, these superintendents were supervising 55 buildings, of which 38 were 1-teacher buildings. They had supervision over 145 teachers, but “Newsom, N. William. The Legal Status of the County Superintendent. (U. S. Office of Education, Bulletin 1932, No. 7.) 68 Butterworth, Julian E. The County Superintendent in the United States. (U. S. Office of Education, Bulletin 1932, No. 6.) 60 BIENNIAL SURVEY OF EDUCATION, 1934-36 1,830 of them had only 812 supervisory assistants, 1,410 having none. Eight hundred and two of 1,860 had no stenographic assistance. In 25 of the States, the county superintendent was still chosen through popular election. A summary of certain of these data show : * * * that, taking the States as a group, appointment by any method gives a larger percentage of superintendents who are men, a longer period of training above the elementary school, a longer administrative experience, a longer experience as county superintendent, a larger salary, a larger percentage who were holding an administrative position when first elected as county superintendent, and a somewhat smaller percentage who were holding a non-educational position when first selected as county superin¬ tendent. The salary situation was complicated, partly because in so many States there was no responsible board of education to evaluate a superintendent’s work and reward him accordingly, and partly because numerous legal limitations made the financial rewards of the office frequently an arbitrary matter. There appear to be no data that give a clear picture regarding this office at the present time. However, certain legislation has been passed that for the most part looks toward an improvement in the status of this office. South Dakota has recently provided that when a county superintendent has 50 or more teachers, an office deputy may be appointed, and when there are 100 or more teachers a field deputy may be appointed. North Carolina requires that a county superin¬ tendent be a graduate of a 4-year standard college and have 3 years’ successful teaching experience. Michigan has increased the minimum teaching experience required from 12 to 27 months and the length of training from graduation from a normal school or college of at least 3 years in length to the holding of a bachelor’s degree. Ver¬ mont has provided that the election of union superintendents by local boards shall be subject to approval by the commissioner of education and has increased the minimum salary from $1,600 to $2,000. South Dakota has proposed a constitutional amendment to remove the term limitation from this office and to provide for the election of the superintendent on a nonpolitical ballot. In Arkansas a definitely backward movement appears to have taken place. The county superintendency that had paid a minimum of $1,500 was in 1935 discontinued. At the same time the county board of education was discontinued, and the functions of this board were transferred to the county courts. In place of the county superintendent, part- time officers with nominal duties, known as county examiners of schools, are provided. They must be engaged as teachers and are selected by a ballot of teachers in the county. The person so selected must hold a professional teacher’s certificate or the equivalent. His salary may not exceed $600. RURAL AND OTHER SPARSELY SETTLED AREAS 61 Section IV. Some Newer Practices In Education Outside of Cities During a period of serious economic depression it is to be ex¬ pected that progressive movements in education should lag, especially in areas in which even in more prosperous years many school fa¬ cilities generally considered essential were inadequate. Naturally, then, newer movements and practices in education made relatively little headway during the period and in the localities with which this chapter is concerned. In general, school officials found it dif¬ ficult to avoid slipping backward; and progressive practices, except those growing out of the depression itself or intended to mitigate somewhat the effects of severe retrenchments, were postponed in the hope of more favorable conditions. Probably in part at least be¬ cause of depression conditions, the welfare of rural youth in com¬ mon with all youth received renewed attention. One result, namely, increase in high-school attendance, is considered elsewhere in this chapter. Adult education was undoubtedly stimulated during the period through Federal contributions. The movement toward State funds, reorganization of administra¬ tive units as well as the availability of Federal funds, has affected the attitude toward provision of school buildings in sparsely settled areas to a considerable degree during the period, and the growing attention which schools in general are giving to problems concerned with the education of exceptional children shows signs of affecting somewhat, though so far slightly, the welfare of children in sparsely settled areas. Certain changes in the school building situation, in one phase of adult education, and in the attitude toward the educa¬ tion of exceptional children in rural and other sparsely settled sec¬ tions seem worthy of note in this section. SCHOOL BUILDINGS'10 Construction of new rural school buildings and general improve¬ ment and repair and maintenance of the rural school plant have been greatly influenced during the last few years by (1) educa¬ tional readjustment in school organization and administration, and (2) by changes in financial support of the public school. The educational readjustments started some years ago with the movement toward consolidation of local school units to increase the size of the rural school and to enable rural communities to accept responsibility for providing rural children with a minimum 12-year school program similar to that long accepted by cities. Although the movement for organization of new consolidated school districts 70 Prepared with the cooperation of W. K. Wilson, Supervisor, Division of Buildings and Grounds ; State Department of Education of New York. 62 BIENNIAL SURVEY OF EDUCATION, 1934-36 lias about run its course in several States, there is a very definite tendency for small rural districts to disorganize and become a part of an already established larger unit with a well-organized school either for elementary or high-school work or both. Since good roads and rapid, safe transportation increase the possibilities for the ex¬ pansion of this movement, it seems unwise to thoughtful voters to place an indebtedness upon themselves for the construction of a new school building for which the demand may be temporary only. Just how extensive this movement will be in eliminating the need for continuing present or providing new small rural school buildings is uncertain. However, many small schools are so located in respect to their physical environment that it seems safe to predict that their use will be extended for many years. The sooner that needed edu¬ cational readjustments are made the sooner these small schools can provide children with buildings meeting recognized minimum stand¬ ards, which in most instances will mean new or remodeled school buildings. The depression brought about a condition such that taxpayers gen¬ erally demanded a reduction in assessed property valuations for taxing purposes and a corresponding reduction in ad valorem taxes. Financial ability of the local school administrative units were such that they could not provide current operating expenses, to say nothing of providing new buildings or needed repair and satisfactory maintenance of present buildings. In many States there was a sub¬ stantial increase in appropriations of State funds to support educa¬ tion and to equalize educational opportunities. In administering such financial assistance the States began to examine into the unit costs of the small schools and in many instances placed a penalty on the continuance of the small school or a premium on its attachment to a larger unit when a change could be effectively accomplished. This resulted in so much uncertainty concerned with retention of many small schools that buildings were not provided even in districts that could finance them with the State’s assistance in operating costs. However, many hundreds of school districts lacked the financial ability to provide adequate buildings even when the State assumed a large share of the current costs. In order to overcome this handi¬ cap to the provision of better rural school buildings, Alabama has included capital outlay expenditures as a part of its State equaliza¬ tion program. By far the larger majority of school building projects of the last 3 years have been stimulated by availability of Federal funds. State administrators of such funds have cooperated with State departments of education in locating the school building projects according to educational needs, limited of course by the availability of relief labor. RURAL AND OTHER SPARSELY SETTLED AREAS 63 Federal funds have also been used in many States in making studies of present school building needs and in anticipating future needs. Complete Nation-wide surveys of the school building situation in rural communities of recent date are not available. Dr. S. L. Smith of the Julius Rosenwald Fund compiled a summary of State reports on estimated needs for school-plant rehabilitation for the Nation as a whole in 1934. He later reviewed progress in schoolhouse construc¬ tion for the period 1930-35. He showed that responsibility for increase during the latter part of this period was due largely to con¬ tributions of Federal funds to schoolhouse construction in urban as well as rural situations. Both of these studies are reported in the proceedings of the National Council on Schoolhouse Construction, which devotes several sections to the rural school building situation, as well as a number of rather extensive State-wide studies. Several important State-wide school building surveys concerned wholly or in part with conditions in sparsely settled areas have recently been made, mostly by State departments of education, or with their cooperation. Some of these surveys estimate the building needs in terms of the present local organizations. Others consider feasibility and cost of reorganization with needed transportation and propose a plan of reorganization of local school units upon which they base an estimate of school building needs for the State. Mis¬ sissippi, Alabama, and Virginia, which are typical of this latter and larger group, have placed emphasis upon planning a long-time school building program in terms of planned progress in the reorganization of local school units and the life expectancy of school buildings al¬ ready constructed. California is typical of State-wide studies made of the adequacy of existing school buildings in terms of the present plan of organization. This does not imply, however, that States which have made studies of this kind expect to stop without project¬ ing a school building program based upon needed reorganization. Some State-wide studies of school buildings have been for pur¬ poses other than estimating total financial needs in capital outlay. Professor Noffsinger of the School of Education of Indiana Uni¬ versity made a study of school building needs in Indiana for the purpose of determining the possibility of further worth-while con¬ solidation in this State. The study was concerned with attendance centers and with the development of indices for the determination of bases for the distribution of grants from State funds for the erection of school buildings. In 1933 Dr. W. K. Wilson, of the New York State department of education, completed a study developing techniques for planning small high schools which is now the basis of planning for such school buildings which come under the approval of the commissioner of 64 BIENNIAL SURVEY OF EDUCATION, 1934-36 education of New York. Its basic principle is that school buildings exist for the purpose of housing groups of children and carrying on a definite education program. Therefore, all educational plan¬ ning must start with a definite enrollment figure and a well-defined program of education. F actors of growth, feasibility, and maximum utilization of the plant are all considered. A few important studies have been made on existing school buildings in rural communities and existing and desirable minimum standards for rural school buildings. S. A. Chalmers made a study concerned with small rural schoolhouses in 1931. Dr. Haskell Pruett, in 1933, made a study of school-plant requirements for stand¬ ardized elementary and accredited high schools in which much emphasis was placed upon the lack of well-defined standards for rural elementary schools. Dr. T. C. Holy and others, in a survey of education in West Virginia, made detailed investigation of the rural-school buildings in that State. However, there have been few research studies of significance carried on in the field of school! buildings, as evidenced by the same author in 1935 in a review of educational research. Dr. Holy pointed out the extreme dearth of research in school building planning and discussed wisely the need for such research on a wide scale. Such progress as has been made during and since the depression concerned with school buildings and school facilities in rural com¬ munities seems to be definitely in two directions. The first trend is that of surveying existing facilities and needs on a State-wide or region-wide scale, as a basis for the formulation of an organized building program for the State or region concerned. This trend marks a departure from the opportunistic small community planning of school buildings which adheres closely to established district bounda¬ ries without due regard to larger areas which could be served with economy and efficiency. The second trend is toward actual formula¬ tion of long-time building programs based on conditions disclosed by the surveys referred to for large areas either directly adapted to reorganized administrative units, where reorganization seems desira¬ ble, or flexible enough to permit such adaptation later. In short, the trend is toward the adoption of plans for administrative and attendance units; a school program suited to the needs of such units, and as a final step, planning of a building program adopted to the educational needs of the children involved. FORUMS IN RURAL COMMUNITIES 71 During the past year a Nation-wide project in adult education, organized especially for the promotion of a wider knowledge of 71 Prepared by Chester Williams, Assistant Administrator, Public Forums Project, Office of Education. RURAL AND OTHER SPARSELY SETTLED AREAS 05 civic affairs on the part of citizens, has been under way under the direction of the United States Office of Education. The plan, known as the Forum plan, contemplates group discus¬ sion of civic problems — local, national, and international — under trained leadership, and with an organization designed to promote complete freedom of discussion on the part of all members of the group. For a number of years experimentation in this form of adult education has been under way — one particularly successful experi¬ ment in Des Moines, Iowa. The project referred to here is an extension of the plan worked out there on a Nation-wide scale, financed by funds allotted to the Office of Education from the Works Progress Administration. In order that the project be representative, democratic, and educa¬ tional, all groups so far established are supervised by the superin¬ tendents of schools. Conferences were called by the United States Commissioner of Education before any of the local forum projects were initiated. The conferees were representative of all sections of the United States and included, beside forum and adult educational leaders, school superintendents, educators, and interested citizens. Plans for the selection of centers for the location of forums for suitable topics, competent leaders, and other essential details were discussed. From the beginning the interests and needs of rural people and plans for extending the proposed services into rural communities were carefully considered. It is, of course, recognized that public forums in general sponsored by varying types of groups, public and private, are now available in a greater degree and can more readily be made available to people in metropolitan centers than to rural groups. Reasons for this are obviously due to scattered population, inacces¬ sibility of available centers, and consequent difficulty of securing forum speakers at a reasonable cost when trained leadership is neces¬ sary or desirable. On the other hand, surveys of forums of all types now under way show that there is more of the small group type of discussion going on among farmers and rural groups generally than is commonly believed possible. It is also true that adult education programs of farm organizations for both men and women, and of the Extension Service of the Department of Agriculture, have grown in number during recent years and that they are in an increasing degree adopt¬ ing group discussion methods. Because of the limitations and difficulties as well as the encouraging factors indicated, the forum demonstration program of the Office of Education has attempted both to provide forum facilities for rural people and to point some directions in meeting the problems involved. 66 BIENNIAL SURVEY OF EDUCATION, 1934-36 in conducting them. It is the hypothesis of this program that a cer¬ tain minimum population is necessary in order to procure and justify the administration of an adult civic education program. The proj¬ ects have, therefore, been established in communities both rural and urban having populations of 100,000 or more. A few of these proj¬ ects have been placed within city limits, others have included entire counties, the rural and urban populations, while still others have included two or more counties. One of the projects located in North Carolina will serve an area including 7 counties with no urban center larger than 10,000 population. This center includes 7 county school districts and 5 urban school districts. This is called a forum district. It represents a pattern of possible organization for meeting the needs of rural people in the field of public discussion. Tnis par¬ ticular project will conduct 20 to 24 forum meetings per wTeek in dif¬ ferent places in the 7 counties, thus enabling the people in all parts of the area to participate in meetings near their homes. The meetings will be held in schoolhouses, grange halls, and other convenient meet¬ ing places. It is considered both practical and essential that forums should make available for rural people leadership as competent and well trained as is now available to people in large cities. This is made possible by employing leaders on a monthly basis who follow a regular schedule of meetings at the rate of five or six per week in as many different parts of the forum district. Of the forums now under way those which are located and con¬ ducted in a manner designed to promote accessibility to rural people and now enrolling them in comparatively large numbers are: The project under way in three counties in West Virginia and under the direction of the county superintendent of Monongalia County; the one in Chattanooga, including Hamilton County, Tenn., directed by the county superintendent of schools of that county; the one in Colorado Springs, Colo., the district including three counties under the direction of the city superintendent of schools of Colorado Springs; and the North Carolina project, which includes seven counties. PROVISIONS FOR EXCEPTIONAL CHILDREN’12 It is commonly known that there is a large number of children in the schools of the country whose marked physical, mental, or emo¬ tional deviation from normal requires a radical adjustment of the educational program. There is no reason to believe that the ratio of such children to the total school population is any lower in rural dis¬ tricts than in cities. Yet special facilities designed to meet their 72 Prepared by Elise Martens, senior specialist in the education of exceptional children, Office of Education. RURAL AND OTHER SPARSELY SETTLED AREAS 67 needs are almost exclusively restricted to city school systems. Even from some of the States in which the greatest progress has been made for the education of exceptional children comes the confession in one form or another that there is “no organization for special education of any kind in the rural communities.” Difficulties involved. — Obviously there are serious difficulties which hinder effective programs for children of this type living in rural districts. Pupils are widely scattered and isolated from the centers of population and highly developed educational opportunities. There are too few in any one group of exceptional children to make feasible the organization of a particular type of special class for them. In a given district there may be one crippled child, a deaf or a hard-of-hearing child, one or two mentally retarded children, a stammerer, one who has defective vision, and an especially brilliant pupil. A few who suffer from an extreme handicap may not be attending school at all but kept at home with no constructive plans for their education. What must be done is to find some way through which each of these will be given the type of special educational serv¬ ice that he needs in the light of his own peculiar condition. State organization. — Regardless of the lack of progress in this direction that characterizes the rural situation, there are definite possibilities for meeting the problems involved, certain of which have already been explored. Of first importance is the need of recognition of the problem by the State and of some type of organi¬ zation within the State department of public instruction which shall have as its objective the development of a State- wide program of special education for exceptional children. In each of 13 States a division now exists which carries such a responsibility, namely, in California, Connecticut, Delaware, Kentucky, Maryland, Massachu¬ setts, Michigan, Minnesota, New York, Ohio, Pennsylvania, Wiscon¬ sin, and Wyoming. Three of them have been established since- 1928. Through the services rendered by these divisions, some beginning's have been made in reaching rural children. In most cases this has been done, not through bringing special classes to the rural com¬ munities but through bringing handicapped children to the communi¬ ties in which special schools or classes are functioning. Those who are blind or profoundly deaf are usually sent to State residential schools established for these groups; so also those who are feeble¬ minded. But there are many children not needing the services of residential schools, but still sufficiently handicapped to require some special educational adjustment. These are the ones who should be, and in a few cases are, served through special day schools or classes in nearby districts or through special adjustment in their own schools. 68 BIENNIAL SURVEY OF EDUCATION, 1934-36 From a State supervisor of special education in Wisconsin, for example, comes the statement that “the children (in rural com¬ munities) who are so hard-of-hearing that they are unable success¬ fully to pursue their education in the regular public school are either transported or boarded, and attend our special classes for the hard- of-hearing. We are making a beginning in special education for the conservation of vision under a similar organization.” Crippled children are likewise brought to centers specially equipped to serve them in an educational way. The same general plan is used in Ohio, the State paying the expense of transportation and boarding homes as well as the excess cost of the special educational program. Example of a State program for crippled children. — A more de¬ tailed statement of the educational provisions made for crippled children in the State of Wisconsin is given below as an example of a comprehensive State program for this group of handicapped chil¬ dren. The program is administered and supervised through the crippled children division of the State department of public instruc¬ tion. All phases of it receive State aid made available by appro¬ priation of the State legislature. The following are the elements included 73 in the program, which has had its major development since the year 1927 : 1. Orthopedic schools in which academic instruction is carried on in conjunction with physical therapy. — There are 10 of these centers in the State, established for crippled children who require therapeutic treatment. The financial responsibility for them is a joint one, in that the city, village, or township having children enrolled in an orthopedic school is responsible for the normal cost of education, which is covered by tuition charges, while the State is responsible for paying the excess cost of conducting the school. 2. Transportation to the orthopedic schools of all pupils, including nonres¬ ident children who live near enough to permit daily transportation. 3. Maintenance of nonresident crippled children if their place of resi¬ dence is too far removed from an orthopedic school to permit daily trans¬ portation. — Boarding homes are found for these in the vicinity of the school. 4. Transportation of crippled children attending a regular local school. — This provision is intended primarily for those crippled children who do not need physical therapy but who can with proper adjustments attend the local school for all children. 5. Maintenance in hoarding homes of crippled high-school students living in rural communities. — This makes possible the high-school attendance of crippled children who live in rural districts 8 or 10 miles from the nearest high school and whose parents are financially unable to meet the cost. 6. Academic instruction in orthopedic hospitals, of ivhicli there are 3 in the State serving children from every section. 78 Taken from recent report by the Director, Crippled Children Division, State Depart¬ ment of Public Instruction, Madison, Wis. RURAL AND OTHER SPARSELY SETTLED AREAS 69 Itinerant teachers. — Another means of reaching certain types of handicapped children in rural communities which has been adopted by some State divisions of special education is that of using the services of an itinerant teacher. Itinerant speech correction or lip-reading teachers can bring material help to stuttering and slightly hard-of-hearing children, particularly if teachers in the home schools cooperate and follow up the work done by the specialists. So also the homebound crippled child, who is unable to go to school at all, can reap unbounded benefit and joy from the periodic visits of an itinerant teacher. This plan has been extensively developed in Massachusetts under State supervision and with gratifying results. A cooperative relationship between the State and the local district in providing such services has appeared to be the logical and the most helpful arrangement. Teaching at home, however, even at its best, deprives the child of the opportunities for social contacts and adaptations which he enjoys through school attendance. It is to this extent limited in its educational value, and is regarded by some specialists as being the least desirable method to be used with handi¬ capped children. Responsibility of regular teachers. — Both State and local dis¬ tricts, however, must go further. Not only are the services of specially trained teachers valuable in special class centers or in an itinerant capacity, but the regular teachers in the rural schools can be helped to make certain adjustments as they are needed for indi¬ vidual children. Segregation in a special school or class in many instances is neither necessary nor advisable. Every teacher can with the proper guidance learn to use the needed equipment and apply the principles of sight conservation to her classroom, particu¬ larly with reference to pupils who suffer from impaired vision. Every teacher can learn to apply first aid to the hard-of-hearing child through arrangements of seating and lighting and through the encouragement of distinct articulation on the part of all. An automobile and a special seat or a wheel chair may be all that is needed in order to give a crippled child the advantages of school attendance. Curriculum adjustment for retarded and for gifted children can be effectively handled as individual problems in class¬ room organization. With the assistance and cooperation of special¬ ists working from the State or the county office, manifold situations of this kind can be met in rural districts that have as yet not been touched. The consolidated school. — With all of these approaches to the edu¬ cation of exceptional children in rural communities, one must not for¬ get the advantages of the consolidated school and its accompanying possibilities for the organization of special education. With its 70 BIENNIAL SURVEY OF EDUCATION, 1934-36 larger enrollment and with transportation furnished, such a school is the logical center for the establishment of special “opportunity” classes for partially seeing children, for the hard-of-hearing and speech-defectives, for retarded children, for crippled children, or for any other types, provided they need the segregated attention. Here special equipment can be centralized, specialized teaching methods can be made available, and handicapped children will profit from the closer association with other children and the better mutual under¬ standing of one another’s problems. Thus in the complete picture of special education that is to serve rural children, consolidated schools and special centers, day schools, and residential schools, itinerant teachers and regular teachers, trans¬ portation and maintenance, all have a place. None of them can ade¬ quately serve isolated communities unless the State, through its department of public instruction, accepts the responsibility for en¬ acting needed legislation, giving financial assistance, and providing supervisory service in keeping with the needs of local districts. It is reported from Wisconsin that the “whole legislative program for care of crippled children was based and has been developed with the idea of equalizing the opportunities for children of both rural and urban communities.” This is an objective worthy of emulation. It is to be hoped that it may become true not only of the education of crippled children but of every group of the handicapped — not only of Wisconsin, but of every State in the Union. Insofar as it becomes a reality in any State, to that extent the State will have achieved distinctive progress in rural education. O ' UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR HAROLD L. ICKES : SECRETARY OFFICE OF EDUCATION : J. W. STUDEBAKER COMMISSIONER EFFECTS OF THE DEPRESSION UPON PUBLIC ELEMENTARY AND SECONDARY SCHOOLS AND UPON COLLEGES AND UNIVERSITIES being Chapter VI of Volume I of the BIENNIAL SURVEY OF EDUCATION IN THE UNITED STATES : 1934-36 BULLETIN, 1937, No. 2 [advance pages] By W. S. DEFFENBAUGH Chief, Division of American School Systems ( Assisted by persons named in the text) UNITED STATES GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE WASHINGTON : 1938 For sale by the Superintendent of Documents, Washington, D. C. Price 10 cents CONTENTS Page Foreword _ v I. Public elementary and secondary schools _ 1 The situation in 1929-30 _ 2 Financial support _ 6 Income _ 6 Assesments and tax rates _ 7 Current expenses _ 9 Cost per pupil _ 11 Capital outlay _ 14 The school term _ 15 Supervisory and teaching staff _ 19 Number _ 19 Salaries _ 24 Qualifications _ 26 Instructional services _ 27 Textbooks and supplies _ 28 Schools and classes for special purposes _ 30 Schools and classes for exceptional children _ 30 Summer schools _ 31 Evening schools _ 32 Nursery schools and kindergartens _ 32 Vocational schools and classes _ 34 Enrollments _ 35 Important changes in financing the public schools _ 35 II. Colleges and universities _ 45 Financial support _ 45 Faculty salaries _ 49 Enrollments _ 50 Legislation affecting State colleges and universities _ 51 State government reorganizations _ 52 Department type of organization _ 53 Centralized financial supervision _ 54 Laws affecting faculty members _ 54 Fixing salaries of faculty members in appropriation acts _ 55 Centralized control of printing _ 57 Study by a special committee of the American Association of University Professors _ 58 hi ■ FOREWORD During the period when the economic depression was having the most serious effect upon schools, the Office of Education presented relevant data in a number of different publications. This chapter of the Biennial Survey of Education reviews the most significant findings in those publications and draws them together as a permanent record of some of the most important effects of subnormal economic conditions of the period upon the schools. The lack of similar informa¬ tion of previous depressions made it evident that such a record is desirable. Other chapters in the Commissioner's Biennial Survey, while not treating this problem specifically, will, nevertheless, indicate trends with respect to elementary, secondary, and higher education during the past several years, and will show what rebuilding and reorganiza¬ tion have followed the depression. This chapter also shows a number of new developments which are worth careful appraisal. This chapter of the Biennial Survey of Education was prepared by W. S. Deffenbaugh, Chief of the Division of American School Sys¬ tems, with the collaboration of certain members of the Office staff whose contributions are indicated at appropriate places. Bess Goodykoontz, Assistant Commissioner of Education. # CHAPTER VI EFFECTS OF THE DEPRESSION UPON PUBLIC ELEMEN¬ TARY AND SECONDARY SCHOOLS AND UPON COLLEGES AND UNIVERSITIES I. Public Elementary and Secondary Schools The severe economic depression beginning about 1929 and con¬ tinuing for several years thereafter resulted in financial losses or re¬ duced incomes to millions of people. Savings were wiped out in an instant by bank failures, factories were closed or were operated at much less than full capacity, millions were unemployed and scarcely knew where to look for their next meal. The laborer, the farmer, the manu¬ facturer, and countless others faced not only financial losses but the specter of fear, which in many instances affected their lives to as great an extent as actual financial losses, reduced wages, or incomes. Every institution as well as every individual was affected. Of the public institutions, the schools were among the first to operate with reduced budgets. The effects of the economic depression, however, did not begin to be reflected in the schools until after 1930. At first only a school district here and there felt the effects, but by 1932 enough were affected to lower State and national averages with respect to practically every item in school budgets. The situation was so acute that it was a cause of apprehension not only on the part of school administrators and teachers but also on the part of every person and organization interested in the schools of the country. The greatest reduction in school budgets and in the eductional program occurred between 1932 and 1934. Comparatively few data are available to show conditions in 1935, but such as are available indicate that in general reductions in budgets ceased and that in some instances an upward trend began in 1935. The States that had re¬ ceived about $14,000,000 from the Federal Government in 1934 to keep the rural schools open for the usual term required only about $6,000,000 in 1935 for that purpose. Such data as have been compiled for 1936 show a great improvement over 1934 as is evidenced by the fact that the amounts of funds for current expenses, for teachers’ salaries, and for capital outlay increased in a large number of States over those of 1934 and 1935. School terms were somewhat longer during the latter year in several States and many school services which had suffered reduc¬ tions between 1930 and 1934 were restored. A study of per capita costs in city school systems for the years 1934, 1935, and 1936 reveals 1 2 BIENNIAL SURVEY OF EDUCATION, 1934-36 that in more than 86 percent of the cities reporting the cost per pupil for current expenses during the last year was greater than in 1935 and that in more than 70 percent the per pupil cost was greater in 1935 than in 1934. It thus appears that the effects of the economic depression on the schools were most pronounced during the school year 1933-34. This study therefore depends chiefly upon a summary of data compiled from various reports issued between 1930 and 1934 for statistical information. Regarding its scope, the study is confined to the effects of the depression upon the schools. What its effect was upon children and youth in general is another story that would require years of research to prepare. Several organizations, however, have been mak¬ ing extensive studies of the youth problem which came to the front in the early days of the depression. Just to what extent children were affected because of reduced school budgets, because of shortened school terms in some States, because of large classes, and because of retrenchments in the educational program is not definitely known and probably never will be. That school children were affected adversely due to conditions brought about in the schools because of the depression seems evident to the observer, but how much less they achieved than formerly cannot be stated quantitatively. That the depression, or rather changed social and economic condi¬ tions, brought forcibly to the attention of school administrators and teachers many problems relating to school organization and the curric¬ ulum is also evident. Only a series of research studies will help solve such problems as the depression revealed and as are now con¬ fronting the schools. Many such problems are presented in Research Memorandum on Education in the Degressions by the Educational Poli¬ cies Commission of the National Education Association, published as Bulletin 28, 1937, by the Social Science Research Council, New York, N. Y. THE SITUATION IN 1929-30 It was not until several years after the World War that the schools began to be affected by the general prosperity of the country. Taking 1920 as a starting point the expenditures for public day schools in¬ creased rapidly until 1930 when the peak of expenditures was reached. In 1920 the total current expense item amounted to $864,396,526 and in 1930 to $1,843,551,708, or an increase of 113 percent. Within the 10-year period capital outlay increased from $153,542,825 in 1920 to $370,877,969 in 1930, or 83.3 percent. The peak of expenditures for capital outlay was, however, reached in 1925 when it amounted to $433,584,559, or 182 percent more than in 1920. The average annual EFFECTS OF THE DEPRESSION ON SCHOOLS 3 salaries of supervisors, principals, and teachers increased from $871 in 1920 to $1,420 in 1930, or 63 percent. In cities having a population of 10,000 or more the percentage increase in current expenses and capital outlay for school purposes from 1920 to 1930 was much greater than for the country as a whole. During the decade current expenses in cities of this size increased from $375,111,624 to $920,381,632, or 146 percent, as compared with an increase of 113 percent for the entire country. Capital outlay in these cities increased from $59,724,864 in 1920 to $200,757,495 in 1930, or 236 percent, as compared with an 83.3 percent increase for the country as a whole. The average salaries of teachers in cities increased from $1,247 in 1920 to $2,019 in 1930, or 62 percent, which is practically the same percentage increase as for the entire country. That the schools were better supported in 1930 than at any previous time and that they were generally progressing is true, but they were still susceptible to improvement. There were many teachers who did not measure up to the generally accepted standards of professional preparation. Considering 2 years of college education as a standard for elementary school teachers, 26.2 percent fell below this standard, and considering 4 years of college education as a desirable standard for such teachers, 87.9 percent had not attained it. In comparing the preparation of elementary school teachers by size of location the following proportions of teachers were below the 2-year standard: Percent Open country, 1- and 2-teacher schools _ 61. 8 Open country, 3- or more teacher schools _ 28. 4 Villages of less than 2,500 population _ 21. 0 Cities of 2,500 to 9,999 population _ 12. 6 Cities of 10,000 to 99,999 population _ 10. 5 Cities of 100,000 or more population _ 9.2 Considering 4 years of college work as a standard for secondary school teachers, 39.6 percent of the junior high and 12.9 percent of the senior high school teachers had not attained this standard. Teachers’ salaries in general were not high, the average for the entire country being only $1,420; 58.4 percent of the rural white teachers were receiving less than $1,000 a year, 27.6 percent less than $800 a year, and 7.4 percent less than $600 a year; 96 percent of the rural Negro teachers were receiving less than $1,000 a year, 52.2 percent less than $400 a year, and 34.1 percent were receiving less than $300 a year. The median salary for rural white teachers for all types of rural schools was $945; for 1-teacher schools, $883. The median salary for all types of rural schools for Negroes was $388 and for 1-teacher schools, $314. 5333° — 35 -2 4 BIENNIAL SURVEY OF EDUCATION, 1934-36 The average school term for the entire country was only 172.7 days. In the cities having a population of 2,500 or more the average was 184.5 days and the remainder of the country only 160.6 days. In 30 States reporting there were 717,182 children enrolled who had school terms of not more than 120 days and 142,256 who had school terms of not more than 80 days. If all of the States had reported, the number of children having school terms of not more than 120 days probably would have been over a million, and the number having school terms of not more than 80 days probably would have been over 200,000. Many services needed to be expanded and improved especially in the rural school districts, such as supervisory, health, and library services. There was lack of supervision in the school districts under county superintendents. Of 1,830 counties reporting on the number of supervisory assistants to the county superintendents only 812 employed such assistants. Of the 1,830 counties 1,410 employed no supervisory assistants; 223 employed 1; 118, 2; 51, 3; 14, 4; 5, 15; 1, 6 ; 1 , 7 ; 3, 8 ; only 3 employed more than 8. The distribution of the 641 supervisors as to the nature of the work was as follows: 280 super¬ vised all grades; 93, grades 1 to 6; 9, grades 1 to 7; 9, grades 10 to 12; 59 supervised Negro schools; 58 supervised music; 29, art; 21, health education; 18, miscellaneous subjects and activities; 17, home eco¬ nomics; 16, physical education; 16, agriculture; 10, high school; 3, curriculum; 3, penmanship. These data show clearly that even in the 420 counties that employed supervisors there was little professional supervision, especially in the fields of music, art, health and physical education, home economics, and agriculture. Even the city schools were not overstaffed with general and special supervisors. They were, however, faring much better than the rural schools with respect to supervision since practically every city having a population of 10,000 or more employed both general and special supervisors in addition to supervising principals for each of the buildings. Equality of opportunity for the fullest development of the individual powers of every child is a part of the American philosophy of education. This opportunity did not exist in many respects for thousands of chil¬ dren, and especially for the thousands of physically and mentally handicapped. Accurate data showing the number of children who needed special attention and the number enrolled in special schools and classes for exceptional children in 1930 are not available. Table 1, however, shows the approximate number of cities having a population of 10,000 or more that maintained various types of special schools and classes for exceptional children in 1930, the enrollment in each type, and the estimated number of children who should have been in such schools and classes. EFFECTS OF THE DEPRESSION ON SCHOOLS 5 Table 1.— CITY SCHOOL PROVISIONS FOR EXCEPTIONAL CHILDREN IN 1930, WITH ESTIMATED FIGURES OF INCIDENCE Type of exceptional child Number of cities reporting Number of pupils en¬ rolled in cities reporting Estimated number of ex¬ ceptional chil¬ dren needing special educa¬ tion 1 1 3 3 4 Mentally deficient. ._ _ ._ _ . _ - _ -- 315 55,154 3, 901 5,000 52, 112 31, 186 10, 110 500, 000 500, 000 50, 000 1, 000, 000 6, 000, 000 100, 000 750, 000 Deaf and hard-of-hearing _ _ __ . 105 Blind and partially seeing _ _ __ _ 106 Speech defective.. ... _ _ . .. _ . _ 65 Anaemic and tubercular _ _ _ 126 Crippled _ _ _ - _ _ 93 Delinquent, unstable _ .. _ _ _ _ 55 9,040 3, 883 Gifted .. _ _ _ _ _ . _ ... 30 500, 000 1 Adapted from White House conference report. . If cities and towns of less than 10,000 population had been included the number of children enrolled in special schools and classes would have been somewhat increased, though the provision for such schools and classes in these small communities was very limited. Although the American philosophy of education would offer opportunity for the vast number of exceptional children, it is evident that such oppor¬ tunity at the close of the prosperous era was largely a matter of theory rather than one of actuality. As stated in the Biennial Survey of the Commissioner of Education for 1928-30 regarding schools and classes for exceptional children, “One cannot help but be almost overwhelmed when one compares the figures for the groups of exceptional children, giving the estimated incidence on the one hand and on the other hand the number of chil¬ dren provided for — the contrast is appalling.” The value of kindergartens has long been recognized by educators, but even with this recognition there were in 1930 only 955, or about one- third of the cities having a population of 2,500 or more, that maintained kindergartens. The number of children enrolled in kin¬ dergartens in the cities was 665,352, or only 27.8 percent of the 2,390,592 children 4 or 5 years of age living in urban communities. In the village and rural communities very few of the 2,483,223 children 4 and 5 years of age living in such communities were enrolled in kin¬ dergartens. It thus appears that kindergarten advantages were available for only a very small percentage of the children of the country. Although millions of dollars were expended between 1920 and 1930 in the erection of school buildings there still remained in 1930 need for additional schoolhouses, some to care for increased enrollments and some to replace antiquated, unsafe, and insanitary buildings. 6 BIENNIAL SURVEY OF EDUCATION, 1934-36 The White House conference report commenting upon the school building situation says:1 A visit to a modern elementary or high-school building in any of the pro¬ gressive communities of America is likely to leave the impression that the health and physical well-being of American school children are being cared for in a manner to make any citizen proud of the high regard of his community for its children. There is a large and ever increasing number of com¬ munities in which such high regard is evident. But it would be unwise in the extreme to assume that school children throughout the country generally are receiving the attention they deserve simply because great advances have been made in certain localities in matters of schoolhouse planning, location, and construction, and the provision of adequate playgrounds. * * * Many communities have a long way to go before they can even approxi¬ mate desirable conditions for their boys and girls. The examination of edu¬ cational periodicals and yearbooks does not bring to light the unwholesome conditions which prevail in many localities; buildings which are dark and dingy and unsanitary; others which are veritable fire traps; school sites which make no provision whatsoever for play space; others located in the most un¬ wholesome and unsatisfactory surroundings with toilet facilities which are unspeakably filthy and woefully inadequate. * * * Children are at¬ tending schools in basement rooms in which no sunlight ever enters; they are being exposed every day to danger of injury or loss of life because of the condition of the buildings in which they are housed. Data on other phases of education might also be presented to show that school conditions in 1930, or just before the depression hit the schools, were far from ideal and in thousands of communities far below the practices in the better schools of the country. There was need for expansion rather than for retrenchment. FINANCIAL SUPPORT Income. — During the period when the depression was affecting the schools, the income from appropriations and taxation from State and local sources decreased in all but five States. The average decrease for the entire country from 1929-30 to 1933-34 was 13.3 percent. The median decrease, however, was 18.8 percent. In the 22 States showing the greatest decrease, the average amounted to 20 or more percent. In 11 of these 22 States the decrease ranged from 20 to 29.9 percent; in 9 of them it ranged from 30 to 39.9 percent; and in the remaining 2, Michigan and Mississippi, it amounted to 41 and 51.5 percent, respectively. Considering all other sources of revenue the amount derived from permanent school funds was 16.3 percent less, from leases of school lands 42.2 percent less, and from Federal grants 193.8 percent more in 1933-34 than in 1929-30. The great increase in Federal funds for school purposes during this period resulted from $14,536,010 in i Report of the White House Conference on Child Health and Protection, sec. Ill, Education and Training. EFFECTS OF THE DEPRESSION ON SCHOOLS 7 Federal Government grants in 1933-34 for the purpose of helping to keep schools open in financially distressed rural school districts. The income from county appropriations and taxes decreased from $209,331,343 in 1929-30 to $162,279,502 in 1933-34, or 22.4 percent; the income from local school taxes decreased from $1,436,356,308 to $1,155,619,214, or 19.5 percent; while the income from State appro¬ priations and taxes increased from $329,312,434 to $402,500,724, or 18.2 percent. Assessments and tax rates. — The decrease in income especially from local sources was due to lower assessments and lower tax rates for school purposes. Data regarding assessments and tax rates for school purposes in 1930 and 1934 are available only for cities having a popu¬ lation of 10,000 or more. In these cities the assessed valuation of property taxed for school purposes decreased 11.8 percent, and the tax rate decreased from 11.4 mills in 1930 to 9.1 mills in 1932, or 20.1 percent. If data on these points were available for the small cities the decrease both in assessment and in tax rates would probably be much greater than in the large cities. Data showing change in tax rates and in assessments from 1931 to 1932 and from 1932 to 1933 were, however, compiled for about 1,200 cities having a population of 2,500 or more. From 1931 to 1932 there was a slight decrease in the assessed valua¬ tion of city school districts in every section of the country except in the North Atlantic States where there was an increase of 1.3 percent (table 2). Table 2.— PERCENTAGE OF CHANGE IN ASSESSED VALUATION OF CITY SCHOOL DISTRICTS FROM 1930-31 TO 1931-32, BY REGION Region Size of city Average for all cities Group I Group II Group III Group IV 1 2 3 4 5 6 North Atlantic.. ... _ . .. . +1.6 -2.3 +1.9 -1.6 +1.3 North Central. _ _ _ _ _ -5.2 -7.3 -5.9 -6.7 -6.0 South Atlantic _ _ ... . +3.2 -3.3 -6.1 -7.1 -4.7 South Central _ _ _ _ —2. 4 -5.6 -0.8 -6.2 -3. 1 Western _ _ _ _ -3.2 -0.8 -0.4 -4.4 -2.9 United States _ _ -0.0 -4.5 -2.3 -3.3 -1.1 The percentage of cities reducing the tax rate for school purposes was greater than the percentage of cities reducing the tax rate for other government purposes in 549 cities reporting. In 47.9 percent of these cities the tax rate for school purposes decreased, while in only 39.5 percent did the tax rate for other purposes decrease. Upon the other 8 BIENNIAL SURVEY OF EDUCATION, 1934-36 hand, while 15.1 percent of the cities reporting increased the school tax rate, 25.9 percent increased the rate for other purposes (table 3). The trend to reduce tax rates for schools more frequently than for other purposes is true for each group of cities; for example, consider¬ ing the 60 cities having a population of 30,000 to 100,000, 56.7 percent decreased the rate for schools, while only 41.7 percent decreased the rate for other governmental expenses. Twenty-three of the cities increased the rate for nonschool purposes, while only 10 increased the rate for schools. It thus appears that in the cities reporting, the de¬ clining tax rates were more commonly affecting the school than they were other enterprises of government. Table 3— CHANGE IN TAX RATE FOR SCHOOLS AND FOR ALL OTHER PURPOSES, 1932 TO 1933 Tax rate Size of city Total (549 cities reporting) Group I (23 cities reporting) Group II (60 cities reporting) Group III (114 cities reporting) Group IV (352 cities reporting) Num¬ ber of cities Per¬ cent Num¬ ber of cities Per¬ cent Num¬ ber of cities Per¬ cent Num¬ ber of cities Per¬ cent Num¬ ber of cities Per¬ cent ' 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 For schools: Increase _ 6 26.1 10 16.6 23 20.2 44 12.5 83 15.1 Same _ _ _ 6 26. 1 16 26.7 32 28. 1 149 42.3 203 37.0 Decrease _ _ 11 47.8 34 56.7 59 51.7 159 45.2 263 47.9 For all other purposes: Increase.. .. . . . 13 56.5 23 38.3 35 30.7 71 20.2 142 25.9 Same _ . 3 13.0 12 20.0 25 21.9 150 42.6 190 34.6 Decrease. . . . 7 30.5 25 41.7 54 47.4 131 37.2 217 39.5 The same general tendency continued and was much the same in 1932-33 when the reduction in assessed valuation in 1,200 cities re¬ porting reached 7.1 percent. Each group of cities in each section of the country showed a decrease (table 4). Table 4.— PERCENTAGE OF CHANGE IN ASSESSED VALUATION OF CITY SCHOOL DISTRICTS FROM 1931-32 TO 1932-33, BY REGION Region Size of city Average for all cities Group I Group II Group III Group IV N orth A tlantic _ _ _ _ -5.2 -0.3 +0.7 +0.5 -4.4 North Central. _ _ _ _ -13.2 -15.7 -8. 1 -9.6 -12.4 South Atlantic.. . . . . . . -4.4 -3.6 -12.4 -8.5 -6.2 South Central _ _ _ -9.5 -8.7 -9.4 -14.0 -10.2 Western . . . . . . -15.6 -10.0 -9.2 -13.0 -14.0 United States _ _ _ -7.2 -7.6 -5.4 -7. 1 -7.1 EFFECTS OF THE DEPRESSION ON SCHOOLS 9 Many cities reporting on assessments did not report on tax rates; 867 of them, however, reported on both assessments and tax rates for 1931-32 and 1932-33. In 629 of these cities the assessment had been lowered. In 311, the tax rate for schools was lower in 1932-33 than in 1931-32; in 223, the rate remained the same; and in 95, the rate was slightly increased (table 5). Table 5.— CHANGE IN TAX RATE FOR SCHOOL PURPOSES IN RELA¬ TION TO CHANGE IN ASSESSMENT, 1932 TO 1933 Size of city Total Group I Group II Group III Group IV Num¬ ber of cities Per¬ cent Num¬ ber of cities Per¬ cent Num¬ ber of cities Per¬ cent Num¬ ber of cities Per¬ cent Num¬ ber of cities Per¬ cent As assessment increased in _ 4 18 38 86 146 The tax rate increased in _ . 0 0.0 2 11.1 5 13. 1 9 10.4 16 11.0 Tax remained the same in - 2 50.0 2 11.1 9 23.7 20 23.3 33 22.6 The tax rate decreased in _ 2 50.0 14 77.8 24 63.2 57 66.3 97 66.4 As assessment decreased in _ 29 59 150 391 629 The tax rate increased in _ 5 17.2 11 18.6 24 16.0 55 14. 1 95 15.1 Tax rate remained same in - 10 34.5 15 25.4 47 31.3 151 38.6 223 35.5 The tax rate decreased in _ 14 48.3 33 56.0 79 52.7 185 47.3 311 49.4 As assessment remained the same in _ 5 18 65 92 The tax rate increased in . 0 0 4 22.2 5 7.2 9 9.8 The tax rate remained the same in _ 3 60.0 10 55. 6 36 52.2 49 53.3 The tax rate decreased in _ 2 40.0 4 22.2 28 40.6 34 36.9 Note.— The above reads: As assessment increased in 4 cities of group I, the tax rate increased in none, remained the same in 2, and decreased in 2, and as assessment decreased in 29 cities of group I, the tax rate increased in 5, remained the same in 10, and decreased in 14, etc. Current expenses. — From 1930 to 1934 current expenses for schools in continental United States decreased from $1,843,551,708 to $1,515,- 530,198, or 17.8 percent. During the 4-year period current expenses decreased in every State except Delaware (table 6). In that State the average increase during the 4 years was 7 percent, there having been an increase of 12.8 percent from 1930-32 and a decrease of 5.2 percent from 1930 to 1934. The average decrease from 1930 to 1934 ranged from 2.6 percent in New York to 38.2 percent in North Caro¬ lina. In 4 States current expenses were reduced from 35 to 40 per¬ cent; in 7 States from 30 to 34.9 percent; in 11 States from 25 to 29.9; in 3 States from 20 to 24.9 percent; in 12 States from 10 to 19.9 percent; and in 11 States less than 10 percent. 10 BIENNIAL SURVEY OF EDUCATION, 1934-36 Table 6— CURRENT EXPENSES, 1929-30 AND 1933-34, AND PER¬ CENTAGE INCREASE OR DECREASE, i BY STATES State 1930 1934 Percentage decrease 1 1 2 3 4 Continental United States - - $1,843,551,708 $1,515,530, 198 17.8 Alabama - 17, 652, 225 15, 281, 193 13.4 Arizona _ - _ _ _ 8, 289, 546 5, 909, 717 28.7 Arkansas _ .. _ — . .. . . . 11, 101, 551 7, 844, 132 29.3 California.. _ - _ _ 121, 136, 633 107, 917, 132 10.9 Colorado _ _ _ _ - . . . 21, 125, 901 15, 378, 576 27.2 Connecticut _ _ _ . _ 28, 155, 339 23, 444, 098 16.7 Delaware _ _ --_ ------- _ _ - 3, 448, 498 3, 688, 808 +7.0 District of Columbia - _ _ _ _ _ 9, 043, 813 8, 196, 504 9.4 Florida _ .-- -- - . _ 13, 516, 229 12, 211, 844 9.7 Georgia _ _ _ _ _ 17, 166, 356 16, 703, 459 3.0 8, 553, 928 5, 931, 755 30.7 123, 430, 692 91, 818, 435 25.6 54, 666, 666 39, 329, 061 28. 1 44, 692, 503 31, 071, 253 30.5 Kansas _ _ _ _ 33, 857, 923 22, 125, 448 34.7 Kentucky. - - - - 20, 009, 576 15, 748, 876 21.3 Louisiana .. - - - - - 16, 847, 280 13, 787, 671 18.2 Maine _ _ _ - _ 9, 647, 509 7, 803, 011 19.1 Maryland. . . - . . . . . --- 18, 880, 053 17,312,285 8.3 Massachusetts _ _ _ 74, 034, 720 66, 905, 157 9.6 Michigan _ _ _ _ _ 96, 968, 550 60, 276, 738 37.8 Minnesota _ -- - -- - - 46, 271, 102 36, 059, 327 22. 1 Mississippi- . . . . . 15, 757, 723 10,665,915 32.3 Missouri _ _ - _ _ _ _ _ _ 40, 513, 185 36, 861, 955 9.0 Montana - - - - - - - 11, 557, 838 8, 385, 843 27.4 Nebraska - - - - - 24, 123, 984 15, 943, 443 33.9 Nevada.. . . . . . . . . . . 2, 039, 602 1, 926, 408 5.5 New Hampshire _ _ 6, 119, 532 5, 489, 053 10.3 New Jersey _ _ . - 82, 801, 149 71, 789, 161 13.3 New Mexico _ _ _ _ 5, 884, 701 5, 289, 343 10. 1 New York.. - - - - - - 256, 705, 491 250, 032, 878 2.6 North Carolina _ _ - . 28, 830, 362 18, 296, 364 36.5 North Dakota _ _ 14, 794, 184 9, 138, 349 38.2 Ohio .... _ 109, 213, 169 86, 292, 654 21.0 Oklahoma - - - -- 30, 780, 341 21, 499, 759 30.2 Oregon. .. .. _ _ _ . _ 16, 030, 009 11, 661, 899 27.2 Pennsylvania _ 145, 861, 417 133, 057, 357 8.8 Rhode Island _ _ _ _ ... - 9, 821, 214 9, 415, 674 4. 1 South Carolina _ _ _ _ 13, 933, 522 10, 280, 279 26.2 South Dakota _ _ _ _ 13, 219, 921 8, 492, 846 35.8 Tennessee _ _ 20, 560, 079 17, 704, 563 13.9 Texas _ _ _ _ 58, 597, 695 50, 070, 685 14.6 Utah _ _ 9, 052, 640 7, 464, 375 17.5 Vermont _ _ _ _ 4, 883, 970 3, 498, 209 28.4 Virginia . .. _ 20, 026, 944 18, 261, 378 8.8 Washington _ 27, 976, 728 19, 622, 984 29.9 West Virginia _ _ _ — 25, 265, 495 18, 284, 495 27.7 Wisconsin . _ 44, 566, 798 37, 177, 937 16.6 Wyoming _ ... ... _ _ _ 6, 137, 422 4, 181, 912 31.9 1 There was a decrease in every State except Delaware. The figures in table 6 are only averages. In many school districts the reductions amounted to more than 50 percent. In fact, as early as 1931-32 it was found that such decreases had been made since 1930-31 in some of the counties (table 7). EFFECTS OF THE DEPRESSION ON SCHOOLS 11 Table 7.— CHANGES IN CURRENT EXPENDITURES REPORTED BY COUNTY AND OTHER SUPERINTENDENTS OF RURAL SCHOOLS, FOR THE PERIOD 1930-31 TO 1931-32, BY STATES State Number of coun¬ ties re¬ porting 1 Number of counties showing— Decreases or increases in percent dinring period, 1930-31 to 1931-32 Decreases Increases No change Highest decrease in any county Average decrease for all counties reporting Highest increase in any county 2 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 Continental United States . . 1,106 707 251 148 58.1 5.0 50. « Alabama - - .. ... 9 5 2 2 12.5 4.3 11.8 Arizona _ _ - 4 2 2 0 10.8 5.4 2. 1 Arkansas _ _ _ .. 15 15 0 0 54.3 23.7 -3.8 California _ _ .. 28 14 14 0 11.3 8.2 8. 1 Colorado _ _ _ 16 13 2 1 26. 5 7.5 18.7 Connecticut _ _ _ 4 2 1 1 3.1 +1.7 5.3 Florida _ _ 18 10 5 3 27.4 5.7 21. 4 Georgia . ... ... -- 15 6 2 7 13.6 0.5 2.C Idaho _ _ _ 15 12 2 1 18.9 9.9 5. i Illinois . . . . - 43 26 12 5 33.3 1.3 36.7 Indiana _ _ ... 46 36 6 4 48. 5 8.1 36. 4 Iowa _ 28 23 3 2 25.4 6.8 17.4 Kansas _ _ 31 23 2 6 31.3 6.5 11. S Kentucky - 40 21 9 10 30.2 4.5 41.7 Louisiana... - - 17 10 6 1 19.2 1.5 4.7 Maine _ _ . 44 22 9 13 26.7 .9 9.7 Maryland - 11 8 3 0 14.6 3.8 8. 1 Massachusetts _ 46 23 17 6 8.7 +.9 33.8 Michigan - 28 12 2 14 22.8 3.0 16.3 Minnesota - - 25 17 3 5 34.9 6.9 12.1 Mississippi ... 13 12 0 1 58.1 21.4 0 Missouri _ _ _ 28 22 4 2 51.3 9.8 15.1 Montana . . 13 11 0 2 27.2 10.2 0 Nebraska.. _ _ 34 24 3 7 23.2 2.3 6.4 New Hampshire _ 14 7 4 3 18.9 4.2 4.1 New Jersey. . . _ 13 3 10 0 . 1 +.9 7.2 New Mexico _ _ 12 7 1 4 15.3 3.6 7. C New York - 72 17 52 3 23.6 +2.5 29.7 North Carolina _ 20 17 3 0 46. 1 18. 1 12. € North Dakota _ 13 12 1 0 50.8 15.0 E Ohio _ _ 28 23 4 1 33.2 4.2 18.8 Oklahoma . . . 22 16 1 5 21.5 6.8 27.8 Oregon - .. - .. 15 10 2 3 40.7 5.9 10.8 Pennsylvania ... _ 27 7 16 4 10.8 +1.5 19.1 Rhode Island _ 3 1 2 0 2.2 +2.1 9.1 South Carolina - 4 4 0 0 31.7 19.9 -.8 South Dakota— . — .. 24 22 1 1 33.3 14.3 15. t Tennessee - - 32 27 1 4 27.2 7.6 4. t Texas _ 74 50 14 10 25.0 5.0 50. ( Utah _ _ 16 16 0 0 35.6 16.8 _ E Vermont _ . _ _ 38 15 10 13 15.6 1.1 42. f Virginia _ _ _ 25 22 2 1 21.9 5.7 2. ( Washington- . . . 20 17 3 0 29.3 6.7 13.7 West Virginia _ 23 14 7 2 20.3 4.4 5.4 Wisconsin _ ... _ 33 24 8 1 18.7 5.6 36. ( Wyoming _ .. _ 7 7 0 0 13.4 8.5 -5.4 1 County, district, town, and other units of rural school administration. 2 Percentages with minus signs should be read as lowest decreases. Cost ‘per pupil. — The cost per pupil in average daily attendance in the United States decreased from $86.70 in 1930 to $81.08 in 1932, and to $67.48 in 1934. Within the 4-year period the cost per pupil 12 BIENNIAL SURVEY OF EDUCATION, 1934-36 decreased 22.2 percent. From 1930 to 1934 there was a decrease in every State, ranging from 2.4 percent in Delaware to 43.6 percent in North Carolina (table 8). In 17 States the decrease amounted to 30 percent or more; in 8 States from 25 to 29.9 percent; in 5 States from 20 to 24.9 percent; in 8 States from 15 to 19.9 percent; in 8 States from 10 to 14.9 percent; and in only 3 States to less than 10 percent. Table 8.— AVERAGE ANNUAL COST PER PUPIL IN AVERAGE DAILY ATTENDANCE, 1930 AND 1934, AND PERCENTAGE DECREASE, BY STATES State Cost per pupil Percent¬ age de¬ 1930 1934 crease 1 2 3 4 $86. 70 $67. 48 22.2 37. 28 30.09 19.3 29. 3 Arizona. _ ... ... . . . . _ _ _ ... . _ _ 109. 12 77. 11 33. 56 22. 60 32. 7 133. 30 109. 83 17. 6 110. 76 78. 30 29.3 19. 9 Connecticut _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ 102. 58 82. 12 95. 12 92. 85 2. 4 District of Columbia. . . . . . . . . 132. 39 107. 30 19. 0 Florida _ _ .. .. . _ _ _ _ _ _ 50. 61 40. 73 19.5 Georgia . . . . . . . . .. - . _ _ _ 31.89 28. 34 11. 1 Idaho _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ 86.86 57.09 34.3 Illinois _ _ _ _ _ _ ... 102. 56 78. 18 23.8 Indiana .. . _ _ . _ ... . . . . 91.66 60. 20 34. 3 Iowa .. _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ 96. 10 65. 44 31.9 Kansas _ _ _ _ .. . . . 92.81 60. 19 35. 1 Kentucky _ _ .. _ _ _ .... 46.23 33. 37 27.2 Louisiana.. .. . . . . . . . . . . 48. 19 36. 02 25. 3 Maine. _ _ .. _ _ . . _ _ _ _ _ . _ .. 69. 89 52. 09 25. 5 Maryland _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ 80. 15 68. 64 14.4 Massachusetts. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109. 57 95. 69 12.7 Michigan . . . . . . . . . . . 114. 76 67. 68 41.0 Minnesota _ _ _ _ _ 101. 29 75. 15 25.8 Mississippi. _ .. . _ _ _ _ 36. 13 23. 55 34.8 Missouri _ .... _ _ _ _ _ .. _ 70. 28 60. 27 14.2 Montana _ _ _ _ - _ _ 109. 73 79.24 27.8 Nebraska _ _ _ _ _ _ . _ _ 93. 08 57.48 38.2 Nevada.. __ _ _ _ _ _ _ 136. 18 117. 90 13.4 New Hampshire _ _ . . ... .. .... _ _ 92.77 79. 67 14. 1 New Jersey . . . . . . . . . . . 124. 90 102. 53 17.9 New Mexico . . . . .. .. .. _ _ 77. 21 60. 18 22. 1 New York . _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ 137. 55 124. 13 9.8 North Carolina. _ _ _ . . _ _ _ _ _ _ 42.85 24. 18 43.6 North Dakota . . _ _ _ _ _ _ .. _ 99. 55 67. 32 32.4 Ohio . . . . . . . . . 95. 69 72. 51 24.2 Oklahoma _ _ _ _ _ _ _ 65. 48 43. 70 33.3 Oregon ... _ . .. _ _ _ 103. 31 68. 90 33. 3 Pennsylvania. ._ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ 87. 81 75.04 14. 5 Rhode Island _ _ _ _ __ . . . . . . . 95. 74 86. 97 9.2 South Carolina _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ 39.98 27. 14 32. 1 South Dakota _ . _ 95. 36 62. 29 34.7 Tennessee _ .. _ _ _ _ _ _ _ 42. 66 34. 62 18.8 Texas. _ _ . _ _ _ 54. 57 46.63 14.6 Utah _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ 75.08 58.71 21.8 Vermont... .. . . . . . . . . _ 84. 24 59. 76 29.1 Virginia . . _ _ • 44. 25 37. 51 15.2 Washington .. _ _ ._ .. _ _ _ _ _ 100. 45 69. 16 31.1 West Virginia _ _ 72. 16 48.54 32.8 Wisconsin. _ _ _ _ 94. 17 71.99 23.6 Wyoming _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ 128. 59 88.70 31.0 EFFECTS OF THE DEPRESSION ON SCHOOLS 13 In cities having a population of 2,500 or more the cost per pupil in average daily attendance decreased from $100.95 in 1930 to $83.67 in 1934; and in the remainder of the country from $72.10 in 1930 to $50.30 in 1934. In the city school districts the reduction amounted to 17.1 percent and in the rural school districts to 30.1 percent. Table 9.— COST PER PUPIL IN AVERAGE DAILY ATTENDANCE BY CITY POPULATION GROUPS IN 1930 AND IN 1934, AND THE PER¬ CENTAGE DECREASE Population group 1930 1934 Percentage decrease 100,000 or more _ _ _ . . __ _ _ _ $119. 17 $99. 56 16.5 30,000 to 99,999 _ 98.03 83. 35 14.9 10,000 to 29,999 .. .. _ _ _ 85. 75 69. 10 19.4 2,500 to 9,999 _ _ _ _ _ 79. 02 63. 55 19.6 Data to show by type of school the decrease in cost per pupil are available only for cities having a population of 10,000 and over and for instruction only (table 10). Table 10.— COST PER PUPIL BY TYPE OF SCHOOL, 1930 AND 1934, AND PERCENTAGE DECREASE Type of school 1930 1934 Percentage decrease Kindergartens _ _ _ _ _ . .. _ $54. 93 $47. 01 14.4 Elementary schools _ ... _ _ _ 69. 01 59. 98 13.1 Junior high schools. _ _ .. _ _ _ _ _ . 93. 95 77. 56 17.4 High schools (including senior high) . _ _ _ _ 122. 35 90. 81 25.7 Vocational high schools. . . . _ _ _ 189. 21 135. 53 28.4 From 1930 to 1934 there was a decrease in the cost per pupil for each of the major current expense items which can be given for the country as a whole and for cities having a population of 10,000 or more. From the data presented in table 1 1 it is evident that for each function, with the exception of maintenance and auxiliary agencies, the greatest per¬ centage decrease occurred in small cities and rural areas. Table 11.— COST PER PUPIL BY FUNCTION AND PERCENTAGE DE¬ CREASE, 1930 TO 1934 Function Continental United States Cities having a population of 10,000 or more 1930 1934 Percentage decrease 1930 1934 Percentage decrease * 2 3 4 5 6 7 General control _ . $3.70 $2. 86 22.7 $3. 61 $3. 03 16.0 Instruction. . _ 61.97 49. 91 19.4 82. 21 68. 63 16. 5 Operation _ _ 10. 16 6. 93 31.8 10. 57 9.01 14.8 Maintenance _ _ _ _ _ 3. 71 2.13 42.6 4. 75 2. 65 44.2 Auxiliary agencies... . . . ... ... 4.80 3.84 20.0 3. 42 2.60 24.0 Fixed charges . . . . 2. 36 1.81 23.3 2. 72 2.60 4.4 14 BIENNIAL SURVEY OF EDUCATION, 1934-36 Capital outlay. — Although thousands of new school buildings were needed, capital outlay decreased rapidly between 1929-30 and 1933-34. For the entire country, capital outlay decreased from $370,877,969 in 1929-30 to $210,996,262 in 1931-32, and to $59,276,555 in 1933-34. Within the 4-year period the decrease amounted to 84 percent. In 12 States the percentage decrease amounted to more than 90 percent (table 12). Of the total expenditure for school purposes in 1929-30, excluding payments on bonds and other indebtedness, 16.1 percent was for capital outlay, and in 1933-34 only 3.5 percent was for this purpose. Within the 4-year period the cost per pupil in average daily attend¬ ance for capital outlay decreased from $17.41 to $2.64, or 84.8 percent. Table 12.— CAPITAL OUTLAY, 1929-30 AND 1933-34 AND PERCENT¬ AGE DECREASE, BY STATES State 1929-30 1933-34 Percent¬ age decrease 1 ' 2 3 4 Alabama _ _ _ __ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ ... $3, 567, 154 $1, 277, 601 $64.2 Arizona . . _ _ _ _ _ _ 1, 769, 012 113, 755 93.6 Arkansas _ ... .. . _ ... _ 2, 158, 736 457, 824 78.8 California _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ 25, 806, 203 6, 263, 864 75.7 Colorado _ _ _ _ _ _ 1, 790, 813 186, 510 89.6 Connecticut _ _ _ _ _ _ _ . 5, 493, 042 328,919 94.0 Delaware. _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ 1, 495, 932 612,133 59.1 District of Columbia . ... . . _ _ _ 3, 493, 515 880, 915 74.8 Florida. ... _ _ . 1, 485, 379 235, 081 84.2 Georgia _ _ _ _ _ _ 1, 414, 647 1,041, 857 26.4 Idaho _ _ _ _ _ . _ _ _ 1, 033, 350 221, 193 78.6 Illinois _ _ _ 26, 411, 745 4, 905, 406 81.4 Indiana _ _ _ _ _ _ . _ 8, 302, 625 1, 229. 035 85.2 Iowa... _ _ _ _ _ _ _ 3, 712, 563 295, 949 92.0 Kansas _ _ _ _ 4, 924, 420 2, 482, 056 49.6 Kentucky . . . . . .. _ _ _ ... . _ 2, 543, 696 595, 208 76.6 Louisiana.. _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ 3, 233, 436 239, 504 92.6 Maine _ ... _ . _ _ 875, 234 61, 417 93.0 Maryland _ _ _ _ . _ _ _ . _ 3, 958, 610 2, 219, 784 43.9 Massachusetts . . . . . . . . . . 11,936,438 3,233,426 72.9 Michigan _ _ _ .. _ _ 21, 439, 326 1, 546, 237 92.8 Minnesota _ _ . _ _ _ _ ... 5, 284, 053 1, 076, 699 79.6 Mississippi _ _ _ . 1, 631, 782 413, 397 74.7 Missouri _ _ . . _ _ 12, 928, 614 1, 756, 029 86.4 Montana . . . . .. _ . 1, 579, 807 163, 332 89.7 Nebraska. _ .. . .. _ _ _ ..... . . . 2, 087, 149 389, 813 81.3 Nevada _ . ... _ .. _ _ 605, 135 41, 664 93.1 New Hampshire . . ... _ r _ _ _ 548, 299 123, 493 77.5 New Jersey . . . _ _ _ _ 24, 228, 261 1, 924, 322 92.1 New Mexico. _ 506,831 58, 629 88.4 New York.. _ _ . . _ _ .. .. . 78, 441, 654 8, 203, 840 89.5 North Carolina . _ 4, 809, 151 942, 409 80.4 North Dakota _ _ _ _ _ _ _ 1. 497, 152 249, 936 83.3 Ohio _ _ _ . _ 24, 554, 248 1, 932, 771 92.1 Oklahoma _ _ _ _ _ _ _ 2, 021, 774 916, 100 54.7 Oregon _ _ _ _ . .. ... .. .. ... 2, 652, 041 179,823 93.2 Pennsylvania _ _ _ _ _ 29, 168, 383 4, 294. 602 85.3 Rhode Island _ 2, 355, 533 142, 254 94.0 South Carolina _ _ _ _ _ _ 1, 262, 958 268, 893 78.7 South Dakota.. . . . 996, 035 236, 046 76.3 EFFECTS OF THE DEPRESSION ON SCHOOLS 15 Table 12.— CAPITAL OUTLAY, 1929-30 AND 1933-34, AND PERCENT. AGE OF DECREASE, BY STATES— Continued State 1929-30 1933-34 Percent¬ age decrease 1 * 3 4 Tennessee _ _ _ . _ _ . . - __ $1, 642, 928 14, 801, 906 1, 939, 039 614, 583 2, 737, 689 3,942,449 2, 330, 012 8, 565, 770 298, 857 $418, 143 2, 258, 234 220, 929 23, 964 1, 094, 017 538, 473 451, 959 2, 422, 665 106, 445 $74.5 84.7 88.6 96.1 60. 0 86.3 80.6 71.7 64.4 Texas _ ______ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ Utah _ Vermont _____ ___ _ _ . . . ___ Virginia. _._ _ _ __ . . . . Washington _ _ _ _ __ ___ . . . West Virginia _ . __. _ ... _ _ __ _ Wisconsin _ _ _ _ _ ._ _ Wyoming _ _ _ _ _ _ Continental United States. . . . . . . 370, 877, 969 59, 276, 555 84.0 In cities having a population of 2,500 or more, capital outlay decreased 87.6 percent from 1930 to 1934, which was a little greater than the percentage decrease for the country as a whole. The cost per pupil in average daily attendance for capital outlay in the cities decreased from $22.13 in 1929-30 to $2.55 in 1933-34, or 88.4 percent. In cities of group I the cost per pupil decreased from $26.37 to $2.96; in cities of group II from $21.06 to $2.69; in cities of group III from $20.75 to $2.42; and in cities of group IV from $15.70 to $1.88. The percentage decrease in terms of costs per pupil was about the same for each group of cities. The decrease in group I was 88.8 percent; in group II, 86.7 percent; in group III, 88.3 percent; and in group IV, 88 percent. THE SCHOOL TERM When the effects of the depression were beginning to be felt by the schools, grave fear was expressed that the school term throughout the country would be greatly reduced in length. In some school districts in several of the States, school terms were shortened, but even so the average length of school term for the entire country decreased only 1.1 days from 1929-30 to 1933-34, and 1.5 days from 1929-30 to 1931- 32; the average length of the school term in 1930 being 172.7 days; in 1932, 171.2 days; and in 1934, 171.6. From 1929-30 to 1933-34 there was a decrease in the average length of the school term in 29 States. In 10 States the average decrease was 5 or more days; in 4 of these States the average decrease was from 10 to 12.4 days (table 13). IQ BIENNIAL SURVEY OF EDUCATION, 1934-36 Table 13.— AVERAGE NUMBER OF DAYS SCHOOLS WERE IN SESSION IN 1929-30, 1931-32, 1933-34, BY STATES State / 1929-30 1931-32 1933-34 Increas 1930-32 »e or deer days 1932-34 ■ease in 1930-34 > 2 3 4 5 6 7 Continental United States... ... .. 172.7 171.2 171.6 -1.5 +0.4 -1.1 Alabama _ _ _ 150.0 146.5 151.6 -3.5 +6.1 +1.6 Arizona. . . ...... .. 175. 1 170. 8 167.3 -4.3 -3.5 -7.8 Arkansas .... ... ... ... . 149.4 137.8 143.8 -11.6 +6.0 -5.6 California ...... 178.3 178.7 177. 5 +.4 -1.2 -.8 Colorado _ _ _ _ _ . 180.0 178.2 179.9 -1.8 +1.7 -.1 Connecticut .. _ _ . . .. 183.7 180.6 182.0 -3.1 +1.4 -.7 Delaware.. _ _ 183.0 184.0 183.6 +1.0 -.4 +.6 District of Columbia _ ... _ .... 173.6 179.7 179.9 +6.1 +.2 +6.3 Florida _ _ _ 154.4 167.5 163.5 +13.1 -4.0 +9.1 Georgia _ ... _ 148.0 137.4 136.0 -10.6 -1.4 -12.0 Idaho _ . ..... 162.6 168.3 163.9 +5.7 -4.4 +1.3 Illinois _ . .. ..... 188.4 188.3 178.9 -.1 -9.4 -9.5 Indiana _ 173.4 157.8 171.2 -15.6 +13.4 -2.2 Iowa. _ ... .... 175.9 176.2 176. 1 +. 3 -.1 +.2 Kansas.. . . ... . . . 169.8 172.0 165.7 +2.2 -6.3 -4.1 Kentucky. .. ... ... .... 165.0 155.4 152.6 -9.6 -2.8 -12.4 Louisiana... _ _ _ _ 151.0 156. 1 158.4 +5.1 +2.3 +7.4 Maine. . . ... 179.0 178.5 175.9 -.5 -2.6 +3.1 Maryland .... ....... ........ 186.1 186.9 186.5 +.8 -.4 +.4 Massachusetts .... 183.3 180.0 180.3 -3.3 +.3 -3.0 Michigan.. . . . .. .. 185.6 186.6 175.4 +1.0 -11.2 -10.2 Minnesota _ _ _. .. 180.1 179.3 177.4 -.8 -1.9 -2.7 Mississippi. _ _ _ _ 133.4 132.9 132.5 -.5 -.4 -.9 Missouri _ _ _ ... .. . _ 180.5 178.6 174.9 -1.9 -3.7 -5.6 Montana _ _ 173.5 173.0 181.8 -.5 +8.8 +8.3 Nebraska.. ... ... _ . .... . 175.2 175.0 178.7 -.2 +3.7 +3.5 Nevada . _ . . _ _ _ _ _ 178.9 175.9 174.6 -3.0 -1.3 -4.3 New Hampshire _ ... . __ 179.0 177.8 177.3 -1.2 -.5 -1.7 New Jersey. _. .. ........ _ 188.4 183.1 187. 1 -5.3 +4.0 -1.3 New Mexico . . . . . . _ 172.2 170.7 172.9 -1.5 +2.2 +.7 New York _ _ .. . . . 187.5 181.8 185.4 -5.7 +3.6 -2.1 North Carolina... _ _ _ ._ ... _ 154.3 154.4 159.3 +.1 +4.9 +5.0 North Dakota. _ ..... _ ... 165.7 166.1 180.6 +.4 +12.5 +12. 9 Ohio _ _ 179.2 174.8 173.2 -4.4 -1.6 -6.0 Oklahoma _ _ __ .. . _ . 173.3 171.2 171.0 -2.1 -.2 -3.3 Oregon _ _ . . ... _ 182.9 161.2 170.8 -21.7 +9.6 -12.1 Pennsylvania _ .. ... _ 181.2 181.2 180.8 0 -.4 -.4 Rhode Island . . . _ _ 175.3 182.0 183.4 +6.7 -1.4 +8.1 South Carolina. . . . ... ... .. 147.0 144.3 146.7 -2.7 +2.4 -.3 South Dakota... _ ... _ 178.5 169.3 171.1 -9.2 +1.8 -7.4 Tennessee _ _ ._ .. _. _ ... 163.2 159. 7 163.3 -3.5 +3.6 +• 1 Texas _ _ ... ... . _ __ 146.0 159.5 163.0 +13. 5 +3.5 +17.0 Utah _ 172.5 164.4 171. 5 -8.1 +7.1 -1.0 Vermont _ ... . _ .. _ .. . 172.1 174.6 171.4 +2.5 -3.2 -.7 Virginia _ _ .. _ _ .. _ . 164.1 168.2 170.5 +4.1 +2.3 +6.4 Washington _ _ _ _ _ 179.4 179.5 180.9 +.1 +1.4 +1.5 West Virginia _ _ . ... _ 165.7 164.3 174.4 -1.4 +10.1 +8.7 Wisconsin _ ._ . _ _ _ ... 179.2 179.6 177.7 +■ 4 -1.9 -1.5 Wyoming _ _ _ _ _ 161.3 175.9 177.0 +14.6 +1.1 +15.7 That school terms in many rural communities were shortened is evident from data compiled by the Office of Education on the effects of the depression upon rural schools (table 14). It was found, how¬ ever, that from 1929-30 to 1931-32 extreme cuts in the school term had not been general but had taken place only in certain localities. Some counties in Alabama had to cut in half terms which were already EFFECTS OF THE DEPRESSION ON SCHOOLS 17 short, and some counties in Arkansas had to reduce the term by about one-third ; from four other States reports came of counties which had to cut school terms in excess of 20 percent. Table 14.— CHANGES IN TERM LENGTH DURING THE PERIOD 1929-30 TO 1931-32, OF ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS UNDER THE SUPERVISION OF COUNTY AND OTHER SUPERINTENDENTS OF RURAL SCHOOLS, BY STATES State Number of counties report¬ ing! Average length of term in 1929-30 Decreases or increases in percent during period, 1929-30 to 1931-32 Highest decrease in any county Average decrease for all counties reporting 1 2 Highest increase in any county 1 2 3 4 5 6 Continental United States 1, 137 172 50.0 0.6 33.3 Alabama _ 11 151 50.0 17.7 3.5 Arizona _ _ _ _ _ 5 179 0.0 0.0 0.0 Arkansas _ . _ . _ 15 140 33.0 12.6 0.0 California- _ _ 30 180 0.0 +0.3 6.0 Colorado.. _ _ _ 19 179 11. 1 0.4 2.9 Connecticut _ _ _ 4 190 0.0 0.0 0.0 Florida _ _ ... 18 158 15.2 2.1 33.3 Georgia _ - - 15 160 16.7 0.0 12.5 Idaho _ .. - 15 170 12.5 0.4 6.3 Illinois-- _ _ 43 163 2.3 +0.7 14.3 Indiana _ _ _ 46 161 5.6 0.2 0.0 Iowa _ — — _ _ 28 177 12.9 0.2 5.9 Kansas _ _ _ - _ _ 31 165 3.0 0.1 Q.O Kentucky. _ ... 40 153 12.5 0.2 14.3 Louisiana _ _ _ 17 177 1.3 +1.0 12.5 Maine.. _ 44 178 2.8 0.0 3.0 Maryland.. _ .. . _ 11 185 2.7 +0.2 3.3 Massachusetts .. _ _ 46 188 2.6 0.1 0.5 Michigan ... . . . 29 181 5.2 0.3 0.0 Minnesota _ _ _ _ 25 167 3.6 +0.3 5.0 Mississippi - - . __ . 13 148 12.5 10.4 0.0 Missouri . _ 28 158 8.1 0.4 6.5 Montana ... _ _ . . 13 177 2.9 +0.2 5.9 Nebraska. .. .... 34 179 12.5 0. 1 4.4 Nevada _ _ .... 2 172 0.0 +3. 5 3.5 New Hampshire _ _ _ _ 21 181 2.4 0.0 1.7 New Jersey _ _ _ _ 13 190 2.7 0.2 0.0 New Mexico . _ .. 12 178 22.2 2.1 0.0 New York... _ . _ 72 189 0.0 +0.4 5.6 North Carolina _ 20 152 2.7 +1.9 12. 1 North Dakota _ ... ...... 13 169 8.6 0.8 1.9 Ohio _ _ _ . . _ 29 171 11.1 0.8 6.3 Oklahoma _ _ 22 164 12.5 1.9 14.3 Oregon _ ... _ 17 176 5.6 0.6 5.9 Pennsylvania _ .... ... 31 168 0.6 0.3 4.8 Rhode Island ... ... 3 187 0.0 +1.8 5.3 South Carolina .... 4 165 22.2 7.6 0.0 South Dakota... ... _ 28 174 5 6 0.4 3. 1 Tennessee _ ... 32 163 25.0 1.5 23.0 Texas _ _ _ _ 75 156 13.3 0.7 14.3 Utah _ 16 170 22.2 7.1 2.9 Vermont _ _ _ .... 38 175 2.9 +0.1 8. 1 Virginia. _. ... _ 25 173 11.1 1.8 6.7 Washington. _ 21 178 8.1 0.3 6.1 West Virginia _ _ . ... __ . 23 162 1.8 0.1 0.6 Wisconsin _ _ _ _ _ 33 177 5.6 0.0 3.6 Wyoming _ . _ ... _ 7 178 0.0 +0.5 3.5 1 County, district, town, and other units of school administration. 2 The plus sign indicates increases in term length. 18 BIENNIAL SURVEY OF EDUCATION, 1934-36 County school superintendents in 1,115 counties reported that in 1931-32 a total of 1,851 elementary schools and 482 high schools had closed early. Using the percentage of schools that closed early in 1931-32 and assuming that the data in table 11 are representative, it may be estimated that more than 8,000 rural schools in the United States were compelled to close their doors before the expiration of the regular school term. County and other superintendents in rural schools in 15 States reported a total of 71 schools which for lack of funds were entirely closed without making provision for the education of the children concerned. Except in the case of Arkansas which reported 24 schools closed in a single county, most of the school communities reported to be unable to provide education for their children represented isolated cases. Chiefly these communities were in western areas of sparse population. Reports were also received indicating that in a few instances schools were being kept open on a tuition basis or through private subscriptions. Data are not available to show the decrease in the length of school term from 1931-32 to 1932-33, but there was probably a greater decrease from 1932 to 1933 than from 1933 to 1934. That no great decrease in the length of the school term occurred from 1933 to 1934 may be accounted for by the fact that in 1933-34 the Federal Govern¬ ment through its emergency education program allotted $14,536,010 to 32 States to keep their rural schools open for the usual school term. Data are not available to show how many days the emergency fund kept the schools open in each of the States receiving such funds. The 1933-34 report of the State department of Alabama, however, contains data showing the number of days the schools in that State ran on State and local funds and the number of days that they ran on Federal funds. The average number of days that the white schools ran on State and county funds was 124 and on Federal funds, 28; the Negro county schools ran 99 days on State and county funds and 27 days on Federal funds. In 42 of the 67 counties of the State the Federal funds kept the schools open for 40 or more days. It thus appears that if it had not been for Federal emergency relief funds to aid rural schools the average length of term in Alabama in 1933-34 in the white schools of the counties would have been only 124 days, and in the Negro schools only 99 days. A rough estimate shows that without Federal funds the average length of school term in several other States in 1933-34 would have been about 20 days less than usual. Table 15, which shows the amount of Federal emergency relief funds allotted to the States, indicates that without such funds the school term would have been less in 1933-34 than usual in those States receiving aid: EFFECTS OF THE DEPRESSION ON SCHOOLS 19 Table 15— AMOUNT OF FUNDS ALLOTTED BY THE FEDERAL EMERGENCY RELIEF ADMINISTRATION FOR RURAL SCHOOL CONTINUATION, BY STATES, OCTOBER 1933 TO JUNE 1934 Alabama. . Arizona... Arkansas.. California. Colorado.. State Amount $1, 976, 519 77, 262 685, 200 (9 48,540 Nebraska _ Nevada _ New Hampshire. New Jersey _ New Mexico _ State Amount $80, 057 15, 863 (9 (9 272, 217 Connecticut. Delaware... Florida _ Georgia . Idaho _ 626,935 1, 602, 146 15, 403 New York _ North Carolina. North Dakota. . Ohio _ Oklahoma _ (9 500,000 334, 908 (9 1, 162, 147 Illinois - Indiana... Iowa _ Kansas _ Kentucky. 227, 835 (9 8, 354 (9 337, 552 Oregon _ Pennsylvania.. Rhode Island.. South Carolina. South Dakota.. 105, 386 (9 (9 341, 855 192,044 Louisiana _ Maine _ Maryland. _ Massachusetts. Michigan _ 981, 531 (9 (9 (9 91, 434 Tennessee. Texas _ Utah _ Vermont. . Virginia... 556, 344 619, 170 104, 184 (9 702, 565 Minnesota. Mississippi. Missouri... Montana... 57, 596 1, 320, 555 535, 399 91, 595 Washington... West Virginia. Wisconsin _ Wyoming _ 27,784 509, 350 (9 52,516 i No program in operation. * No report received. In the cities of the country the average length of school term de¬ creased from 185 days in 1929-30 to 182 days in 1933-34. In cities having a population of 10,000 or more there was a decrease of 4 days, and in cities having a population of 30,000 to 99,999 there was an increase of 4 days; in cities having a population of 10,000 to 29,999 a decrease of 4 days; and in cities having a population from 2,500 to 9,999 a decrease of 3 days. In 36 cities having a population of 10,000 or more the school term was reduced 10 or more days. In 21 of the 36 cities the term was reduced, ranging from 10 days to 19 days; and in 15 cities, ranging from 20 to 30 days. Chicago, Ill., and Akron and Dayton, Ohio, were among the large cities in which the school term was shortened by about 20 days. Assuming that the same proportion of cities of less than 10,000 population reduced their school term 10 or more days, the total num¬ ber of cities in which the school term was decreased 10 or more days from 1930 to 1934 was approximately 130. SUPERVISORY AND TEACHING STAFF Number. — During the depression period there was a great reduction in the number of supervisors, principals, and teachers. Comparative data for 26 States show that in these States the number of supervisors decreased from 5,807 in 1930 to 3,683 in 1934, a decrease of 36.5 5333°— 38 - 4 20 BIENNIAL SURVEY OF EDUCATION, 1934-36 percent. The great decrease was in the number of elementary prin¬ cipals. In 18 States reporting both in 1930 and in 1934 the number of elementary school principals dropped from 13,468 in 1930 to 8,070 in 1934. This was a loss of 5,398, or 48 percent, in these 18 States. The number of high-school principals in these States decreased from 8,010 to 6,507, or about 19 percent. For elementary and secondary schools combined the decrease in the number of principals amounted to 6,901, or 32 percent. The percentage decrease was probably about the same in the 30 States that did not report both in 1930 and 1934. This great reduction in the number of principals may be ex¬ plained by the fact that many reported as principals in 1930 were later made head teachers or teaching principals so as to reduce ex¬ penses. In the public day schools of cities having a population of 2,500 or more there was from 1930 to 1934 a decrease of 16.3 percent in the number of supervisors and principals. Within the period the number of teachers per supervisor and principal increased1 from 17 to 20, or 17.6 percent, and the number of pupils per supervisor from 480 to 597, or 24 percent. Data for the period from 1930 to 1934 have not been compiled to show the decrease in the number of supervisors for each type of supervision, but, according to reports from about 1,100 cities, in 1932-33 the supervising staffs had by that time been greatly reduced (table 16). Table 16.— ELIMINATIONS OR CURTAILMENTS IN SUPERVISORY STAFFS Kind of supervision Number of cities reporting eliminations Number of cities reporting curtailments Total number of cities reporting eliminations or curtail¬ ments General _ . _ _ . . _ 28 14 42 Art _ _ _ __ _ _ - 59 24 83 Music - - _ _ - - _ _ _ - 67 26 93 Physical education _ ... ------ _ _ _ - 23 16 39 Penmanship. . _ _ _ _ _ .. 32 4 36 Supervising principals. _ _ . _ 10 17 27 Not only were the supervisory staffs reduced but also the staffs for other specialized services (table 17). EFFECTS OF THE DEPRESSION ON SCHOOLS 21 Table 17.— ELIMINATIONS OR CURTAILMENTS OF STAFFS FOR RESEARCH, ATTENDANCE, AND HEALTH Kind of service Number of cities reporting eliminations Number of cities reporting curtailments Total number of cities reporting eliminations or curtail¬ ments Research and testing _ . . _ _ _ _ _ - 8 15 School attendance _ _ 19 6 25 Health: Medical . . . . 33 15 48 Dental. . _ _ _ _ - _ _ 27 9 36 School nurse .. _ _ 46 22 68 One of the serious retrenchments comes under the head of health. While health is proclaimed, theoretically, as of first importance, the elimination of services which aim at the protection of children from infection and malnutrition indicates that we do not practice what we preach. From reports received by the Office of Education during the depression period, it is evident that there was more need for safe¬ guarding the health of the child than ever before. The reduction in the teaching staff for the country as a whole did not begin until between 1932 and 1934. From 1930 to 1932 the num¬ ber of teaching positions increased from 842,601 to 863,348, or 2.5 percent, but during that time the number of pupils in average daily attendance increased 4.6 percent. There was thus a decrease in the number of teaching positions in relation to the number of pupils in average daily attendance. Applying the pupil-teacher ratio of 25.2 in 1930 to the number of pupils in average daily attendance in 1932, there should have been 882,752 teaching positions in 1932, or 19,404 more positions than in 1930. From 1932 to 1934 the number of teaching positions decreased from 863,348 to 836,210, or there were 27,138 fewer teachers in 1934 than in 1932, despite the fact that there were 212,846 more pupils in average daily attendance in 1934 than in 1932. If the same pupil-teacher ratio had prevailed in 1934 as in 1930 there should have been 891,198 teaching positions in 1934, or there should have been 54,988 more positions in 1934 than there actually wTere that year. In the cities having a population of 2,500 or more the number of pupils in average daily attendance per teacher w^as 28.3 in 1930 and in the rural areas 22.6. If the same pupil-teacher ratios had been maintained in 1934 as in 1930, about 34,367 more teachers would have been needed in the cities and about 20,621 more would have been needed in the rural districts than were employed in 1934. In 45 States the number of pupils in average daily attendance in relation to the number of teaching positions was greater in 1934 than in 1930, as indicated by the percentage decrease or increase in the 22 BIENNIAL SURVEY OF EDUCATION, 1934-36 number of teaching positions and in the number of pupils in average daily attendance (table 18). Table 18.— PERCENTAGE OF INCREASE OR DECREASE IN TEACH¬ ING POSITIONS AND IN NUMBER OF PUPILS IN AVERAGE DAILY ATTENDANCE, 1930 TO 1934 AND 1932 TO 1934, BY STATES State Percent or increase Teaching positions Average daily attendance Continental United States. Alabama . Arizona . Arkansas . . California.. . . Colorado . . . Connecticut . . . . Delaware _ District of Columbia _ Florida . . Georgia . . . Idaho _ _ Illinois. . . . . . Indiana . . . . Iowa _ Kansas _ _ _ Kentucky - Louisiana _ _ Maine _ Maryland.. - - Massachusetts . . Michigan _ _ Minnesota . i . Mississippi _ Missouri - - Montana - - - Nebraska - - - Nevada _ New Hampshire _ New Jersey . . . New Mexico . . New York . . . North Carolina _ _ _ North Dakota. . . . Ohio . . . Oklahoma. . Oregon _ _ _ _ Pennsylvania - - Rhode Island _ South Carolina - - - South Dakota - - Tennessee... . . Texas _ _ _ Utah _ _ _ _ Vermont _ Virginia . . — . Washington _ _ _ West Virginia . Wisconsin _ _ Wyoming . — 1930 to 1932 to 1930 to 1932 to 1934 1934 1934 1934 2 3 4 5 -0.8 -3.1 +5.6 +1.0 +• 6 -.2 +7.2 -.2 -10.4 -18.0 +.9 -5.3 -6.1 +1.0 +4.9 +2.4 +6.6 + .5 +8.1 +1.5 -10.0 -10.7 +3.0 -1.4 -2.3 -2.3 +4.0 +.1 +11.5 +4.1 +9.6 +2.4 +2.6 +1.5 +11.8 +4.0 +1.8 -2.3 +11.2 +2.4 +5.1 +2.6 +9.5 +3.0 -3.1 -5.4 +5.5 +1.9 -5.5 -4.9 -2.4 -4.3 -7.5 -6.0 +9.5 +.6 -2.5 -3.4 +2.1 -.7 -10.5 -10.4 +.8 -4.2 +8.4 +1.1 +9.0 +1.8 +2.7 +.4 +9.2 +3.1 -1.2 -3.2 +8.5 +2.5 -2.8 -3.7 +7.1 +1.1 +2.6 -2.1 +3.5 +.1 -6.7 -9.2 +5.4 4 2.7 -6.7 -1.8 +5.0 +1.0 -9.7 -12.0 +3.8 +5.4 -1.6 +6.1 +1.6 -6.4 -5.4 +.5 -1.8 -6.1 -6.1 +7.0 -1.6 +7.2 -4.8 +9.1 -.4 -3.1 -3.5 +4.4 +.4 +2.0 -2.6 +5.6 +1.2 -6.7 -3.2 +15.3 +5.1 +4.7 -1.2 +7.9 +2.9 +3.9 -.1 +12. 5 +3.9 -2.8 -3.0 -8.7 -6.2 -2.4 -4.6 +4.3 +1.0 -6.4 +2.1 +4.7 -.2 +23.3 -2.8 +9.1 -14.2 -1.0 -3.5 +6.7 +2.2 +1.6 -1.7 +5.5 +2.1 -3.3 -.8 +8.7 +1.4 -4.7 -2.6 -1.6 -.8 +5.8 -.7 +6.1 +1.7 +17.0 +.1 +1.5 -10.0 -2.7 +5.5 -.1 -1.8 -3.2 +1.0 +.6 -.4 -1.8 +7.6 +.9 -7.6 -6.8 +1.9 -1.4 -14.7 -17.6 +7 6 +2.5 +.8 -1.7 +9.1 +1.2 -13.1 -6.6 -1.2 -1.1 EFFECTS OF THE DEPRESSION ON SCHOOLS 23 In the rural schools there was a decrease of 1 percent in the teaching staff from 1929-30 to 1932-33, according to data compiled from reports submitted by 1,129 county and other superintendents in rural areas. The highest decrease in any county reporting was 61.9 percent. In nearly every State there was a decrease (table 19). Table 19 —CHANGES IN PERCENT IN THE NUMBER OF TEACHERS EMPLOYED DURING THE PERIOD, 1929-30 TO 1932-33, IN THE SCHOOLS UNDER THE SUPERVISION OF COUNTY AND OTHER SUPERINTENDENTS OF RURAL SCHOOLS, BY STATES State Number of counties report¬ ing 1 2 Total teachers employed Average decrease for the 3- year period in all counties reporting i Highest decrease in elementary Highest increase in elementary in these counties, 1929-30 In total teaching staff In sec¬ ondary staff In ele¬ mentary staff staff of any county staff of any county l 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 Continental United States _ 1,129 156,962 1.0 +2.4 2.2 61.9 2215.8 Alabama.. . . 12 2, 293 3.8 5.2 3.0 17.5 10.7 Arizona _ — - 5 888 23.3 19.1 24.4 46.2 2.7 Arkansas _ 15 1,928 7.7 +2.2 10.3 33.0 0.0 California _ 28 9, 120 +2.3 +4.1 +1.3 11.6 11.4 Colorado . . — 16 1, 767 2.9 6.1 1.8 24.0 7.9 Connecticut . . . 4 350 1.1 2.8 1.0 5.6 3.2 Florida _ . 18 1, 316 2.3 +7.9 7.2 40.0 50.0 Georgia _ 15 1, 381 .2 3.2 +.8 17.6 11. 1 Idaho _ _ 15 1,257 11, 471 5.8 4.8 6.2 23.8 2.3 Illinois _ 41 1.7 .1 2.2 8.9 2.7 Indiana _ 46 5, 865 5.0 3.7 5.7 19.6 4.5 Iowa _ 28 5, 391 3.3 3.6 3.2 10.8 2.1 Kansas _ 31 4,282 1.9 2.3 1.7 14.3 14.7 Kentucky _ 40 3, 351 3, 201 +3.4 +26.0 +.6 31.0 18.8 Louisiana _ 17 +.7 +3.7 .3 21.2 25.0 Maine _ _ _ __ 43 1,897 .1 +5.8 1.6 20.0 36.9 Maryland _ 11 1,505 3. 1 +8.4 8.1 25.9 0.0 Massachusetts _ 46 1, 971 3,804 .4 +3.9 1.9 17.0 12.5 Michigan _ 29 2.3 1.5 2.5 15.3 7.6 Minnesota . . 25 3, 416 2.1 0 2.5 21.7 7.0 Mississippi _ 13 1,063 2.7 .8 3.7 20.5 1. 6 Missouri _ 28 3, 581 .6 .8 .5 7.6 6.0 Montana _ 13 1,062 2.5 +11.5 5.6 61.9 10.0 Nebraska _ _ _ 34 4, 100 2.9 4. 2 2.4 16.7 6.9 Nevada _ 2 279 .4 +5.0 2.5 17.8 8.7 New Hampshire _ 21 761 .9 +5.6 3.2 16.7 20.8 New Jersey _ 13 8, 860 +1.0 +10.9 1.4 11. 1 8.5 New Mexico.. _ 12 707 +2.8 +8.6 +1. 7 14.3 38.6 New York. . _ 72 6, 984 2,068 +4.1 +11.6 +1.9 31.4 18.6 North Carolina . . 20 7.1 .7 8.9 35.5 6.6 North Dakota _ 13 1, 672 2.7 .3 3.3 15.3 13.0 Ohio _ 29 5, 854 2, 856 .5 +1.2 1.4 18.1 65.7 Oklahoma _ 22 3.3 9.9 2.7 22.2 8.8 Oregon _ 16 2,890 +.6 +7.4 1.9 24.2 26.9 Pennsylvania _ 31 12,423 +2.2 +15.0 1.4 20.4 4.4 Rhode Island _ 3 28 +10.7 +100.0 0 12.5 33.3 South Carolina _ 4 806 .9 +2.3 1.7 7.0 1.2 South Dakota _ 28 2,914 2.6 6.4 1.8 18.3 4.9 Tennessee _ 32 4,526 +2.1 +4.2 +1.7 17.4 22.7 Texas _ 75 5,123 1. 2 1.9 1.0 31.0 2 215. 8 Utah _ 16 1, 415 9.3 4.8 12.2 43.0 0 Vermont _ 38 1,312 1.8 +1.0 2.3 30.0 25.0 Virginia _ 25 2,574 3.8 +.7 5.2 31.7 7.1 Washington _ 21 5, 167 5.9 3.2 6.8 23.7 9.1 West Virginia _ 23 5,411 +.7 +9.0 1.1 13.5 21.1 Wisconsin _ 33 5,322 +.4 +2.1 +.1 6.9 4.1 Wyoming _ 7 750 5.7 4.8 6.0 10.3 1.4 1 The plus sign indicates increases. 2 County, district, or other units of school administration. * This extraordinarily high increase; s found in Gregg County, Tex., and is explained by oil developments. 24 BIENNIAL SURVEY OF EDUCATION, 1934-36 Salaries. — Since salaries of teachers constitute about 75 percent of the current expense item, no great reduction in current expenses is possible without a reduction in salaries. In several States the average reduction in the salaries of teachers, principals, and supervisors from 1930 to 1934 amounted to as much as 30 percent (table 20). For the entire country the average decrease in salaries within the 4-year period was 13.6 percent. In only one State, Rhode Island, was the average salary greater in 1934 than in 1930; but from 1932 to 1934 there was a decrease in every State. Table 20.— AVERAGE ANNUAL SALARIES OF TEACHERS, SUPER¬ VISORS, AND PRINCIPALS, 1929-30 AND 1933-34, AND PERCENT¬ AGE CHANGE, BY STATES State Average annual salaries Percentage change 1930 1934 1 2 3 4 Continental United States. .. ... ... . . . . . $1,420 $1 ,227 -13.6 792 625 —21. 1 1, 637 1, 309 -20.0 673 465 —30.9 2, 123 1,899 —10. 6 Colorado _ ... ... _ _ _ _ _ 1,453 1, 172 -19.3 Connecticut _ _ _ _ _ 1, 812 1,607 —11.3 Delaware. _ _ _ . . . . ... _ _ 1,570 1,464 -5.5 District of Columbia. ._ .. . . . . . . . 2,269 2,004 -11.7 Florida . . . . . . . . . _ _ _ . 876 806 -8.0 Georgia _ ... ... _ 684 640 -6.4 Idaho _ _ _ .. _ _ . _ _ _ 1,200 794 -33.8 Illinois.— _ . _ .. . .. . _ _ 1,630 1,397 -14.3 Indiana _ _ . _ _ . . _ _ 1, 466 1, 127 -23. 1 Iowa. _ _ _ _ . _ _ _ _ 1,094 834 -23. 8 Kansas _ _ _ _ . _ _ _ _ 1, 159 858 -26.0 Kentucky _ _ _ _ ... . .. .. . _ _ 896 676 -24.6 Louisiana _ _ _ _ _ _ 941 725 -23.0 Maine .. _ _ _ _ _ _ 942 803 -14.8 Maryland _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ 1, 518 1,409 -7.2 Massachusetts _ _ .. .. _ 1, 875 1,730 -7.7 Michigan. .. _ _ _ _ 1,534 1, 162 -24.3 Minnesota _ _ _ 1,251 1,006 -19.6 Mississippi _ _ _ 620 474 -23.5 Missouri . . .. _ _ 1,235 1, 175 -4.9 Montana _ _ _ .. _ _ 1, 215 957 -21.2 Nebraska.. ... . . . . . . . 1,077 749 -30.5 Nevada... _ _ _ _ _ _ _ 1,483 1, 317 -11.2 New Hampshire... . . . . 1, 254 1, 182 -5.7 New Jersey _ _ _ _ _ _ _ 2,113 1, 873 -11.4 New Mexico.. . _ 1,113 994 -10.7 New York . . . . . . . . . 2, 493 2, 361 -5.3 North Carolina.. _ _ _ _ _ _ _ 873 576 -34.0 North Dakota _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ 900 621 -31.0 Ohio . _ _ _ _ _ .. 1, 665 1,420 -14.7 Oklahoma _ _ _ _ 1, 072 815 -24.0 Oregon . _ _ _ _ _ 1,612 921 -42.9 Pennsylvania _ _ _ _ _ _ _ 1,620 1,531 -5.5 Rhode Island _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ 1,437 1,509 +5.01 South Carolina. . . . - - - - - - - 788 599 -24.0 South Dakota _ _ _ _ _ _ 956 614 -35.8 Tennessee _ .. _ _ _ .. _ 902 725 -19.6 924 849 -8.1 Utah _ 1, 330 1,094 -17.7 Vermont . . __ __ . . _ _ 963 770 -20.0 Virginia _ . _ 861 779 -9.5 Washington _ _ _ 1, 556 1, 217 -21.8 West Virginia _ _ _ _ _ _ 1,023 913 -10.8 Wisconsin _ _ _ 1, 399 1, 211 -13.4 Wyoming . _ 1,239 967 -22.0 EFFECTS OF THE DEPRESSION ON SCHOOLS 25 Data to show the decrease in teachers’ salaries by school levels for the entire country and for each State are not available. The Re¬ search Division of the National Education Association has, however, compiled data showing the median salaries paid city teachers at each school level in 1930-31 and 1934-35. The percentage decrease based on these medians is given in table 21. Table 21.— PERCENTAGE DECREASE IN MEDIAN SALARIES OF CITY SCHOOL TEACHERS, 1930-31 TO 1934-35, BY TYPE OF SCHOOL AND POPULATION GROUPS Population group Type of school More than 100,000 30,000 to 100,000 10,000 to 30,000 5,000 to 10,000 2,500 to 5,000 1 2 3 4 a 6 Elementary _ _ _ _ - .. _ _ _ 9. 25 12.24 13.80 19.42 17.30 Junior high _ _ _ _ __ _ _ _ 11.50 13.33 14. 14 19. 14 17. 28 High school - _ _ _ _ 10.80 13. 12 14.55 18.50 18.55 According to data compiled by the Office of Education for 1930 and 1935, the median salary of teachers in one-room schools decreased from $788 in 1930 to $517 in 1935, or 34.4 percent; and the median salary of teachers in two-room schools from $829 in 1930 to $620 in 1935, or 25.2 percent; in three- or more-teacher schools in the open country from $1,017 in 1930 to $809 in 1935, or 20.5 percent; and in three- or more-teacher schools in villages from $1,157 in 1930 to $960 in 1935, or 17 percent. The foregoing figures do not tell the entire story of reductions in teachers’ salaries since in some school districts teachers returned 5 or 10 percent of their salaries to the board of education. In many instances funds were not available for payment of salaries of teachers when due; consequently, payments were deferred for long periods of time or large discounts were necessary. The withholding of the annual increments provided for in many salary schedules should also be taken into consideration. Many teachers who began in 1930 at a minimum salary expected an increase of about $100 a year for 8 or 10 years, but early in the depression period annual increments were not allowed. A teacher at a salary of $1,200 a year in 1930 would have received $1,300 in 1931. Without the increment, her salary was 7.7 percent less than that provided by the salary schedule. If in addition there w~as a reduction of 10 percent in the basic salary, she received $1,080 a year, or 16.9 percent less than the amount she would have normally received. Not only were the salaries of teachers reduced, but also the salaries of administrative and supervisory officers (table 22). The percentage 26 BIENNIAL SURVEY OF EDUCATION, 1934-36 reduction in the median salaries of such officers was greater than the reduction in teachers’ salaries, especially in cities having a population of more than 100,000. Table 22.— PERCENTAGE REDUCTION IN MEDIAN SALARIES PAID ADMINISTRATIVE AND SUPERVISORY OFFICERS, 1930-31 TO 1934-35 1 Population groups Administrative and supervisory officials More than 100,000 30,000 to 100,000 10,000 to 30,000 5,000 to 10,000 2,500 to 5,000 1 2 3 4 5 6 Superintendents . . 27.7 18.4 17.6 17.9 20.1 Elementary school principals: Supervising _ _ _ _ _ 14.3 10.7 9.8 12.4 6.3 Teaching . . _ 12.3 13.5 15.3 21. 3 16. 1 Junior high school principals _ _ .. _ _ 17.4 14.0 16. 5 23.6 19.3 High-school principals _ 16.7 15.1 16.7 20.9 23.0 Supervisors or directors: Primary grades 18.3 17.9 Intermediate grades _ _ _ _ 18.6 19.0 10.8 Art - _ _ 16. 1 10.7 10.2 16.7 Music _ _ _ _ 18.0 18. 5 12.6 18.8 Health _ _ _ 21. 1 2.8 2.4 26.5 23. 1 Physical education _ . _ _ _ 15.0 14.8 6.4 22.3 12.2 Home economics. . _ . _ _ 15.3 15.2 10.4 20.4 17.9 Vocational education _ _ .. 26.8 18.2 19.4 22.4 1 Based upon data compiled by the Research Division of the National Education Association. Qualifications. — Not many data are available to show the effect of the depression upon the qualifications of teachers, but according to data covering the period 1929-30 to 1932-33, teachers with lower qualifications than formerly were being employed in 7.4 percent of 1,117 counties reporting; teachers with higher qualifications were being employed in 27.6 percent of these counties; and 65 percent with the same qualifications as before the depression period were being employed. In 21 States none of the counties reporting were employ¬ ing teachers with lower qualifications. The employment of teachers with comparatively low qualifications in some of the school districts was doubtless due to the fact that only teachers residing in the district were given teaching positions. Natur¬ ally, if there were in the district no unemployed teachers holding high- grade certificates, those with low-grade certificates were employed. On the whole, however, it appears that the tendency has been to employ teachers with higher qualifications than in 1930. According to data compiled by the Office of Education only 23.3 percent of the teachers in one-teacher schools and 36.4 percent of the teachers in two-teacher schools in 1930 had had 2 or more years of normal school work, while in 1935, 42.1 percent of the teachers in one-teacher schools and 60.1 percent of the teachers in two-teacher schools had completed 2 or more years of normal school work. EFFECTS OF THE DEPRESSION ON SCHOOLS 27 Educational legislation during the depression which affected the certification and training of teachers reveals two interesting aspects: (1) a tendency to increase entrance standards to the teaching profes¬ sion, and (2) a temporary suspension of laws in many States which required teachers already in the service to complete additional pro¬ fessional training as a prerequisite to renewal or extension of the validity of their certificates. Among the States which increased the requirements for initial entrance to the teaching profession are Iowa, Kentucky, Maine, Maryland, Michigan, Montana, and West Virginia. In this connec¬ tion it may be noted that Kentucky, Michigan, North Carolina, and West Virginia increased the requirement of county superintendents of schools. Legislation which provided for the renewal or extension of teachers’ certificates without additional training was enacted in many States. Among some of these States are Alabama, Arkansas, Colo¬ rado, Kansas, Kentucky, New York (applicable to New York City), Nevada, New Mexico, North Carolina, South Carolina, and Wyoming. INSTRUCTIONAL SERVICES One of the most serious effects of the depression upon about 20 percent of the city schools of the country was the elimination or cur¬ tailment of instruction in various fields, as music, art, and physical education. The subjects eliminated are the ones upon which increased emphasis was greatly needed. Some few cities did, however, increase their programs in one or more of the subjects listed in table 23. Why music, art, physical education, and several other subjects were eliminated as an economy measure cannot well be explained, since most of the subjects eliminated are the least expensive ones in the curriculum. The classes in these subjects are usually larger than in other subjects, thereby making the cost per pupil-recitation less. The eliminations were, however, probably largely due to the fact that many persons thinking of the schools only in terms of the three R’s of their own school days raised the cry that music, art, and other comparatively new subjects are “fads and frills.” If retrenchments had to be made in the field of instruction the old subjects should have been weighed along with the new in order to compare their relative worth. As shown in table 23 about 80 percent of all the cities reporting maintained their programs of art, physical education, homemaking, and industrial arts, and that only 77 percent of the cities maintained their music program as it was in 1929-30. Variations among the groups show that the cities having a population of 30,000 to 100,000 rank highest in maintaining their former programs of art, music, physical education, and homemaking. Eliminations and curtail- 5333°— 38 - 5 28 BIENNIAL SURVEY OF EDUCATION, 1934-36 ments in art, music, and physical education were most common in cities from 10,000 to 30,000 population, but this group did more to maintain its industrial arts program than did the cities of the other population groups. Data to show what eliminations and curtailments took place in the field of instruction in the rural schools are not available. The pro¬ grams of many rural schools, however, were so meager that they did not admit of eliminations or curtailments. Table 23.— NUMBER AND PERCENTAGE OF CITIES (BY GROUPS) MAINTAINING, INCREASING, REDUCING, OR ELIMINATING CERTAIN INSTRUCTIONAL SERVICES BETWEEN SEPTEMBER 1930 AND JUNE 1933 Subject of instruc¬ tion by group of cities Num¬ ber of replies Maintained Increased Reduced Eliminated Num¬ ber of cities Percent of cities re¬ porting Num¬ ber of cities Percent of cities re¬ porting Num¬ ber of cities Percent of cities re¬ porting Num¬ ber of cities Percent of cities re¬ porting * 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 Art . . . . ... 632 517 81.8 12 2.0 67 10.6 36 5.6 Group I 36 30 83.3 6 16. 7 Group II _ 90 84 93.3 1 1.0 5 5.5 Group III _ 206 163 79. 1 6 2.9 27 13.1 10 4.9 Group IV. . . 300 240 80.0 5 1.6 29 9.7 26 8.7 Music . . 722 555 76.9 28 3.9 no 15.2 29 4.0 Group I 36 29 80.6 7 19.4 Group II . . 90 75 83.3 1 1.1 14 15.6 Group III . 218 161 73.9 14 6.4 35 16.0 8 3.7 Group IV _ 378 290 76.7 13 3.4 54 14.3 21 5.6 Physical education.. 696 565 81.2 22 3.2 81 11.6 28 4.0 Group I _ _ 36 29 80.6 7 19.4 Group II _ 88 77 87.5 3 3.4 8 9. 1 Group III - 211 160 75.8 9 4.3 35 16.6 7 3.3 Group IV . 361 299 82.8 10 2.8 31 8.6 21 5.8 Homemaking . 654 549 84.0 21 3.2 65 9.9 19 2.9 Group I 35 27 77.1 8 22.9 Group II _ 85 74 87.1 1 1.2 7 8.2 3 3.5 Group III _ 204 167 81.9 11 5.4 20 9.8 6 2.9 Group IV . 330 281 85.2 9 2.7 30 9. 1 10 3.0 Industrial art _ 630 528 83.8 20 3.2 58 9.2 24 3.8 Group T 35 26 74.3 9 25. 7 Group II _ 85 70 82.3 1 1.2 9 10.6 5 5.9 Group III _ 198 169 85.3 10 5.1 11 5.5 8 4.1 Group IV _ 312 263 84.3 9 2.9 29 9.3 11 3.5 TEXTBOOKS AND SUPPLIES Reports from 42 publishers for the years 1930-31 and 1931-32 show a drop of sales of school and college books from $32,683,206 in 1930-31 to $27,197,129 in 1931-32. The sales decreased $5,487,177, or 16.8 per¬ cent in 1 year. This decrease, however, was due partly to a decrease in the average cost of elementary and secondary school textbooks, EFFECTS OF THE DEPRESSION ON SCHOOLS 29 from 50.5 cents to 46.2 cents, but chiefly to the fact that there were 14.4 percent fewer books sold. According to the reports of 42 pub¬ lishers, the sales of books for the various school levels was affected differently during the year: 12.6 percent fewer elementary school text¬ books were sold, 31.2 fewer junior high school textbooks, and 20.7 percent fewer senior and 4-year high school textbooks. A comparison of the amount spent for textbooks in 1929-30 with the amount spent in 1933-34 as reported by the State Departments of Education in 18 of the States in which elementary and high-school books are required to be furnished free shows that during the 4-year period there was a decrease of 35.5 percent in these States. Data showing the amount spent for textbooks and educational supplies were compiled by the Office of Education in 1930 and 1934 for cities having a population of 10,000 or more. During the 4 years the amount spent for textbooks and educational supplies decreased from $34,884,364 in 1930 to $24,328,170 in 1934, which was a decrease of $10,556,394, or about 30 percent. In cities having a population of 100,000 or more, the decrease was 32 percent; in cities having a population from 30,000 to 100,000, 44 percent; and in cities having a population from 10,000 to 30,000, 35 percent. In the three groups combined the reduction in the amount spent for textbooks and edu¬ cational supplies for elementary schools was 37 percent, for junior high schools 34 percent, and for senior and 4-year high schools 23.2 percent. It thus appears from these data that the elementary schools suffered the greatest reduction in supplies and textbooks. It is obvious that in general worn-out texts were not replaced and that new textbooks were not purchased. Several school survey reports show that because of a shortage of books or because those available were not modern it was difficult for the schools to put new curricula into operation. One State survey shows that about one- third of the pupils did not have the required number of textbooks and that about 12 percent did not have as many as one-half the required number. In that particular State parent-teacher and other organiza¬ tions were furnishing textbooks to hundreds of school children. In a city school survey report the elementary school textbooks are de¬ scribed as ill-adapted to meet individual differences in child needs, interests, and abilities and too old and out of date to serve instruc¬ tional needs. The average date of the history books was 1924; a few were dated before the World War. The geography texts were also old. The situation in the high schools was about the same. Judging from the great decrease in the amount spent for textbooks between 1930 and 1934 the foregoing illustrations may be considered typical. 30 BIENNIAL SURVEY OF EDUCATION, 1934-36 SCHOOLS AND CLASSES FOR SPECIAL PURPOSES Schools and classes j or exceptional children. — Since data showing the number of school systems maintaining schools and classes for excep¬ tional children and the number enrolled are incomplete for 1929-30, comparisons to show what the effect of the depression was upon such classes are made between statistics for 1931-32 and 1933-34. These statistics show not a decrease but a substantial increase in the total number of exceptional children enrolled in special classes. In the 2-year period from 1931-32 to 1933-34 the increase in enroll¬ ment was more than 40,000, and it applies to each of the eight groups of exceptional children except one; children of lowered vitality, or delicate children, who were reported as segregated in so-called open- air or similar classes were fewer in 1934 than in 1932 by about 1,000. Turning from a consideration of the number of pupils reached to the number of cities reaching them, the picture is not quite so encour¬ aging nor so consistent. The number of cities reporting provisions for crippled children (including home instruction for those unable to attend school) rose from 195 in 1932 to 229 in 1934, while the number reporting classes for mentally retarded children dropped from 515 to 427 during the same period. The largest losses in this latter case were among the small towns which found it difficult to maintain one or two classes of light enrollment. On the other hand, there were those that succeeded in preserving at least one special group in the system by increasing the size of class. Varying changes took place among other groups. Additions oc¬ curred in the number of cities reporting special classes for the blind or partially seeing and the speech-defective, but losses appeared for the gifted, the delicate, the deaf and hard-of-hearing, and the socially maladjusted. The last-named group is, however, coming more and more to the attention of child guidance clinics, which are considered by mental hygienists with much greater favor than are segregated classes in the school system. The apparent contradiction implied by the increase in the number of children reported as enrolled in special classes and the decrease in the number of cities reporting the maintenance of such classes may be explained by the fact that the program has been substantially enlarged in a number of cities. From Baltimore, for example, came the report in 1934 of an enrollment in special classes for the mentally retarded which was greater than that reported in 1932 by more than 1,000 pupils. Similarly, Philadelphia changed its report for the same group from 8,663 in 1932 to 9,230. Some smaller cities show the same development, not necessarily by adding to the number of teach¬ ers, but by increasing the size of classes, sometimes to an unfortunate extent. EFFECTS OF THE DEPRESSION ON SCHOOLS 31 In each of 13 State departments of education there is a division which is responsible for the development and supervision of a State¬ wide program for one or more types of exceptional children. What has happened in some of these States will be of interest in determining the general effect of the depression upon provisions made for handi¬ capped children. In Ohio nine new classes were opened for the deaf and seven for sight-defective children. In Michigan an enrollment of 2,701 pupils in all special classes in 1930 increased to 3,360 pupils in 1935. A total of 89 special classes increased to 93 classes, or there were only 4 more classes for 659 more pupils. Obviously the size of classes must have grown in Michigan as elsewhere to take care of the additional enrollment. In Wisconsin, which can also lay claim to a progressive program of special education, there has, unfortunately, been a definite backward step. The legislature of 1933 repealed the law of 1927 granting State aid for classes of mentally deficient children. With assistance cut off, the burden has been much heavier for local communities. They have thus far succeeded in holding the program steady with relatively few losses. In fact the number of children reached was greater by almost 300 in 1934 than in 1930 — again the result of larger rather than more classes. Established State subsidies for crippled, deaf, blind, and speech- defective children in Wisconsin have been retained, and the work in these fields shows varying amounts of gain since 1930. In Pennsylvania the situation for the mentally retarded is encour¬ aging. From 1930 to 1934 the number of “orthogenic backward” classes increased from 560 to 586. Orthopedic, sight-saving classes, speech-correction groups, and classes for delicate children had held their own or increased in number during the same period, while dis¬ ciplinary groups and classes for deaf and hard-of-hearing children show a slight increase. Massachusetts, too, gives consistent attention to mentally retarded pupils; moreover, even back in 1930 that State began an active cam¬ paign for crippled children which resulted in the development of educational facilities for this group during the succeeding years. The foregoing summary regarding special schools and classes for exceptional children indicates that this phase of educational endeavor weathered the storm of the depression to a gratifying degree. Summer schools. — In 1930, 374 cities having a population of 2,500 or more reported summer schools. In 1934, only 160 cities reported such schools, which represents a decrease of 57.2 percent. Within the 4-year period the enrollments dropped from 492,638 in 1930 to 109,844 in 1934, or 77.7 percent. The number of teachers dropped from 14,481 in 1930 to 8,317 in 1934, or 77 percent; and the total 32 BIENNIAL SURVEY OF EDUCATION, 1934-36 expenditures from $4,043,433 in 1930 to $602,363 in 1934, or 85.1 percent. The number of summer schools was reduced not because their value had not been demonstrated, but because the elimination of such schools offered a partial solution to budget balancing. Before the beginning of the depression there was every indication that more cities would organize summer schools, judging by the in¬ crease in the growth of such schools from 1920 to 1930. Evening schools. — The number of cities maintaining evening schools and the number of pupils decreased greatly from 1930 to 1934. In 1930, 664 cities maintained evening schools; in 1934, only 38 cities maintained such schools. The enrollments decreased from 1,038,052 in 1930 to 811,882 in 1934; the number of supervisors and teachers from 24,071 to 16,524; and expenditures decreased from $10,682,349 to $6,469,485. Expressed in percentages the number of cities main¬ taining evening schools decreased 42.5 percent within the 4-year period; the enrollments, 21.8 percent; the supervising and teaching staff, 31.4 percent; and the amount expended for evening schools 39.4 percent. Evening schools were eliminated for the same reason as summer schools; namely, to help reduce expenses and to help balance the school budget. The reduction in the number of regular evening schools was, however, compensated for to a certain extent by the organization of adult classes which were made possible by the Fed¬ eral Emergency Relief Administration, this Administration providing funds with which to employ instructors for classes composed of adults. Nursery schools and kindergartens. — During the economic depres¬ sion school opportunities for children below first grade decreased in the tax-supported schools and increased through the projects of the Federal Emergency Relief Administration. On the one hand, kinder¬ gartens in public schools for children 4 and 5 years old, which had been introduced in public-school systems at the long and earnest solicitation of parents who realized that such schools had an educational value for their children, were entirely eliminated in some cities, and in others the work was greatly curtailed. On the other hand, children from 2 to 5 years of age of needy and unemployed parents were enrolled for the first time in emergency nursery schools. These schools were organized to give employment to needy and unemployed teachers and to help counteract the negative influences of the home, incident to economic and social difficulties, upon the children’s physical and emotional stability. Kindergarten curtailments. — Data are not available to show the exact number of cities that eliminated kindergartens nor the number that curtailed their kindergarten programs. However, a study of conditions in city schools during the period 1931 to 1934 shows that of 797 city school systems reporting, 426 provided kindergartens in 1931- EFFECTS OF THE DEPRESSION ON SCHOOLS 33 32, 404 in 1932-33, and 377 in 1933-34. Thus 49, or 11.5 percent, of the 426 cities reporting on their conditions and which maintained kindergartens in 1931-32, eliminated them within the 2-year period. The total number of cities which maintained kindergartens in 1931-32 was 1,197. Therefore, if the same percentage of decrease occurred in these 1,197 cities as in the 426 cities, there were approximately 127 fewer cities maintaining such schools in 1933-34 than in 1931-32. These eliminations and curtailments -were not only made possible, but were facilitated in many cities because of the laws and regulations controlling the sources of financial support upon which these schools depend. In nearly all of the States the laws relating to kindergartens are the only specified provision for pregrade education in the public- school systems and the source of financial support for kindergartens in about half of the States lies in special local tax levies which in recent years have been difficult to maintain. Curtailments were also effected in kindergarten programs by raising the age of entrance. In 42 of 337 cities reporting in September 1933, the entrance age had been raised. In 23 of these cities the entrance age was increased one-half a year, in 9 cities three-fourths of a year, and in 10 cities 1 year. From 1930 to 1934 the total number of children enrolled in kinder¬ gartens decreased from 723,443 to 601,777, or 17 percent. In cities having a population of 10,000 or more the cost per kindergarten pupil decreased from $54.93 in 1930 to $47.01 in 1934, or 14.4 percent; and the number of pupils enrolled per teacher increased from 56.5 to 59 within the 4-year period. Development of the emergency program for young children. — With the inauguration of the emergency nursery school program in October 1933, between 50,000 and 75,000 young children have been enrolled each year and their parents have participated in the general education program connected with the project. The emergency nursery school program helped to converge the interests of professional, religious, civic, and welfare organizations upon the needs of young children. Previous to the establishment of emergency nursery schools demonstrations of child development programs were carried on in a few high schools for the benefit of high- school boys and girls. Through the emergency nursery school many additional demonstration centers have been provided. The way has also been opened for the active participation of high-school boys and girls in the daily program with young children through the allowances offered by the National Youth Administration. It will be interesting to note the effect that the emergency nursery schools will have upon the future nursery-school offerings in public-school systems and upon the types of daily programs carried on in kindergartens. 34 BIENNIAL SURVEY OF EDUCATION, 1934-36 Vocational schools and classes. — The data contained in this section are confined to vocational schools and classes operating under State plans, including those Federally and those non-Federally aided. Table 24 compiled from data presented in a publication of the Office of Education 2 giving enrollments in and expenditures for vocational schools by years from 1918 to 1936 shows how such schools were affected as to enrollments and expenditures from 1930 to 1934. Between 1930 and 1934, the number of pupils enrolled in vocational agricultural schools and classes and in vocational home economics increased, while the expenditures for each of these types of schools decreased (table 24). In the trade and industrial schools and classes, not including part-time general continuation schools and classes, both enrollments and expenditures increased; the percentage increase in expenditure was, however, greater than the percentage increase in enrollments. The part-time general continuation schools and classes show a great decrease both in expenditures and in the number of pupils enrolled. The heavy decrease in enrollments in such schools was due to the fact that very few persons between the ages of 14 and 18 years of age were able to secure employment during the depression, and consequently most of them returned to some form of full-time school. Table 24.— ENROLLMENTS IN AND EXPENDITURES FOR VOCA¬ TIONAL SCHOOLS, FEDERALLY AND NONFEDERALLY AIDED, 1930, 1932, AND 1934, AND PERCENTAGE INCREASE OR DECREASE Expenditures Types of vocational schools and classes, by year Total Percentage increase or decrease 1930 to 1932 1932 to 1934 1930 to 1934 1 2 3 4 5 Agricultural schools: 1930 _ _ $8, 743, 382 10, 212, 810 8, 333, 669 8, 814, 566 10, 058, 107 10, 491, 667 5, 465, 513 5, 367, 616 2, 855, 024 4, 382, 036 5, 129, 039 4, 331, 977 ] 1932 _ _ [+16.8 -18.4 -4.7 1934 _ _ _ Trade and industrial, not including continuation: 1930.. 1 1932 _ [+14. 1 +4.3 +19.0 1934 _ Part-time general continua¬ tion: 1930 _ - 1932 . }-L8 -46.8 -47.8 1934 . . . xiome economics: 1930. . _ _ ) 1932 . . [+17.0 -15.5 -1.1 1934 _ _ _ Enrollments Percentage increase or decrease Total 1930 to 1932 1932 to 1934 1930 to 1934 6 7 8 9 193, 325 257, 255 289, 361 |+33. 1 +12.5 +49.7 296, 658 308,088 308, 930 | +3.4 +.3 +4.1 336, 495 271, 503 177, 128 j— 19. 3 -34.8 -47.4 238, 058 339, 316 343, 721 |+42.5 +13.0 +44.4 2 Digest of annual reports of State boards for vocational education to the Office of Education. Division of Vocational Education, fiscal year ended June 30, 1936. EFFECTS OF THE DEPRESSION ON SCHOOLS 35 ENROLLMENTS While school budgets and the teaching staff were being reduced the number of pupils was increasing. Just what effect the depression had on enrollments is difficult to estimate. It probably had no effect on enrollments in the elementary school grades, with the exception of the kindergarten, in which the enrollment decreased 16.8 percent between 1930 and 1934 due to the elimination of kindergartens or to the raising of the kindergarten entrance age in some of the school systems. All the other elementary school grades, except the sixth, seventh, and eighth, registered a decrease which may be explained by the falling birth rate. The number of pupils enrolled in high school increased 28.9 percent from 1930 to 1934. Of special significance is the increase in the number enrolled in the last 2 years of high school and the increase in the number of postgraduate students. From 1930 to 1934 the number enrolled in the third-year high-school classes increased 37.5 percent, and in the fourth-year classes 43.4. No data are available showing the number of postgraduate students in 1930. In 1932, 36,541 such students were reported and in 1934, 59,321, which represent an increase of 38.4 percent within the 2-year period. The great increase in the number of postgraduate students was due chiefly to the fact that thousands of high-school graduates who could not find employment, or who had no means of going to college, returned to high school for addi¬ tional courses. The increase in high-school enrollment was due partly to the fact that other thousands of boys and girls, who having arrived at the work-permit age and who would have left school if they could have found work were compelled to remain in school, and others who were at work reenrolled when they were out of employment. IMPORTANT CHANGES IN FINANCING THE PUBLIC SCHOOLS* Since the retrenchments noted in the foregoing pages were caused by insufficient funds, the chief problem to be solved was that of providing a more scientific basis for school support than had previously existed. The need for thoroughgoing revision or improvement of plans for financing education was felt in many if not all States long before the industrial depression. After that situation developed, many school systems in common with numerous other organizations, both govern¬ mental and nongovernmental, found it difficult and frequently impossible to meet their financial obligations. This was true with respect to school districts not only in those States where localities carried the major part of the burden of school costs but in practically all States. Obviously, the school system obliged to depend chiefly upon local ad valorem taxes for its source of revenue, as is the case where local support predominates, is more likely to face a shortage of 3 Prepared by Timon Covert, Specialist in School Finance. 36 BIENNIAL SURVEY OF EDUCATION, 1934-36 funds in times of financial difficulty than is the system supported by various types of taxes which the State may feasibly administer. After resorting to various local expedients, such as short-term bor¬ rowing, deferring payments, and curtailing and reducing expenditures, in their attempts to administer the fiscal affairs of the schools on reduced revenues, school district officials naturally turned to the State for assistance. This was the logical procedure since school districts exist to serve a function of State government. When localities reached the limit of their taxing ability and financial difficulties became too great for local solution, as they had been doing gradually before 1930 and rapidly since, remedial legislation was imperative. Accord- ingly, we find a number of revisions in State plans for public-school finance made as a direct result of, or hastened by, the industrial de¬ pression. The following are probably the most significant results of these revisions: Provisions in a number of States for a relatively larger amount of funds for the public schools from State-wide sources, changes in methods of apportioning State school funds, and closer oversight and control of local school finance by the State. 1. State funds j or a larger share of school costs. — Among the most significant changes since 1930 in plans for financing the school are those that in effect transferred to the State a part of the costs previously carried by local school districts or counties, or both. School costs have increased greatly with expanding and better school facilities during the last 30 years. This fact is well known. In some States, as school costs increased, provision was made from time to time for increasing the amount of State-school support. In general, however, the increase in amount of funds provided by the State did not keep pace with the increase in school costs. As a result in a majority of cases local school revenue units were obliged to raise more and more funds with the only feasible means for doing so at their command, namely, general property taxation. Overburdened as local taxpayers were with high tax levies on their general property for numerous functions of local government, including the constantly increasing rates necessary for schools in so many instances where the State had been indifferent to rising costs, when the crisis came they were in no position to pay a higher rate or even to continue paying as much as previously. Unpaid taxes, exces¬ sive indebtedness, and legal restrictions all contributed to the general collapse of school district ability to meet obligations. Little wonder that State legislatures hastened effective revisions. The percentage of public-school revenue derived from State sources for the country as a whole was 20.3 in 1900. From that percentage it had declined to 16 percent by 1925, which appears to be about the lowest point. Since the latter date the percentage for all States com¬ bined has increased during each 2-year period especially since 1930. For the year 1934 nearly 25 percent of such revenue was derived from EFFECTS OF THE DEPRESSION ON SCHOOLS 37 State- wide sources. Examining the sources of school funds for individ¬ ual States, we find that in 1930 only 7 States provided as much as 30 percent of the revenue used by their schools, while in 1934, 18 States provided that much or more. Although later data from all States are not available, the comparatively large number of States which provided for larger State school funds in 1935 undoubtedly places several additional States on the list which now provide 30 percent or more of the funds necessary for their public schools. Of the States which have recently provided more funds for the public schools from the State as a unit, North Carolina has gone farther than any other. After considerable effort to equalize school costs through¬ out the State, legislation was enacted in North Carolina in 1931 pro¬ viding State funds for the support of 6 months of school in all districts. Two years later, the plan was again revised and the State has since paid all current costs, as fixed by law, of 8 months of school, excepting those for maintenance of buildings and fixed charges. Costs legally incurred in excess of those guaranteed by the State and school building costs are paid by the respective county and independent school districts. Other States which since 1930 have provided for State payment of considerably larger percentages of the costs of their school programs than they had been paying previously include West Virginia, Ohio, Oklahoma, Indiana, Oregon, Alabama, California, Florida, Michigan, Utah, North Dakota, Tennessee, and Louisiana. Some of these States had been providing comparatively high percentages of the funds used by their schools while others had not previously done so. The per¬ centages of such funds supplied by the State, by the county, and by the local school district, and also by the Federal Government and by educational foundations are shown for the United States and by States in table 25 for the 2 years 1929-30 and 1933-34. Table 25.— PERCENTAGE ANALYSIS OF PUBLIC-SCHOOL REVENUE RECEIPTS, BY SOURCES, 1929-30 AND 1933-34 Percentage from— State and year State County Local district (includes towns and townships) Federal Govern¬ ment Subsidies and educa¬ tional foun¬ dations 1 2 3 4 5 6 Continental United States: 1929-30. . _ 17.2 10.8 71.6 0.4 0. 0004 1933-34 _ _ 23.4 9.3 66.1 1. 2 .0002 Alabama: 1929-30 .. _ _ 39.7 33.4 25.8 .7 .4 1933-34 _ 34.0 30.3 23.0 12.6 .2 Arizona: 1929-30 _ 19.2 37.1 43.3 .4 1933-34 29.5 35.0 33.6 1.9 Arkansas: 1929-30 . - _ 32.3 4.8 61.5 .9 .5 1933-34 _ 20.0 5.6 66.8 7.3 .3 38 BIENNIAL SURVEY OF EDUCATION, 1934-36 Table 25.— PERCENTAGE ANALYSIS OF PUBLIC-SCHOOL REVENUE RECEIPTS, BY SOURCES, 1929-30 AND 1933-34^-Continued Percentage from— State and year State County Local district (includes towns and townships) Federal Govern¬ ment Subsidies and educa¬ tional foun¬ dations 1 2 3 4 5 6 California: 1929-30 _ 25.5 36.6 37.7 .2 .005 1933-34 _ 48.7 4.3 46.8 .2 Colorado: 1929-30. _ _ 3.1 22.9 73.8 .2 1933-34 _ 3.3 24.5 71.5 .7 Connecticut: 1929-30 _ _ _ 7.9 91.9 .2 1933-34 _ 9.2 90.5 .3 Delaware: 1929-30 _ 87.3 12.1 .6 1933-34 _ 92.5 6.9 .6 Florida: 1929-30 . . 21.8 28.4 48.7 .8 .3 1933-34 _ 29.1 48.5 18.1 4. 2 .1 Georgia: 1929-30 _ _ _ _ _ 34.5 28.4 36.0 .9 .2 1933-34 _ _ _ _ _ 29.4 26.7 33.6 10.2 .1 Idaho: 1929-30 _ _ .. _ 7.5 23.9 68.4 .2 1933-34 _ 8.6 29.2 61.6 .6 Illinois: 1929-30 _ _ _ 4.4 94.7 .9 1933-34 _ _ 6.8 .1 92.6 .5 Indiana: 1929-30 _ _ _ 5.2 .2 94.3 .3 1933-34 27.0 72.6 .4 Iowa: 1929-30 _ _ _ 3.9 95.8 .3 1933-34 1.9 2.5 95.3 .3 Kansas: 1929-30. _ _ _ 1.4 98.4 .2 1933-34 2.0 11.8 85.7 .5 Kentucky: 1929-30 _ _ _ 25.2 28.5 45.4 .7 .2 1933-34 24.2 29.7 43.1 3.0 Louisiana: 1929-30 _ _ _ _ 26.2 53.2 20.0 .4 .2 1933-34 _ 33.7 44.1 16.9 5.2 .1 Maine: 1929-30 _ _ _ _ _ _ 28.1 71.4 .5 1933-34 32.6 66.8 .6 Maryland: 1929-30 _ 17.3 34.3 i 48.0 .4 .04 1933-34 24.3 28.2 47.1 .4 Massachusetts: 1929-30 9.2 90.5 .3 1933-34 _ _ _ 11.8 88.0 .2 Michigan: 1929-30 18.1 81.8 .1 1933-34 23.5 76.0 .5 Minnesota: 1929-30 _ . _ 20.3 5.3 74.1 .3 1933-34 26.4 5.3 67.8 .5 Mississippi: 1929-30 _ _ 32.3 22.5 44.0 .7 .5 1933-34. _ _ _ _ 37.9 25.1 23.1 13.6 .3 Missouri: 1929-30 _ 10.1 4.9 84.4 .5 .02 1933-34 7.9 2.1 88.7 1.3 Montana: 1929-30 13.7 37.3 48.6 .4 1933-34 9.5 47.9 41.3 1.3 Nebraska: 1929-30 4.7 .3 94.3 .7 1933-34 _ 5.5 .5 93.0 1.0 Nevada: 1929-30 _ _ 18.0 52.2 28.8 1.0 1933-34 _ _ 15.3 56.6 26.6 1.5 New Hampshire: 1929-30 . _ 8.7 91.0 .3 1933-34 . . . . 9.1 90.6 .3 1 For the city of Baltimore. EFFECTS OF THE DEPRESSION ON SCHOOLS 39 Table 25.— PERCENTAGE ANALYSIS OF PUBLIC-SCHOOL REVENUE RECEIPTS, BY SOURCES, 1929-30 AND 1933-34— Continued Percentage from— State and year Local district Federal Govern¬ ment Subsidies State County (includes towns and and educa¬ tional foun¬ townships) dations 1 2 3 4 5 6 New Jersey: 1929-30... _ 3 21. 1 .8 77.9 .2 1933-34. .. . _ _ _ 2.6 19.0 78.2 .2 New Mexico: 1929-30 _ 21.2 60. 1 18. 1 .6 1933-34 _ 16.9 59.3 18.7 5.0 . l New York: 1929-30 _ 27.4 72.4 .2 1933-34 28.3 71.5 .2 North Carolina: 1929-30 ... _ 3 19. 5 3 43.9 35.8 .5 . 3 1933-34. _ ! _ 61.6 22.6 13.1 2.7 . 1 North Dakota: 1929-30 _ _ 10.9 7.2 81.7 .2 1933-34 _ _ 10.5 15.9 69.3 4.3 Ohio: 1929-30.. _ 3.7 31.3 64.6 .4 1933-34 _ 15.3 20.9 63.4 .4 Oklahoma: 1929-30 _ 10. 1 8.0 81.4 .3 .2 1933-34 _ 29.4 2.5 63.5 4.6 .03 Oregon: 1929-30 _ 2.1 14. 5 83.2 .2 1933-34 _ 1.8 23.1 74.1 1.0 Pennsylvania: 1929-30 _ _ _ 13.5 86. 1 .4 1933-34 _ 20.3 79.4 .3 Rhode Island: 1929-30 _ 8.4 91.4 .2 1933-34 _ 6.0 93.7 .3 South Carolina: 1929-30 _ 24. 1 24.2 50.3 .6 .8 1933-34 _ 27.7 5.5 62.5 3.9 .4 South Dakota: 1929-30 _ _ 9.9 89.9 .2 1933-34 _ _ _ 9.1 88.7 2.2 Tennessee: 1929-30 _ 23. 7 35.2 40. 1 .8 .2 1933-34 _ 42.5 39.8 13.5 4.2 Texas: 1929-30 3 4 5 _ 38. 9 12. 7 47.9 .4 . 1 1933-34 _ 51.5 9.5 37.0 1.9 . 1 Utah: 1929-30 _ 33.3 66.4 .3 1933-34 _ _ 39.2 34.4 24.9 1.5 Vermont: 1929-30 _ 12.0 87.8 . 2 1933-34 _ 15.7 84.0 .3 Virginia: 1929-30 _ _ 26.9 33.6 38.4 .8 .3 1933-34 _ _ 26.7 34.4 34.2 4.3 .4 Washington: 1929-30 _ .. 28.6 14. 6 56. 5 .3 1933-34 _ 37.0 12.3 50.3 . 4 West Virginia: 1929-30 _ 7.9 91.7 .4 .00+ 1933-34 _ 49.1 47.9 3.0 Wisconsin: 1929-30 _ 16.7 8.6 74.3 .4 1933-34 _ _ _ 19.8 10.7 69.1 .4 Wyoming: 1929-30 _ 5 26.8 19. 2 53.7 8.3 1933-34 _ 24.5 21.6 52.1 1.8 3 Includes a considerable amount of money allocated back to the counties on exactly the same basis it was received. s Estimated on data contained in North Carolina State Department of Education, biennial report of education for 1928-30. 4 Data provided in letter from State Department of Education, Jan. 28, 1936. 5 Approximately K of the funds indicated in column 4 as coming from the State’s permanent school fund actually comes from the Federal Government as royalty on the production of oil within the State on land belonging to the U. S. Government. A number of other States also receive such funds, but in comparatively smaller amounts. 40 BIENNIAL SURVEY OF EDUCATION, 1934-36 2. Changes in methods oj apportioning State school funds. — While the primary purpose of recent revisions in school finance which provide for larger State school funds probably has been to transfer a part of the tax burden from general property to other types of wealth, there has frequently been a second important purpose. It is that of equalizing school costs among the various school-revenue units of the State. It is well known that the revenue-producing ability of localities within any given State varies greatly in relation to their public-service needs. If localities were alike in this respect, taxation would be a simple matter and a State’s educational program could be financed locally with a uniform burden for all. Previous to about 1920, little recognition had been given to this problem in the distribution of State school funds insofar as any attempt at its complete solution was concerned. Since then many States have attempted to do so. There are two general plans which may be used by the States for equalizing school costs: First, if the State pays the entire cost, equalization, of course, will result ; second, if the State pays that part of the cost which any and all districts cannot pay with the proceeds of a uniform tax rate, equalization of costs will result. The early plans providing for the apportionment of State school funds used such bases as the school census and attendance. These, however, are measures of educational need rather than of financial ability to pay. Funds from State-wide sources distributed to local school districts give relief, or should give relief, to such districts from local taxation equal to amounts received from the State. If the distribution is on a uniform and sound basis of school needs, school costs are equalized throughout the State to the extent of the relief. In other words, if the State provides a fourth of the necessary school revenue, local school taxes may be lower and at least 25 percent of the education cost has been equalized throughout the State. The degree of equalization brought about mounts as the proportion of the total public-school revenue from the State increases; and, without considering the variation in ability of local districts to pay when distributing the State revenue, complete equalization of the cost of public education would result only with complete State support. On the other hand, the apportionment of State funds may be made in such a manner as to supplement local funds raised by a uniform rate and equalization of cost effected with a smaller amount of State funds. It appears that during the period of the depression when providing for additional State funds for the schools, most State legislatures have had both objectives (local tax relief and equalization of school costs) in mind, for the regulations for apportioning the newly pro¬ vided funds in a number of cases use a combination of the two plans EFFECTS OF THE DEPRESSION ON SCHOOLS mentioned above. In other words, provision has been made for distributing a definite part of the additional State funds to school districts on such bases as school census or number of teacher units, and the remainder or another definite part to equalize school costs. On the other hand, however, provisions for apportioning the addi¬ tional State aid disregard entirely the variations in ability of local districts to support schools. Some States, as California and Washington, which have recently provided for paying a larger share of their public-school costs than previously, had not been, nor now are, distributing State school funds so as to equalize the cost of a foundation program among their local districts; others, as Arkansas and Indiana, had been dis¬ tributing funds on this basis to some extent and continue to do so, but use other bases in apportioning the new funds; while some, as Florida and Virginia, which had used this basis, no longer do so. While recently provided plans for distributing State school funds are not always different from some which were in operation before the period of the emergency, it is significant to note some of their principal features; in them we find evidences of closer State interest and oversight in the financial welfare of education. For example, the new Ohio plan for financing her public schools combines the two bases (flat grants to each district and ability to pay) in the new provisions for distributing State school funds, and directs county boards of education to make a yearly survey of the school situation with respect to feasible redistricting, revision in pupil transportation facilities, and other improvements. The essentials of the Ohio plan follow: Until recently the Ohio plan for State school support provided three school-revenue units: The State, the county, and the local school district. Under the present (1935) law the county does not constitute such a unit. As in most States west of the Allegheny Mountains, the local school district prevails in Ohio and, in spite of the fact that the State and county both contributed to the support of schools, it has been obliged to carry the greater part of the burden; in 1933-34 the State paid 15.7 percent, the county 20.9 percent, and local districts 63.4 percent. The administrative organization is the county-district type with the greater amount of authority concerning school control centered in the local district. Previous to January 1935 each county was required to levy a tax of 2.65 mills on the dollar of assessed valuation of its general property. Proceeds of this county school tax in city and independent village districts were retained in the respective districts, but the proceeds of the tax in the territory of each county outside of the independent districts constituted a county fund for equalizing school costs among the small or dependent village and 42 BIENNIAL SURVEY OF EDUCATION, 1934-36 rural school districts which met prescribed standards. The State also provided an equalization fund for those districts which could not maintain specified school standards with all other available revenue including their local revenue from a uniform local tax levy. However, State funds, as indicated, were distributed chiefly on the school census basis. In common with many other States, Ohio has experienced much difficulty during recent years with school financial problems. In the midst of her difficulties a constitutional amendment was voted lowering the maximum tax rate on general property which governmental units might levy. As a result of the financial difficulties and the inability of many school districts to raise- sufficient revenue to main¬ tain schools, the State’s plan for school support has undergone almost complete revision since 1931. The school funds which are provided at present by the State of Ohio for the public schools are derived from a number of sources: (1) The State pays interest (appropriations from the general fund) on a part of an irreducible debt it owes to its school land fund. The debt of approximately four million dollars yields 6 percent interest for the support of schools in districts in which school land had been sold previous to 1917; (2) the State maintains a small trust fund derived from school land sales since 1917 and income from unsold school lands which yields annual revenue for school districts in which such lands were, or are, located; (3) the legislature provided for a cigarette tax in 1931, a liquid fuel tax (to be levied for a specified period of time) and a tax on classified intangibles in 1933, and a general sales tax in 1934 (to be levied for a specified period of time) the proceeds of which are partially or wholly for the State public-school fund; and (4) the legislature appropriates from the general fund for vocational educa¬ tion and from this or other sources for the education of handicapped children and frequently appropriates from the general fund for the State public-school fund. Legislation enacted in 1935 4 for financing the public schools provides for the apportionment of the State’s public-school fund (reve¬ nue derived from sources indicated in (3) of the preceding paragraph) on two bases. These are average daily attendance and equalization of school costs. 8. Closer State oversight and control oj financing education. — Even though local communities in the various States enjoy a consider¬ able degree of freedom in the establishment, administration, and con¬ trol of the schools, it is well understood that education is a function of the State government. Consequently, each State sets up certain minimum standards and certain regulations for the guidance and control of local districts with respect to education and its support. 4 A plan effective during the school year 1934-35 was quite similar to the one adopted in 1935. EFFECTS OF THE DEPRESSION ON SCHOOLS 43 That State legislatures have within recent years moved, in the direc¬ tion of more State control and oversight there can be little doubt. There are a number of reasons why it seemed necessary for the State to assume more actual control over the general affairs of educa¬ tion and of school finance in particular. In the first place, with the concentration of productive wealth in certain areas, early provisions for raising school revenues have become unsatisfactory. Some wealthy communities continue even at present amply able to support schools locally while others with little taxable property have found it increasingly difficult to do so. Further complicating the situation, during the years of the depression many poor school districts increased their tax levies and incurred indebtedness beyond reasonable limits in their attempts to meet their obligations. The result was a wide¬ spread condition of confiscatory local tax problems as well as a general situation of tax delinquency. In the face of the problem of confiscatory local taxation, legislation limiting local taxing privileges was enacted in a number of States. Among the States in which such privileges were limited by constitu¬ tional or statutory law probably as a result of conditions created by the industrial depression, are Michigan, West Virginia, Ohio, Califor¬ nia, Colorado, Louisiana, North Carolina, Kansas, Maryland, New Jersey, and New Mexico. These limitations were followed by legis¬ lative provisions in a number of States for larger amounts of State funds, as discussed in a preceding section, for the schools. The action of the Legislature of West Virginia, following a constitutional amend¬ ment lowering maximum local tax limits, affords a good example. The local tax situation became so acute in West Virginia that relief was sought at the November 1932 election in the form of a constitutional amendment which classified property for taxation and fixed maximum property-tax rates. After the amendment became effective, the amount of revenue it was possible to raise locally for education was so reduced that the legislature in 1933 provided for the allotment of $5,500,000 from a State-wide general sales tax in lieu of the local restrictions. It should be noted too in this connection that the legislature took steps at this time to establish more efficient and economical school administrative units as a part of the State’s reme¬ dial program. Under the revised law of 1933, all existing magisterial and city school districts were abolished and in their place 55 county school districts were established. Of this revision a State school official wrote:5 “To have continued the district form of organization and the same salary schedules would have meant a decided curtail¬ ment of the length of school term. * * *” 8 Cavins, L. V. West Virginia’s county unit system. State department of education, Charleston (1933), 8 p., mimeographed. 44 BIENNIAL SURVEY OF EDUCATION, 1934-36 Other recent controls on school finance include closer State super¬ vision of budgets and expenditures. In many States as a result of recent legislation local school district budgets must conform to instruc¬ tions in the law itself or to regulations formulated by State school officials. Considerably more attention must be given now than pre¬ viously in a number of States to the matter of effecting the consolida¬ tion of school attendance and administrative units by county and local school officials before such officials submit their annual reports to the State. State school funds in Ohio and Oklahoma, for example, under their revised State school support plans are not authorized for use in small schools which can feasibly be united with others. Salaries of school employees, pupil transportation costs, and fees for tuition are other items of school expense which in a number of instances have recently been brought under closer State oversight. Other significant effects of the recent industrial depression on public- school finance. — There are numerous other ways in addition to those discussed on the preceding pages in which public-school finance has been affected by the industrial depression. Some are of considerable significance and merit treatment in a review of this kind. Among the most important of these are the provisions for new State taxes in a number of States. As pointed out above, new State taxes were provided in order to relieve local school districts of a part of their general property tax burden. In some instances the new tax is levied and a part or all of the proceeds allocated to the public schools; in other States the levy is made and the proceeds allocated to the States’ general fund from which appropriations are made for education. Some of the most important as well as most frequently used of these new State sources of revenue are the income, the liquor, the sales, and the corporation taxes. In a number of States where taxes of certain types had been levied on a State-wide basis for the benefit of schools, rates were increased during the financial difficulties to secure additional State funds. The difficulty of securing sufficient revenue for public service needs, experienced by practically all fiscal officers during the depression has clearly demonstrated, if any demonstration was necessary, that a stable supply of revenue is more likely to result year after year when, instead of a single tax, several types of taxes are depended upon. This fact, of course, explains why it was that local school districts were unable to raise additional funds during the last few years when general property taxes became inadequate, since other important types of taxes are not considered feasible for local administration. State authorities in a number of instances have found, too, during the recent difficulties, that provisions for regular general fund appro¬ priations for education or any other function of government, even when the basis for determining the amount of the appropriation is EFFECTS OF THE DEPRESSION ON SCHOOLS 45 reliable, may not always prove satisfactory. When the budgetary needs of all functions of government have been treated fairly, such appropriations have proved satisfactory. It is gratifying to note that steps have been taken in some States within the last few years to correct defects of this nature. In conclusion, it seems apparent now that, although many schools were temporarily harmed and numerous children were deprived of normal school facilities for a time, the recent financial difficulties have served to call general attention to weaknesses in State plans for school support. There can be little doubt that long-delayed fundamental improvements in such plans have been or wall be made throughout the country as a direct or indirect result of the recent financial dif¬ ficulties. A review of recent events in school finance is convincing in this respect. II. Colleges and Universities 6 Probably 1933-34 was the depression low as experienced by colleges and universities. The comparison between that year and some predepression year, or even with 1931-32, will give the best measure of the effect of the depression. FINANCIAL SUPPORT The total receipts from public sources, from endowment income, from student fees, and from gifts for higher education institutions of all types were as follows: Year Number of institutions Public sources Endowment Student fees Gifts 1 2 3 4 5 6 1929-30 1,209 _ $205, 653, 051 199, 641, 930 142, 861, 675 $68, 604, 947 60, 902, 567 55, 533, 447 $144, 125, 879 150, 649, 047 138, 257, 350 $140, 093, 284 108, 902, 478 58, 647, 709 1931-32 1,380 1933-34 _ 1,357 _ Over the 4-year period this indicates a reduction in income of nearly $63,000,000, or 31 percent, from public sources; more than $13,000,000, or 19 percent, from endowment; nearly $6,000,000, or 4 percent, from student fees ; and more than $81,000,000, or 57 percent, from gifts. Expenditures are commonly divided among several categories, the principal two of which are (1) “educational and general” and (2) “plant funds.” The first of these covers all the usual costs of main¬ taining the educational activities, while the second covers all buildings and permanent equipment. It was in the latter category that the 6 Prepared by F. J. Kelly, Chief, Division of Higher Education, and John H. McNeely, Specialist in Higher Education. 46 BIENNIAL SURVEY OF EDUCATION, 1934-36 expenditures were cut most severely. The decade 1931-32 to 1933-34 witnessed a decrease of almost $51,000,000, or 12 percent, in “educa¬ tional and general” and a decrease of nearly $73,000,000, or 74 percent in “plant funds.” While the above figures represent the effect on income and expendi¬ tures for the country as a whole, the effects suffered by individual colleges differed very widely from these figures. WTdle most colleges suffered severely, probably the load fell heaviest upon the small colleges which depend most largely upon student fees. These colleges have but little reserve with which to meet emergencies; therefore, they are dependent from year to year upon the income from student fees and from relatively small endowments. In some cases these endowments produced little or no income during the depression. In order to indicate the seriousness of the situation faced by these colleges, quotations are here made from a report prepared in Feb¬ ruary 1934, from questionnaires sent by the Office of Education to a fairly wide sampling of the colleges and universities throughout the country. The nature of the questions asked is revealed in the tables compiled from them. Reports were received from 279 institutions under either private or church control. From these reports, it was clear that colleges affiliated with churches were in more serious financial straits than were other privately controlled institutions; therefore, the reports divide the colleges into two groups — church-controlled colleges and privately controlled colleges. The following quotations are taken from the report: Almost half the church colleges were in arrears in payments due their faculties in February 1934. Seven private colleges were also unable to complete salary payment due members of their faculties. Thirty-two institutions (30 church, 2 private) each owed faculty members more than $20,000. Nine church colleges and one private college were each in arrears on salaries more than $40,000 in February. Reasons for the financial difficulties are that church and private colleges are carrying a large number of needy students, accepting notes for tuition; that some have accumulated obligations for salaries and other operating costs; that many have obligations for buildings and repairs which require refinancing; and that many have mortgages, bonds and other miscellaneous debts which are difficult to meet in these times. Only 20 out of 210 church colleges, and only 7 out of 69 private colleges have no students who have not had to give notes for their tuition. In each of 28 church institutions and 15 private institutions, more than 300 students have given notes for all or part of their tuition. Five church colleges and six private colleges each have more than $80,000 in tuition due them from students they are carrying through the hardships of the economic situation. Tuition notes to the amount of $10,000 and up are in the hands of treasurers of each of 96 church colleges and 43 private colleges reporting. EFFECTS OF THE DEPRESSION ON SCHOOLS 47 Although 85 church colleges and 52 private colleges report that they have been able to pay current operating costs, including salaries, many are not so fortunate. Seven institutions are “in the red” on current maintenance obligations to the extent of $125,000 or more; 29 have $50,000 or more outstanding. Bonds requiring interest payment, mortgages, and other debts comprise another source of financial difficulty. Sixty-three church colleges report a total of $10,399,713 in such debts; private colleges, $6,950,000; a total of $16,404,713 for 80 colleges. The same reports which disclose the serious financial straits of private and denominational institutions tell what the faculties have done to help meet the situation. In 18 church institutions and 3 private colleges, salaries, which were never large, have been cut 50 percent or more. Twenty-one of 69 private institutions, and 174 out of 210 church colleges reporting have reduced salaries 20 percent or more. Only 23 church colleges and 21 private colleges have not reduced the faculty salary scale. The principal data are assembled in table 26. Table 26.— DISTRIBUTION OF COLLEGES ACCORDING TO 5 ECO¬ NOMIC FACTORS, 1933-34 I: NUMBER OF STUDENTS WITH NOTES FOR TUITION OUTSTANDING Church Private T'rvtol colleges colleges 1 Olal * 2 3 4 Students giving notes None . . . . . . . . . 20 7 27 1-49 _ _ _ 53 11 64 50-99 _ 37 13 50 100-149 _ . 31 10 41 1 50-199- . 20 5 25 200-249 _ _ _ 10 5 15 250-299 _ 11 3 14 300-349 _ _ _ _ _ 7 2 9 350 or above _ _ 21 13 34 Total _ _ _ 210 279 II: AMOUNTS OF STUDENT TUITION NOTES OUTSTANDING Amounts None . . . . . .. 19 7 26 $l-$9,999 _ _ _ _ 95 19 114 $10,000 $19,999 _ 34 14 48 $20,000-$29,999 _ 23 10 33 $30,000-$39,999 _ 16 3 19 $40,000-$49,999 _ 6 4 10 $50,000-$59,999 _ _ _ 6 2 8 $60,000-$69,999 _ _ _ _ 4 4 8 $70,000-$79,999 _ 2 0 2 $80,000 or above _ _ _ _ 5 6 11 Total. _ _ _ _ _ . . . . . 210 69 279 48 BIENNIAL SURVEY OF EDUCATION, 1934-36 Table 26.— DISTRIBUTION OF COLLEGES ACCORDING TO 5 ECO¬ NOMIC FACTORS, 1933-34— Continued III: PERCENTAGE REDUCTION IN SCALE OF FACULTY SALARIES, 1929-30 TO 1933-34 Church colleges Private colleges Total 1 2 3 4 Percentage reduction None _ _ _ ... __ _ _ 23 21 44 1-9 _ _ 4 2 0 10-19 _ _ _ 48 25 73 20-29 _ 58 10 68 30-39 _ 38 5 43 40-49 _ _ _ _ _ 20 3 23 50-59 _ 10 3 13 60 or above _ _ _ _ . ... 8 0 g Total _ 209 69 278 IV: ARREARS IN PAYMENTS DUE ON FACULTY SALARIES Amounts in arrears None.. _ --.... ... . . . . . . 105 62 167 $l-$4,999 _ _ _ 19 1 20 $5,000-19,999. _ _ 19 2 21 $10,000-$14,999 _ 18 0 18 $15,000-$19,999 _ 16 2 18 5 $20,000-$24,999 _ 5 0 $25,000-$29,999 _ 6 1 7 $30,000-$34,999 _ 7 0 7 $35,000-$39,999 _ 3 0 3 $40,000 or above . . . . . 9 1 10 Total . . ... . .. .. . . . . . 207 69 276 V: OUTSTANDING CURRENT MAINTENANCE OBLIGATIONS TO BE REFINANCED Amounts None. . 85 52 $l-$24,999 32 8 $25,000-$49,999 _ 20 2 $50,000-$74,999 _ .. 12 1 $75,000-$99,999 _ _ _ 5 1 $100,000-3124,999 _ 3 0 $125,000 or above.. _ _ _ . 2 5 Total. . 159 69 The same questionnaire, as reported in the above tables for church- controlled and privately controlled colleges was also sent to a repre¬ sentative number of publicly controlled institutions, both universities and teachers’ colleges. In a considerable fraction of these institutions there is no regular authorization to accept student notes for tuition or to allow faculty salaries to become in arrears. In spite of this fact more than half of the publicly controlled institutions had ac¬ cepted notes for student fees. In some institutions more than 1,000 students had given notes instead of cash for tuition. In one institu¬ tion the amount of student notes held exceeded $200,000. EFFECTS OF THE DEPRESSION ON SCHOOLS 49 There was nothing, however, to prevent the reduction in faculty salaries in publicly controlled institutions and this device was resorted to in practically all of them. While the percentages varied widely, about half of the institutions had reduced their salaries by 20 percent or more by February 1934. Some of them had reduced salaries by as much as from 30 to 35 percent. FACULTY SALARIES Amplifying the general statement concerning reductions in salaries cited above two special studies were made by the Office of Education of the effects of the depression upon salary scales. One of these was a study of salaries in the land-grant colleges reported in Circular No. 157, 1936 ; the other was reported in School Life for March 1936. The important findings concerning salaries in the land-grant colleges are reproduced in the following table: Table 27.— SALARIES OF FULL-TIME MEMBERS OF FACULTIES EMPLOYED ON A 9-MONTHS’ BASIS IN 51 LAND-GRANT INSTITU¬ TIONS ATTENDED BY WHITE STUDENTS A. PROFESSORS 1928-29 1929-30 1930-31 1934-35 First quartile _ - ... _. _ _ $3, 765 4, 278 5, 074 $3, 817 4, 457 5, 216 $3, 871 4,513 5, 215 $3, 174 3, 775 4, 400 Median _ _ _ . _ _ _ .. Third quartile.. ----- .. . _ .. ... B. ASSOCIATE PROFESSORS First quartile . _ _ _ _ _ . ------- $3,034 3, 342 3, 682 $3, 022 3, 349 3, 716 $3,041 3, 362 3,743 $2, 531 2, 903 3, 294 Median _ _ _ . . _ _ _ _ Third quartile. _ _ . . _ _ _ C. ASSISTANT PROFESSORS First quartile. . . . . . . $2. 491 $2, 553 2, 818 $2, 527 2, 837 $2, 115 2, 449 Median. _ _ _ _ ... _ 2,738 Third quartile . . _ . .. _ _ _ 3, 148 3, 187 3,202 2, 786 D. INSTRUCTORS First quartile - - - - - - - . . $1, 823 $1, 832 $1, 829 $1, 542 Median _ _ _ _ _ _ .. _ _ 2, 005 2. 060 2, 066 1.769 Third quartile _ ... . . ----- . . 2,236 2,253 2, 274 2,010 In the School Life study, colleges under private or church control are classified according to the number of students enrolled and also according to whether they are colleges for men, for women, or for both. In this table maximum and minimum salaries rather than first quartile and third quartile salaries are used. 50 BIENNIAL SURVEY OF EDUCATION, 1934-36 Table 28.— SALARIES, PRIVATELY CONTROLLED COLLEGES OF 200 TO 499 STUDENTS, 1929-30 AND 1934-35 Item Professors Associate pro¬ fessors Assistant pro¬ fessors Instructors 1929-30 1934-35 1929-30 1934-35 1929-30 1934-35 1929-30 1934-35 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 All colleges reporting: Number reporting - _ 63 63 27 27 36 36 42 42 Maximum salary. _ $5, 500 $5, 500 $5, 000 $4, 095 $3, 800 $3, 680 $2, 700 $2, 500 Median salary. .. .. . . $3, 030 $2, 336 $2, 646 $2, 156 $2, 235 $1, 864 $1, 775 $1, 559 M inimum sal ary ... _ $1,500 $980 $1, 600 $600 $1, 350 $530 $900 $300 By number of students enrolled: 200 to 299 students : Colleges reporting... .. .. 24 24 5 5 12 12 13 13 Maximum salary _ . $3, 600 $3, 000 $2, 650 $2, 400 $2, 500 $2, 600 $2, 100 $2,000 Median salary _ $2, 625 $2, 143 $2, 250 $1, 916 $2, 167 $1, 667 $1, 652 $1, 542 Minimum salary... _ $1,500 $1,200 $1,600 $1, 745 $1, 650 $1,000 $1, 200 $650 300 to 399 students: Colleges reporting.. - 23 23 12 12 12 12 14 14 Maximum salary _ $5,500 $4, 895 $5, 000 $4, 095 $3, 800 $3, 680 $2, 700 $2, 000 Median salary. . $3, 083 $2, 375 $2,700 $2, 125 $2, 300 $1, 857 $2, 000 $1, 333 Minimum salary _ _ $1, 728 $1, 300 $1, 800 $1, 500 $1, 350 $900 $900 $300 400 to 499 students: Colleges reporting - 16 16 10 10 12 12 15 15 Minimum salary _ $5, 250 $5,500 $3, 550 $3, 700 $3,500 $2, 800 $2, 500 $2,500 Median salary. _ $3, 188 $3,000 $2, 700 $2, 500 $2, 250 $2, 167 $1, 806 $1, 708 Maximum salary... $2, 000 $980 $2, 100 $600 $1, 800 $530 $1, 200 $420 By sex of students admitted: Men’s colleges: Number reporting... . . 7 7 3 3 4 4 4 4 Maximum salary. - $5, 500 $5, 500 $5, 000 $4, 095 $3, 800 $3, 680 $2, 500 $2, 300 Median salary . . . $4, 250 $3, 250 $3, 750 $3, 750 $3,500 $2, 750 $2, 500 $1, 833 Minimum salary _ _ $2,000 $1, 800 $3,500 $2, 500 $2, 850 $2, 000 $2, 000 $1, 680 Women’s colleges: Number reporting . . ... 12 12 8 8 10 10 11 11 Maximum salary - - $3, 600 $3, 500 $3, 100 $3, 000 $2, 680 $2,600 $2, 700 $2, 000 Median salary.. - - . $3, 188 $3, 083 $2, 333 $2, 250 $2, 000 $2, 000 $1, 650 $1,583 Minimum salary _ _ _ _ $2, 364 $980 $1, 800 $600 $1, 600 $530 $1, 200 $420 Coeducational colleges: Number reporting - 44 44 16 16 22 22 27 27 Maximum salary. - $3,800 $3, 600 $3, 200 $2, 675 $3, 000 $2, 250 $2,400 $2, 500 Median salary. - - $2, 813 $2, 194 $2, 650 $2, 000 $2, 200 $1, 583 $1, 750 $1, 450 Minimum salary _ _ . $1, 500 $1, 200 $1, 600 $1, 500 $1, 350 $900 $900 $300 ENROLLMENTS In the statistical section of the Biennial Survey of the Office of Education some analysis is made of the effects of the depression upon student enrollments. Between the year 1931-32 and the year 1933-34 the total enrollments of regular collegiate grade students in all insti¬ tutions dropped 8.56 percent. Analyzing this figure some significant differences are revealed among various types of institutions. For ex¬ ample, undergraduates in arts and sciences in publicly controlled in¬ stitutions actually increased 1 percent during that biennium, whereas undergraduates in arts and sciences in privately controlled institutions decreased 5 percent. On the other hand, graduate students in arts and sciences in publicly controlled institutions decreased 11 percent while graduate students in arts and sciences in privately controlled in¬ stitutions decreased only 8 percent. Another striking difference is in the professional schools. Under¬ graduates in professional schools in publicly controlled institutions i EFFECTS OF THE DEPRESSION ON SCHOOLS 51 decreased 3 percent, while undergraduates in professional schools in privately controlled institutions decreased 8 percent. In contrast with this, graduate students in professional schools in publicly con¬ trolled institutions decreased 20 percent, while graduate students in professional schools in privately controlled institutions decreased only 2 percent. The effects upon the enrollments of men and of women appeared not to be strikingly different in degree-granting universities and col¬ leges, but were far more severe upon men than upon women in pro¬ fessional schools, both undergraduate and graduate. They were also far more severe upon men than upon women in the non-degree-grant¬ ing institutions, excluding teachers colleges and normal schools. For example, the decrease of men students in these non-degree-granting institutions was 12 percent, while the decrease of women students was 3 percent. On the other hand, in degree-granting teachers col¬ leges the decrease in men students was 10 percent, while the decrease of women students was 17 percent. In non-degree-granting teachers colleges and normal schools the men students decreased 15 percent and the women 33 percent. The severest drop in enrollments occurred in summer sessions. In degree-granting colleges and universities men students in summer ses¬ sions dropped 17 percent and women students 26 percent, while in degree-granting teachers colleges men students dropped 23 percent and women students 39 percent during the summer sessions. The above analysis reveals two different influences affecting student enrollments: (1) High tuition schools suffered most; and (2) the over¬ crowded teaching profession discouraged further preparation in that line. Some striking differences in the effects upon enrollments are re¬ vealed also when analysis is made by States. Taking all types of in¬ stitutions combined, the enrollment from 1931-32 to 1933-34 actually increased in institutions in nine States and decreased in the rest. The decrease in Michigan and South Dakota was 21 percent; in West Virginia, 20 percent; and in Missouri, 19 percent. From these high percentages of decrease States ranged through zero to actual increases of 4 percent in New Jersey and Idaho and 5 percent in North Dakota. LEGISLATION AFFECTING STATE COLLEGES AND UNIVERSITIES One of the outstanding aspects of the depression was the widespread enactment of new laws by State legislatures affecting directly or in¬ directly State colleges and universities. Statutes were enacted in many States reorganizing their governments and altering their ad¬ ministrative machinery. State universities and colleges commonly came under the purview of such statutes along with the other units of 52 BIENNIAL SURVEY OF EDUCATION, 1934-36 the State government. The purpose of these measures was to cen¬ tralize authority over the various functions of the State including State higher education. For more than a decade, a strong trend has existed among the States toward unified governing boards of State universities and colleges. During the period of the depression this trend gained further impetus. In 1931, the Legislature of Georgia enacted a law abolishing the separate boards governing its 25 institutions of various types and estab¬ lished a “University system of Georgia” under the control of a unified board. This board subsequently through consolidations and other measures reduced the number of institutions included in the system to 18. The Legislature of Mississippi in 1932 placed its six institutions under a single board. In 1935, the Legislature of Rhode Island unified the control of its two State institutions by creating a single board to exercise governing authority over them. Both of these institutions were formerly governed by separate boards. In North Carolina during the early stages of the depression in 1931, the State legislature abolished the State’s three principal institutions, the State university, agricultural and engineering college, and women’s college as separate entities and unified them into a single institution, designated as the University of North Carolina. Separate boards for¬ merly governing each institution were supplanted by a unified board for the consolidated university. State government reorganizations. — Of far more significance to State universities and colleges were the reorganizations of State govern¬ ments by legislatures during the depression. Previously the govern¬ ing boards of the institutions were regarded as more or less independent entities within the governmental organization, occupying positions separate and distinct from the executive branch of the government. In the administration of the internal affairs of the institutions the boards had possessed more or less autonomous powers. With the reorganization of the State governments during the depression, how¬ ever, changes occurred in their legal status. Powers of boards to administer certain phases of the institutions were transferred to State officials of the regular executive branch of the central government. The State government reorganizations in general were of two types. One consisted of the department type, which provided for the con¬ solidation either fully or partially of the existing offices, bureaus, divi¬ sions, institutions, boards, and commissions into a limited number of administrative departments under the governor as supreme head of the executive branch. The other provided for the retention of the old-type form of government organization with the centralization of financial supervision over the existing offices, bureaus, divisions, insti- EFFECTS OF THE DEPRESSION ON SCHOOLS 53 tutions, boards, and commissions in. the governor or some other State executive officer or board. Department type of organization. — In the department type of organi¬ zation the governing boards of State universities and colleges were frequently consolidated in one of the administrative departments. The effect of this arrangement was that the positions of the institu¬ tions were radically changed and they became in reality component parts of the executive branch. In such cases the governing boards were made subject to the authority of the particular administrative department in which they were consolidated. In addition they came under the jurisdiction of other administrative departments. This was due to the fact that the reorganizations were along functional lines. Under this arrangement one department, such as the department of finance, was empowered to exercise supervision over the fiscal affairs of all the departments. Another department was vested with certain powers over the personnel and employees of all the departments. In the same manner one or more other departments were vested with authority to handle the purchasing, printing, construction, and like functions for all the departments. Thus the governing boards of the institutions included in an administrative department lost in part the final jurisdiction over phases of their affairs assigned to other State administrative departments. Among the States which reorganized their governments into admin¬ istrative departments during the depression, different plans were fol¬ lowed with respect to the State universities and colleges. One plan adopted by Georgia in 1931 and Maryland in 1932 provided for the consolidation in an administrative department of all the institutions of higher learning within the State. In the case of Georgia the State government was reorganized in 13 departments. One of the depart¬ ments was designated as the “ ‘Board of regents of the university system of Georgia” and included all the State institutions of higher learning. An unusual arrangement was provided by the reorgani¬ zation in Maryland. The government in this State was reorganized into 20 departments. The State university was consolidated in an administrative department known as the “State board of agriculture and regents of the University of Maryland.” The teachers colleges were consolidated in another department — the department of education. A second plan adopted by California, Illinois, Maine, Tennessee, and Vermont provided for the consolidation of all the institutions with the exception of the State university in the department of education as an administrative department. In a number of these States the reorganization laws enacted during the depression con¬ sisted of amendments to former acts reorganizing the State govern- 54 BIENNIAL SURVEY OF EDUCATION, 1934-36 ments. Three other States reorganizing their governments into administrative departments adopted the plan of nominally attaching the governing boards of institutions to an administrative department. These States were Indiana, Kentucky, and Khode Island, the re¬ organizations occurring in 1933, 1934-36, and 1936, respectively. Under the reorganization in Kentucky, all institutions were nomi¬ nally attached to the department of education with the exception of the State’s two Negro industrial colleges. The latter colleges were consolidated into this department which was headed by the State board of education. Several other States reorganized their govern¬ ments into administrative departments during the depression, but allowed their universities and colleges to remain entirely without any administrative department. The position of these institutions in the State governmental set-up, therefore, was unchanged. Centralized financial supervision. — State universities and colleges were affected to a larger extent by the type of government reorganiza¬ tion which consisted of retaining the old form of organization but centralizing financial supervision over the various governmental units in the Governor or some other State executive officer or board. The plan centered in the creation of a State budget system. The financial supervision comprised, generally, recommendation of the amounts to be appropriated by the State legislature to each governmental unit, including the State universities and colleges, reduction under certain contingencies of the State appropriations after being made, approval or disapproval of the expenditure of the appropriations, and similar regulation of financial affairs. During the years 1930 to 1935, 15 States enacted laws providing for this type of government reorganization. These States were: Alabama, Arkansas, Iowa, Michigan, Mississippi, Missouri, New Hampshire, New Jersey, New Mexico, North Carolina, Oklahoma, Oregon, Utah, West Virginia, and Wisconsin. With the exception of three of these States — Michigan, New Hamp¬ shire, and Oklahoma — all State institutions of higher education within each State were included in the reorganizations. The boards govern¬ ing them were thus placed under the financial supervision of the Governor or some other State central executive officer or board. In Michigan the boards governing the State university and the agricul¬ tural and mechanic arts colleges were specifically excluded. Similarly, the board governing the agricultural and mechanic arts college in Oklahoma was exempted from the central financial supervision, as was the board governing the State University in New Hampshire. Laws affecting j acuity members. — Of the various new laws enacted in States during depression years, the investment of authority in State central executive officials over the classification of State employees EFFECTS OF THE DEPRESSION ON SCHOOLS 55 and the fixing of salary schedules has affected most directly the faculty members of the State universities and colleges. Such legisla¬ tion in many of the States was closely connected with the reorganiza¬ tion of State governments. According to the general plan, a central executive official was em¬ powered to classify all positions held by State officers and employees into grades defining titles, duties, qualifications, and fixing the salary schedules for each grade. As the legal provisions were applicable to positions of all State officers and employees,7 those of the faculty members of the State institutions of higher education, unless specifi¬ cally exempted, were included and came under the jurisdiction of these officials. Some States varied from this general plan by conferring authority on the executive official to approve or disapprove the salaries paid State officers and employees, including any changes in their pay or to approve or disapprove any increase in the number employed. The particular central executive official designated to exercise these powers varied in the several States. In most cases they were conferred on the officer or board heading the department of finance having control over fiscal affairs. Other State legislatures conferred them on the director of State budget agency or a council composed of executive officials, such as the Governor, secretary of state, treasurer, comptroller, or attorney general. The Governor as the State’s chief executive was designated in a considerable number of States. Among the States where laws of this type were adopted were Arkansas, California, Connecticut, New Mexico, North Carolina, and Tennessee. In Arkansas the Governor was empowered to approve or disapprove salaries of all State employees in what was first enacted by the State legislature as an emergency measure, but up to this time the law has not been repealed. The authority in California over classification of positions, salaries, and other phases of personnel was vested in the State director of finance heading the department of finance, but was applicable only to the teachers college. The State university was specifically exempted from such authority. In Con¬ necticut the State legislature conferred authority on the central executive agency not only to classify the positions and fix salary schedules for the faculties of all the institutions, but also to approve or disapprove any additions to the staffs. In Tennessee the State university was not included under the law. Fixing salaries of faculty members in appropriation acts. — Another plan designed to control the salaries of faculty members was where the State legislature itself assumed this responsibility rather than delegating it to State executive officials. This plan con- 1 Legal provisions were not applicable to State officers whose salaries were fixed by the State constitution or statute. 56 BIENNIAL SURVEY OF EDUCATION, 1934-36 sisted of specifying the salaries to be paid to the various faculty members of the institutions in the annual or biennial appropriation act passed by the legislature when appropriating funds for their support. Prior to the depression the appropriation made by the legislature for salaries and wages to the institutions was generally included in a single lump sum. Under this arrangement the governing board, with the advice of the president, distributed the lump sum among the faculty members and other employees of the institution fixing individual salaries and compensation. Instead of a lump sum, the State legis¬ latures in adopting the plan listed separately each position in all academic departments of the institution and appropriated the exact amount 8 of the salary to be paid for the fiscal year to the faculty member holding the position. The list in the appropriation act in¬ cluded all ranks of the faculty from the dean of the college to the assistant instructor. Faculty members were affected in a number of ways by this plan of making appropriations. In the first place, their salaries were fixed at a certain amount by statute for the definite period covered by the appropriation act and could not be increased during the interim. In the second place, all the positions on the faculty were listed in the appropriation act with the result that it was impossible to add any new members irrespective of exigencies, except in the case of vacancies. A third phase of the situation was that the governing boards were deprived of one of their important administrative functions, the power to adjust salaries in accordance with the educational needs of the institutions. States in which the 1935 appropriation acts fixed the salaries of all faculty members of the institutions were Arkansas, Texas, and New York. A matter of special interest in the case of New York was that a general law on the statute books already provided for the classifica¬ tion of staff members of the State’s teachers colleges and normal schools into specific grades based on faculty rank and for the fixing of the salary scale for each grade. The appropriation act, therefore, in fixing the salary of each position on the faculties followed the salary scale as included in the general law. With respect to the other insti¬ tutions for which appropriations are made in New York, this situation did not apply. The legislature of two additional States adopted modifications of this plan of controlling faculty salaries by legislative appropriations whereby only the salaries of part of the faculty members of the institu¬ tions are fixed. A typical example was found in the case of the State College of Connecticut. The appropriation act contained separate items for the president’s office, director of resident instruction, busi- 8 The salary specified in the appropriation act was a maximum amount, the governing board having discretionary power to pay a lower salary. EFFECTS OF THE DEPRESSION ON SCHOOLS 57 ness office, registrar’s office, dean of men, and dean of women. The 35 academic departments making up the college were then listed and separate appropriations for each department were divided into three subitems, personnel service, contractual service, and supplies and equipment. In the appropriation act of 1935 for the teachers colleges of Maryland, the annual salaries to be paid the principal, assistant principal, registrar-business manager, head of department, and several minor employees in the administrative offices were segregated into separate items wiule the salaries of the teachers were grouped under a single item which specified the number to be employed. In quite a number of other States, the legislature fixed the salary of the presidents of the institutions in the 1935 appropriation act. There were about 8 percent of the States where the appropriation act fixed the salaries of the presidents of all institutions within the State, while in an additional 8 percent the salaries of the presidents of the teachers colleges only w^ere so specified. Centralized control of 'printing of institutions. — Although a strong trend had previously developed, the centralization of authority over printing was another important phase of changes made in State administrative machinery during the depression affecting State univer¬ sities and colleges. To accomplish this object different plans were adopted by the States, including the operation by the State of its own printing plant, the empowering of a central executive official or agency to handle the printing together with the making of contracts and execution of orders, or the vesting in the official or agency of the right to approve contracts for printing before they become effective. The particular executive official or agency designated to exercise jurisdiction over State printing varied in the individual States. Among the State officials or agencies were a State printer, superintendent of public printing, administrative department, division of purchasing and printing, printing commission, executive council, or purchasing agent. Regardless of these aspects of the problem, the question of vital interest to State universities and colleges was the extent of the powers conferred on the central printing authority with respect to their pub¬ lications. The printing of State universities and colleges involves bulletins, pamphlets, and similar circulars prepared by faculty members dealing with varied research work of a technical nature undertaken by them. In addition are the periodical reports of the institutions showing progress in their education functions. In this connection some of the powers conferred on the official or agency by new laws in the several States included: (1) Determining whether publications or reports shall be printed; (2) editing, revising, condensing, or eliminating parts of publications or reports before printing; and (3) deciding the number of pages to be included in 58 BIENNIAL SURVEY OF EDUCATION, 1934-36 periodical reports. In order that the central printing official or agency might exercise these powers, the institutions were required to submit the manuscripts of their proposed publications in advance. Statutes were enacted between 1931 and 1935 in three States — Kentucky, Maine, and New Jersey — empowering a State central official or agency to determine whether publications or reports should be printed. A limitation was placed on the exercise of this power in New Jersey where the governing boards of the colleges were given the right of appeal to the Governor in case the central printing authority refused to print any publication or report. The wording of the laws differed in the several States. In some instances the central official or agency was given blanket power to approve or disapprove requisitions for printing while in others specific powers were conferred to determine whether the publications or reports should be printed. There were six States in which laws were passed during the depres¬ sion vesting power in a central printing official or agency either to edit, condense, revise, or eliminate parts of publications and reports of State universities and colleges. These States were Illinois, Ken¬ tucky, Mississippi, New Jersey, Tennessee, and Wisconsin. Two of the States — Illinois and Wisconsin — exempted the State university from any control over their publications. In three of the States — Mississippi, New Jersey, and Tennessee — the central printing author¬ ity was empowered to edit, revise, or condense only the periodical reports of the institutions and not publications of other types. The State legislatures in Virginia and Wisconsin placed certain restrictions on the central official or agency. In Virginia the governing boards of the institutions were entitled to appeal to the Governor in case any matter was eliminated from their publications and reports which was regarded as essential to the text. In Wisconsin whenever the contents of publications or reports of the institutions were regarded by the central official or agency as inappropriate, the manuscript had to be returned to the author for revision. State legislatures in five States — Illinois, Kentucky, Mississippi, Vermont, and Wisconsin — vested powers in the State printing author¬ ity to determine the number of pages to be included in the reports of the institutions. Under this arrangement the contents of the reports might be indirectly affected through the limitation of the pages to be printed. STUDY BY THE SPECIAL COMMITTEE OF THE AMERICAN ASSO¬ CIATION OF UNIVERSITY PROFESSORS In recognition of the seriousness of the situation the American Association of University Professors appointed a special committee to study the effects of the depression and recovery upon higher education. This committee secured a grant from one of the foundations to help EFFECTS OF THE DEPRESSION ON SCHOOLS 59 finance its activities. Prof. F. K. Richtmyer, of Cornell University, is the chairman of this committee. The committee employed Dean M. M. Willey, of the University of Minnesota, as director of its studies. The Office of Education has cooperated with the committee. The preliminary reports of this committee are appearing from time to time in the bulletin of the American Association of University Professors and a full 500-page report is promised. When completed these studies will constitute a comprehensive analysis of the effects of the depres¬ sion. Since this committee has connections with groups of professors in a large number of colleges and universities through which they can secure not only quantitative information but reports of changed attitudes, effects upon morale, and the like, their completed report is looked forward to with keen interest. o . UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR HAROLD L. ICKES : SECRETARY OFFICE OF EDUCATION : J. W. STUDEBAKER COMMISSIONER A SURVEY OF A DECENNIUM OF EDUCATION IN COUNTRIES OTHER THAN THE UNITED STATES being Chapter VII of Volume I of the BIENNIAL SURVEY OF EDUCATION IN THE UNITED STATES : 1934-36 BULLETIN , 1937, No. 2 [ADVANCE PAGES] By JAMES F. ABEL Chief, Division of Comparative Education Office of Education UNITED STATES GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE WASHINGTON : 1938 For sale by the Superintendent of Documents, Washington, D. C. Price 15 cents CONTENTS Page Foreword _ vn Section I. Europe _ 3 Marked changes in education systems _ 3 Education and revolution _ 3 Carefully planned changes _ 3 Lesser changes _ 4 Nationalization of education _ 4 Public and private education _ 5 National administration and support _ 5 Unifying control of different types of education _ 6 The unity school or unified school system _ 7 Extreme nationalization of education _ 8 Italy _ 9 Soviet Union _ 9 Germany _ 10 Longer training for more people _ 12 Reduction of illiteracy _ 14 Adult education _ 15 England _ 16 Belgium _ 16 Other countries _ 17 Italy _ 17 Union of Soviet Republics _ 17 Germany _ 18 Spain _ 18 Care of preschool children _ 19 Physical education _ 19 Germany.. _ 21 France _ 22 Technical and vocational education _ 24 France _ 25 Belgium _ 26 Estonia _ 26 Bulgaria _ 27 Irish Free State _ 27 Section II. Asia _ 30 China _ 30 Administration _ 31 Higher education _ 32 Secondary education _ 32 Elementary education - 33 Statistics _ 33 Compulsory education _ 34 Reduction of illiteracy and adult education _ 34 The mass education movement _ 35 The status of private education _ 35 in IV CONTENTS Section II, Asia — Continued. Page India _ 36 Decentralization of administration _ 37 Compulsory education _ 38 Education of girls and women _ 38 Other phases of education _ 40 Iran _ 40 Schools of different kinds and levels _ 40 Reduction of illiteracy _ 42 Sending students abroad _ 42 Turkey _ .<■ _ 42 Obligatory instruction _ 43 Teacher training _ 43 Secondary education _ 44 Technical education _ 44 University instruction _ 44 Statistics _ 45 Section III. Africa _ 46 Union of South Africa _ 46 Administration _ 46 Technical education _ 47 The poor whites of South Africa _ 48 Native education _ 50 Languages _ 51 Administration _ 52 Statistics _ 52 Egypt _ 53 Illiteracy and obligatory instruction _ 53 Primary schools _ 54 Secondary education - 54 Technical education _ 55 Higher education _ 55 Summary _ 55 Colonial Africa _ 56 The Intercolonial Congress _ 57 The Advisory Committee _ 58 Section IV. Australia _ 60 Administration _ 60 Statistics _ 60 Education by correspondence _ 61 School consolidation _ 62 Summary _ 62 Section V. The Western Hemisphere _ 64 Canada _ 64 Administration _ 64 Statistical summary _ 64 Enrollment _ 65 School finance _ 65 Technical education _ 66 Vocational guidance _ 67 Departmental examinations _ 67 Reorganization of instruction _ 68 University admission _ 68 CONTENTS V Section V. The Western Hemisphere — Continued. Page Latin America _ 68 Nationalization of education _ 69 Reduction of illiteracy _ 70 The “activity school” _ 71 Technical and vocational education _ 72 Education of women _ 74 Argentina _ 75 Conference on illiteracy _ 76 Survey of secondary education _ 76 Statistics _ 78 Brazil _ 80 Mexico _ 83 Section VI. International Congresses and Conferences _ 88 Preschool care of the child _ 88 Public education _ 89 Technical education _ 90 Commercial education _ 93 Teachers’ Associations _ 94 The new education _ 95 Adult education _ 96 ' FOREWORD The purpose of the Biennial Survey of Education in the United States is to present to the people of this Nation a picture, as com¬ plete and accurate as possible, of the many types of education they finance, administer, and maintain. But this isolated picture is not enough. The worth, activity, and progress of any system of schools are relative matters and must be shown along with like phases of other systems to provide sane conceptions and sound bases for judg¬ ments. To afford such bases for comparisons the Office of Education has throughout its existence published in its annual reports, biennial surveys, bulletins, and pamphlets, accounts of education in other countries. This chapter of the Biennial Survey for 1934^36 is in continuation of that policy. It attempts to point out the differing directions in which education in other countries has been going in the past decade in the hope that from them we in the United States may be better able to select the educational paths that will lead in this country to the strengthening and perpetuation of good ways of living. Bess Goodykoontz Assistant Commissioner of Education VII CHAPTER YII A SURVEY OF A DECENNIUM OF EDUCATION IN COUNTRIES OTHER THAN THE UNITED STATES A survey of the trends of education in other countries for the years 1924 to 1926, which included to some extent post-war happenings to those dates, was prepared and published by the Office of Education in 1928.1 The intention then was to issue similar accounts regularly with each biennial survey of education in the United States. Many other duties and some difficulties intervened to prevent carrying out the plan and it was not until about 1936 that the way seemed clear to pick up the thread of the earlier account and again weave into the fabric of educational documentation in the United States a sketch of education movements abroad. This study is an attempt to do that. It is presented in the hope that at intervals corresponding to the larger swings of world affairs, the story may be continued in such a way as to provide a progressive historical summary of educa¬ tion trends and events. The decade here dealt with was a stirring one. In its first 3 years human life seemed everywhere on the ascendant. Intercourse among nations, manufacturing, building, commerce, trade, exploration, re¬ search, and investigation were moving rapidly to levels not before known in human experience. Then came 3 years of decline so severe that by 1932 the only peoples not seriously affected were those few so far removed from participation in the general life of the world that they had felt nothing of the preceding upsurge. In the last 4 years the economic saving has again been upward. Coincident with these economic changes were revolutions peace¬ ful and otherwise but important in either case, many changes in forms of government, the application of different philosophies of life, and a general questioning of the worth of much that had been held to be fundamental in all human relations. Organized education felt the impact of all these movements prob¬ ably more than it ever has before because education in recent years has been more closely connected with life out of the schools than it has for some centuries and was consequently more susceptible of being influenced. To present a broad view of the larger effects of those impacts, or resistance to them as the case may have been, is the purpose of this bulletin. The immediate results of the depression are not here emphasized; they are the subject of an earlier publi- 1 Abel, James F. Major trends of education in other countries. Washington, U. S. Department of the Interior, Office of Education, Bulletin 1928, No. 13. 1 2 BIENNIAL SURVEY OF EDUCATION, 1934-36 cation.2 Curtailed budgets, reduced salaries and personnel, smaller capital outlays for schools, are all important of course, but they are not so significant as changes in the concept of history and how it is to be taught to young people, whether education is to be used as a means of making good human beings or a particular type of thinker which those in control of the State desire at the time, or whether the administration and direction of education is to be strongly centralized in a small group of people who can easily have a mistaken conception of what is best for the Nation. It is these vital questions which in one form or another have been connected with organized education since its beginning, that are mainly considered in the following pages. 2 Abel, James F. The effects of the economic depression on education in other countries. Washington, U. Department of the Interior, Office of Education, Bulletin 1933, No. 14. Section I. Europe MARKED CHANGES IN EDUCATION SYSTEMS Twenty-one European countries changed their education systems markedly during the decennium 1 under review. They were : Albania in 1933; Austria, 1934; Belgium, 1931-32; Bulgaria, 1934; Czecho¬ slovakia, 1930; Denmark, 1932 and later; England, beginning with 1926; Estonia, 1934; France, 1930; Germany, 1933; Hungary, 1934; Italy, beginning in 1923; Latvia, 1934; Norway, 1935; Poland, 1932; Portugal, 1935-36; Rumania, 1934; Scotland, 1929; Soviet Union, 1928 and later; Spain, 1931-32; Sweden, 1927 ; and Yugoslavia, 1929. Education and revolution. — In six of these countries the changes in education were coincident with general revolutionary movements that resulted in setting up new national governments which, shortly after coming into power, redirected education policies. The Austrian constitution which went into force on May 1, 1934, declares Austria to be a federal state corporatively ordered and education there took on some of the characteristics being given it by corporative states. The coup d'etat of May 1934 in Bulgaria and the attempt to establish a corporative state greatly affected education in that country. The National Socialist German Workers’ Party which took control of Germany in 1933 is changing German education to suit its own pur¬ poses. An authoritarian government was established in Latvia in May of 1934 and by July of that year had passed a new law on public instruction. Its Estado Novo constitution of March 1933 made Portu¬ gal also a corporative state and the education reforms of 1935-36 are directly due to that. The second Spanish republic was proclaimed April 14, 1931 ; its government immediately entered upon an ambitious program of educational reform. The adoption of the first 5-year plan, a revolution in itself, by the Soviet Union in 1928 was the signal for greatly extended and intensive education activity mainly along the lines begun 'when the Union was formed. About the time the second 5-year plan was entered upon, 1932-33, it became evident that quality rather than quantity in education had to be emphasized and some drastic changes in policy were made. Carefully planned changes. — In contrast with the pronounced, sud¬ den swings in education activities were the long-planned, deliber¬ ately considered actions progressively made effective in other coun- 1 Approximately 1926 to 1935, inclusive. 3 4 BIENNIAL SURVEY OF EDUCATION, 1934-36 tries. The Consultative Committee of the Board of Education of England and Wales conducted inquiries for 2 years before it rendered its final report in 1926 on The Education of the Adolescent. Since 1926 education in England is being steadily reconstructed along the lines suggested in the report. The government of Czechoslovakia made changes in the schools only after careful study and considerable experimentation. Doing away with fees in the public secondary schools of France was carried out rather gradually. In Norway a commission appointed in 1922 presented a report in 1927. The plan it proposed was the subject of much discussion and not until March 1934 was the project of a law placed before the Storthing, and from that project a law was passed in 1935. The Polish education law of March 11, 1932, was the product of extensive study by a ministerial commission composed of specialists in the different fields of educa¬ tion. The Swedish law presented to the Riksdag in February 1927 and passed the following May was based on 8 years of study and public discussion. Plainly, the peoples of most of the European na¬ tions prefer to make their education adaptations slowly and after mature consideration. LESSER CHANGES The seven other European countries, Finland, Greece, the Irish Free State, Lithuania, Luxembourg, The Netherlands, and Switzer¬ land changed their school systems some, of course, but in com¬ paratively minor respects. NATIONALIZATION OF EDU CATION Overwhelmingly in the direction of nationalization of education were the education movements of the past decade. The spirit of intense nationalism that has been rampant throughout much of the world has naturally shown itself in cultural as well as political and economic movements. Superficially the trend in education is indi¬ cated by the fact that in Italy in September 1929 the ministry of public instruction became the ministry of national education; in France in June 1932 the ministry of public instruction and fine arts was changed to the ministry of national education; in Belgium in December of 1932 the ministry of sciences and of arts became the ministry of public instruction; in Portugal in 1935 the ministry of public instruction became the ministry of national education; and the Rumanian ministry of public instruction and cults was changed in November 1936 to a ministry of national education. A Federal ministry for science, education, and popular culture (Reichsminis- terium fur Wissenschaft, Erziehung und Volksbildung) was created in Germany on May 1, 1934, and its fields of activity assigned by decree of the following May 11. FOREIGN COUNTRIES O In a decennium that marks the centenaries of the founding of several important public-school systems, those people who believe that education is a public function and have earnestly and honestly striven to make it so, find their hopes being fulfilled and their efforts rewarded, for nations in general have been rapidly taking wider and closer control of their cultural institutions, but not always in the way that advocates of public education desire. Public and 'private education. — Nationalization of education has many aspects and manifests itself in various forms. One of them is the swing from private to public education. The economic crisis forced some of this. Many private schools closed because they could not find the money to keep their doors open and the students went to swell the increasing numbers in public institutions. Others re¬ mained open only by accepting grants from public funds and the public regulation consequent to such grants. More of the change was due to drastic government action. To 1933 education in Albania was provided mainly by private organizations many of whose schools received subsidies from government funds. The Albanian authori¬ ties, feeling that this prevented the development of an Albanian national public-school system, changed certain articles of the con¬ stitution in April of 1933 and shortly afterward passed a law that had the effect of doing away with all private schools in Albania. The right of religious bodies in Spain to conduct schools was abro¬ gated by the Cortes in 1932 and the government undertook to replace the private schools with public. Private education continues and plays an important role in most European countries but it is being brought more and more under government regulation. Law of May 20, 1933, in Denmark provides, among other things, for national supervision of private primary schools under certain conditions. By law of July 12, 1934, private schools may carry on in Latvia but their purposes and activities must be in accord with the national principles expressed in public educa¬ tion. Private and religious schools came increasingly under direct national authority in Lithuania. The gradual suppression of private schools begun in Norway in 1920 is now virtually accomplished. Private schools in Yugoslavia must submit to national control. Throughout Europe public as opposed to private direction of educa¬ tion is being strengthened. National administration and support. — Another phase of the na¬ tionalization of education is the placing of more of the support and administration of schools in the hands of national officials and leav¬ ing less of it with the local authorities. Much of this has been going on in Europe in the past decade. Some of it also was due to the depression. Localities found themselves unable to raise school moneys by taxation and turned to the national treasury for help. National 0 BIENNIAL SURVEY OF EDUCATION, 193^36 budgets for education were generally cut, in some countries heavily for 2 to 4 years in succession, and the national government in order to use the depleted funds to the best advantage had either to take entire control of the schools or strictly supervise the local officials. By law of January 22, 1931, the national treasury of Belgium took over the salaries of all the secondary school personnel. In Bulgaria, decree law of July 13, 1934, took away from the communal school commissions the power to select teachers; made the commissions appointive instead of elective as they had been, and in other ways simplified and centralized the administration of primary schools. Danish moves in this direction include lessening the influence of the rector of the church in the local and provincial school commissions and bringing the urban schools directly under the ministry of educa¬ tion which approves their plans and names the teachers. In Estonia also, control of the selection of primary teachers was placed in the education ministry. Even in Switzerland where tradition and senti¬ ment are against national control of education and there is no federal ministry of education, the central government increased its partici¬ pation in and control of certain education matters. Education administration in the Soviet Union, previously placed in each constituent republic of the Union, came more and more under Union control. A central commissariat of public instruction has not been established, but at Moscow the commissariat of the Russian Soviet Republic tends to assume federal functions. The government is taking the place of the communist party in unifying education and the Union treasury is bearing a greater share of education ex¬ penditures. Unifying control of different types of education. — Still another move in the nationalization of education lies in placing schools of different types within the purview of one ministry. For a long time the practice has been to assign to the ministry of public instruction only schools of general education. Agricultural education was di¬ rected by the ministry of agriculture; technical by the ministry of labor; war and naval schools, by the ministry of national defense, etc. The tendency in this decade has been to unite as much as pos¬ sible all types of education, except that for national defense, to cor¬ relate them more closely, and to place them under one central admin¬ istration. Thus, in Belgium when the ministry of sciences and of arts changed its name in 1932 to the ministry of public instruction, an office of technical education was set up within it to handle tech¬ nical and vocational, and agricultural and horticultural education. The ministries of labor and of agriculture now have a voice in these aspects of education only through the office of technical education. A similar attempt in Bulgaria failed but the controversy resulted FOREIGN COUNTRIES 7 in the appointment of an interministerial commission to assure as far as possible unity of instruction. The ministry of science, arts, and popular education of Prussia by the crisis ordinance of October 29, 1932, took over most of the duties of the ministry of social welfare which was disbanded; and further was given control of many schools of commerce, agriculture, veter¬ inary studies, household economics, and similar subjects, that had formerly been under other ministries. Agricultural schools in Po¬ land were transferred, beginning July 1, 1932, from the ministry of agriculture to the ministry of cults and public instruction. About the same time the ministries of commerce, agriculture, and public works in Portugal relinquished to the ministry of public instruction control of technical education. The Soviet Union presents an exception to this trend particularly with respect to higher education. In July 1928, six technical insti¬ tutes and five tecnica were transferred to the administration of the council of national economy, and two institutes to the commissariat of transport. In July 1930 a general law was passed which trans¬ fers from the commissariats of public instruction in the different republics the technical schools to the Union industrial commissariats, the agricultural schools to the Union and the republics’ commissariats of agriculture, and the medical institutes to the commissariats of health. This move however resulted in greater central control of technical education for in October 1933, a federal committee of higher technical education was created to take general direction and control of technical education throughout the Union. The unity school or unified school system. — The unity or unified school, differently understood and conceived in different countries, lends itself nicely to the nationalization of education. “Differently understood and conceived in different countries” expresses the situa¬ tion because an action toward a better unified system considered as a very important movement in Norway or Sweden, for instance, where education has long been well organized, would be inconsequential or impossible in Rumania, for example, where in 1919 four widely vary¬ ing types of education organization found themselves compelled to carry on under a common national government, or in Poland, Czecho¬ slovakia, and Yugoslavia where similar situations existed. A basic principle of the unity school is equal educational opportu¬ nity for equal intelligence without regard to the social, class, or economic status of the students. The nation undertakes to assure for the supernormal child from any condition of life a training suited to his natural capacities, and to any less gifted child education is to be meted out according to his abilities and needs. Such a concept led in France to making much easier the transfer of pupils from the 8 BIENNIAL SURVEY OF EDUCATION, 1934-36 primary to the secondary school classes, and later the progressive abolition of fees in all public secondary schools. The implications of the principle are wide. They call for an intimate knowing of every child in the realm on the one hand, comprehensive knowledge in detail of the entire economic and social aspects of the country on the other, and an education scheme so complete and well-rounded that it can fit the individual advantageously into the nation’s life. Some Bulgarian authorities claim that their country has the only unified school system in Europe. The claim is based on the fact that all children, rich and poor alike, must attend the primary school and that secondary schools and universities are provided for all who are capable of going further. Norwegian authorities also claim for their country a unified school in the sense that admission to a sec¬ ondary school is possible only after 7 years of primary instruction. The 1932 reform of education in Poland is hailed as bringing about a unified school system. The Czechoslovakian reforms of 1930 were considerably in the direction of providing closer connection between primary and secondary education. Law No. XI of 1934 in Hungary did away with the three or four types of secondary schools then existing and substituted one type in which the four lower classes have a common program ; in the four upper classes pupils have a choice according to their aptitudes. Unifying secondary schools in Yugoslavia was undertaken with con¬ siderable success in 1929. Many secondary schools in Belgium have recently been enlarged and new schools established for both boys and girls to the end that the imbalance between primary and secondary instruction in that country be overcome, and considerable effort toward democratizing education was made in the way of remitting secondary school fees and providing funds for the better endowed children of poor parents. The main steps toward a unity school sys¬ tem in Spain under the second republic were in the direction of providing public primary education for the masses of the people. EXTREME NATIONALIZATION OF EDUCATION A usual concept of nationalization of education pictures the na¬ tional government in power at the time as taking control of all educa¬ tion within the boundaries of its territory and using the schools of all types and levels to promote and perpetuate its political and economic theories and practices. Freedom of teaching ceases. The state, not the individual, is of paramount importance; making citi¬ zens of the kind desired by the government, not making good human beings, is the ultimate purpose. This concept arises from the strong impressions, both antagonistic and favorable, created by the Gentile reforms of 1923 in Italy and their progress in the subsequent years, FOREIGN COUNTRIES 9 the adaptation of education to communism in the Soviet Union, and the more recent control taken of education by the National Socialist German Workers’ Party. Italy. — Good accounts 2 of the reform of education in Italy are available ; the story need not be retold here. The administration, the organization of instruction, and the spirit and ideals of education were all changed. The last of these commands attention as the extreme of nationalization. They were expressed by the prime min¬ ister as follows: The Government demands that the school should be inspired by the ideals of Fascism ; it demands that it should be not merely not hostile to Fascism but in no way out of sympathy with it or indifferent to it ; and it demands that the whole school system in every grade and every phase of its teaching should educate Italian youth to understand Fascism, to renew themselves in Fascism and to live in the historic atmosphere created by the Fascist revolution. Soviet Union. — The communist regime of education in the Soviet Union is also fairly well documented 3 in English. The administra¬ tion, organization of instruction, and the spirit of the teaching were virtually reversed. The strong central control held by the ministry of public instruction during the czarist regime was presumably set aside and each republic was made responsible for education within its borders. Still, considerable central direction was maintained by the communist party. All the former types of schools were replaced by others offering a very different kind of instruction, organized dif¬ ferently and animated by a spirit opposed to that which prevailed in the imperialist institutions. Few nations have undertaken so origi¬ nal and comprehensive a program of training for children and adults alike or borne it along so far. Though the efforts to make the schools a means of spreading and perpetuating communism were vigorous and continuous, eventually 2 Codignola, E. The philosophy underlying the National system of education in Italy. In Educational Yearbook of the International Institute of Teachers College, Columbia Uni¬ versity, 1929. New York, Bureau of Publications, Teachers College, 1930. Lazzari, Marino. Education in Italy. In The Year Book of Education 1932. London, Evans Brothers Limited, 1932. Marraro, Howard R. New Education in Italy. New York, S. F. Vanni, Inc., 1936. 525 pp. 3 Handbook of the Soviet Union. New York, American-Russian Chamber of Commerce, 1936. 562 pp. Hans, N. Education in Soviet Russia. In The Year Book of Education 1933. London, Evans Brothers Limited, 1933. - Education in Soviet Russia 1931—34. In The Year Book of Education 1935. London, Evans Brothers Limited, 1935. Lodge, Nucia P. Higher education in Soviet Russia and the new student. In Educa¬ tional Yearbook of the International Institute of Teachers College, Columbia University, 1934. New York, Bureau of Publications, Teachers College, 1934. Pinkevitch, Albert P. The new education in the Soviet Republic. New York, The John Day Company, 1929. 403 pp. 52172°— 38 - 2 10 BIENNIAL SURVEY OF EDUCATION, 1934r-36 they had to give way to the claims of broader education. Trained leaders in industry and trade were sorely needed so the universities were gradually re-established as institutions of higher learning and their research and teaching work united. To obtain fit students com¬ petitive examinations had to take the place of class selection, and knowledge of political grammar became less important than knowl¬ edge of the sciences. The programs of 1927 did away with the com¬ plex teaching method based on labor, nature, and society and brought back the regular study subjects, literature, foreign languages, mathe¬ matics, science, etc. At the same time the primary schools turned again to reading, writing, and arithmetic taught in an organized way by a definite program. The cultural 5-year plan taken up in 1928 to some extent stopped this return to standard forms of education. The economic 5-year plan called for thousands of skilled workers, foremen, engineers, technicians, agriculturalists, electricians, miners, etc., to carry it te completion. At the same time further liquidation of illiteracy and the general introduction of compulsory education were undertaken. Most of the higher grades of the general secondary schools were changed into technical and higher technical institutes; the accommo¬ dation in all kinds of schools had to be doubled and trebled, and thousands of new teachers had to be employed. The drive for quantity production in education brought deterio¬ ration in quality and about 1932 the government deliberately slowed down the rate of growth, reestablished the complete secondary school of general education, and on May 16, 1934, published a new statute for primary and secondary schools that brings them well into line with practices in other countries. Later, directors and teachers in secondary schools were given full authority over the students, stu¬ dent uniforms were again required, student self-government is strictly limited to student activities, and communistic doctrine has a much less important place in the curriculum. Gerrrumy. — “National-socialist education is based on the principle of political education. Political education is neither a new form of instruction nor even new subject matter to be taught; it should be envisaged as the expression of all the efforts tending to place educa¬ tion in the closest rapport with the State and the people. It is the State and the people which give to every cultural institution and to every pedagogical action its sense and its direction. * * * Na¬ tional-socialism, based exclusively on the political conception of the world, should necessarily exert itself in the first place to master men, the reform of institutions not presenting later any difficulty. It is not therefore surprising that the reorganization of education was begun with the teaching corps and the youth,” is an expression of the FOREIGN COUNTRIES \\ underlying spirit of and the first moves in the redirecting of education in Germany by the National Socialist Party.1 * * 4 The types of schools, the programs of study in them, the internal organization of the institutions, and other formal aspects were not greatly changed in Germany. Such a radical upsetting of all insti¬ tutions as occurred in the Soviet Union, or even the more deliberate changes that were made in Italy, were not undertaken. The Nazi leaders began with the teachers and brought them into a general National-sozialistischer Lehrerbund so that the entire body of Ger¬ man educators would be in line with the party’s policies. Next, the children were organized in the Hitlerian youth. Then came the changes in the spirit of education. They were not a break with history, with all the past, as in the Soviet Union, but a return to the past, a revival of a historic concept, much as they were in Italy. The ministry of the interior, then the leading education ministry in Germany, laid down the principle that — The supreme task of the school is the education of the youth for the service of the Nation and the State in a National-socialistic spirit. Any¬ thing that favors such education should be encouraged, anything that endangers it should be avoided and fought. Briefly, that National -socialistic spirit means the return of Germany to the place in world affairs that it held previous to the world war and is to be accomplished by racial purity, the expulsion or subordi¬ nation of all non-Aryan elements in the population, unification of the German people under one leader with absolute authority, strict discipline in all walks of life, careful physical training as a basis for military training, and reverence for the national heritage and the national heroes. To attain these ends the director of the school is given full author¬ ity over his institution; he may control and discipline the pupils about as he sees fit; he alone is held responsible for the school’s functioning. Heredity and race knowledge is a subject of instruc¬ tion; history is taught with special emphasis on Nordic superiority; school journeys abroad are forbidden but journeys within Germany are encouraged; city children spend a year in the country; gradu¬ ates of secondary schools who would enter universities must first give a year to labor service; the number of women university stu¬ dents is reduced ; and a F ederal Ministry of Science, Education, and 1 Annuaire international de l’6ducation et de l’enseignement 1934. Gengve, Bureau International d’fiducation, 1934. Other references are : Kandel, I. L. The making of Nazis. In Educational Yearbook of the International Institute of Teachers College, Columbia University 1934. New York, Bureau of Publica¬ tions, Teachers College, 1934. - Education in Nazi Germany. In Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science, November 1935. 12 BIENNIAL SURVEY OF EDUCATION, 1934-36 Popular Culture established May 1, 1934, now has control of all aspects of education in the Reich. LONGER TRAINING FOR MORE PEOPLE Throughout the decade the European countries progressively in¬ creased the number and percentage of people, young and old, receiv¬ ing some kind of formal instruction. This was brought about by better enforcement of school attendance laws, increasing the term of compulsory education, the remaining in school of large numbers of young people who were unable to find employment, sustained ef¬ forts to reduce illiteracy in countries where the illiteracy rate was high, provision of better opportunities for technical and vocational education, training of the unemployed, attempts to create a better spirit of National unity, and the use of the cinema and radio both in schoolrooms and in popular instruction without the schools. Obligatory instruction and the reduction or prevention of illit¬ eracy are complementary activities. To be able to enforce its compul¬ sory education laws, the government of Albania has yearly added to the number of primary schools, arranged intermits (boarding schools) for poor children in the mountain districts, and made more provi¬ sion for the education of girls. The Belgian authorities bettered the enforcement of compulsory schooling for children of parents without fixed residence, and for physically and mentally infirm children. By decree of May 25, 1934, the final age for obligatory instruction in Estonia was fixed at completion of the primary-school curriculum, normally 14 years of age. Children who reach 14 in the first semester of the school year may leave at the close of the previous year ; those who attain it during the second semester must continue to the close of the year. Formerly all children who had not completed the primary school were compelled to attend to the age of 16. The change was made to avoid difficulties within the schools and because many parents needed the help of their children who were 14 or older. In Finland obligatory primary instruction of 6 years plus 2 years of post-primary for children not continuing their studies in any other way was in force in the cities by 1931. It is planned to be fully effective in rural districts by 1937. School attendance in France was made compulsory for all children from 6 to 14 years of age by a law signed by the President August 9, 1936. The labor laws were also modified making it henceforth illegal for children under the age of 14 to be employed in commercial and industrial establishments even in the capacity of apprentices. In general this represents an addition of 1 year to compulsory education in France. FOREIGN COUNTRIES 13 The school -leaving age in Scotland was raised from 14 to 15, effec¬ tive September 1, 1939, by the Education (Scotland) Act, 1936, and the minimum age for exemption from school under employment cer¬ tificates was lifted from 12 to 14. The new school-leaving age law in England is very similar to that in Scotland. On May 20, 1936, an enactment in Sweden changed the 6-year elementary school which had met the full-time requirement of compulsory education since 1842, to a 7-year school. A 12-year period is allowed to make the transition from the one type to the other. Obligatory full-time attendance of 6 years in Hungary is being extended to 8 years as fast as schools can be provided. Progress in this direction was slowed by the depression. The Irish Free State school attendance act for children between 6 and 14 years of age became operative on January 1, 1927. The effects are showing in steadily increasing attendance in the upper grades of the elementary schools. An interdepartmental committee recently appointed to study the question of raising the school-leaving age reported that it is impracticable to compel children in rural areas of the Free State to attend whole-time schools to the age of 16. One of the chief characteristics of the present educational regime in Italy is its constant insistence on obligatory education and the provision of enough schools for all the children. The 7 years of obligatory schooling that Polish authorities desire throughout the country have not yet been reached in some areas but good progress is being made especially since the reform of 1932. Spain and the Union of Soviet Republics made remarkable at¬ tempts to extend primary education to all children of compulsory school age. The government of the Second Spanish Republic pro¬ jected in 1931 a plan for creating 27,151 new schools in 5 years and providing teachers for them. The budget of the ministry of public instruction was increased for 1931 and the 3 succeeding years and, although the project was not carried to completion, many thousands of new teaching positions were created, new buildings were erected, and new schools opened. Officials of the Union of Soviet Republics claim that by the close of 1932 preschool institutions embraced one-fourth of the children be¬ tween 3 and 7 years of age; the 4-year elementary school course was attended by 98 percent of children of that school age ; and the 7 -year course, made obligatory in 1930 under the second 5-year plan, held more than two-thirds of the children of an age to attend it. Compar¬ ative data for the 2 years 1927-28 and 1934^35 are : 6 6 Handbook of the Soviet Union. New York, American-Russian Chamber of Commerce, 1936. 14 BIENNIAL SURVEY OF EDUCATION, 1934-36 Type of school Preschool institutions _ Elementary schools (total) _ Primary (first to fourth year) _ Intermediate and secondary (fifth to tenth year). Number of students 1927-28 308, 000 11, 356, 000 9, 947, 000 1, 409, 000 1931,-85 6, 506, 000 24, 036, 000 18, 538, 000 5, 498, 000 REDUCTION OF ILLITERACY Campaigns to reduce illiteracy among adults and adolescent youth were not necessary and of course were not undertaken in Norway, Sweden, Denmark, Germany, Netherlands, Belgium, England and Scotland, France, Switzerland, Luxembourg, Austria, and Hungary. Illiteracy had long been of proportions small enough in those countries to require only that it be kept down and in some cases reduced by careful enforcement of the compulsory education laws. The other European countries were not in that position. The illit¬ eracy rate was high in Italy in 1923 when the Gentile reforms in¬ cluded a campaign to eradicate it. There has been no cessation in that drive and by 1935 the government felt that the “social malady” illiteracy was definitely overcome. The first 5-year plan in the Soviet Union included a project for teaching 18,200,000 illiterates. Official reports placed literacy at 58.4 percent when the work began, and at 90 percent in 1932. The follow¬ ing is a recent statement on the situation : 6 Many of the smaller nationalities in the country in prewar times had no written languages. What few schools existed were conducted in the Russian language. The government has aided the minor nationalities to develop their national culture. Philologists have worked out alphabets for a number of those nationalities which previously had none. In the Russian Republic 40 new alphabets have been introduced. By the end of 1932 out of 182 nationalities 134 had their own national written language. Latinization of the national alphabets has also been widely introduced ; by the end of 1932 over 70 nationalities had adopted the Latin alphabet. This has played a large role in eradicating illiteracy. For example, among the Turkomans in 1925, prior to Latinization, there were only 2 percent literates ; in 1932 there were 61 percent. Corresponding figures for Uzbekistan and Tadzhikistan are : 2 and 72 percent and 1.5 and 52 percent. Similar progress has been made among the Cossacks, Tatars, Kalmyks, Buryats and other minor nationalities. The more cultured peoples have achieved close to 100 percent literacy and have not only elementary but secondary and higher educational institutions in their own languages. Elementary schools are conducted in 70 different languages in the Union of Soviet Republics. It is expected that adult illiteracy will be virtually eliminated within a short time. While the number of persons attending “anti-illiteracy” courses is scheduled to show a continual decline, the number attending courses for semi-literates is expected to increase from 6,471,000 in 1932 to 9,000,000 in 1937. e Handbook of the Soviet Union. New York, American-Russian Chamber of Commerce, 1930. FOREIGN COUNTRIES 15 Growth of literacy 1. Literacy, population between 8 and 50 years ms mo m2 (percent) - 58.4 67.3 90.0 Urban _ 78. 5 83. 9 97. 0 Rural _ 48. 3 62. 1 88. 0 2. Attendance at literacy courses (thousands) : Courses for semiliterates _ _ 6, 970. 2 6, 471. 0 Courses for illiterates _ 1, 315. 0 6, 981. 8 7, 170. 0 The Irish Free State, Albania, Czechoslovakia, Poland, Portugal, Rumania, and Spain made special efforts to reduce illiteracy among their peoples. ADULT EDUCATION In the past 16 years probably no other phase of human training has been stimulated more, has spread more widely, and taken on more different aspects than adult education. The World War, while in progress, gave it a startling impetus by showing how rapidly adults can be trained to do things to which they are unaccustomed; at its close millions of men both sound and maimed were turned back to civilian life and large numbers of them had to be refitted for civilian pursuits. Psychology came forward to prove by experiment that adults can learn as easily and rapidly as young people. The intense trade and industrial activity from 1926 to 1930 required the employment of many who had to be trained while in service. The depression brought unemployment for millions and some provision had to be made to occupy their idle time; “Education for leisure” became a slogan. The radio and the cinema opened wonderful possi¬ bilities in the way of mass instruction and many attempts successful and unsuccessful were made to use them. The new central govern¬ ments of the nations created or recreated after the World War felt that they had to weld together the diverse elements in their popula¬ tions and used various forms of adult education to do it. Dictator governments had of necessity to reach their citizens in all walks of life and they too set up various programs for instructing adults in the aims and policies of the government and the schemes of living that would make them effective. Obligatory part-time schooling following the period of obligatory full-time instruction was adopted in several countries. Libraries and museums extended their services and caught and held the interest of more people. Workers’ organizations undertook to train their members. Associations such as the Young Men’s and Young Women’s Christian Associations made stronger efforts to offer planned courses and instruction to adults. The extent to which adults were invited and encouraged to join in educational group undertakings was remarkable. The significant features of the move¬ ment were that it grew from and appealed to people of the lower 16 BIENNIAL SURVEY OF EDUCATION, 1934-36 income brackets, and their main interest was and is in the cultural and social science studies. Much of this adult education was initiated and carried on by private effort though public institutions aided and encouraged it. A large amount received grants from public funds. In three countries — the Soviet Union, Italy, and Germany — adult education was taken over by the national government and is directed by it. The English system is typical of those in which it is recognized as an essential part of the education system, is aided from public funds, and is left free of partisan political influence. England .• — Adult education is an old, well-organized, and nation¬ ally aided activity in England. From the establishment of the first strictly adult school in 1798 through the later growth of mechanics’ institutes and people’s colleges, the formation in 1903 of the Workers’ Educational Association, and the university extension and tutorial class movements, to the code for evening continuation schools in 1893 when assistance from public funds was first provided, it has been a serious business somewhat more closely connected with the regular school system than in many other countries. The Board of Education issued a body of regulations for it in 1924, widened the scope of those rules in 1931, reduced the grant in 1932 to be in effect for the following 2 years, resumed expansion for the year 1934-35, and later removed all restrictions on the natural growth of courses and classes and completely restored the 10 percent reduction in teachers’ salaries. The Board reports that on July 31, 1935, there were 783 tutorial classes (preparatory, 3-year, and ad¬ vanced) with an attendance of 13,889; 1,359 1-year, terminal, and short terminal courses with 27,468 attending; 370 university exten¬ sion and short extension courses with 7,857 ; 13 vacation courses, 1,453 ; and 5 residential colleges with 120 students. The government looks with favor on any institution that raises the standard of citi¬ zenship and of general culture and, while it supervises the activities of those organizations to which it gives grants for adult education, it does not interfere with their political or partisan points of view. Belgium . — Schools for adults are optional in Belgium; the com¬ munes may or may not establish them as they see fit. If the local public authorities do set up adult schools, the central government grants a subsidy. Schools of general education for adults come within the ministry of public instruction ; the ministries of agricul¬ ture and of labor also aid adult schools in their respective fields. Independent organizations may also provide schools and courses for adults, and in Belgium these organizations are usually either closely allied with or distinctly antagonistic to the church. In any case the schools, whether public or independent, are given funds from the FOREIGN COUNTRIES 17 national treasury without regard to their religious connections or political affiliations. A higher council of popular education (Conseil superieur de l’education populaire) was created by law of April 30, 1929. It is a consultative body attached to the ministry of public instruction to suggest to the government any measures it may consider favorable to popular education and to assure a better use of leisure by workers. The spending of any national funds appropriated for popular educa¬ tion is largely determined on the advice of the council. Other countries. — The governments of the Scandinavian countries* of Holland, Czechoslovakia, Poland, and Austria subsidize adult edu¬ cation but without attempting to give it a political bias, and during the decade made no special moves in that direction. Austria may be an exception due to the political events in February and July of 1934. Italy. — The governments of Italy, the Union of Soviet Republics, and Germany took close control of the educational activities of adults, even closer probably than they did of other forms of educa¬ tion. By royal decrees of May 1, 1925, and November 11, 1926, Opera Nazionale Dopolavoro was organized in Italy “to promote the sane and profitable employment of the leisure hours of workers by means of institutions designed to further the development of their physical, intellectual, and moral capacities.” Control of Dopolavoro is in an extraordinary commission under the supervision of the min¬ istry of corporations. The organization extends throughout Italy and works in a wide range of fields. Sports and excursions are encouraged for their educational value and to train athletes, moun¬ taineers, and skiers for use in future wars. Artistic education in¬ cludes folklore, the theater and traveling theaters, the radio, bands and schools of music, and the cinema. Many courses in technical instruction and in agriculture are offered. Colonies and camps on the seashore and in the mountains are arranged. Savings books and facilities for purchasing food and goods at reduced prices are pro¬ vided. Even schemes of insurance and house purchase are worked out for members. From 1,064 locals with a membership of 280,584 in 1926, the organi¬ zation grew to 17,809 clubs with 1,775,570 members in 1932. Dopo¬ lavoro is continuing to grow not only in membership but in the vari¬ ous forms of activities it undertakes. Union of Soviet Republics. — Besides the movement to reduce illit¬ eracy (see page 14), the Soviet Union continued and increased its efforts to develop literacy in the broader sense through more news¬ papers, libraries, clubs, reading rooms, motion pictures and theaters, the radio, museums, and wider publication of books. The political education branch of the education system, set up shortly after the lg BIENNIAL SURVEY OF EDUCATION, 1934-36 revolution to train party workers continued to function throughout the decade on the three levels of schools of political grammar for the rank and file, Soviet party schools for agitator-propagandists, and communist universities for party leaders. Attendance at them has been compulsory for members of the party since 1924. Germany . — Adult education in Germany from 1926 to 1935 re¬ quired no campaigns against illiteracy, no extensive founding of new schools, no special increase in the number of newspapers published, and no greater widening of cultural agencies. The Germans are and long have been a literate people with well-developed educational and cultural institutions. A survey of German adult education in 1929 7 showed that it was carried on by religious and political groups like the Catholics, Protestants, Socialists, and Nationalists; institutions, such as labor colleges, based on economic conditions ; central institu¬ tions which included people’s high schools somewhat similar to those in Denmark, people’s high-school homes, and adult evening schools ; and a large number of public libraries. All this work was generally favored by the national and state governments and was to some extent subsidized by them. With the establishment of the Nazi regime, adult education in nearly every form was taken over by the national government and directed toward Nazi ideals and purposes. The Deutsche Arbeits- front was created in 1933 to take care of the recreation of all workers. It is the German counterpart of the Italian Dopolavoro. Spain. — An unusual form of adult education was begun in Spain by virtue of a decree of May 29, 1931. The Ministry of Public In¬ struction and Fine Arts undertook a threefold program of popular instruction especially for rural areas through traveling pedagogical missions made up of trained men and women who go from commu¬ nity to community trying to carry even to the most remote sections of Spain some of the advantages enjoyed in the urban centers. The general culture phase of the program consists of the establishment of libraries, organization of public lectures, conferences, motion pic¬ tures, musical performances, and displays of great works of art. On the pedagogical side are visits to rural and urban schools followed by weeks or fortnights of conferences and short courses for teachers in the neighborhood; practical lessons given in the schools; excur¬ sions with teachers and children; examination of the natural and social environment, and its possible application in educating the children. The third phase is citizenship instruction given through public meetings in which the principles of democracy are explained, the structure of the government is outlined, and the citizens’ rights and duties are taught. 7 International Handbook of Adult Education. London, World Association for Adult Education, 1929. FOREIGN COUNTRIES 19 CARE OF PRESCHOOL CHILDREN If education extended upward and outward to include millions of adults, it likewise moved downward with respect to age groupings to care for larger numbers of children under the primary school ad¬ mission time. A better realization of how important the first half dozen years are in the development of a human being made it clear that a nation’s responsibility for its children cannot logically be postponed arbitrarily until the sixth or seventh year of their lives. Times of war and financial difficulty forced public authorities to undertake temporary schemes of providing for preschool children and that widening naturally led over into permanent undertakings. A review of progress in the nursery school and kindergarten fields is not necessary here. The Report of the Consultative Committee on Infant and Nursery Schools , published by His Majesty’s Stationery Office, London, in 1933, contains the results of a study made under the direction of the Board of Education of England and Wales. The findings are typical of attitudes in most European countries. Nur¬ sery School ami Parent Education in Soviet Russia , by Vera Fedia- evsky and Patty Smith Hill, tells the story for the Soviet Union. Young Children in European Countries, by Mary Dabney Davis, is a survey of the situation in seven nations of Europe. PHYSICAL EDUCATION Physical education also was changed and strengthened by the war and the economic depression. Usually wars are followed by keen interest in physical training in part because the test of military service shows a high percent of physical disability and to some ex¬ tent because the loss of life impels a desire to maintain the human wealth remaining at a higher level of efficiency. The impetus given to physical education by the war carried on through the decade under consideration and interest in it seems still to be mounting. Leaders of nationalist movements understand well the value of mass athletics, games, and sports in holding large groups of people together and teaching them to work for a common aim. After the establishment of a national school system in Albania, (see page 5) physical education was much stressed. Austria has a national system of physical education with physical training com¬ pulsory in elementary and secondary schools. There is also a na¬ tional recreation program promoted by the Osterreichische Sport- and Turn-front. Play fields, ski courses, sport days, vacation houses, courses in alpinism and swimming, and exchanges of groups of students with other countries are continually emphasized. The Belgian authorities began enforcing physical training in the schools about 1921. The Swedish system is used. In 1934 a higher 20 BIENNIAL SURVEY OF EDUCATION, 1934-36 council of physical education and sports was created to study the subject from its medical, pedagogical, and sport aspects, and to advise on programs of instruction, teacher training, and inspection and control of physical education. A Bulgarian law of 1932 made physical education compulsory in primary and secondary schools and in 1935 the entire question of physical training was being studied. Bulgaria has no national scheme of recreation but the “Yunaks” (heroes), an old organization much like the sokols of Czechoslovakia, continues to function and will probably be extremely active in case of any serious threat to the country’s independence. Physical culture plays an important part in the lives of the Czechoslovakians both within and without the school system.8 The ministries of education and national culture, public health, and physi¬ cal culture, national defense, foreign affairs, commerce, and public works all give considerable attention and support to it. No official school program carries less than 2 hours a week of physical training and the bodily development of the child is watched over from the time he enters kindergarten. The sokol (falcon) movement founded by Miroslav Tyrs in 1862 is strong and sets the example for several similar organizations. In Yugoslavia also, Dr. Tyrs’ system of physical training is used in the schools, and no fewer than 2,525 sokol units, apart from the schools, with 417,725 members were existing in 1934. The establishment of the Royal Hungarian College of Physical Education at Budapest in 1925 to train men and women teachers of physical culture is but one event in the regular development of physi¬ cal education in which the Hungarians as a people have long been interested. An efficient national system of physical training was set up by Law LIII of December 31, 1921, to be within the control of the ministry of cults and education and the ministry for home affairs, mainly the former, for in its budget a specific item “physical educa¬ tion” was then placed and has been continued. A national stadium was built, and a national board of physical education was created to advise the ministry on plans of studies and the kinds of grounds, equipment, and buildings necessary. All young men not otherwise participating in some form of systematic physical education must attend gymnastics classes until the end of December of the year in which they complete the twenty-first year of their age. Much of this sort of instruction is carried on by the “Levente” (junior men-at- arms) associations which in many respects resemble the yunaks and sokols. 8 Turosienski, Severin K. Education in Czechoslovakia. Washington, U. S. Department of the Interior, Office of Education, Bulletin 1935, No. 11. FOREIGN COUNTRIES 21 Germany. — During the era of the republic sport and physical recreation of all kinds developed broadly and rapidly in Germany. One of the best known indications of this interest was the hiking or “Wandervogel-BewTegung” and many societies were formed to fur¬ ther it. It gained a considerable foothold in other countries. Also there was a large growth in the number of sport clubs and similar associations as well as an increase of enrollment in those already existing. The German governments, Federal, State, and local, did much to encourage the movement. Large amounts of money were raised to build stadiums, swimming pools, athletic fields, and schools for training physical instructors. An administrative system was set up not to direct and control athletic and recreational activities but to promote them and to provide facilities for them. The National Socialist government emphasizes physical attain¬ ments because it believes that through a physically fit nation economic security will be maintained and the country will be strengthened as a political and military power. It is centralizing control of all physical education and recreation activities in the hands of the Reich authorities who are changing the nature of physical training and the idea motivating it. Physical culture is no longer a matter of fun and enjoyment; it is a patriotic duty to improve the individual and through him, the nation. The creation of the Reichsministerium fur Wissenschaft, Erzieh- ung und Volksbildung (see page 4) gave the central government full authority over physical education in the elementary, secondary, and continuation schools just as it did over other school work. Formerly physical instruction in the elementary schools was a sort of side issue given by teachers of other subjects who had taken and passed a special examination in physical instruction. Courses in preparation for the examination were given at the German College for Physical Culture (Deutsche Hochschule fur Leibesiibungen) at Berlin-Charlottenburg and the Prussian College for Physical Culture (Preussische Hochschule fur Leibesiibungen) at Berlin-Spandau and other institutions. The two colleges named were closed and a decree was issued requiring teachers to attend the newly created colleges for teacher training (Hochschulen fur Lehr erbi Idling) where courses in physical instruction are to be given all students as part of the regular curriculum. Physical training in the secondary schools has been raised in im¬ portance. The Reichsminister fur Wissenschaft stated in an execu¬ tive order of March 1936 that a high record in physical education subjects may make good a deficiency in one of the other subjects. The tests of students’ physical prowess given just before graduation are emphasized and a failure in them may prevent graduation. 22 BIENNIAL SURVEY OF EDUCATION, 1934-36 The institutes of physical culture in the German universities were first started in 1925 to be responsible for the physical development of all the students. They are regular departments headed by a professor usually with the rank of dean. By a special order of December 5, 1934, their scope was widened and the requirements for work in them made more strict. Every university student unless proved to be physically disabled must attend prescribed courses in them for 3 semesters amounting to about 100 clock-hours and pass tests of his ability as an athletic performer in the things taught in the courses. Students who expect to teach in secondary schools and wish also to qualify as secondary school physical instructors must in addition attend in an institute of physical culture a special course so extensive that it will require an additional year at the university and, having attended it, they must go to a special camp (Priifungslager) where they are put through rigorous tests in the athletic work in which they were trained. Two such camps, one for women at Marburg, the other for men at Neustrelitz in Mecklenburg, have been established. In Germany there are about 40,000 sport clubs that before the Na¬ tional Socialist Party came into power were loosely organized in several associations all of which were connected with the Reich Council for Physical Culture (Reichsausschuss ftir Leibesiibungen) though each conducted its affairs free of any outside direction. To organize these associations and incorporate them in the Nazi move¬ ment, the Government early in 1933 created the office of Reich Sport Commissioner (Reichssportfiihrer). The semipolitical clubs in which doctrines opposed to those of the party were taught, were dissolved and in 1935 an order was issued which in effect did away with the most important Catholic sport association. A new central organiza¬ tion, the Reich League for Physical Culture (Reichsbund fur Leibesiibungen) was established, the leadership principle was ap¬ plied, and the various organizations even down to the individual clubs became subject to the direction of the central office. The Reich Sport Commissioner can control the activities of all sport clubs. France. — The deputy charged with presenting to the Chamber of Deputies in F ranee the budget for physical education in 1937 out¬ lines in his report 9 the history of physical training and expresses the reasons why the French people should support it liberally some¬ what as follows: Physical exercises tend to develop all the qualities of man. Here are the reasons why the entire nation is interested in their wide extension: 9 Barthfilmy, M. Georges. Rapport fait au nom de la Commission des Finances chargee d’examiner le Project de Loi portant fixation du Budget GSnaral de l’Exercise 1937. (Education physique — sports et Loisirs.) Paris, Imprimerie de la Chambre des D6put6s, 1936. FOREIGN COUNTRIES 23 Strong individuals make up strong families. Sport for all, by safeguarding the health of the young, makes for better economies in relief. Whether rightly or wrongly, a nation’s prestige lies to some extent in the successes of its champions. Finally and especially, our military situation requires it. Our pop¬ ulation is decreasing ; that of Germany is increasing. At present — and what will it be in the future? — we are forty millions of French against sixty millions of Germans. That is something to think about But one must take into account another factor. The German youth, better trained, is stronger than the French youth. It has been said, written, and repeated. We proclaim it again and utter a cry of alarm. Previous to 1930 the central administration of physical education was in two branches of the Government: The Ministry of War which had its appropriation to care for the physical training of men before and after regimentation, and physical training in the army ; and the Ministry of National Education which used its appropriation to look after physical education in the schools. These were united in 1930 in an Under-secretariat of Physical Education with a budget of its own. The Under-secretariat has two divisions : Military and civil. In 1931 a technical service (service technique) was added to study and report to the ministry on projects for creating stadiums, swimming pools, and fields for sports and gymnastics. Two advisory bodies function, the higher council of physical education (Conseil superieur de l’Education physique) with 150 members and a higher committee of physical education (Comite superieur de PEducation physique). The central office of the Under-secretariat has a staff of 31; the regional and local offices are manned by a total of 841 military and civil employees, not including the Higher School of Physical Educa¬ tion at Joinville (Ecole superieure d’Education physique de Join- ville) . The school (meaning education in general) is not at all interested in physical education. That is a verity that it is banal to state, but it is a verity that should be proclaimed without ceasing. In 1850 gymnastics was introduced as an elective in the programs. In 1854 it became obligatory in the lycees. Now, by arretS of January 19, 1925, it is obligatory in all the schools and is given two hours a week to girls as well as to boys. Also some open-air games are provided for Thursday. So comments M. Barthelemy,10 and he points out that lack of appropriations, abuses in school sports, unsuitable and even harmful surroundings in which physical education classes are conducted, lack of well-trained teachers and of institutions in which to train them, all militate against good physical education in France. The Higher School at Joinville, founded in 1852, and for many years engaged 10 See note on page 22. 24 BIENNIAL SURVEY OF EDUCATION, 1934-36 in training military men, has gradually extended to include all physical education. Until 1933 it was in reality the only national French school of physical education, though at the universities there were 12 institutes and 3 centers which prepared candidates for the certificate to teach physical education in secondary schools. The Normal School of Physical Education (Ecole normale d’Education physique) was founded in October 1933 with a 2-year curriculum to train teachers for secondary schools and in part as an answer to foreign adverse criticism that physical education in France is only disguised military preparation. The Normal School takes over most of the work of the Institute of Physical Education of the University of Paris. Sports and their relation to the proper use of leisure are also being given consideration in France, but with less emphasis than in many other countries. An under-secretariat of sports and leisure (Sous- Secretariat des Sports et Loisirs) was created on August 13, 1936. It has but a small staff and little money. M. Barthelemy proposes to change the situation by achieving a better administrative organization, securing more national funds to aid physical education, and arousing the French people to an under¬ standing of the important part physical training has in any educa¬ tion scheme. TECHNICAL AND VOCATIONAL EDUCATION Technical education, as clearly noted (see pages 6 and 7), has been coming more and more within the control of the national ministries of education — except in the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics — and is being more closely coordinated with general education. The increasing interest in vocational and technical training stimulated vocational guidance or “professional orientation” as it is more com¬ monly termed in Europe. Both fall within the concepts of the unity school system. (See page 7). Technical training has been forced into the foreground and is being considered more in relation to its place in the entire education program because of the spirit of na¬ tionalism with its corollary of economic self-sufficiency. Acting in that spirit, governments had to survey the natural resources of their countries and determine as nearly as possible the quotas of persons to be trained for and used in the many different activities necessary to national welfare. In the years of the depression, a “plethora of intellectuals” was a common plaint in a number of countries. Eco¬ nomic forces and governmental action worked as correctives of that situation by limiting the number of those who could undertake train¬ ing for the learned professions, and by providing better facilities and stronger programs for preparation for technical pursuits. FOREIGN COUNTRIES 25 France. — The basis of technical education in France is vocational guidance (orientation professionnelle). Its purposes and organiza¬ tion are expressed officially as follows : 11 A child comes from the primary school at 12 or 13 years of age. It is indispensable then, if not earlier, to give him and to give his family some information as precise as possible on the different careers that are open to him, on the chances that he may have to succeed in one of them, and especially on the counter-indications that it may present by reason of his physical, intellectual, and moral aptitudes, and by reason of the condi¬ tion of the labor market. The advice is given free by special organizations called offices of pro¬ fessional orientation, created in a certain number of cities by application of decree of September 26, 1922. The offices are organized with the collaboration of : 1. Primary teachers who furnish the data on the intellectual and moral aptitudes of the children. 2. Physicians who verify the physical aptitudes. 3. The placement office which furnishes data on the condition of the regional labor market in such a way as to avoid if possible popular, over¬ crowded crafts, and direct the adolescents toward vocational certainties of a permanent interest, and offering good chances for the future also. We add also that a special institute of study and research relative to professional orientation was created in Paris in 1928. Eighty-nine such offices were reported as being in operation in 1934. They interviewed more than 38,460 primary school leavers and placed more than 13,230 in some form of employment. The strong impetus to French technical education, as well as its organization, came from the Astier law of July 25, 1919. It is ar¬ ranged on three levels or stages: First, to train qualified workers; second, for staffs of lower officials such as overseers of shops; and, third, for staffs of higher officials. Public technical education is ad¬ ministered mainly by the Under-Secretariat of Technical Education in the Ministry of National Education. Other ministries have charge of some of the very special types. Some of the classes of schools and courses and their growth during the period under review are as follows : Table 1.— TECHNICAL SCHOOLS AND COURSES IN FRANCE Kind of school or course Number of schools or courses Enroll¬ ment 1924 1935 1935 1 2 3 4 National schools of arts and crafts _. _ 6 6 1,266 National schools of clock-making. _ ... _ 2 2 382 National schools of textile arts and industries _ 1 1 427 National school of ceramics . . . . _ . 1 1 29 National professional schools _ _ . _ _ 6 20 7,997 80, 857 i 162, 286 Practical schools.. _ . _ _ 117 202 Subventioned technical courses _ _ . . . 250 i 875 i 1934. n Atlas de l’Enseignement en France, 1933. 62172°— 38 - 3 26 BIENNIAL SURVEY OF EDUCATION, 1934-36 The subventioned technical courses are given at centers arranged in the different Departments of France and are mainly vocational courses to fit young people for work in the industries peculiar to the locality. Courses in applied arts, rural artisanry, and home eco¬ nomics are included. Growth has been rapid. In 1925 the Parliament voted in the budget a quinquennial extension of funds for technical education and at the same time created a special tax, the apprenticeship tax, which would compel industrialists and merchants — the persons who would use the trainees of technical schools — to pay part of the costs of the training. From 50 million francs in 1924, the budget of the Under- Secretariat of Technical Education rose to 79 millions in 1925; 94 in 1926; and by subsequent increases to 215 in 1933. The enrollment of approximately 250,000 in the schools in 1934 was more than three times that of the number of young people taking technical training in France before the war. Estimates are that in France 800,000 young men and women under 18 years of age should normally be taking technical education. The government cannot provide for so many in public schools, so it has worked out what seems to be unusually successful methods of cooper¬ ating with private initiative. The apprenticeship tax previously mentioned may be in part or in whole withdrawn for those indus¬ trialists and merchants who help to maintain private technical schools. The Under-Secretariat may enter into agreement with any association or chamber of commerce to help create and maintain a school. In such a case, the presidency of the advisory council of the school may be held only by a craftsman and the association or cham¬ ber has the right to name half the members of the council. Figures are not available for the amount of technical education offered thus by private effort, but it is very large. Belgium. — Technical education in Belgium w^as changed and com¬ pletely reorganized in 1933 into a coherent and homogeneous system. Thirty-three ministerial and royal arretes were issued regarding it. Schools were classified and the requirements they must meet in order to be accredited and aided from national funds were fixed. Regula¬ tions were arranged for their administration, inspection, and the appointment of personnel. An important royal arrete created the degree and the diploma of engineer technician and fixed the condi¬ tions for obtaining them, as well as the status of the schools that could grant them. Estonia. — A special section for vocational education was created in the Ministry of Public Instruction of Estonia on May 1, 1934. FOREIGN COUNTRIES 27 Working through it, measures were taken to improve vocational in¬ struction and to provide more opportunities for it. Six new com¬ mercial schools and four shops were opened and new subjects were offered in schools already established. Bulgaria. — Bulgaria reported an overproduction of intellectuals and the new government of 1934 closed the 41 incomplete gymnasia and 28 gymnasia in small cities and replaced them with 54 secondary real schools which offer a 3 -year curriculum to which graduates of the 7-year primary school are admitted. The programs in these schools will be varied according to the locality. They are intended to be more practical than the gymnasia and will give access to the higher vocational schools of Bulgaria. Irish Free State. — The story of the development of technical educa¬ tion in the Irish Free State as given in the successive reports of the Department of Education for the years 1925-26 to 1934-35, inclu¬ sive, is of such interest and indicates such careful planning and sound progress that it will be reviewed here in some detail. Technical education passed into the control of the Department of Education in June 1924. Previously it had functioned under the provisions of the Agriculture and Technical Instruction Act of 1899 and was without the administration of general education. On as¬ suming charge of it, the department’s first care was to make a survey of this branch of instruction. That preliminary investigation led to the appointment of a commission “to inquire into and advise upon the system of technical education in Saorstat Eireann in relation to the requirements of trade and industry.” That commission, con¬ sisting of representatives of employers, workers, teachers, and of the Departments of Education, Industry and Commerce, Agriculture, and Finance, an expert in technical education from Switzerland and another from Sweden, began its work in October 1926. It presented to the Dail its finished report early in 1928. Recommendations were made on the kind of continued education to be given young people who had left the primary school and had not obtained employment, on the technical education required by apprentices, on higher tech¬ nical training for those seeking the more important posts in trade and industry, and on the control and finance of schemes of technical instruction. The report also contained accounts of the education systems of Sweden and Switzerland and information about the South Africa Apprenticeship Act of 1922. From the report came the Vo¬ cational Education Act of 1930 to replace the old Act of 1899. Prior to 1930, instruction was offered mainly in ( a ) technical schools and (h) county schemes of technical instruction. That the BIENNIAL SURVEY OF EDUCATION, 1934-36 28 demand for technical education was constantly growing is evidenced by the following tables: Table 2 —ATTENDANCE AT TECHNICAL SCHOOLS FROM 1924-25 TO 1929-30 Kind of course 1924-25 1927-28 1928-29 1929-30 1 2 3 4 5 Introductory 1, 757 8,811 3,757 1,009 5, 354 916 204 1,623 9, 468 5, 178 1, 661 6,980 997 129 2, 497 11, 007 6, 176 1,747 8, 050 1, 150 156 2,088 11, 919 6, 573 2, 512 8, 443 1, 219 180 Commerce and languages _ - — Science (pure and applied). _ _ Handicraft .... . _ . Domestic science _ . _ _ _ _ Art Other subjects _ _ _ . . Total _ _ _ 21, 808 26, 036 30, 783 32, 934 Table 3 —ATTENDANCE AT COUNTY SCHEMES OF TECHNICAL INSTRUCTION FROM 1924-25 TO 1929-30 Kind of course 1924-25 1927-28 1928-29 1929-30 ' 2 3 4 5 Manual instruction . _ _ 2,460 938 4, 810 933 5,465 1, 227 4, 514 Home spinning, lace making, etc .. 917 Domestic economy _ _ . . _ _ _ _ Engineering 4, 631 7, 171 8, 076 858 6, 742 828 Commerce _ _ _ _ _ . 884 1, 063 744 1, 394 946 Other subjects _ 1, 352 692 1, 266 Total . 10, 295 14, 721 17, 712 15, 213 “The decrease in 1929-30,” says the department, “is not to be taken as indicative of a lessening interest in the classes conducted in rural areas, for which the enrollment per center is as high as in the preceding session. The County Committees have in many cases been compelled to restrict the number of rural centers of in¬ struction as a result of the rapid development of their permanent technical school centers and the consequent demands on the services of a limited teaching staff.” In 5 years the attendance at technical schools and county schemes had increased by 50 percent. 1930-31 was a year of transition. Under the Act of 1930, the former technical instruction committees gave way to the vocational education committees each with fewer members, but with greater powers and duties. The new committees were busy arranging procedures to fit the new law, exploring its possibilities, planning development especially of buildings, and arranging their budgets for submission to the Department by December instead of the following May or June as had been the practice. A complex system of grants from national funds had grown up in the 30 years in which the old law was effective. A simpler system of a single block grant for each committee was established, the amount of the FOREIGN COUNTRIES 29 grant to depend on the total due under the old system plus a develop¬ ment grant that would be computed partly on the population of the area and partly on the amount it would contribute above a required minimum. Many of the committees started to provide better accom¬ modation and laid their building plans before the Department. The first full year under the Vocation Education Act was in 1931-32. The main change was in continuation education for children who had left the primary school and were seeking employment. Whole-time day courses were introduced by every committee and between 7,000 and 8,000 students attended. In rural areas the demand for courses of this type was so great that it was difficult to accom¬ modate all who came. Part-time continuation schools did not proA^e popular. In 1932-33, the attendance at continuation schools was 11,536 of whom 9,173 were in whole-time courses. Of the general situation of technical education in 1934-35, the Department reports : Continuation and technical education continued to develop steadily during the session 1934-35. In several centers new schools were opened and exten¬ sions to existing schools were completed. Teaching staffs were increased to meet the growing demand for instruction. Additional equipment was ac¬ quired. Despite the rapid erection of new schools, vocational education com¬ mittees were confronted with requests for more schools in areas yet un¬ touched. There has now developed a realization of the value which a sound system of technical and continuation education confers alike upon those seeking employment and those already in occupations. It is noted that the demand from rural areas is increasing. The total attendance in 1934-35 at the different forms of vocational and technical education was 62,670. Section II. Asia In the previous section dealing with education in Europe, certain of the larger trends and movements were selected and discussed, and education within a country was mentioned as it afforded an example of one or more of the phases under consideration. That manner of presentation is not easily applicable to Asia as a continent. The greater part of the population of Asia is in China and India, only two countries, and in many respects, as far as education is concerned, they seem to be going in opposite directions. It appears advisable in this and most of the subsequent sections to discuss countries as entities and point out what each has been doing in the past 10 years. The reader will note many changes analagous to those most promi¬ nent in Europe, and many others peculiar to a country because of its special physical or historical characteristics. China, India, Iran, and Turkey are selected as including most of the important education events in Asia. CHINA The 18 provinces of China proper have an area of 1,532,815 square miles and a population estimated at 370.7 millions. The area is about three-fourths that of Europe, west of Russia, and the popula¬ tion is approximately equal to that of western Europe. Here, then, is a single education project which equals in magnitude the total of the 30 European systems. The first marked change toward a modern school system in China came in 1902. The advent of the Republic in 1912 brought funda¬ mental alterations in the system. It was again revised in 1922. The National People’s Party (Kuomintang) took over the government in 1927 and in 1928 promulgated the “Law Governing the Organi¬ zation of the National Government of the Republic of China.” In 1927 the highest education authority of the national government was vested in the National University Council. A year later the name of the council was changed to Ministry of Education, and it became a part of the Executive Yuan, one of the five major divisions of the government. 30 FOREIGN COUNTRIES 31 Administration. — Concerning the changes in education policy that were brought about in 1929 and later by the national government, the minister of Education wrote in 1935 : 1 The development of modern education in China since 1912 has been con¬ tinuous but not even in all directions. ... In fact, it was a period of intense activity but divergent development ; the university, secondary school, and primary school each growing more or less in its own way. This period of continuous but divergent development could be appro¬ priately characterized by what, for want of a better term, may be called spontaneous growth. The guiding spirit in education was laissez-faire, not only evident in education, but also in much that was happening in the social and intellectual life of the country. The spirit of laissez-faire was most obvious in the absence of a coordinated educational policy of the Govern¬ ment with respect to the relative development between the university, secondary school, and primary school. To all intents and purposes, the Government’s educational policy since 1929 has been inspired by a different outlook and a different spirit, and many changes have been introduced in the education system of the country. These changes have one thing in common; they are guided by an attitude which refused to believe in the efficacy and sufficiency of the laissez-faire principle. If there is one crucial tost to distinguish the two periods divided roughly around 1929, it is the renunciation of laissez-faire and the introduction of coordination as a policy in education. This co¬ ordination not only finds application in adjusting the component parts of the educational system for more harmonious development, but may also serve as a basis to judge the measures adopted in recent years to meet the problems of each of the parts. This is the expression of a policy of centralizing the control of education in the national government. That policy does not include forcing the political beliefs of the party on the Chinese people. It is rather a plan for forming an adequate and well-balanced education system. The first steps were taken early in 1928 and were mainly in the direction of ridding the schools of communistic and political activities. The Fourth Plenary Conference of the Central Executive Committee of the Ruomintang held February 2 to 7, 1938, declared that: China’s greatest cause for suffering is that immature students participate in affairs of political and social struggle. . . . How can these great national and social tasks be left to these immature people with freedom of action? This is not only a tremendous sacrifice of the precious future life of the nation, but is also making the life of the entire nation or society an article for child’s play. . . . * Shih-Cheh, Wang. Education in China. Shanghai. China United Press. 1935. 45 p. 32 BIENNIAL SURVEY OF EDUCATION, 1934-36 The way of salvation is to safeguard educational independence, enrich educational contents, guard against the corruption and depravation of our young, universalize popular education, and enhance the people’s knowledge. Higher education. — Higher education is given in three classes of institutions : Universities, independent colleges, and technical schools. The two former are governed by the law on university organization of July 26, 1929; an amendment of 1934; and the regulations of university administration of August 14, 1929. The technical schools operate under law of July 26, 1929, and the revised regulations of March 26, 1931. These laws and regulations aim to insure in each university a balance of offerings so that both classical knowledge and science and its applications may be had ; to afford sound financial bases by fixing definite legal minima for initial expenses when an institution is established, and for its current yearly expenses; to regulate the internal administration of the institution ; and to provide common standards of matriculation and graduation. The curricula are mainly in the hands of the institutions, but they also may come under the purview of the Ministry of Education. Secondary education. — Secondary education was brought under three separate laws passed in 1932 and three sets of regulations is¬ sued by the Ministry of Education in 1933. Secondary schools are of three classes: Middle, normal, and vocational. Formerly the three types could function in one school; now they must be kept separate. The middle school is to prepare students for universities. It is a 6-year institution divided into the junior middle school of 3 years and the senior of 3. In the period from 1922 to 1929, middle schools freely offered elective courses and there was no standard of reasonable distribution of the different subjects in the curriculum. The law of 1932 and the later regulations prescribed the subjects to be taught, fixed the number of hours a week for each, set a total of 34 to 35 week-hours, abolished electives, and discontinued the credit system. The standard for teaching each subject was issued by the Ministry of Education and completed in 1934. The regulations of the schools with respect to internal management, fees, admission, instruction, graduation, qualifications of teachers, and similar mat¬ ters are comprehensive and precise. The secondary normal schools admit graduates of junior middle schools and with a 3-year course train them to be teachers of primary schools. They also are strictly patterned by the law of 1932 and the regulations of the Ministry. The vocational schools are either junior or senior and may be established separately or together. Both are 3-year institutions. They also are closely regulated and by late 1933 the Ministry had issued detailed curricula for the different trade groups of studies. FOREIGN COUNTRIES 33 In the middle and normal schools the law provides that at least 20 percent of the annual budget shall be used for capital outlay purposes, not more than 70 percent for salaries, and not more than 10 percent for administration. Elementary education. — Elementary education also came under the direction of the Ministry by a 1932 law on primary schools and for the junior schools and 2 for the senior. The schools are mainly the regulations of 1933. It is a 6-year process divided into 4 years supported by district, city, or village authorities. The curriculum is fixed by law and it is in the development of the curriculum that much progress has been made. The most important change was from the use of classical Chinese as the medium of instruction to the vernacu¬ lar. The educational and social value of this move is so great that its implications cannot be grasped. Probably the Chinese could never have attained anything approaching elementary education for all their children without taking this step. The law of July 1934 fixes the qualifications, the examinations, and the certificates for teachers of primary schools. Statistics. — Statistics of education in China vary considerably. A summary of one apparently authentic report is as follows : 2 Table 4 —EDUCATION IN CHINA Kind of school Number of schools Number of students Teaching staff 1 2 3 4 Public: Kindergartens _ _ _ _ __ 769 32,888 1,468 437. 101 Primary _ _ _ _ _ 212, 728 821 9, 892, 310 200, 978 Higher primary 13, 762 Secondary. _ _ ___ __ _ _ 204 25, 514 1, 284, 756 26, 498 93, G97 18, 925 1, 922 8, 557 Complementary _ _ _ 40,354 209 72, 910 Vocational _ _ _ _ _ _ _ 4,677 10, 702 Normal _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ 881 Universities _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ 37 6,209 828 Other higher institutions _ 20 Private: Kindergartens _ _ _ _ _ _ 327 14, 539 749 Primary. _ _ _ _ _ _ 44,997 565 2, 381, 390 148, 645 40, 811 212, 230 116, 284 9,620 11, 547 Higher primary _ _ _ _ _ _ _ Secondary _ _ _ _ _ _ _ 330 Complementary _ _ _ _ _ _ __ _. 5,597 103 15, 569 2,080 093 Vocational _ 16, 034 7, 143 Normal _ _ 32 Universities 42 20, 441 1,048 3, 905 372 Other higher institutions _ _ _ _ 9 Most of these schools are coeducational; a few are for girls only. Of the total number of students, at least 14 percent are girls and women. 2 Bureau International d’fiducation. Annuaire international de l’gducation et de l’en- seignement, 1936. Geneve, Bureau International d’fiducation, 1936- 34 BIENNIAL SURVEY OF EDUCATION, 1934-36 C ompulsoiy education. — The primary school enrollment of around 12y2 millions is small in a nation that must have at least 70 millions of children between the ages of 6 and 14. The Chinese Government early adopted the principle of universal compulsory education but the magnitude of the undertaking, the buildings and equipment to be provided, the books to be supplied, the army of teachers to be trained, and the funds to be raised, have prevented carrying out the principle in any short time. Various plans have been offered and undertaken to meet the situation. The scheme of 1920 provided that complete enforcement of compulsory education should be attained in 8 years by applying it in 1921 to provincial capitals and open ports ; 1922, country seats and cities; 1923, towns with more than 500 families; 1924, towns with more than 300 families; 1925 and 1926, towns with more than 200 families ; 1927, villages with more than 100 families; and 1928, villages with fewer than 100 families. Because of political troubles that program was never seriously put into effect. The National Educational Conference in 1930 outlined a plan that would, it hoped, enforce compulsory education throughout China in 20 years. The Ministry of Education in 1932 formulated a scheme to increase the number of children in primary schools by 10 percent in the time from August 1932 to July 1935 and follow that by a similar drive. It tried to arrange also for 1 year of instruction for children between 10 and 16 who had missed the primary school. The latest proposal made in 1935 is that the duration of obligatory instruction will be 1 year for the 5 years beginning 1935; 2 years beginning 1940; and 4 years from 1945. For 1935-36, the National Government offered aid to the amount of $2,400,000 to carry it out and the Boxer indemnity funds contributed $300,000. Reduction of illiteracy and adult education. — The League of Na¬ tions’ Mission of Educational Experts reported : 1 Adult education is one of the most satisfactory features of education in China. There are two special aspects of adult education in China which differentiate it at first sight from the work of corresponding organizations in Europe and America. In the first place, it bulks much larger in the educational system as a whole, and its budget is proportionally far bigger than in other countries. In the second place, it stands in China for something very different, both in its character and its essential aims, from adult education in Europe and America. ... In a country where the percentage of illiterates is somewhere about eighty, the teaching of read¬ ing and writing is bound to be the main object of adult education, not merely in order to put an end to illiteracy, but also to induce adults to have their children better educated, and to win them over to the cause of the extension of education. Adult education is also here, as a rule, the 1 The League of Nations’ Mission of Educational Experts. The Reorganization of Edu¬ cation in China. Paris, Institute of Intellectual Cooperation, 1932. 200 pp. FOREIGN COUNTRIES 35 principal form of social education. . . . Educational activities for adults fall under three main heads, viz : 1. The education of adults who have had no opportunity of acquiring the rudiments ; this includes the campaign against illiter¬ acy, popular schools, social centers for the education of the masses, etc. 2. Subsidiary organizations for adult education and advanced study (libraries, museums, etc.). 3. Social education in general, viz, aesthetic education, improvement of social manners and popular pastimes, popular physical education, general culture, etc. All these activities are directed by a department of the Ministry of Education. The mass education movement. — Most famous of all the adult education efforts in China and indeed among the most famous in any country, is the mass education movement launched in 1920 by Y. C. James Yen. In its earlier years it involved selecting about 1,000 of the most commonly used characters from the “pai hua,” the language commonly spoken by the mass of the Chinese, preparing texts from them, and working out a system of teaching by which literacy in them could be attained by an average illiterate working only 1 hour a day for 4 months. The plan has proved practical and workable. Good progress was made in the large cities and in 1929 the point of emphasis was shifted from extensive promotion of literacy to intensive study of rural life and needs, and the Ting Hsien experiment was established to work on three types of education — school, home, and social — and a four¬ fold plan of reconstruction in culture, economics, health, and socio- politics. An account of the experiment is available in English.3 Status of 'private education. — Table 4 on page 33 shows that pri¬ vate education has a large part in the total of the education efforts in China. Moreover, much of the private education has been offered by foreigners, mainly missionary organizations from occidental coun¬ tries. The Chinese people have by no means been unaffected by the spirit of nationalism manifest in the world in the past two decades, and several attempts have been made to work out a status for private institutions in China that would be satisfactory to both the Chinese government and the institutions. Regulations of November 1925, October 1926, August 1929, and October 1933, all look toward making foreign educational enterprises in China subject to the same require¬ ments as Chinese schools proper. All private schools are required to register with the public authorities and their organization, curricula, and all other matters shall be carried out in accord with current edu¬ cation laws and orders. No foreigners may establish primary schools 3 Chinese National Association of the Mass Education Movement. The Ting Hsien Experiment in 1934. Peiping, 1934. 46 pp. BIENNIAL SURVEY OF EDUCATION, 1934-36 36 for the education of Chinese children and no religious ceremonies may be held in primary schools. The head of an institution of middle school grade or higher must be a Chinese citizen and in such institutions not more than one-third of the members of the board of directors may be foreigners. Keligious subjects may not be compul¬ sory in secondary schools or universities, and religious propaganda as a part of the lessons is not permitted. In effect, the national gov¬ ernment intends to have direct control of the private educational projects to the ends that they give good instruction and do not interfere with the development of Chinese national life. INDIA Education in India has been keenly responsive to political and economic conditions. A word picture of the years following the Government of India Act of 1919 is : 4 Indeed, in some respects, the years between 1922 and 1930 form a period which may well be regarded as perhaps the most inspiring in the annals of Indian education. A burst of enthusiasm swept children into school with unparalleled ra¬ pidity ; an almost childlike faith in the value of education was implanted in the minds of the people ; parents were prepared to make almost any sacrifice for the education of their children ; the seed of tolerance towards the less fortunate in life was begotten; ambitious and comprehensive pro¬ grammes of development were formulated, which were calculated to fulfill the dreams of a literate India ; the Muslim community, long backward in education, pressed forward with eagerness to obliterate past deficiencies; enlightened women began to storm the citadel of old-time prejudice against the education of Indian girls ; government, with the full concurrence of legislative councils, poured out large sums of money on education, which would have been regarded as beyond the realm of practical politics ten years previously. In a broad way, the following table indicates the growth. Table 5.— GROWTH OF EDUCATION IN INDIA IN NUMBER OF INSTITU¬ TIONS, AND PUPILS, AND AMOUNT OF EXPENDITURES, 1921-22 TO 1933-34 Year Institutions Pupils Expenditures (rupees) 1 9 3 4 1921-22 _ _ _ _ 208, 118 246, 264 254, 724 258, 018 260, 946 262, 068 257, 792 255, 348 256, 725 8, 381, 350 11, 157, 498 11, 775, 222 12, 166, 104 12, 515, 126 12, 689, 086 12, 766, 537 12, 853, 532 13, 172, 890 183, 752, 969 245, 847, 572 258, 278, 819 270, 732, 253 274, 282, 018 283, 161, 446 271, 856, 622 257, 875, 868 261, 765, 186 1926-27— . . --- _ 1927-28 1928-29 _ _ 1929-30 1930-31 — _ 1931-32 _ 1932-33 _ _ _ _ 1933-34 _ _ _ _ 4 Anderson, Sir George. Progress of Education in India 1927-32. Tenth Quinquennial Review. Two volumes. Delhi, Manager of Publications, 1934. FOREIGN COUNTRIES 37 Translated into terms of annual increases and decreases, these data show : Table 6.— ANNUAL INCREASES AND DECREASES IN INSTITUTIONS, PUPILS, AND EXPENDITURES IN INDIA, 1921-22 TO 1933-34 Year Institu¬ tions Pupils Expenditures (rupees) 1 2 3 4 1921-22 to 1926-27 1 7, 629 8, 460 3,294 2, 928 1,122 2 4, 276 2 2,444 1, 377 i 555, 229 617, 726 390, 882 349. 022 173, 960 77, 451 86, 995 319, 358 1 12,418,920 12, 431, 247 12, 453, 434 3, 549, 765 8, 879, 428 2 11, 304, 824 » 13, 980, 754 3, 889, 318 1926-27 to 1927-28 _ 1927-28 to 1928-29 _ 1928-29 to 1929-30 _ _ 1929-30 to 1930-31 _ _ 1930-31 to 1931-32 . 1931-32 to 1932-33 1932-33 to 1933-34 _ 1 Annual average for 5 years. * Decrease. In the first year of this decennium the gains in institutions, pupils, and expenditures were greater than the annual average for the pre¬ ceding quinquennium. Gains then decreased until the crisis years of 1931-32 and 1932-33 when institutions and expenditures lost all that had been won in the previous 3 years. It is significant that the number of pupils continued to increase even though slightly. In the following year, which showed betterment in the economic situa¬ tion, moderate increases in institutions and expenditures were re¬ sumed, and a large addition was made to the number of pupils. Decentralization of administration. — Though the Government of India had little control of education prior to 1921 when the political reforms went into effect, those reforms included a process of transfer of responsibility to provincial government and later to local bodies to such an extent that few other countries have so completely decen¬ tralized the administration of education. Chapter II of the Quin¬ quennial Review to which reference was made previously (see page 36) is a survey of the way that policy has worked out in India, a classic in the many discussions of the relative merits and defects in such a plan. Among the advantages cited are: Development of initiative and the desire to experiment; closer contact with public opinion; removal of delays caused by the necessity of referring all important questions to a distant authority ; freedom of each province to develop an education policy suited to its needs; training people in the management of their own local affairs; and active and intel¬ ligent interest in education shown by the provincial legislatures. Among the defects that have come to light in this Indian experience are: A natural tendency of the province to isolate itself from its neighbors, to pass from the provincial to the parochial and to re¬ spond too readily to local impulses; loss of the advantages derived BIENNIAL SURVEY OF EDUCATION, 1934-36 38 from submission of education plans to an authority commanding a wider outlook; loss of aid from central revenues to meet the cost of developing compulsory primary education; wastefulness in some provinces of the money spent on primary education; serious over¬ lapping between the provinces especially in the region of higher education; wTeak provincial administration and inspection service; and too frequent changes in provincial education ministers so that continuity of policy has been made very difficult. Compulsory education. — The 13,172,890 students in schools in India in 1934 amounted to 4.85 percent of the population, and literacy among persons 5 years of age and over in 1931 was 9.5 percent. In that situation, compulsory education has made some progress. By 1930 the compulsion principle for boys had been introduced in Madras, Bombay, Bengal, United Provinces, Punjab, Bihar and Orissa, Central Provinces, Assam and Delhi — these are mnst of India — but was and is not applied to the entire areas. In 1932 a total of 153 urban areas and 3,392 rural sections were under compulsion. It has made more progress in the Punjab than in any other area. For economic and other reasons, authorities in India feel that it is not advisable to enter upon a drastic program of enforcing compulsory education : 5 Spasmodic “drives” to bring in all and sundry of varying ages and com¬ petence cannot be productive of any lasting benefit and militate against orderly organization of good class teaching. The better plan would be to make a careful survey of the census statistics and to estimate for each area the number of pupils attaining the age of 6 years in each year who should be admitted to school by the agency of compulsion. By that means class organization would be simplified and, with regularity of attendance resulting from compulsion, pupils should complete the primary course in the normal period of time. “Straining after the last truant” is both vexatious and extravagant. It is far more important to exact penalties from parents of children who are irregular in attendance and who leave school before completing the course than in respect to boys who have no desire to attend school. * ****** There is, therefore, no cause for undue pessimism, provided that earnest efforts are being made to prepare the way for compulsion. As efficiency of teaching is improved, so will the prospects of compulsion become brighter. The essential preliminary is the establishment of a series of five-class schools, staffed by well-trained products of vernacular middle schools. A well-devised distribution of schools is also essential; compulsion cannot be based on ephemeral schools without continuity or tradition. A village school under compulsion should become a village institution. Education of girls and ivomen. — Of the 12,766,537 students on the rolls in 1932 of all classes of institutions, 2,492,649 or 19 y2 percent 5 Anderson, Sir George. Progress of Education in Indian 1927-32. Tenth Quinquennia] Review. Two volumes. Delhi, Manager of Publications, 1934. FOREIGN COUNTRIES 39 were women and girls. That ratio of one to four expresses broadly the attitude in India toward education of women. Moreover, an overwhelming part of this enrollment is in the first three classes of the primary schools, and the loss each year is startling. The number of girls by classes from 1927 to 1932 was : Class Tear Enrollment Remarks I _ 1927-28 1,215,822 II _ 1928-29 311,281 (nearly three-fourths had dropped out). III _ 1929-30 197,321 (more than five-sixths had gone). IV _ 1930-31 120,464 (about 1 in 10 remained). V _ 1931-32 69,945 About 1 in 17 of those who entered class I had reached and were studying in class V. Of course, classes IV and V are necessary if there is to be any assurance that the girls will acquire a minor kind of literacy and retain it. Note the number of girls in classes IV and V by provinces in 1932, and the relationship of that number to the female population. Table 7— NUMBER OF GIRLS IN CLASSES IV AND V, AND FEMALE POPULATION Province Female population (millions) Girls in classes IV and V Madras. _ _ _ . ... _ _ 23.6 69, 770 Bombay _ . .... . 10.3 44, 782 Bengal 24.0 15, 779 United Provinces 22.9 12, 092 Punjab.. . . ... _ . . ... _ _ .. .... .... 10.7 20, 840 Burma. _ _ . .... _ _ 7. 1 14, 605 Bihar and Orissa .. . .. _ _ _ _ 18.8 4, 175 Central Provinces . . 7. 7 6,583 Assam . 4.0 8, 919 Northwest Frontier. _ _ . _ _ _ _ . _ 1.1 1, 564 British India, including minor subdivisions. . . _ _ _ 131.7 203, 728 This picture of fewer than 204 thousand girls in the third and fourth grades out of a total female population of more than 131 millions is far from being bright. Yet it represents a gain of nearly 50 percent in 5 years. Further increases of 20,097 were made in 1932-33, and 23,645 in 193&-34. The underlying causes of the situation have been the social and religious attitudes toward the education of women. They expressed themselves in allowing comparatively scant appropriations for girls’ schools, compelling girls to attend schools for boys and be taught by men teachers, making little provision for the training of women teachers, and opposition to that kind of coeducation in which both men and women are on the teaching staff. The situation has improved much in the past decade. Many of the social and religious obstacles to women’s education are crumbling ; the percent of girl students who reach classes IV and V is increasing ; 40 BIENNIAL SURVEY OF EDUCATION, 1934^36 and the training schools for women teachers are constantly enrolling more students. High schools and middle schools for girls are grow¬ ing in number and most of the Provincial authorities are optimistic over the development of collegiate education for women. Other phases of education . — Adult education has for the most part failed in India, and vocational education has made relatively little progress. IRAN 6 The founding of the Pahlivi dynasty, December 16, 1925, opened the way for the rapid advances in education. Since that date steps have been taken in quick succession to round out a complete effec¬ tive school system for the 12 millions of people. For the most part educational movements in the past decade in Iran have followed the pattern of those connected with revolution in Europe. Iran has been passing through a revolution in the way of the adoption of many occidental ideals, customs, and modes of living and with that change has come the western concept of universal education. The Iranian situation is characterized by strong nationalization of edu¬ cation in the sense that the central government administers and mainly supports all public education, controls and aids private schools, has all types of education within its purview, and is build¬ ing up a well-unified system of lay schools. Statistically the progress is indicated in the following table : Table 8— GROWTH OF EDUCATION IN IRAN, 1924-25 TO 1934-35 Item 1924-25 1934-35 Schools of all kinds and levels .. . 3, 285 108, 959 6,086 1,876 77 61 7, 731, 380 5, 339 255, 673 11, 901 8, 874 748 183 58,004,070 Number of students _ Teaching staff _ _ _. _ _ Pupils taking the examinations at primarv schools Pupils taking the examinations of the second cycle of secondaiy education... Students taking examinations on university levels _ Education budget, in rials ($0.08*24 at pari . ... Multiplying the education budget by something more than seven and doubling the enrollment in the schools during years that were mainly within an economic crisis bespeaks an unusual earnestness and effort. Schools of different hinds and levels . — Kindergartens numbered 22 in 193T-35. With the exception of one which is maintained by the Government to serve as a model, all are carried on by private organizations and kept open for the greater part of the day. Some continue their work during the summer vacation. 6 The Persian Government requested that beginning with the Persian New Year, March 22, 1935, all other governments in addressing it use “Iran” and “Iranian” instead of “Persia” and “Persian.” The Persians call their country “Iran” and refer to themselves as “Irani.” Iran is derived from the ancient “Aryana” meaning the country of the Aryans. FOREIGN COUNTRIES 41 Primary instruction has been made obligatory for both boys and girls from 7 to 13 years of age. In the cities the curriculum is 0 years ; in the rural districts, 4. Eighteen primary agricultural schools in various parts of the county follow the 4 years of general educa¬ tion by 2 years that are purely agricultural. Not until 1935-36 was there coeducation on primary levels. In that year some mixed schools were established in Teheran and in the provinces. Public primary schools in 1934^35 were 915 with an enrollment of 108,643, of which 23,379 were girls. At the same time 3,726 private primary schools had 120,162 pupils, including 34,292 girls. Pupils who have finished the sixth year of primary schooling and earned the certificate of completion of primary studies may stop school, enter a secondary school of general training, or take up work in a vocational school. Secondary instruction is 6 years for boys, 5 for girls, and is similar to secondary training in France. A baccalaureate is granted the successful students and with it comes admission to study on univer¬ sity levels. Public secondary schools numbered 104 in 1934-35 and enrolled 10,020 pupils, of which 747 were girls. There were 547 private secondary schools with 12,200 enrolled, including 2,478 girls. In furtherance of its plan to have a complete National system of education, the Iranian Government set apart 2 million rials in the budget of 1933-34 to purchase a site and begin buildings for a public university. The law establishing the university (Daneshgah) was approved by Parliament (Majlis) on June 29, 1934. On February 4, 3935, the Shah laid the foundation stone of the new institution. Con¬ struction has been going on continuously since. This new Teheran University has faculties of medicine, law and political economy, theology, sciences, arts, and engineering. Not all of these are new faculties. That of medicine, for instance, dates to 1854 and is the oldest of the groups which are now brought into a single organiza¬ tion connected with the Ministry of Public Instruction. In 1934-35 with a staff of 109, the University registered 1,198 students and grad¬ uated 158. Almost coincident with the law establishing Teheran University was an enactment providing that within 5 years after March 21, 1934, the Government should found 25 lower normal schools at the rate of 5 each year, a higher normal school for girls, and complete the previously founded higher normal school for boys. At the close of 3934-35 there wTere 7 of these lower normal schools for training primary school teachers and early in the following year new lower normals were opened at Teheran, Tabriz, Meched, Chiraz, and Recht. Technical and vocational education are not being neglected, but the schools are mostly under ministries other than that of public instruction. Besides the faculty of engineering in the university, 52172°— 38 - 4 42 BIENNIAL SURVEY OF EDUCATION, 1934-36 are the higher schools of war, arts and crafts, agriculture, mid wives, financial sciences, and veterinary science. On lower levels of instruc¬ tion are schools of arts and crafts, commerce, dyeing, posts and telegraphs, agriculture, civil service, and financial sciences. Reduction of illiteracy. — Early in 1936 an active campaign against illiteracy was launched by an order directing the Minister of Public Instruction to open in primary schools all over the country classes in reading, writing, and arithmetic for illiterate adults between 18 and 40 years of age. The instruction was made compulsory for illiterate policemen and subalterns in public offices. Later in the year reports showed that 752 night classes had been established. Sending students abroad. — The idea of sending young Iranians abroad for training originated in 1911 when a law was passed pro¬ viding that the Government would send 30 each year to Europe, half of them to take teacher-training courses and return to enter the teaching profession in Iran. Political disturbances in the World War broke up this scheme after the first group had been selected and sent. But the idea clung and was taken up again in 1928 when provision was made for 100 students to go abroad yearly to Europe and America, 35 of them to study education. In 6 years, 640 were granted these scholarships and 569 completed their studies. The number in education was 143. Thirty-one other vocations were represented in the group ; medicine stood second highest with 96. TURKEY The revolution that has been taking place in Turkey in the past 17 years has been thorough and drastic. From a despotism presided over by an absolute hereditary monarch, the government changed to a republic with a national assembly and an elected president. The seat of government was moved from Istanbul, which had been the capital of one or another empire for 16 centuries, to Ankhara, an inland town. The civil government was separated from the church. The franchise was opened to all Turkish men and women at the age of 23 and women were declared eligible for election to public offices. Even the alphabet was discarded and a more suitable one adopted. Education kept pace with the revolution. The law of uniform education of March 3, 1924, closed the theological seminaries (Mad- raseh), numbering some 490 and attended by 12,000 pupils, and paved the way for secularization of education and a modern school system. Private schools are under careful public supervision and have a place much less important than formerly in Turkish education affairs. The abolition of the Arabic alphabet by law of November 1, 1928, and the substitution of the Latin alphabet greatly simplified the FOREIGN COUNTRIES • 43 teaching of reading and writing and made it more nearly possible to bring the 16 millions of Turkish people to a state of literacy in a reasonable time. Illiteracy was estimated at 85 percent in 1931-32. With the change in alphabet a commission was set up by the Ministry of Education to simplify and purify the language, compile a dic¬ tionary for it, and settle its scientific and technical phraseology. From January 1, 1929, all Government departments and business houses were compelled to use the new alphabet and no other could be employed in any book or newspaper. Western figures and the metric system of weights and measures were adopted from June 1,1929. Obligatory instruction. — The basic law of the new educational organization dates from March 22, 1926. Under its terms the control of education is strongly centralized in the national government acting mainly through the Ministry of Public Instruction. The Minister holds the right of inspection even over the colleges and departments of the University. By Article 87 of the constitution, primary edu¬ cation was made obligatory for all Turks and free of tuition charges in the public schools. The obligation begins when the child is 7 years of age and lasts for 5 years. It has not been enforced throughout all the republic because of a lack of school buildings, an urgent prob¬ lem to which the authorities have given much attention. The cost of a village school building is a direct charge against the villagers. Some of the richer vilayets (provinces into which Turkey is divided for purposes of administration) have been able to erect a school in every village. In poorer and more sparsely settled areas joint schools are placed sometimes with boarding accommodations and in other cases with transportation to and from school. Acting on the advice of European specialists, the Ministry has a model building at Ank- hara and distributes to the vilayets plans of buildings suited to each area, particular attention being paid to the type of building material available in the locality. The 5 -year primary school program adopted is essentially of the activity type based on centers of interest, and some difficulty is met in carrying it through because of the extreme change from previous programs and the lack of trained teachers to undertake the more difficult form of teaching. Teacher training. — To provide accommodations for the normal schools that must be established to train elementary school teachers, the Government voted considerable sums of money and required each vilayet to set aside 10 percent of its local budget each year for 5 years. By that means some excellent modern structures with good equip¬ ment were provided. By 1933-34 there were 10 primary normal schools for men and 7 for women. The program of studies, based 44 BIENNIAL; SURVEY OF EDUCATION, 1934-36 on the 5-year primary school curriculum, was at first itself of 5 years’ duration. Experience proved that to be unsatisfactory, and another year was added, making two cycles of studies of 3 years each. The first cycle is essentially the same as that of the higher primary schools; the second is strongly biased toward pedagogical training. To meet the demand for teachers in the very small villages with only 3-year primary schools, a type of normal training that closed with the first cycle was tried but was not found especially successful. Secondary education. — Pupils who leave the primary schools may enter the schools of general secondary education, or the higher pri¬ mary schools, or vocational schools of one or another type. The general secondary schools offer a 6-year program divided into two cycles. The last year of the second cycle may be devoted to either letters or sciences. The baccalaureate granted on graduation admits to the University and other higher institutions. The 3-year higher primary schools correspond in program closely to the first cycle of the general secondary schools. Technical education. — The Government has been especially desir¬ ous of developing good schemes of technical and vocational educa¬ tion. To that end it invited specialists from other countries to investigate and report on the needs of Turkey in this respect. A general direction of technical education was set up in the Ministry in 1926, first as a part of the direction of higher education, and later as a separate organization. The vocational schools base most of their studies on completion of the 5-year primary schools, and offer 5-year courses. They include 5 commercial schools, 10 of arts and crafts, 5 vocational schools for girls, and 80 private schools of sewing for girls. Many of the graduates have been sent abroad to Belgium, France, and Germany to complete their training and return to Turkey as teachers in their special fields. University instruction. — The University of Istanbul, first projected in 1846, refounded in 1900, and made an autonomous scientific body by Act of April 1, 1924, was subjected to a survey in 1932-33 and later reorganized to bring it in line with the needs of modern Turkey. It now has faculties of medicine, law, sciences, letters, a school of pharmacy, a dental school; and institutes of geography, Turcology, Islamic studies, archeology and evolution, electromechanics, chem¬ istry, economy, and sociology. It is no longer autonomous and the Government has added to the university staff a large number of professors and instructors from other countries. Statistics. — Statistical measures of the progress of education in Turkey are not available. Both earlier and later figures are in many items conflicting. The Turkish delegate at the Third International FOREIGN COUNTRIES 45 Conference on Public Instruction held in Geneva, Switzerland, reported for the school year 1932-33 substantially as follows : 7 Table 9.— EDUCATION IN TURKEY, 1932-33 Kind of school Number of schools Number of students Teaching staff Public Private Public Private Public Private 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Kindergarten . . . . . 8 13 611 12 Primarv. _ _ . _ _ _ 6, 568 165 640, 959 30, 318 13, 789 Higher primary _ 86 23 30, 856 4, 802 1, 009 1,295 Secondary - - - 30 32 5, 355 2,488 752 381 Vocational _ 36 4, 292 504 1,075 Normal . _ 18 2, 059 319 TTnj varsity _ . 1 3, 589 247 Other higher _ - - 11 1,8$ 255 The school system is in the main coeducational ; a high percentage of the students are girls and women. 7 Annuaire International de 1’lSducation et de l’Enseignement, 1935. Gen&ve, Bureau International d’Education, 1935. Section III. Africa For this great continent, the Union of South Africa and Egypt present the national school systems taken into consideration as sig¬ nificant. The many different and much varying schemes of colonial education are sketched briefly. UNION OF SOUTH AFRICA The total area of the four Provinces of the Union is 472,550 square miles ; the estimated population is 1,944,000 of European descent, and 6,656,000 natives and Asiatics. As regards the Europeans, the country is bilingual. The official languages are English and Afrikaans. The language situation is further complicated by the considerable number of native and Asiatic tongues that are spoken. Administration. — No other country has so curious a division of edu¬ cational authority and administration as between the central and pro¬ vincial governments. When the Union was formed in 1910, a Union Education Department was created to administer higher education and education “other than higher” was entrusted to the provincial authorities. Originally higher education was construed to mean only the activities of institutions of university rank. Gradually the Union Government has taken over various phases of education until its administration applies to certain kinds of instruction on all levels. The Union Education Department deals with child welfare, vocational education (including agricultural), technical colleges, university ma¬ triculation, and professional examinations. “Other than higher” education within its borders is controlled by each Province and in¬ cludes the kindergarten, primary, and secondary schools of general education, as well as the teacher-training that is not carried on in the universities, and native education. In these lines the Union Government has little authority, though it subsidizes the Provinces to about 75 percent of their expenditure for education. This division of responsibilities and duties as between the Union and Provincial governments has not been satisfactory. In effect there are five independent and coequal education departments, one each for the Cape of Good Hope, Natal, Transvaal, the Orange Free State, and the Union of South Africa. Coordination is lacking and various attempts have been made to provide it. In 1929 a National Bureau of Education was instituted as a part of the Union Education Department. The Bureau’s functions are to 46 FOREIGN COUNTRIES 47 collect and compile statistics on education throughout the Union; act as a liaison office between the five education departments; rep¬ resent the Union in connection with the work of the Committee on Intellectual Cooperation of the League of Nations and the Inter¬ national Bureau of Education at Geneva; build up a library of documentation of education in all countries; and do research work in problems of an educational or social nature. By 1935 the Bureau had five divisions: Educational research, social research, psychologi¬ cal research and service, the National Library on Educational and Social Research, and the film division. Teacher training while distinctly higher education in the sense that it is post-matriculation study, is mainly carried on in 18 provincial normal or training colleges. One of the first important pieces of work undertaken by the National Bureau of Education was a study of and a report on the training of teachers throughout the Union. Its findings that there was great diversity in the names and connota¬ tions of the teachers’ certificates, training methods varied much, per capita costs for providing training ranged from £102 to £252, and that the Provinces were making a profit on the subsidy pro¬ vided by the Union Government for teacher training, led the Secre¬ tary for Education to recommend in 1930 that the service be or¬ ganized on a national basis and placed under Union control. The recommendation has not been carried out. Technical education. — The Union Department of Education admin¬ isters 8 technical colleges under Act No. 30 of 1923, 7 industrial schools by provisions of the Children’s Protection Act No. 25 of 1913, and 29 State trade, commercial, agricultural, and house-craft schools under the Vocational Education and Special Schools Act No. 29 of 1928. It aids 7 other vocational schools. Special schools for the blind and deaf also handled by the Union Government under Act 29, are administered by the Department of the Interior. From its in¬ ception the Union Government had been gradually assuming control of technical instruction, and on April 1, 1925, as a result of an inter- Provincial conference held in 1924, it took over all the industrial and trades schools formerly administered by the Provinces. In his report for 1928, the Secretary for Education reviewed the situation with respect to technical education. He noted that the technical colleges were constantly discovering new needs for which they should make provision, and recommend that urban hostels sub¬ sidized by the state be established for the many young people who wish technical training but are too poor to afford it. Other sug¬ gestions included a substantial increase in the £3,000 fund for bur¬ saries; the future abolition of tuition fees for technical schools, in¬ struction being made as freely nonfee paying as that in the general secondary schools; and a program of developing agriculture, house- 48 BIENNIAL SURVEY OF EDUCATION, 1934-36 craft, and trades schools in rural and small town areas to be carried forward without interruption. He pointed out also that many of the vocational schools were in need of better buildings and equipment. Further, he indicated that the salary scales for teachers in technical instruction were much lower than those paid in the secondary schools of general education, a condition that made it difficult to attract the kind of men and women the service demanded. A strong movement was in evidence in 1932 to transfer vocational education to the control of the Provinces. In opposition to it, the Secretary for Education wrote : 1 Under the Provinces the vocational schools were regarded as poor schools and the instruction was often made subservient to the production of marketable goods. Many of them were in fact state factories, the underlying idea being that the pauper children should render service to the state for the money spent on them and if possible by production cover the costs involved. . . . The vocational instruction was not graded, and its necessary cultural background was neglected. Under Union control the instruction has been properly graded and production, though retained, has been reduced and is so regulated as not to have a detrimental, but on the contrary a very beneficial, effect on the work of the schools as educational institutions. General cultural subjects and the provision of libraries are receiving careful attention, and the schools are regularly inspected by expert general and vocational inspectors who see to it that the quality of the work and the methods of teaching are of a good standard .... They are no longer regarded as poor schools, or in any case, certainly not to the extent they were, and the policy of the department is responsible for the removal of the stigma of pauperism which used to be attached to them. By 1935 the movement seems to have lost its force and the depart¬ ment was again urging that, since the Union is importing large num¬ bers of skilled workmen, technical education should be provided within the country for all who desire and can profit by it. To that end, it asked for more financial support for the technical colleges, hostels for country pupils who wish to attend the colleges, advanced technical courses in country districts, a widening of the choice of trades offered, and longer periods of training. The poor whites of South Africa . — A study of the poor- white problem in the Union was made with the help of the Carnegie Cor¬ poration of New York in 1928 and 1929. Briefly, the poor whites were defined as “persons of European descent gaining their liveli¬ hood chiefly by farming and consisting principally of poor bywo-ners , hired men on farms, owners of dwarf holdings or of small, undivided shares of land, poor settlers, and the growing group of unskilled or poorly trained labourers and workers outside of farming.” An 1 Union of South Africa. Annual report of the Department of Education for the year ended December 1932. Pretoria, The Government Printer, 1934. FOREIGN COUNTRIES 49 exact enumeration of them was not practicable but a conservative estimate is that 300.;000, nearly one-sixth of the population of the Union, were very poor. The report of the survey 2 is worthy of careful study by the authorities of any country having a similar problem. We are con¬ cerned mainly with the volume on “Education and the Poor White.” The surveyors decided that a judicious application of improved methods of education would be very profitable because about one- third of the children had more than average intelligence and some were exceptionally gifted though the intelligence of the poor white group was lower on the average than that of the European popula¬ tion as a whole and the percent of subnormals was about twice as large as it is in the total European group. Sixty-six percent, and in poorer communities 90 percent, of the students did not proceed past standard VI (approximately the eighth grade in the United States) and more than 95 percent of the boys who left school to go on farms had no vocational training in agriculture. Without further listing of the commission’s findings, we shall turn to its chief recommendations : 1. It is very necessary that the education of the poor white should be brought into closer contact both in content and method with the requirements of practical life, especially in rural areas. 2. In order to make this new orientation in education possible, considerable changes will have to be made in the training of teachers. 3. The rural school should be so adapted that it will serve as a social center to satisfy the natural craving for recreation and social intercourse, and make the educative possibilities of broadcasting and similar means more accessible for both adults and children. 4. Local committees enjoying the support of the State should be formed to work in close cooperation with the public authorities in investigating social conditions, coordinating charity, giving advice regarding employment possibilities, and providing vocational guidance. 5. The agricultural extension service should be made more extensive and intensive and should be linked more closely to the ordinary urban and rural schools. 6. To counteract the evils of social isolation, the country schools and especially the farm schools, should be provided with far more reading matter of a suitable kind and a taste for reading should be fostered which would continue to form an educative influence in later life. 2 The Poor White Problem in South Africa. Report of the Carnegie Commission of Investigation on the Poor White Question in South Africa. Stellenbosch, Pro Ecclesia- Drukkery, 1932. 5 vols. 50 BIENNIAL SURVEY OF EDUCATION, 1934-36 7. With the assistance of local and central authorities, nursing organizations should be created in rural areas to perform medical and educational services. 8. The girls who are grouped in various institutions and come from poor families should have special training in the duties and functions of motherhood and homemaking. 9. Education should be compulsory up to an age limit of at least 15 years and a greater variety of subjects should be offered after standard VI. 10. The school hostels for indigent children form part of a sound general policy of centralizing farm schools, but their supervision should be improved and provision should be made for training qualified matrons and paying them adequate salaries. The commission felt that : The present system of divided control of education, by which the ordinary primary and secondary education is placed under the four Provincial Departments of Education, and the vocational and more practical forms under the Union Department of Education, has deleterious effects on education as a whole and especially on that of the poorer youth of the nation. Native education. — For the fewer than 2 millions of Europeans in the Union, the matter of providing education for over 6!/2 millions of natives necessarily looms large. An interdepartmental committee was appointed in July 1935: 1. To examine and report upon the systems of native education of the Provinces 2. To consider and make recommendations concerning: (a) Whether, in view of the extent to which the Union Government has assumed financial responsibility for native education, it should take over the administration from the provinces, and, if so, in what way native education should be administered (b) What should be the relationship between the State and missionary bodies in the matter of native education 3. To consider and make recommendations on the following educational matters : (a) The aims of native education. (&) The aims having been defined, the methods and scope of native education. (c) The part to be played by the vernacular and by the two official languages in native education.3 The aims of native education ! Not a few governments have wor¬ ried over them in the past decade. The committee inquires, What are we really driving at in educating the South African native? Are we to Europeanize him as quickly as possible so that he can take his place in our pattern of Western civilization with as little trouble as possible? 3 Union of South Africa. Report of the Interdepartmental Committee on Native Educa¬ tion 1935-36. Pretoria, the Government Printer, 1936. 157 pp. FOREIGN COUNTRIES 51 Or are we to prepare him for an isolated native civilization or, as some people put it, to “develop him along his own lines?” Stating bluntly that the education of the white child prepares him for life in a dominant society and the education of the black child for a subordinate society, the committee declares that a full liberal phi¬ losophy is not at present applicable to native education and that, since the native is becoming Europeanized, the problem is to devise a type of education which will tide him over the period during which tribal sanctions are weakening, and before he feels the force of the sanctions of European civilizations. The definition of aim at which the com¬ mittee finally arrived is : The effective organization of the native’s experiences so that his tenden¬ cies and powers may develop in a manner satisfactory to himself and to the community in which he lives, by the growth of socially desirable knowledge, attitudes, and skills. To attain this aim, the curriculum recommended includes in the order of importance : Religion, health and sanitation, the tool -subjects, music, interpretation of the environment, and skills such as manual work, industrial training, and agriculture. Languages. — Seven Bantu languages (Zulu, Xhosa, Tsoana, South¬ ern Sotlio, Northern Sotho, Thonga, and Venda) are officially recog¬ nized in the Union of South Africa, and there are the two official languages, English and Afrikaans. What language or languages then shall be the medium of instruction in the native school, and what lan¬ guage or languages shall be subjects of study? Two broad principles are laid down: (1) A native language shall be a compulsory subject of study throughout primary and teacher-training courses; and (2) at least one official language shall be included in the courses. As far as possible the mother tongue is to be the medium of instruction during at least the first 4 years of the child’s schooling. This is difficult to apply since most of the Bantu languages have little literature, text¬ books written in them are practically nonexistent, terminologies in most of the subjects of primary instruction do not exist, and many areas are multi vernacular. To overcome in a measure the first three of these, the committee recommends that prizes be awarded annually for the best works written, preferably by native authors, in a Bantu language ; and committees be set up to formulate tentative terminolo¬ gies as required in the subjects of instruction for the different Bantu languages. In multivernacular areas, schools are to be classified on a language basis or on a basis of allied language groups. One or the other of the official languages is to be a subject of in¬ struction throughout the primary course, and from the fifth year will be the principal medium of instruction. BIENNIAL SURVEY OF EDUCATION, 1934-36 52 Administration . — After weighing all the pros and cons submitted to it, the committee recommended firmly that native education be transferred from the control of the Provincial councils to that of the Union Government to be handled not by the Native Affairs Depart¬ ment, but by the Union Department of Education. The administra¬ tive machinery proposed need not here be reviewed. Statistics. — The enrollments in institutions for Europeans in the three classes of schools, Provincial, Union, and private, in 1934 are given in the following table. Table 10.— ENROLLMENT IN ALL INSTITUTIONS FOR EUROPEANS IN 1934 Kind of institution Boys Girls Total 1 2 3 4 Provincial public schools _ 188, 769 11, 302 172, 347 11, 769 361, 116 23, 131 3, 432 3, 626 14, 203 7,443 Private schools _ _ Union public institutions: Vocational _ Technical colleges: Full-time students _ Part-time students _ _ Universities _ Total. . - _ _ _ _ 412,951 These data do not include 622 men and 1,369 women in Provincial teachers colleges, and Union schools as follows : Continuation classes, 1,741 students; institutions under the Children Protection Act, 8,916; and other, 993. Enrollments in the Provincial schools in 1926 were 330,762, so that the gain in 8 years was 30,354. The European enroll¬ ment in private schools decreased from 21,589 in 1921 to the low point of 19,159 in 1928. Since then it has steadily increased. The average registration in the universities stood at 5,769 in 1926 and has moved up regularly since then. The growth of native education is shown as follows : Table 11.— STATISTICS OF NATIVE EDUCATION, 1926 TO 1935 Year Enroll¬ ment Expendi¬ ture Year Enroll¬ ment Expendi¬ ture 1926 214.245 234, 045 278, 663 £420, 998 474, 893 562, 323 1939 294, 296 320, 301 345, 440 £590, 569 567, 286 678, 566 1928 . — . . 1934. . 1930 . . 1935 . All the expenditures here shown come from Union funds. In addition the Cape Province spends about £25,000 and the Transvaal £6,000 yearly. FOREIGN COUNTRIES 53 EGYPT While Egypt has a land area of 383,000 square miles, about as much as Texas and New Mexico combined, the population of 14 million is so concentrated in 13,600 square miles along the Nile River and delta that the population per square mile in the settled areas averages 1,044. In numbers of people to be trained and extent of territory to be covered, the education project is comparatively small. That up to 1917 it had done little for the bulk of the people is evi¬ denced by the illiteracy data for that year — 118 men and 18 women in each thousand were able to read and write in Arabic. Illiteracy and obligatory instruction. — At that time a commission was appointed to frame a plan for making elementary instruction available to the masses of the Egyptian people. Basing its scheme on the purely indigenous schools, the maJctabs concerned solely with teaching Arabic and the Mahometan culture, the commission ar¬ ranged for a progressive development in these schools until they should be 5,000 in number, for children 7 to 12 years of age, and in the first 2 years offering instruction sufficient to allow the child ad¬ mission to a primary school if he intended to continue into secondary and higher education. These elementary schools were to be open daily to two different groups of students, alternating one-half day each at classroom instruction and practical work, such as agriculture, industry, domestic science, etc. Provision was also made for courses for adults and by 1927 the percent of literacy had been raised from 8 to 13. This work of developing elementary education is being continued much as planned but at a slower rate, and is carrying with it some advances in the kindergarten field. It is hoped to bring the program to completion by 1947. The Egyptian constitution of April 19, 1923, had declared that elementary instruction is obligatory for all Egyp¬ tians of both sexes and will be given gratuitously in public maktabs. On April 19, 1933, the Parliament voted an obligatory, free instruc¬ tion law fixing the duration of studies as 5 years for children from 7 and 12, and the subject matter taught to be the Koran, religion, social education, Arabic language, mathematics, natural history, history, geography, physical culture, and (for girls) domestic science and hygiene. Making the law effective is an obligation of the Ministry of Public Instruction which may establish as many maktabs as it judges neces¬ sary, determine the punishments to be imposed on parents for non- compliance, inspect private maktabs, and require provincial councils to create new maktabs within the areas under their jurisdiction. The program of developing maktabs called, of course, for a con- 54 BIENNIAL SURVEY OF EDUCATION, 1934-36 siderable recruitment of teachers. By 1933-34 the Ministry had es¬ tablished 29 normal schools for men and 18 for women. The students are selected by competitive examination from graduates of the 5-year elementary school course, are given 2 years of preparatory training, and then take the regular normal school curriculum of 3 or 4 years’ duration. Primary schools. — The Egyptian primary school, somewhat more advanced than the elementary, provides mainly for children who will continue their studies. It is 4 years in duration, does not ordinarily admit pupils under 7 years of age> and closes with the certificate of primary studies which is a prerequisite for entering a secondary school. Primary schools are provided by the Ministry of Public Instruction, the provincial councils, and private organizations. The Ministry finances and controls the first class, aids in financing and to some extent controls the second, and inspects many of the third. The primary school program was modified in 1926 and after a trial period the new arrangement was made definite in 1930. In that year the Ministry set up a commission to study primary education in most of its aspects. The result is a series of proposals looking toward an activity primary school, the project method of teaching, classes based on the intelligence ratings of the pupils, fewer and less formal examinations, more teaching in the open air, and the use of the cinema in the schools. It is one of the many proposals made in the past 10 years to aid underprivileged peoples through a type of education in which the major stress is not on literary teaching. Secondary education. — The secondary school is a 2-cycle institution of 3 years which leads to the first part of the certificate of secondary studies, followed by 2 years to attain the second part. Previous to Egypt’s liberation from Turkey in 1914, French influence on Egyptian education was strong. With the establishment of a British pro¬ tectorate in 1914, English influence came into the ascendancy and the English language began to have equal favor with the French among the ruling classes of the Egyptians. Since the termination of the protectorate in 1922, both languages have retained a hold, and western European rather than Oriental influences have shaped secondary and higher education in Egypt. Both these levels of instruction are primarily designed to fit the students for government positions. By 1933-34 there were 27 national secondary schools for boys with an enrollment of 14,470, and 8 for girls with 1,455 students, a total of 15,925. In addition, 181 provincial and private secondary schools were caring for 16,787 boys and 3,376 girls. In May 1933, under the presidency of the Ministry, a commission was created to study and reorganize secondary education with the hope of giving the FOREIGN COUNTRIES 55 students better training, especially in modern foreign languages. The commission was asked to consider: (1) .Recasting the programs as to the distribution of class hours a week and the number of hours to be allotted to each subject; (2) reforming the programs in the sense of lightening them if the instruction seemed to be on too high a level; and (3) providing means for strengthening the pupils in their knowledge of foreign languages. The commission recommended an increase of time for the first foreign language, a decrease for science and history, and certain decreases in morals, civic instruction, and mathematics in the section of letters. Technical education. — In its development of a modern school system, the Egyptian Government is not neglecting technical edu¬ cation. There have been established intermediate schools of agricul¬ ture (three in 1931-32 with 900 students), a school of applied arts, two schools of arts and crafts, five intermediate schools of commerce besides evening courses in commerce, and preparatory instruction in fine arts. Higher education. — The University of Egypt at Cairo is modelled along European lines with faculties of letters, sciences, law, and medicine. It is independent of the Ministry of Public Instruction, though the Minister is ex-officio chancellor. Seven other institutions, Royal Polytechnic School, Higher School of Agriculture, Higher School of Commerce, Higher School of Fine Arts, Veterinary School, the School of Dar-El-Ouloum, and the Institute of Pedagogy, give instruction on higher levels. Most recent of these is the Institute of Pedagogy founded in 1929 to strengthen teacher training in Egypt. It accepts graduates in arts or science from the university and gives them 2 years of special pedagogical training to fit them for teaching in secondary schools. It admits also graduates of secondary schools who wish to be primary teachers and puts them through a 3-year curriculum, the last 2 years of which are largely pedagogics. Summary. — In summary, education in Egypt in the past 10 years has continued its trend toward western European ideals. A Govern¬ ment policy of sending students there and to the United States for training has been consistently pursued. Secularization of instruction is increasing. The Ministry’s control over all forms of private educa¬ tion has been strengthened, but no attempt has been made to close private schools. Indeed, the Government acknowledges the great debt of the Egyptian people to private enterprise in education and states that the public treasury could not finance a comprehensive and adequate educational system. Considerable nationalization of education in the way of creating among the people a pride in their government and country was in evidence but by no means so strongly as in many other countries. Definite progress was made in the intro¬ duction of the principle of compulsory education. The Islamic BIENNIAL SURVEY OF EDUCATION, 1934-36 56 tradition with regard to women is being rapidly laid aside and new schools for girls are being created together with new attitudes toward admitting women to higher institutions and the professions for which they train. COLONIAL AFRICA Exclusive of Egypt, the Union of South Africa, and Liberia, some 10 y2 million square miles in Africa are inhabited by about 115 mil¬ lion people under governments directed by Belgium, the British Commonwealth of Nations, France, Italy, and Portugal. To describe the many education systems of these colonies, especially as they relate to training the native peoples, and tell of their progress in the past 10 years, is much too large an undertaking for this general survey. But no sketch of modern education would be complete without some account of what has been done in recent years in the education of the natives in colonial Africa. The arrangement at the close of the World War for mandatories for backward peoples under the League of Nations brought out the importance of education, for if these peoples were ever to come out of the mandates in which they were placed, they must be trained to manage their own affairs in a world that was and is rapidly adopt¬ ing occidental ways of living. The foreign mission societies of North America and Europe, realizing that their varied and mainly independent efforts needed to be more cooperative and to have a foundation of comprehensive facts about conditions in Africa as a basis for more effective educational work, asked the assistance of the Phelps-Stokes Fund and through its aid a survey of education in Africa was made in 1920 and 1921, and the findings were published in 1922.* 4 This was followed by a second study made in 1923 and 1924 and reported not long thereafter.5 In its introduction to this second report, the Phelps-Stokes Fund expressed a philosophy that had grown out of the experiences of the war, and since its expression has been strengthened by the world economic depression: The trustees of the Phelps-Stokes fund firmly believe that the peace and welfare of the world can never be assured until conditions in every coun¬ try, no matter how small or how remote from the world centers of civiliza¬ tion, are reasonably satisfactory. In other words, just as a chain is as strong as its weakest link, so not even the dominant civilization in Europe and America can be counted upon to endure as long as people anywhere are weak as the result of ignorance or any oilier cause. Just as commerce knows no national boundaries, so epidemics, whether of disease or of Bolshevism, or of warfare between groups, quickly spread from country to country, and 1 Jones, Thomas Jesse. Education in Africa. A study of West, South, and Equatorial Africa by the African Education Commission. New York, Phelps-Stokes Fund, 1922. 5 Jones, Thomas Jesse. Education in East Africa. A study of East, Central, and South Africa by the Second African Education Commission. New York, Phelps-Stokes Fund, 1925. FOREIGN COUNTRIES 57 can only be controlled by modern science and an enlightened public opinion. ... As long as any portion of (America), or of any other continent, suffers because of disease or superstition or prejudice or ignorance, the elements are at hand out of which a conflagration, which might later gain world proportions, may be fanned into a flame. In laying down the objectives that the systems of native schools should be organized to attain, the Commission voiced a feeling that has made wide advances in nearly all countries, whether for indigenous or other schools. In the order of importance those objectives were stated as : (1) The development of character, with a recognition that religion is a necessary means to that end; (2) promotion of health; (3) devel¬ opment of agricultural and industrial skill; (4) improvement of fam¬ ily life through a knowledge of such home activities as the care of children, food, sleeping facilities, sanitation, and all that centers about the life of woman; and (5) creation of sound and healthful recreation. The commission emphasized that reading, writing, and arithmetic must form the basis of the elementary school curriculum, but should be taught, not to the exclusion of other subjects, but as the means of imparting knowledge and of building up practice in health, agricul¬ ture, industry, home life, recreation, and character. Of language instruction it wrote : Languages of instruction rank with the ordinary school subjects. The appeal to the native mind cannot be effectively made without the adequate use of the native language, nor can the essentials of sound character be taught nor interest in agriculture or industry be developed without its use. It is equally important that advanced pupils shall have opportunity to learn some European language as they themselves demand. Africa requires in¬ creasingly whatever knowledge can be adapted from European civilization to meet its peculiar needs. The Intercolonial Congress . — Colonial education was again brought strongly to public attention at the International Colonial Exposition held in Paris in 1931 in connection with which an Intercolonial Con¬ gress of Education in the Colonies and in Overseas Countries was convened. Representatives from Portugal, the Netherlands, the Brit¬ ish Commonwealth of Nations, Belgium, Denmark, the United States, and France participated. The Congress discussed such questions as :6 * 8 In what language should instruction be given? How should the European and espe¬ cially the indigenous teachers be trained? What programs of study should be followed ? Should they have a strong practical bias ? What 6 Exposition Coloniale Internationale de 1931. I/Adaptation de l’Enseignement dans les Colonies. Rapports et Compte-Rendu du Congr&s intercolonial de 1’Enseignement dans les Colonies et les pays d’outre-mer, September 25-27, 1931. Paris, Henri Didier, 1932. 312 pp. 52172°— 38 - 5 58 BIENNIAL SURVEY OF EDUCATION, 1934-36 methods of instruction should be used ? What should be done in the way of arranging and supplying school manuals? How should edu¬ cation be expanded among the feminine element of the population ? The language of instruction was the most contentious issue. The French policy is generally to use French as the vehicular language but in Madagascar and French Indo-China remarkably good instruc¬ tion through the native languages has been developed. The other colonial nations favor giving at least primary instruction through the native tongue. The general view of the congress was that European teachers should have special training before entering on their duties in the area to which they were assigned, and that native teachers should receive sound pedagogical training with much practical knowledge of hy¬ giene, agriculture, and kindred subjects. In the way of programs the majority of opinion favored practical knowledge in such matters as agriculture, but warned against overdeveloping vocational train¬ ing lest the graduates would not be able to find positions and so form a body of discontented unemployed. The direct method of instruction was unanimously reported as being used to advantage. Special manuals and texts for indigenous schools is an important question in all colonial areas. The cost of preparation, establishing a good terminology in scientific subjects, arranging an alphabet, grading the lessons, selecting appropriate subject matter, and like questions, enter into this difficult problem. The French in Mada¬ gascar and Indo-China and the Dutch in the. Netherlands Indies, have made the most advances in this line. Extending education to women is, in the view of the congress, extremely important, especially training in home management, but it is much complicated by the traditions and religions of indigenous peoples. The Advisory Committee. — Early in its post-war activities (1923) the Colonial Office of the Government of the British Commonwealth of Nations established an Advisory Committee on matters of native education in tropical Africa. It was so useful that a decision was made to extend its service to all areas under the direct administration of the Colonial Office. Accordingly, the committee was dissolved and a new and larger committee was constituted, effective from January 1, 1929, to : (a) Advise on any schemes for the improvement of education that may be specifically referred to them by the Secretary of State for the Colonies. (&) Submit recommendations to the Secretary of State on any subjects relating to colonial education that the chairman of the committee considers suitable for their discussion. (c) Keep themselves informed through materials supplied by their secre¬ taries, discussion with expert representatives from the colonies, and other jneans, of the progress and needs of education in the colonies. FOREIGN COUNTRIES 59 Probably no other committee in any government has so large and varied a field of educational theory and practice from which to draw data and experience. It has two secretaries, one of whom deals par¬ ticularly with African affairs. It meets ordinarily once a month and in its relatively short life has handled a large number of matters per¬ taining to education in the colonies. One of its particularly helpful activities is the preparation and publication of Oversea Education , a journal of educational experiment and research in tropical and subtropical areas, a quarterly now in its eighth volume. Out of all these efforts to shape through education the future of the natives of that Africa which is developing and opening so rapidly, efforts that three decades hence will probably seem to have been only fumblings, have come in the last 10 years a keen realization that native life and customs must be better and more sympathetically understood, that the native mentality must be learned, and that any line of action ought to be taken only after cJose consultation with native opinion. Section IV. Australia The publication in 1927 of a volume 1 describing adequately the six separate and independent school systems in Australia, gave to the public a better idea and an increased interest in the part that Australia is playing in the cultural affairs of the world. Here is a Caucasian people numbering about six and three-fourths million occupying a continent and adjoining islands with an area of 2,974,581 square miles, far separated from other Caucasian groups and working out its own adaptations. Administration. — The Commonwealth Government has little voice in education. Each of the six States has its strongly centralized system of public schools which it maintains and directs in its own way. All of the systems are fairly complete in general and technical education, care of subnormals, training of adults, and those other aspects that go to make up well-rounded schemes of education. The Government has pursued a steadfast policy of careful selection of immigrants, and the indigenes are few in number, so linguistic and racial problems scarcely exist. Progress in education in Australia in the past decade has been orderly and along orthodox lines. It has been subjected to no strongly nationalistic movement or drastic revolution. The economic depression was severe and education expenditures were heavily cur¬ tailed, but through careful management damage to the efficiency of the schools was comparatively light. Statistics. — The changes in the State schools from 1925 to 1933, the latest year for which figures are available, are shown in the following table. Table 12.— STATISTICS OF STATE SCHOOLS IN AUSTRALIA, 1925 TO 1933 Year Schools Teachers Enrollment Average attendance Average expenditure1 1 2 3 4 5 6 1925 _ _ _ _. _ _ _ _ 10, 235 28, 241 872, 473 720, 975 8, 246, 102 8, 751, 552 1926 . 10, 203 10, 208 29. 633 883. 925 730, 571 1927 . . . . . 30, 992 901, 326 748, 712 9, 142, 500 9, 614, 951 10, 087, 570 9, 673, 713 8, 563, 786 1928 _ _ _ _ _ 10. 169 31, 838 920, 060 929, 299 764, 496 777, 626 1929 . . . . 10, 263 10, 257 32. 391 1930... 33, 533 33, 762 32. 725 914, 043 801, 729 1931 _ _ _ _ _ _ 10, 097 10, 246 936, 901 817, 262 1932 . . . 934, 075 818. 566 8, 317, 528 8,117. 517 1933 . . . . . . . 10, 343 32, 581 929, 200 805, 334 1 Not including technical colleges, and exclusive of expenditure on buildings. 1 Browne, G. S. Education in Australia. A comparative study of the educational sys¬ tems of the six Australian States. London, The Macmillan Company, Limited, 1927. 461 pp. 60 FOREIGN COUNTRIES 01 During these years the percent of attendance rose from 82.6 in 1925 to 87.7 in 1930 and receded to 86.7 in 1933. Similar statistics, expenditure not given, of private schools are as follows : Table 13.— STATISTICS OF PRIVATE SCHOOLS IN AUSTRALIA IN 1925 TO 1933 Year Schools Teachers Enrollment Average attendance 1 2 3 4 5 1925.. . . . . . . . . . . 1,737 9, 266 228, 564 175, 283 1926.. _ _ _ _ 1,761 9, 512 233, 566 178, 985 1927 _ _ _ _ _ 1, 763 9, 753 235, 074 181,396 1928 _ 1, 779 9, 792 237, 713 184, 464 1929 _ _ _ _ _ _ 1, S06 9, 955 242, 077 189, 018 1930 _ _ _ _ _ _ 1,803 10,090 242, 024 193,691 1931 _ _ _ _ 1 806 9, 995 221,387 189, 665 1932 . . . . . . 1,820 9, 940 220, 723 188, 912 1933 . . 1,842 10, 002 222, 625 189, 984 These are the data of stable school systems which have builded slowly, have no great arrears of provision for education to make up quickly, and are strong enough to maintain a fair level of instruction for all the population. Education by correspondence. — A distinctive feature of Australian education is the care with which provision is made for children living in sparsely settled areas. The aim is to carry the benefits of education into the most remote districts. Half-time schools, itinerant teachers, traveling schools, and railway camp schools have all been provided. But apparently the most successful plan is correspondence instruction. Each State has an arrangement for giving public-school instruction, primary and secondary, to children not only in Australia, but also in the New Hebrides and in New Guinea. The number of children being taught in this way in 1927, 1930, and 1933, were distributed as follows : Table 14.— NUMBER OF CHILDREN RECEIVING INSTRUCTION BY CORRESPONDENCE Area 1927 1930 1933 1 2 3 4 New South Wales _ _ _ _ _ . 3,500 5, 044 6,300 Victoria _ _ . . _ _ _ 501 938 1,000 Queensland _ . . _ . ... ... _ . 3, 737 4, 659 6, 775 South Australia _ .. _ _ _ 596 1,275 1,681 Western Australia _ . _ . .. 1, 450 1,903 2, 135 Tasmania _ _ _ . . . . 270 297 259 Northern Territory _ _ _ _ 23 Total. . — _ _ _ 10, 054 14, 116 16, 173 BIENNIAL SURVEY OF EDUCATION, 1934-36 62 With such a policy consistently and constantly carried forward, it seems probable that Australia will never have a “poor white” problem. School consolidation . — Consolidation of schools with boarding al¬ lowances and free transportation of pupils was begun in New South Wales in 1904 and is now used to some extent in all of the States, except perhaps in Queensland which seems not to be applying it. The expenditure for boarding allowance and conveyance to central schools in 1930 reached £62,869 in New South Wales and £14,058 in Victoria. Those two States, especially New South Wales, have since made considerable reductions in that item. Expenditures for 3 differ¬ ent years are as follows : Table 15.— EXPENDITURE FROM PUBLIC FUNDS ON BOARDING ALLOW¬ ANCE AND CONVEYANCE OF PUPILS TO CENTRAL SCHOOLS State 1927 1930 1933 1 2 3 4 New South Wales _ _ _ . - . . - 49, 843 8, 179 4, 631 11, 221 3,600 62, 869 14, 058 12, 740 12, 566 5, 420 18, 481 11, 073 14, 805 14, 162 4.844 Victoria . . . . . . .. South Australia . . _ .. -- _ _ Western Australia. . _ _ _ _ _ Tasmania _ _ _ _ _ _ _ Total _ 77,474 107,653 63, 365 Summary. — A recent critical account of Australian education 2 summarizes the situation so well that it is here quoted. Commenting on a certain lack of objectives, the author says : The absence of any very precise objectives for the school is better than the deliberate use of the school by the State for the production of a par¬ ticular brand of citizen. One feels that there should always be sufficient vagueness and sufficient toleration of the points of view of minorities to render spontaneous evolution possible. He continues: A hurried reminder of Australia’s achievements in education may also be attempted. Special mention must be made of her efforts to carry efficient elementary school instruction to all children in outlying areas. Her one-teacher rural schools and her correspondence schemes, especially for primary school pupils, are matters of legitimate pride. Having established a system of high schools during the first 20 years of the century, all States have paid some attention to the provision of post¬ primary schools of nonacademic type. Some of these schools have a rural bias, others, again, give instruction in household subjects. In the elementary school there is a definite movement towards a less academic type of cur¬ riculum and greater freedom for the teacher. This is associated with a marked increase in school clubs, particularly young farmers’ clubs, and 2 Cunningham, K. S. A critical account of Australian education. In The Year Book of Education 1936. London, Evans Brothers, Limited, 1936. foreign Countries 63 with increased encouragement of handicrafts and hobbies. The last few years have seen in all states the introduction of educational broadcasting and of vocational guidance schemes, although some areas have naturally proceeded much further than others in these matters. The spontaneous growth of parents’ associations is a sign of increasing interest in the schools by the general public. Most States have provided at least a few special classes or schools for backward children, and two States, New South Wales and Tasmania, have recently set up experimental classes for gifted children. The two States just named have also taken a step which a few years ago was completely unthought of, that of setting aside special officers to conduct inquiries and researches. Special mention must be made of the steps taken in Victoria to substitute internal for external examinations. Finally, it is a healthy sign that some of the independent schools which experiment with such comparative ease are abandoning their customary adherence to traditional patterns, and, in several cases, are introducing extremely significant changes. There is room for much satisfaction in connection with certain aspects of the teaching service. The stability of the service is much higher than in some other countries. Teachers have security of tenure, and teaching is rarely regarded as a stepping stone to some other occupation. An investigation carried out several years ago, showed that the average length of teaching service for fully trained permanent teachers is over 22 years for men, and almost 12 years for women. Men teachers are commonly found in elementary schools. The total proportion of men to women teachers is about 40 to 60. Section V. The Western Hemisphere CANADA Here is another self-governing dominion of the British Common¬ wealth of Nations which in both area and population is larger than Australia. The 10% million people in Canada are more than 50 per¬ cent of British origin and the remainder are Caucasian races. The indigenes number about 129,000; the percentage of orientals is small; and there are few Negroes. The total land area is 3,466,793 square miles, considerably larger than continental United States. Lan¬ guage problems are mainly confined to the use of French and English. Quebec is a French-speaking Province and French groups in some of the neighboring areas desire that their children be educated through the French medium. Administration. — The Dominion Government has little voice in education except for that of the native Indians and Esquimaux and the schools in the Yukon and northwest Territories. Each of the nine Provinces has control of its own school system through a pro¬ vincial ministry of education and each system is distinctive though, with the exception of the French schools in Quebec, there are many similarities among them. The Dominion Government provides less than 2 percent of the funds for education. The Provincial treasuries contribute about 21 percent, and the local school administrative units 64 percent. The remainder comes from fees, endowments, and miscellaneous sources. During the past decade education in Canada also has undergone no extreme changes, has been subjected to no sharp revolutions. Progress has been careful. The depression was severe but Canadian education came through it without vital impairment. In 1921 the percentage of persons 10 years of age and over who could read and write was 94.26 ; in 1931 it was 95.74. No campaigns for the liquida¬ tion of illiteracy were necessary. The average number of years of schooling received by each person between 18 and 24 years of age in 1911 was 6.58; in 1921 it was 7.58; and in 1931, 8.55. Those figures alone are ample evidence that Canada has been making good provision for education for many years. Statistical summary. — The following table summarizes two im¬ portant indications of educational trends in the past 10 years. 64 FOREIGN COUNTRIES 05 Table 16.— ENROLLMENT AND EXPENDITURE IN CANADIAN SCHOOLS, 1926 TO 1935 Year Enroll¬ ment Expenditure Year Enroll¬ ment Expenditure 1926 _ _ 2, 272, 415 2, 291, 720 2, 342, 391 2, 387, 057 2, 490, 623 $122, 701, 259 125, 876, 375 128, 890, 836 138, 223,885 165, 361, 198 1931 2, 542, 747 2, 593, 116 2, 530, 056 2, 527, 558 2, 484, 877 178, 701, 507 163, 944, 758 146, 921, 861 138, 833, 825 136, 040, 659 1927 _ 1932 1928 _ 1933. . . 1929 _ _ _ 1934 . 1930 . . 1935 . Enrollment. — The first enrollment increase shown is relatively small, eight-tenths of 1 percent, lower than the rate of population increase, and considerably lower than the average percent of increase in enrollment between the years 1921 to 1927. The slowing down is attributed to a movement away from school of the older pupils due to better employment conditions. The increase of more than 50,000 in the following year was mainly in colleges, technical and night schools, short courses in universities and colleges, and regular courses in universities. In 1929 the tendency toward disproportionate in¬ crease in students in universities, colleges, and secondary schools con¬ tinued ; the ordinary schools maintained by public funds barely held their regular increase. Manual and vocational training had more than a normal increase. Part of the large advance made in 1930 over the enrollment in 1929 was due to raising the school-leaving age and stricter enforcement of compulsory education laws, but much of it was in the upper grades and rose from the difficulty adolescents had in finding employment so they remained in school or even returned after having been out a year or more. The increases of some 50,000 each year in 1931 and 1932 showed continued rapid ascent in numbers in the secondary grades, while in 1932 elementary school enrollment actually declined in several provinces. The census of 1931 reported fewer children under 5 years of age than there were between 5 and 10, a portent that increased enrollments in Canadian schools would soon cease. Decreases were considerable in 1933, 1934, and 1935. In those years the number of university students did not change much ; the effect of the smaller child population was being made manifest in the lower grades and many secondary pupils were moving out to employment. School expenditures reached the peak of $178,701,000 in 1931, then declined rapidly to 1934 and slightly in 1935. Capital outlays and teachers’ salaries were cut more than other items. School finance. — Naturally questions of school finance were empha¬ sized. The Education Branch of the Dominion Bureau of Statistics in 1933 made three studies: Expenditures for schools as a factor in the cost of raising the Canadian child; expenditures for schools in 0g BIENNIAL SURVEY OF EDUCATION, 1934-36 relation to national income and other items of national expenditure; and a comparison of several factors of school support in 1931 and 1913. In the first the conclusion was reached that in the cost of rais¬ ing a Canadian child to the age of self-support about one-seventh was spent for education. In the second it was found that out of the total national expenditure of Canadian consumers about 3.5 percent went for education. By the third, the cost of a day’s schooling in 1931 was relatively cheaper than in 1913 and certainly much improved in quality and the average school-leaver in 1931 had received 8 years of schooling as against 6 years in 1913. These data did much to offset the feeling that the schools were too expensive. That school costs in Canada are borne mainly by local sohool admin¬ istrative units has already been noted. (See page 64.) The very unequal reductions, during the depression, in school support led to consideration of better methods of financing. Of the 23,000 independ¬ ent local administrative units in the Dominion, 21,000 have an aver¬ age population of fewer than 250 persons. They account for some 5 million or about half the total population of Canada, and in them the divergence of ability and willingness to maintain good schools is very great. All the Provinces have had ways of giving more assistance to rural communities than would be granted on an ordinary per capita or per pupil basis, but equalization of costs has not become more gen¬ eral because local communities fear that a higher proportion of Pro¬ vincial support would mean more Provincial control and Provincial authorities, faced with budget deficits, are unwilling to assume fur¬ ther obligations. Larger units, such as the township, the county, the rural municipality, have been tried to some extent and have helped the situation in a small degree only. School taxes are laid primarily on real property and a growing sentiment favors finding other bases of taxation. The movement so common in Europe to provide help for mentally gifted children who are financially unable to continue their studies has made little headway in Canada. On the secondary level there is little or nothing of that nature. University admission scholarships to the number of 540 were available in 1934. These had an average value of $200 each, enough to provide for one in every hundred matriculation students. On the undergraduate level, some further awards may be had, and a few fellowships, scholarships, and bursar¬ ies are open for graduate study. Technical education. — The Dominion Government in 1919 voted $10,000,000 to aid in the improvement of technical education pro¬ vided that each Province should spend an additional amount equal to its share. By 1929, when the original grant was to expire, only the Province of Ontario had earned its full quota and 5 years more were allowed in which the other Provinces might qualify. Again in FOREIGN COUNTRIES 67 1931 an annual sum of $750,000 for 15 years was voted. Beginning with 1920, Dominion aid rose from $136,500 to $1,152,165 in 1929, when all the Provinces were participating. There were then 121,252 pupils in schools receiving Dominion aid: 45,617 in day courses, 73,877 in evening classes, and 1,447 taking correspondence courses. As the Provinces exhausted their portion of the funds, the aid de¬ creased until in 1935 three — Nova Scotia, Manitoba, and Saskatche¬ wan — were still drawing grant and the total had declined to $90,720. V ocational guidance . — The official report for 1935 1 reviews the social position of the young people in relation to the world into which they pass after leaving school. Pointing out that the youth of today have probably less than half the economic independence in their teens that the pre-war generation had, that in 1931 there was an average difference of 1% years between the age of leaving school and the age of self-support, and that independence is not reached by young people until they are well in the nineteenth year with the probability that in a few years this will extend to the twenties, the report asks for a closer articulation of school and industry, and re¬ views the comparatively few attempts made in Canada in the realm of vocational guidance. No actual Provincial scheme had been de¬ veloped by 1935. In Ontario a vocational guidance association had been formed and in Alberta the Teachers’ Association and the School of Education in the University were making studies of vocational opportunities and methods of guidance. Departmental examinations. — The growth of secondary education in Canada did not carry with it the practice of establishing accredit¬ ing agencies for secondary schools or the system of time measurement with a certain number of credits or units required for and permitting graduation as is the case in the United States. Admission to high school, promotion from year to year, and graduation were based on passing examinations set and marked by the Provincial departments of education. To some extent the Provincial certificates issued as results of these examinations were accepted by the universities for matriculation. Up to 1927 or 1928, or even later, the departments generally con¬ ducted the examinations for admission to high school and for each subject each year throughout the subsequent 4 years. Since then the trend has been strongly toward fewer examinations. In the admis¬ sion and lower high-school grades they are rapidly disappearing and departments are more and more accepting the findings of the indi¬ vidual schools as to the progress and capability of the students. More¬ over, Provincial departments and university matriculation boards are cooperating better in the matter of accepting certificates, and it is 1 Dominion Bureau of Statistics. Annual Survey of Education in Canada 1935. Ottawa, J. O. Patenaude, 1937. BIENNIAL SURVEY OF EDUCATION, 1934-36 68 becoming easier for students to move from Province to Province or university to university and carry their credits with them. Reorganization of instruction. — The English report on the educa¬ tion of the adolescent in 1926 stressed the age of 11 plus as the natural time to change the character of the child’s training. The junior high school movement which began about 1910 in the United States was in recognition of this principle. Both the junior high schools and the English report were well known in Canada and instruction there is being changed gradually from the 8-4 plan to something more in line with English thought. Manitoba, British Columbia, Ontario, and Nova Scotia have taken steps in that direction. University admission. — Though the English-speaking school sys¬ tems were generally 8 elementary grades plus 4 secondary, the last or grade XII of the secondary school was usually considered as being parallel and equal to the first year of the university arts curriculum. This was especially true in the collegiate institutes. Strong comple¬ tion of grade XI admitted to a university. The trend is now toward requiring grade XII graduation for university matriculation. LATIN AMERICA The 20 Latin American republics named in the order of population size are as indicated below. Table 17 —POPULATION AND AREA OF THE LATIN AMERICAN REPUBLICS Country Population Area in square miles Persons per square mile > 2 3 4 Brazil „ _ __ . . _ _ - _ _ 45, 332, 660 16, 552, 722 3, 275, 510 763, 944 9.3 Mexico . . . . . . . - _ _ _ _ 21.6 Argentina _ _ _ _ _ _ 12, 227, 761 1,079, 965 447, 536 11.3 Colombia _ _ _ _ . 8, 368, 540 18. 7 Peru . . _ _ ... _ --- _ 6, 147, 000 482, 133 12. 7 Chile _ _ _ _ 4, 287, 445 4,011,088 3, 261, 734 285, 133 44, 164 352, 051 15 Cuba _ - - .. -- - - _ - _ 90. 8 Venezuela.. _ _ _ _ _ .. -- 9.2 Bolivia . . . ... _ _ _ . 3, 077, 533 514, 465 5.9 Ecuador _ _ _ _ _ _ 2, 646, 641 275, 936 10, 204 45, 452 72, 153 13, 176 19, 332 44, 275 161, 647 9. 6 Haiti _ _ _ _ - . . 2, 550, 000 250 Guatemala. _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ . 2, 2 15, 593 47 Uruguay . . . . . . . . . . 2, 020, 040 27.9 El Salvador . _ _ _ _ ... 1, 522, 186 1, 478, 121 962, 685 901, 768 115 Dominican Republic _ _ _ _ 76 Honduras . _ .... . .. .. _ 20.9 Paraguay _ _ _ _ - - _ _ _ .. 5.5 Nicaragua _ _ _ _ . . . . . . . . 750, 000 51, 660 23,000 14.6 Costa Rica _ _ _ _ _ 471, 525 20 Panama . _ 467, 459 32, 380 14.4 Total _ 119, 282, 501 7,994,116 In total population and area, all of Latin America is considerably smaller than the Union of Soviet Republics which has more than 106 million people and nearly 8% million square miles. Excepting FOREIGN COUNTRIES 69 Brazil, none of these countries has a really large education project but all of them have the responsibilities connected with the training of their citizenry, present and future, usually assumed by national entities. From the many phases of the progress that has been made in Latin America in the past decade, five are selected for discussion. They are: Nationalization of education; reduction of illiteracy and the incorporation of indigenous peoples; the “activity school”, and edu¬ cational research; provision for technical and vocational education; and a more favorable attitude toward the education of women. Following these are brief accounts for Argentina, Brazil, and Mexico. Nationalization of education. — Some inclination toward further nationalization of education has been shown but, except in Mexico, it has not been toward the extreme type of nationalization found in Italy, Germany, and the Soviet Union. The delegate from Colombia to the Fourth International Congress of Public Instruction, Geneva, 1935, in explanation of the purposes of the education program of his country, said,2 To begin with — and this was some years ago — we changed the current terminology. We no longer speak of public instruction but of national education. This is not simply a change of words We wished to indicate that the state ought to educate, that is to say, form the will and heart of the youth rather than instruct by loading them down with knowledge more or less useful. Beginning with January 1, 1928, the ministry of instruction and public health became the ministry of national education, and the Min¬ ister of National Education in his message to the Congress of 1934, wrote : 3 It is necessary to have from the Congress through a constitutional reform, or from the Executive by means of provisions that the President of the Republic may dictate for the regulation of instruction, a function the fundamental charter gives him, it is necessary, I s'ay, to establish absolute nationalization of primary education. In the form in which it is established today, when this mission is performed separately by the Nation, the depart¬ ments and the municipalities, it is impossible to devise a plan and a general course for solution of the problem because the disintegrated activities and efforts do not bring results equal to those of united action. We should adopt a division of the country into educational zones or territories with their respective inspectors, men of the highest capacity. The limits of these zones ought not to fall within the present territorial divisions, which necessarily have an administrative character and consequently political, things that weaken the work of education. 2 Bureau International d’Education. Annuaire international de l’education et de l’en- seignement, 1936. Gen&ve, Bureau International d’Education, 1936. P. 151. 3 Republica de Colombia. Memoria del Ministerio de Educacion Nacional al Congreso de 1934. Tomo I. Bogota, Imprenta Nacional, 1934. P. XIX. 70 BIENNIAL SURVEY OF EDUCATION, 1934-36 The Chilean Educational Mission that made a survey of the edu¬ cation system of Costa Rica in 1935 recommended further national direction and support of education, especially preschool, primary, and teacher-training, and advised the creation of a general direction of primary education within the Secretariat of Public Education. But it urged strongly against political influence in the schools and advised that the central office for education be largely autonomous. It wrote in part : 4 Excessive officialism in public education has been at times prejudicial to its development. Experience teaches us that it should have relative inde¬ pendence to the end that it may develop free from political and partisan pressure. “Without what we call ‘knights-errant’,” says Wells, “scientific progress would not have begun in Greece nor been renewed in Europe. The universities had some part but not the directive voice in the philosophic and scientific thinking of those times. Maintained pubic education is timid and conservative, lacking in initiative, and resistant to all innovation.” While this seems an exaggeration, there is some reason in it. One need only note the new education movement to see that the primary schools of this type were private schools, and that the movement for educational reno¬ vation was sustained by the primary teaching staffs in many countries in an open struggle against imperious officialism. To assure the efficiency of the educational function of the State, it is neces¬ sary that the service of primary education be directed by a central office sup¬ plied with the necessary instruments for maintaining unity and stability and the indispensable technical knowledge, and having power to exclude from its work the influence of politics. Autonomy, decentralization, and technical knowledge we consider the basic principles for organization of the directive offices. The movements toward greater National control of education in Brazil and Mexico are noted on pages 80-83, 85-87. Reduction of illiteracy. — Bolivia, Ecuador, Guatemala, Mexico, El Salvador, and Peru have populations that are mainly indigenous and ancient native civilizations that seem to be coming into a renaissance. Most of the other countries have a fair percent of native peoples. For a long, long time not much was done to include these indigenous folk in the body politic of their respective countries. The attitude in that respect has changed much in recent years. Spe¬ cial attention is being given to the education of indigenous groups, a process that involves making better provision for schools in rural areas. By a decree issued in 1927, the Indians in Peru were freed from a peonage system that had existed in some parts of the country. In 1930, the Government set aside June 24 of each year as a national holiday known as the “Day of the Indigene” to be celebrated appro¬ priately. The authorities have for some years been making special efforts to provide the Indians with a satisfactory kind of education 4 Misi<5n Educacional Chilena en Costa Rica 1935. Informes y Trabajos. Vol. I. San Jos6, Juan Arias, impresor. 1935. P. 96. FOREIGN COUNTRIES 71 and enough of it, and to that end have established independent rural normal schools and rural normal sections in some of the public sec¬ ondary schools with a view to training rural school teachers. Ambu¬ lant schools were tried but were not successful. The provisional President of Ecuador on April 3, 1935, signed a decree creating a National Pedagogical Mission to consist of a tech¬ nical director, school engineer, school physician, school agronomist, visitor, chief of personnel, secretary, and such other staff members as the President may deem necessary. Among other duties, this Mis¬ sion was to organize an experimental school in each Province to serve as a model for other schools, and to set up one or more experimental schools specializing in indigenous culture. No reports are available as to the progress that has been made in carrying out this plan. School gardens, somewhat similar to those in the United States prior to American entrance to the World War, have been developed in the Dominican Republic and have met with much success. Chile reports that in 1933, 8 school farms and 186 new rural schools were created to give, along with general education, an instruction suited to the needs of the people in the different areas. These are examples of the attempts that are being made generally throughout Latin America to do more for the rural areas, to narrow the wide chasm between the cultured ruling few and the groups that have been underprivileged for so many generations, to look less to Europe and North America and more to building their own dis¬ tinctive cultures and incorporate in them the best of the remains of the ancient Indian cultures. Naturally such movements will bring a reduction in illiteracy, and more general literacy will in its turn further these movements. The Chilean Government claims that between 1920 and 1933, the percent of illiteracy was reduced from 38.6 to 25.2. The National Conference on Illiteracy, held in Argentina, in 1934 is described later. (See page 76.) Many school buildings have been erected in the rural sections of the Dominican Republic in the hope that through better attendance of the children, and adult classes, illiteracy may be much reduced. The “cultural missions” of Mexico, one of the most original contributions made to education in the past quarter of a century have aided materially in the advances toward literacy in that country. In Brazil the burden of having a high percent of the population illiterate is being more and more appreciated and both public and private organizations are striving to lighten it. The “ activity school.” — The “escuela activa,” at least in principle, if one is to judge by the writings of the professional educators, has taken a strong hold in the South and Central American countries. All those movements connected with the somewhat vague term “pro¬ gressive education” are much discussed. Dewey, Decroly, Claparede- 72 BIENNIAL SURVEY OF EDUCATION, 1934-36 and others of the new education group are widely quoted. This seems natural. Literary education, education from books has made comparatively little progress in the many decades that it has been tried. The genius of the native peoples did not lie in that direction. Their modes of expression and manners of living had developed in them manual and practical skills of an extremely high order and it is to the training and use of these that Latin American educators in the past decade or more have turned. The principles of the escuela activa fitted in well with their plans and were adopted. Along with that came the spirit of educational research, the desire to find by experiment and study the types of education best suited to the children and most apt to further the growth of these countries. In Chile a bureau of psycho-pedagogic research was set up in 1933. A year later the Peruvian Government created a bureau to make re¬ searches in the special aptitudes of Peruvian children in order to determine the kind of instruction most useful for them. A psycho- pedagogic laboratory was opened in Uruguay in 1933 and some ex¬ perimental schools were arranged in which to try the Decroly methods. The Institute of Psychotechnics and Vocational Guidance connected with the Ministry of Justice and Public Instruction in Argentina carried on important work around the years 1927 to 1930 but was closed during the depression for reasons of economy. A National Institute of Pedagogy was created in Brazil in January 1937 when the Ministry of Education and Public Health was reorganized. The Institute of Educational Research at Rio de Janeiro, a part of the Department of Education of the Federal District of Brazil, was recently reopened. The National Institute of Psychopedagogy., set up as part of the Secretariat of Public Education of Mexico, will deal with — . . . exact knowledge of the characteristics of the Mexican child, his classification, the special education that the mentally defective require, the physical recuperation of undernourished pupils, education of physical defectives, vocational guidance, mental integrality of the pupils ; and the organization, methods, programs, hours, etc., in the schools.® The Institute will have seven services : Psychophysiology, child study, psychometrics, child study and organization, vocational guidance, special education, and a mental hygiene and conduct clinic. Technical and vocational education. — The interest in rural edu¬ cation, the obviousness that the literary school was not in itself suited to many of the people, the necessity for raising the earning capacity of as many of the students as soon as possible, all stimulated the movement toward better provision for technical and vocational train- B Secretaria de Educacion Publica. Instituto Nacional de Psicopedagogia. Mexico, D. F., Telleres Graficoa de la Nacion, 1936. 92 pp. FOREIGN COUNTRIES 73 ing. In 1925 the School of Arts and Crafts and College of Engineers, named for Jose Miguel Carrera (Escuela de Artes y Oficios y Colegio de Ingenieros “Jose Miguel Carrera”) at Valparaiso, Chile, was founded by the Frederico Santa Maria Foundation. It is to consist of a school for apprentices and evening courses ; a higher preparatory school, and preparatory and voluntary courses; an elementary and a higher technical school; a vocational school for overseers, and a higher college for engineers. These were to be devolped in the order named from 1932 to 1937, when the first year of the 3-year cur¬ riculum of the Higher College for Engineers will be completed. Years II and III will be added in 1938. This school has developed as planned and its example has had considerable effect on technical education not only in Chile but in neighboring countries. The Salesian School of Arts and Crafts was created in the Domin¬ ican Republic in J anuarv of 1935 to supplement the vocational schools then existing. It gives instruction in carpentry, shoe making, and tailoring. The Government contributed the land and 30,000 pesos toward construction of the building, and allows a monthly subvention. The Rational School of Arts and Crafts of Haiti was founded in October 1936. It offers courses in woodworking, cabinetmaking, and shoemaking. The State of Sao Paulo, Brazil, is one of the better developed areas in Latin America with respect to vocational education. Its first two public schools of this kind were founded in 1911. Then followed 1 in 1913 ; 1 in 1919 ; 1 in 1924 ; 1 in 1925 ; 2 in 1927 ; 1 in 1929 ; 1 in 1931; 2 in 1933; 10 in 1934; and 3 in 1935. Note that of the 25 for which dates of founding are given, 19 began operations during and since 1927. On June 30, 1935, there were 28 such schools with a teaching staff of 674 and an enrollment of 9,045. The State director general of instruction had charge of vocational education to 1925; then a special inspection of manual work was created. A technical assistance for vocational education was estab¬ lished in 1930 ; 3 years later because of the growth in interest in this type of training, a direction of the service of general and secondary education was created. Finally in 1934 a superintendence of voca¬ tional and domestic education was established by decree. This very sketchy outline of progress made in one State, while not exactly typical, is still strongly indicative of the growth of vocational training and increasing interest in it throughout Latin America. The Minister of National Education of Colombia writes:6 In an agricultural country such as ours, the immense majority of the children go from the school to the fields, from the alphabet to the plough, • Bulletin International de l’Enseignement Technique, Juillet 1937, p. 25. 52172°— 38 - 6 74 BIENNIAL SURVEY OF EDUCATION, 1934^-36 from the slate to the pickaxe. He has succeeded after four years in read¬ ing large letters, in writing some phrases, in reciting in a nasal and hurried voice some history that he will never repeat, and in counting with the aid of his fingers some numbers not above three digits. ******* With such instruction, it is inhuman to send the child to the country, to his economic activity, to his solitary struggle with life. It is indispensable to complete the rudiments of instruction by placing him in a school where he is taught practical things, where there are solved for him a short list of problems which present difficulties in the calm and productive exercise of his rural or artisan vocation. A school where he learns how to make a table, a tabouret and a bed, things that he has never seen in his cabin ; where he is rendered capable of building the storage places needed for the products of his land, the shoes to protect his feet, the clothing to cover him and give him social dignity; where he is given ideas of the forge and ways of repairing his old or broken iron wares ; where, finally, he is taught some principles, very general and very simple, of agrarian and industrial economy. That word picture of what is necessary in large rural areas of Latin America is very expressive. Colombia is trying to meet the situation in part through what it calls complementary schools. It now has 242 of them. Education of women. — “Certainly there were always, in the course of the centuries, some remarkable women who distinguished them¬ selves by aspiring to an intellectual culture higher than that of their epoch but up to the second half of the nineteenth century public and systematic higher education for women was neglected by all the countries of Europe,” writes Amelie Arato.7 If that is true of Eu¬ rope, it is equally true of Latin America, not only in university edu¬ cation but in secondary instruction as well, and perhaps even on primary levels. In the statistics of education for Argentina (see page 78) it is shown that in 1926 out of 15,111 students in national colegios, only 2,305, or 15.2 percent, were girls. And Argentina was probably more advanced than its neighbor countries in this respect. The situation improved considerably in the decade. In 1936, of 23,645 students, 4,865, or 20.5 percent, were girls. In the same period, the proportion of women in the student body of the universities rose from 8.4 to 10.6 percent. (See page 79.) Seemingly, the attitude toward increasing educational opportunities for women is becoming more favorable in Argentina. But that coeducation and equal educational opportunities for women will come slowly in Central and South America is fairly well shown by the attitude in Mexico where in spite of the socialist regime, the head of the department of secondary education in the Secretariat of Public Education recommended in 1936 in his Bases of the So- 7 Arato, Amalie. L’enseignement secondaire des jeunes filles en Europe. Bruxelles, Office de Publicity 1934. 312 p. FOREIGN COUNTRIES 75 cialist Secondary School that coeducation should not be abruptly in¬ troduced in the secondary schools, unless to students who have had some previous experience in it. Since the number of schools for girls is markedly less than that for boys, if coeducation advances slowly, education opportunities for girls will move tardily. Argentina. — Argentina is second in area (1,079,965 square miles) and third in population (12,230,000) of the Latin American republics. The people are almost wholly of European descent ; caring for indige¬ nous groups plays a minor part in the education scheme. Each of the 14 Provinces has, in accordance with the national con¬ stitution, built up its own system of primary schools, but since 1904 the Federal Government has aided the Provinces by establishing national primary schools in any Province whose government re¬ quested it. The National Council of Education (Consejo Nacional de Educacion), a department of the National Ministry of Justice and Public Instruction, has strong control of the primary schools in the city of Buenos Aires, and in the 10 territories,8 and of the national primary schools in the Provinces. The Ministry of Justice and Education through its other depart¬ ments controls virtually all secondary, normal, industrial, commercial, and fine arts training, and the primary schools which are attached to the normal schools. Private schools are allowed and are granted considerable freedom though they are subject to inspection and if the pupils wish to obtain the official diplomas, the instruction must necessarily conform rather closely to the official courses of study. Progress in education during the decade was orthodox and orderly. The schools were influenced by no drastic political or social revolu¬ tion. A representative of the National Government reported for the year 1933 9 the following special activities: (1) A meeting of teachers of Spanish and of Argentine history and geography was held to study the programs and methods of teaching those subjects with a view to having them better correlated and to stress training the children in National pride and in appreciation of their country; (2) a commission appointed by the Inspector General gave much study to the character, extent, and aims of secondary education; (3) new normal schools of regional adaptation were created to prepare teach¬ ers to give a kind of instruction suited to the region in which they were located, and some of the higher primary schools were changed to schools of rural orientation ; (4) to meet the demands of Argentine women that training for professions other than teaching be opened 8 These territories that have not attained the status of Provinces are : La Pampa, Mi- siones, Chaco, Rio Negro, Chubut, Neuqu6n, Formosa, Santa Cruz, Los Andes, and Tierra del Fuego. They have a combined area of 466,885 square miles and a population of 640,400. 9 Bureau International d’^ducation. Annuaire international de l’education et de l’en- seignement 1935. Genbve, Bureau International d’fiducation, 1935. 446 p. 70 BIENNIAL SURVEY OF EDUCATION, 1934-36 to them, secondary schools for girls were created at Buenos Aires, Cordoba, and Rosario; (5) the Higher Normal School at Parana was reformed and on it as a basis a National Institute for Secondary Teachers was founded with the “Jose Maria Torres” Normal School annexed to it; and (6) special attempts were made to reduce illiteracy. Conference on illiteracy. — In connection with this last item, a Na¬ tional Conference on Illiteracy composed of representatives from all the Provinces and Territories and the National Council of Education, was held at Buenos Aires, beginning October 29, 1934, to consider seven different aspects of illiteracy and means for its eradication : 1. Factors which determine the percent of illiteracy in Argentina ; plan for combatting illiteracy; action by the State, and the stimulation of private action. 2. Obligatory schooling; methods for enforcing the laws, as well as school attendance, up to a minimum of instruction. 3. Uniformity in the obligatory school age and correlation of plans of study for primary instruction. 4. Desertion from school ; its economic, regional, and pedagogical causes. 5. Illiteracy among adults ; its economic, regional, and accidental causes ; methods of combatting it. 6. Economic and financial questions related to illiteracy ; coordination of the work of the Nation and of the Provinces. 7. Necessity of organizing a system of statistical data that will show peri¬ odically the amount of illiteracy. Seven committees, one for each aspect, presented their respective recommendations to the conference. They were many and cannot be reproduced here. They may be found in the printed proceedings of the conference.10 It is of special importance that the members planned a long-term program for the eradication of illiteracy, includ¬ ing national conferences to be held every 5 years and a permanent commission for the study of illiteracy. The commission was consti¬ tuted in 1935. Survey of secondary education. — The commission appointed to in¬ quire into secondary education considered, at the request of the Min¬ istry of Public Instruction: An increase in the number of years devoted to secondary studies ; close cooperation between the different directions of secondary instruction, for the purpose of cultural unifi¬ cation; founding secondary studies on a general structure based on two cycles, the one to be lower, common and cultural, the other to be higher with cultural intensification for the baccalaureate, and with 10 Repfiblica Argentina Ministerio de Justicia e Instruccidn Ptiblica. Primera Conferen¬ ce Nacional sobre Analfabetismo reunida en Buenos Aires en octubre y noviembre de 1934 — Antecedentes, actas, y conclusiones. Buenos Aires, Talleres Graficos de la Peni- tenciaria Nacional, 1935. 436 p. FOREIGN COUNTRIES 77 vocational-technical specialization in teacher-training, commerce, and industry; and the necessity for promoting studies relating to the Nation and of orienting the education of the youth who are trained in institutions of secondary instruction, toward an increased spirit of nationalism. The report was published in 1934.11 It is properly included among the important surveys of the decade. The commission submitted plans of study for the lower cycle, the National colegios, and the normal, commercial, and industrial schools. The different subjects and their place and value in the curriculum are discussed at some length. The program proposed for the lower, common, cultural cycle of 4 years (based on 7 years of primary schooling) is of special interest. Table 18— PROPOSED PLAN FOR THE LOWER CYCLE OF SECONDARY EDUCATION Number of hours a week by year Subjects of study I II III IV 1 2 3 4 5 A. Linguistic-literary culture: Spanish (language, grammar, literature). _ 5 5 4 3 French or English . _ 4 4 3 3 B. Historical-social sciences: History: (1) Ancient; (2) medieval and modern with corresponding American; (3) contemporary and American; (4) Argentinian from 1810... _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ 3 3 3 3 Civics and elements of law... _ _ _ _ _ 3 Geography: (1) Elements of astronomical and physical geography, Asia with its islands, and Africa; (2) Europe and Oceania; (3) America, not including Argentina except for physical features; (4) Argentina, especially the human and economic aspects _ 3 2 2 2 C. Mathematical sciences: Mathematics: (1) Arithmetic and plane geometry; (2) arithmetic and plane geometry; (3) arithmetic, algebra, and solid geometry; (4) arithmetic, algebra, and plane trigonometry _ 6 6 5 4 D. Physico-natural sciences: Biological sciences: (2) Botany; (3) zoology, anatomy, and general physiology; (4) human anatomy, physiology, and hygiene . 3 3 3 Chemistry . . ... . . . . . . . 2 2 Physics _ _. _ _ _ 3 3 E. Esthetic culture, expression, etc.: Music... _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ 2 2 1 Drawing _ _ _ _ 2 2 2 Penmanship _ _ _ 2 F. Practical training: (Varied according to the region or the school) _ 3 3 2 4 G. Physical culture. Total— . . . . . . 24 32 31 33 How far the various recommendations made by the commission have been incorporated in the actual school system is not yet determined. 11 Ministerio de Justicia e Instruccidn Publica. Proyecto de reformas a los planes de estudio de la ensenanza media. Buenos Aires, Talleres Graficos de la Penitenciaria Na- cional, 1934. 349 pp. BIENNIAL SURVEY OF EDUCATION, 1934-36 78 Statistics . — For the International Exposition of Paris, the Min¬ istry of Justice and Public Instruction prepared and published a statistical survey of education in Argentina 12 showing its progress in the decade from 1926 to 1936. The data are well organized and are graphically illustrated. The progress of education, both public and private, insofar as statistics can express it, is shown somewhat better than for most other countries. Four summaries excerpted from the survey are presented. The first of these is given in the table following. That section of the table headed “Primary” relates to schools maintained and controlled by the Provincial education authorities or the National Council of Education at Buenos Aires. All the other institutions beginning with “Secondary” are controlled by the Ministry of Jus¬ tice and Public Instruction. Table 19.— STATISTICS OF PUBLIC EDUCATION IN ARGENTINA, 1926 AND 1936 Schools Teachers Students Kind of institution 1926 1936 1926 1936 1928 1936 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Primary: Federal Capital..- _ _ 875 897 11, 156 14,017 287, 556 341, 104 Provinces _ . . . . 8,801 10, 064 31, 208 42, 959 931, 685 1, 253, 341 Territories _ ... _ _ 869 1,317 2, 703 4, 912 75, 885 130, 169 Total _ _ 10, 545 12, 278 45, 067 61,888 1, 295, 126 1, 724, 614 Secondary: N ational colegios _ 44 62 1,972 3, 045 15, 111 23, 645 Normal Schools. . . . 84 89 Normal course _ _ _ _ 2, 115 2, 438 13, 997 19, 856 Application course _ 1, 246 1, 263 29, 867 34, 553 Attached kindergartens _ i 14 » 16 52 59 1, 362 1,282 Special Institutes . . . _ 8 11 254 341 3,497 4, 602 Industrial and Arts and Crafts Schools. _ 44 56 472 799 3, 553 7, 058 Commercial Schools . . . . 12 19 403 1, 043 3, 151 6,874 Vocational Schools for Girls . . . 20 21 315 446 5, 336 7, 480 Total _ _ _ 212 258 6, 829 9, 434 2 75, 874 a 105, 350 1 These kindergartens are counted as part of, not separate from, the normal schools to which they are attached. For that reason they are not included in the totals of number of schools. 2 Of which 42,776 are women. 3 Of which 56,579 are women. The preponderance of women students is due to the fact that women students are overwhelmingly in the majority in the normal schools. The national colegios are attended mainly by men; the women numbered 2,305 or 15.2 percent in 1926 and 4,865 or 20.5 percent in 1936. The amount that private effort, mainly sectarian, contributes toward training young people in Argentina, is indicated by the data in the next table. 12 Ministerio de Justicia e Instruccion Publica de la Republica Argentina en la Exposi- cion Internacional de Paris del Ano 1937. Buenos Aires, Telleres Graficos de la Peniten- ciaria Nacional, 1937. 41 pp. FOREIGN COUNTRIES 79 Table 20.— STATISTICS OF PRIVATE EDUCATION IN ARGENTINA, 1926 AND 1936 Kind of instruction Schools Teachers Students 1926 1936 1926 1936 1926 1936 Men Women Men Women > 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 Secondary... - 64 178 741 2,176 4,839 139 10, 733 2,474 Normal _ ... 37 35 609 667 152 3,493 313 6,517 Commercial _ 5 74 68 616 266 1, 032 1, 312 Vocational _ 1 20 15 125 49 765 Industrial _ 8 102 889 Fine Arts _ 1 1 6 3 9 21 4 5 Total _ 108 316 1,439 3.689 5, 266 3, 702 12,971 11, 073 There are 5 universities to which are annexed 21 institutions. These universities draw their support mainly from public funds and are in a considerable degree autonomous, with sentiment favoring even greater freedom in their action. Table 21.— STATISTICS OF HIGHER EDUCATION IN ARGENTINA, 1926 AND 1936 University Professors Students 1926 1936 Men Women Total 1926 1936 1926 1936 1926 1936 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 Buenos Aires _ 552 790 8, 629 9, 781 597 1,283 9, 226 11, 064 La Plata _ 223 316 1,385 5,488 245 539 1,630 6, 027 Litoral- _ 262 143 2, 148 4, 598 340 491 2, 488 5,089 Cordoba . . 159 216 2,290 2,801 138 379 2, 428 3, 180 Tucuman _ 17 25 51 331 20 52 71 383 Total. _ 1,213 1,490 14, 503 22, 999 1, 340 2,744 15, 843 25, 743 The University of Buenos Aires has 2 institutions annexed to it; La Plata has 7 ; Litoral, 5 ; Cordoba, 2 ; and Tucuman, 5. These are national colegios , secondary schools for girls, higher schools of com¬ merce, schools of agriculture, and institutions of like nature. Not all of the instruction is on university levels. They enroll a consider¬ able number of students as shown in table 22. go BIENNIAL SURVEY OF EDUCATION, 1934-36 Table 22.— STATISTICS OF TEACHERS AND STUDENTS IN INSTITU¬ TIONS ANNEXED TO THE UNIVERSITIES, 1926 AND 1936 University Teachers Students 1926 1936 Men Women Total 1926 1936 1926 J.936 1926 1936 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 Buenos Aires _ La Plata . . Litoral . . Cordoba _ 301 151 195 58 68 350 228 229 91 81 2,993 1, 097 1, 426 673 377 2,811 1, 850 4, 252 837 425 354 310 568 1, 035 2,993 1, 451 1, 736 673 643 2,811 2, 418 5,287 837 855 Tucuman _ Total . . 266 430 773 979 6, 56 G 10, 175 930 2, 033 7,496 12, 208 Summary. — The total of students, 1,403,307, for 1926 was almost 14 (13.9) percent of the population, then estimated to be 10,030,000, The increase in 10 years of 478,652 students raised the percentage to 15.4 of the 12,230,000 inhabitants of Argentina in 1936. Either percentage is, in terms of provision for education throughout the world, rather high and compares favorably with the smaller, more self-contained and relatively homogeneous nations of western Europe. None of the elements of a complete system of education is lacking but some of them such as preparation for taking training in the professions, and training in the professions themselves seem to be developed to a greater extent and higher degree than others. Brazil. — Brazil is largest in area and greatest in population of the Latin American nations. With 3,275,510 square miles of terri¬ tory and about 45% millions of people, it includes more than 40 percent of the area and nearly 40 percent of the population of Latin America. The Union is made up of 20 States, 1 Territory, and the Federal District at Bio de Janeiro. The largest States in point of population are : Minas Geraes, 5,888,000 ; Sao Paulo, 4,592,000 ; Bahia, 3,335,000; Bio Grande do Sul, 2,183.000; Pernambuco, 2,155,000; Bio de Janeiro, 1,559,000; Ceara, 1,319,000; the Federal District, 1,158,000. They lie along or near the east coast and account for about one-half the population. The First Bepublic came to an end in October 1930 when a military uprising forced the resignation of the President. A provisional government functioned until July 16, 1934, when the Second Be¬ public was inaugurated and a new constitution adopted. Among other clauses relating to education, the constitution provides that — Art. 149. It devolves upon the Union: (a) To draft a comprehensive plan of national education including all degrees and branches of instruction, general and specialized, and to coor¬ dinate and supervise the execution of this plan in all parts of the country. FOREIGN COUNTRIES 81 (&) To look toward ultimate free tuition in secondary and preparatory schools and in institutions of higher learning, exercising over them the necessary supervision. (c) To organize and maintain in all sections of the country systems of education adapted to the particular needs. ( d ) To maintain in the Federal District secondary schools, institutions of higher learning, and universities. (e) To supply or supplement educational activity, wherever necessary because of lack of initiative or funds and to stimulate educational work in the whole country by means of studies, investigations, demonstrations, and subsidies. Provided: The national plan of education according to the Federal Law, in the terms of art. 5 in XIV, and 39 in 8, letters a and e, can only be reestablished for definite periods and will conform to the following norms: (а) Free and compulsory primary instruction, including adults. (б) Work toward free education above the primary level in order to make it more accessible. (c) Freedom in teaching all branches and at all levels, according to prescribed legislation, both Federal and State. (d) In private schools the teaching of all subjects, except foreign lan¬ guages, in the language of the country. (e) Admission limited to the teaching capacity of the school and selection by means of intelligence tests, or by objective processes suited to the pur¬ pose of the course. (f) Recognition of private schools only when they assure their teachers of security and worthy remuneration during acceptable service. Further, the Union and the municipalities are to apply to the maintenance and development of education never less than 10 percent of the income from taxes, and for rural education the Union will set aside at least 20 percent of the funds appropriated for educa¬ tion in the annual budgets. The division of educational authority and responsibility between the States and the National Government from 1925 to 1930 was generally that the States provided elementary education and any other type that they might wish. The National Government through its National Department of Education — not a department in the meaning of the word in the United States but a branch or bureau of the Ministry of Justice and the Interior, established in 1925 — was charged with administering secondary and higher education, and supervising the grant-in-aid that was made by the National Govern¬ ment to the States for the maintenance of rural schools provided cer¬ tain conditions as to teacher qualifications, courses of study, and State support of education were met. In November 1930, shortly after the success of the revolution, a National Ministry of Education and Public Health was established. This was not so much the beginning of new Federal activities as it was the centralization of efforts already existing. The education part of the Ministry includes the former Department of Education, the University of Rio de Janeiro, the superintendence of commercial edu* 32 BIENNIAL SURVEY OF EDUCATION, 1934-36 cation, the inspectorate of technical vocational education, and a num¬ ber of allied cultural institutions such as the two national museums, National observatory, and National library. A National Council of Education was set up by law to serve as an advisory body to national and State authorities, prepare a plan of education and in general encourage and stimulate efforts toward education and culture. Edu¬ cation in Brazil is to continue apparently to be decentralized with each State and the F ederal district having its own school system, the Ministry dealing mainly with secondary and higher instruction, and certain special aspects, and acting as a central agency for gathering and supplying information. To aid the National Council in its work, the Ministry prepared a questionary on a national plan of education,13 and under date of January 16, 1936, sent it to teachers, students, journalists, writers, scientists, ministers of the gospel, military men, politicians, profes¬ sional men — “all those convinced that education is a primary, essen¬ tial, and basic problem of the Nation and because of that wish it oriented more firmly and given a better organization.” This plan of seeking advice on education from the people throughout a large republic is so unusual that some indication of the nature of the questionary seems pertinent. It consists of 213 paragraphs or articles, each of which is one or more questions arranged under 12 general headings or titles that are divided into chapters. Title I is the introduction, and under it chapter I deals with the definition, comprehensiveness, and duration of the national plan of education. The questions are : 1. How should the national plan of education be defined? What ought it to comprehend? Should it be limited solely to school activities or extend to all the extra-school activities of an educative influence? 2. What should be understood as education to be given by the family? 3. Within what limits ought education to be supplied by public authorities? 4. Understood as a code of directions for national education, what limit ought the national plan of education to have? 5. What periodic duration should the national plan of education have? Is it advisedly a duration of 10 years, time enough for its full application and verification of all its results? A few other questions are: 29. What ought to be taught in the primary school ? 35. What is secondary education? What limits should it have? 36. Should there be more than one type of secondary curriculum? If yes, what type? What the objective of each? 109. What should be included in the educational system of the Union? Should the Union maintain and direct only the services of education that 13 Ministerio da Educagao e Saude Publica. Plano Nacional de Educagao. Questionario para um Inquerito. Rio de Janeiro, Imprensa Nacional, 1936. 42 pp. FOREIGN COUNTRIES 83 are of special national significance? Or should it also maintain and direct educational services intended to satisfy local necessities? 123. In what conditions ought private education in any grades and branches be permitted in Brazil? 126. What special conditions should be established in order that private schools maintained or directed by foreigners may function? Where would they be? 177. What is religious instruction? What are its limits? How should the problem of religious instruction in Brazil be considered? 186. Who should maintain primary and preprimary instruction? Only the States? Should the Municipalities organize and direct primary and preprimary schools or merely collaborate with the States in their organiza¬ tion and direction? What resources should be set apart for the mainte¬ nance of various types of primary and preprimary schools? 187. Who should maintain secondary instruction? What resources should be set apart for its maintenance? 190. Who should maintain higher instruction? What resources should be set apart for it? These are old questions, as old as education itself. How the people of Brazil answer them, not in the questionnaire, but in actual prac¬ tice, will determine the course of human training in that country. The Federal District and four or five of the more populous and wealthier States have made considerable progress and their example is being followed as well as may be by the other States. In the Federal District, marked progress has been shown in the provision of 30 new school buildings for 30,000 pupils, the establish¬ ment in 1933 of an Institute of Educational Research, abolition of intermediate schools in 1931, creation in 1933 of a system of con¬ tinuation and extension courses, the revision in 1931 of the curricu¬ lum for secondary schools, better arrangements for teacher training, and the founding of the University of the Federal District. The Brazilian attitude. — Apparently the Brazilian authorities feel that their State and F ederal systems of education are neither adequate nor well organized. The various steps that have been taken to bring about greater participation on the part of the F ederal government are mainly motivated by a desire to have better unity in education in Brazil and more nearly equal educational opportunities in all areas of the country. No significant trend toward using the schools to further a special political belief has appeared. The approach toward a National educational system is being made slowly and for that very reason should eventually be successful. Mexico. — A vast amount of arrears to make up, broadly describes the education situation in Mexico around 1927. After the revolution of 1917 the betterment of the Mexican people through education was earnestly undertaken. The situation at the close of the first decade under the new constitution is so well outlined by a former under- 34 BIENNIAL SURVEY OF EDUCATION, 1934-36 secretary of public instruction 14 that pertinent excerpts from it are quoted. In a country laboring under the weight of a 65 percent illiteracy, hetero¬ geneous from an ethnical as well as from a physical point of view, divided by a thousand spiritual barriers and by as many material obstacles, with valuable traditional cultures repressed and foreign conceptions imposed; in a country with these conditions everything is a problem, which might simply be stated thus : How to make a nation out of the ethnical and cultural conglomerate. * * ***** There are in 1927 only 13,117 public schools all told, and about half of the children without a school to go to. True, the governments of the revolution have hastily tried to correct this situation, but the 5,000 rural schools that the Federal Government will have established by the close of 1928 will have to be multiplied manifold before the minimum educational need of the country is met. The growth will have to be not only horizontal but vertical. * * ***** State governments are spending 34 percent of their budgets on education ; the Federal Government devotes 7.37 per cent. . . . and yet the national educational program for Mexico, even conceived in its smallest terms, de¬ mands amounts of money many times greater than what is being spent. * * ***** The movement designated by the name “school of action” is the most important in the country at the present time. ... We are suffering from normalism. ******* We have to do in a generation what should have been done centuries ago, and we have to do it, thus, in the greatest hurry, because our nation¬ ality is in danger of being overcome from the outside. There exists in Mexico a traditional culture which educators should not and cannot ignore. In past times our country was the site of admirable and noble civiliza¬ tions. They came to naught, but they have left perforce a sediment of culture. It would be folly to forget it and a greater folly not to take advantage of it. To preserve the valuable elements of the indigenous cultures and to amalgamate them with the new conceptions and new ways of modern civilizations according to norms acceptable to the Mexican tradition is a task that falls largely on the shoulders of the Mexican educator. The “Spanishizing” of the Indian, that is, the teaching of the Spanish language to that one-third of the Mexican people who do not understand nor speak our tongue, thus giving them the means of communication with the rest of us, is, along the same order, one of the most important prob¬ lems we have to solve. To make the school keep its sympathy and acquire a clear vision of the great contemporary issues now troubling Mexico, those of the land, of the organization of the working class, and of self-government — and to act so that it will also abstain from partisanship and propagandism is another of the essential problems of Mexican education. 14 Saenz, Moises. Mexico. In Educational Yearbook of the International Institute of Teachers College, Columbia University, 1927. New York, Bureau of Publications, Teachers College, 1928. FOREIGN COUNTRIES 85 Again the school faces the great need of bringing about an economic betterment in the country and raising the standards of living of the people. Mexican education is now learning that it has to become eminently voca¬ tional. This obligation is imposed upon us for three different considera¬ tions: Because our education was before verbal and theoretical and it must now become real and practical ; because our people have an evident genius for working with their hands ; and, lastly, because they have gone hungry for centuries, and they must now be taught to produce enough to appease that hunger. In brief, education in Mexico in 1927 faced the reduction of il¬ literacy through the provision of many times more schools than were then established; the expenditure of many times more money than was then being spent; using the native cultures as a foundation on which to build a new Mexican civilization; giving the indigenous peoples a common language; making education active and practical rather than literary and theoretical; and keeping it free from parti¬ sanship and propagandism. Education in Mexico is and has been for some years following the European revolutionary pattern. It is being strongly nationalized in the sense that the Federal Secretariat of Education is taking more and more of the control away from the States; private schools are either forbidden or continue only under the closest supervision of the public authorities; schools of nearly all types are coming under the direction of the one secretariat; and education has become an instrument for teaching the political, social, and economic doctrines of the party in power. The fundamental law as amended in 1934 on which education in Mexico now [September 1937] rests is: Article 3. The education which the State imparts will be socialist and, in addition to excluding all religious doctrine, will combat fanaticism and prejudice, and for that purpose the school will organize its instruc¬ tion and activities in such a way as to permit creating in youth a rational and exact concept of the Universe and of social life. Only the State — Federation, States, municipalities — will impart primary, secondary, and normal education. It may grant authorizations to private persons and organizations that desire to impart education in any of the above levels, in accord in every case with the following norms : 1. The activities and the instruction in private schools shall be adjusted, without exception, to the precepts in the first paragraph of this article and will be in charge of persons who in the opinion of the State have sufficient professional preparation, suitable morals, and an ideology in accord with these precepts. By virtue of that, religious corporations, ministers of creeds, societies for actions that exclusively or preferentially carry on educational activities, and the associations or societies linked directly or indirectly with the propaganda of a religious creed may not intervene in any way in primary, secondary, or normal schools, nor aid them economically. 2. The forming of plans, programs, and methods of instruction belongs in every case to the State. 86 BIENNIAL SURVEY OF EDUCATION, 1984-36 3. Private schools may not function without having previously obtained in each case the authorization of the public authority. 4. The State may revoke such authorization at any time. Against that revocation there is no process of recourse nor any judgment. These same norms will regulate education of any type or grade that may be given to workers or rural dwellers. Primary education is obligatory, and the State will furnish it free. The State may withdraw at its discretion at any time recognition of official validity from studies taken in private schools. The Congress of the Union, for the purpose of unifying and coordinating education throughout the Republic, will expedite the necessary laws intended to distribute the educative social function among the Federation, the States, and the municipalities, to fix the apportionments for this public service, and to determine the punishments applicable to those officials who do not enforce or have not enforced the relative provisions, as well as for all those who violate them. To about 1932 the Federal Secretariat of Education published an annual Memoria and detailed statistics of education. In the past 4 or 5 years no such carefully presented information seems to be avail¬ able. The Folletin Estadistico de la Secret aria de Education, Numero 1, 1932, dedicated to the XXI International Congress of Statistics, states that in 1932 there were in the entire country 20,299 schools of all categories taught by 46,841 teachers and enrolling 1,923,453 students of both sexes. Of these schools, 7,838 were maintained by the Federal Government, 8,749 by the States and municipalities, and 3,712 were private. These were distributed as shown in the following table. Table 23.— STATISTICS OF EDUCATION IN MEXICO, 1932 Kind of school Schools Teachers Enrollment 1 0 3 4 Kindergarten _ _ _ _ _ 214 13, 928 5, 655 235 108 69 42 10 37 867 16, 756 22, 445 1,996 1,887 1, 319 1, 390 100 81 34, 047 876, 330 937, 354 32, 765 18, 003 8, 575 11, 417 928 4, 034 Primary: Rural _ _ _ _ Urban.. _ _ _ _ _ _ Industrial, commercial, and arts and crafts _ _ _ _ Secondary and preparatory _ _ _ Normal.. _ _ _ _ _ Vocational. . _ _ _ _ Central agricultural and of agriculture . . . . Fine arts _ Total _ _ _ _ _ 30, 298 46, 841 1, 923, 453 The present administration came into power in 1934 and shortly thereafter adopted a 6-year plan to be carried out during the Presi¬ dent’s 6-year term of office. In that plan, education becomes as indicated by law just quoted, the exclusive right of the State and is to reflect the socialistic doctrine to which the Mexican government adheres. In 1935 the courses of study were changed with that pur¬ pose in mind. In the first year of the plan 16 percent of the Federal FOREIGN COUNTRIES 87 budget was appropriated for education, an increase of almost 50 percent over the average annual budget in the previous 5 years. The purpose is to increase the appropriations for education until in 1939 they amount to 20 percent of the total national expenditures. Since the adoption of the plan, the number of rural schools has been increased by one-fifth; 12 boarding schools for Indians added to 15 previously existing; and 159 schools of the kind maintained by employers for the workers’ children added to the 1,980 already in operation. A Revolution School Center was opened in Mexico City. It is to handle 5,000 children in the primary grades and is well equipped with workshops. Six regional peasant schools and two industrial schools for children of the army were established. To bring greater unity in primary education, the Federal Secre¬ tariat of Education has been making agreements with local and state governments in order that the education systems may come under Federal control. A National Council of Higher Education and Scientific Research has been formed. A National Institute of Psy¬ chopedagogy has been created within the Secretariat of Public Education. The trend. — Mexico is the first and to date the only Latin Ameri¬ can country in which the National Government has deliberately un¬ dertaken to use the schools to further the social, economic, and political beliefs of the group now in power. Naturally, the question arises, “Will other Latin American countries in greater or to the same degree, do as Mexico is doing?” At present the indications are that they will not. Section VI. International Congresses and Conferences Nine hundred sixteen international conferences, congresses, and meetings of various kinds were held in the 4 years 1926 to 1929, inclusive. A fair proportion of them dealt directly with education; many others were mainly cultural and educational in their aspects. The assumption is warranted that the number did not diminish greatly, if at all, in the years from 1930 to 1936. A rough survey of the situation makes it evident that a complete account of the inter¬ national education meetings in the past decade would in itself be an ambitious work. The bases of selection for the gatherings included • in this chapter were two. First, that they represent different phases of education: Preschool, public education; special types of training — in this case technical and commercial; teachers’ associations; pro¬ gressive education; and adult education. The second criterion re¬ lated to the reasonable expectation that similar meetings would be held at stated intervals by an organization interested in that type of education. In other words, series, rather than isolated interna¬ tional meetings were chosen. PRESCHOOL CARE OF THE CHILD An International Child Congress was held in Paris, July 27 to August 1, 1931, in connection with the fiftieth anniversary of the founding of the lay school system of France. It was organized by the Association of Teachers of Public Maternal Schools and Infant Classes in France and the French Colonies. Its purpose was to “bring together all those who are interested in questions concern¬ ing the child from 2 to 7 years old — during that period of his life, that is, when he ceases to be a baby and is in a certain way born to the collective life without yet being a school child.” Thirty-four hundred people were in attendance from 25 countries. The Congress worked in five sections: I. General organization of scholastic institutions relating to the educa¬ tion of children from 2 to 7 years old. In what form can collaboration with the families be established? II. The value of and the part played by plant and educational materials in the education of children from 2 to 7. III. How can the process of “globalisation” be applied to the education of such children? What should be the general culture of their teachers? IV. By what means can the child be given a sense of the beautiful? How can his artistic emotion be aroused, confining oneself to music and rhythmic exercises? V. Hygiene and social activity. 88 FOREIGN COUNTRIES 89 Connected with the Congress were many exhibits from France and other countries ; a large number of practical demonstrations with classes; and visits to maternal and open-air schools, and other insti¬ tutions not so closely related to the work in hand. PUBLIC EDUCATION Six international conferences on public instruction were held at Geneva, Switzerland, in the years 1932 to 1937, inclusive, by the Inter¬ national Bureau of Education, with its headquarters in that city. The first two of these meetings were not strictly conferences. The International Bureau was founded in 1925 as a private corporate in¬ stitution. On July 25, 1929, it was reorganized so that governments in addition to private institutions and international organizations might become members. In 1932 and 1933 the Bureau invited non¬ member governments to take part as observers in the annual meetings of its Council held in July. The interest shown was strong enough to warrant calling for July 1934 the Third International Conference on Public Instruction. Thirty-six nations sent official delegates; Cuba, the League of Nations, and the International Labor Office sent observers. Each delegate presented a report on education in his country for the preceding year, and the conference as a whole dis¬ cussed three topics: Compulsory schooling and the raising of the school leaving age ; admission to secondary schools ; and economies in the field of public education. To the Fourth International Conference, 1935, came representatives from 41 nations, and observers from Afghanistan, the League of Nations, International Labor Office, and the International Institute of Intellectual Cooperation. The Bureau regularly collects data from as many countries as possible on the questions to be considered at the conference and has it in published form when the meetings are held. The questions for this assemblage to handle were: Profes¬ sional training of elementary school teachers; professional training of secondary school teachers; and councils of public instruction. The organization of special schools, organization of rural educa¬ tion, and legislation regulating school buildings were brought before the fifth conference in 1936 and were considered by delegates from 37 nations. The sixth conference, 1937, took up instruction in psychol¬ ogy in the preparation of teachers, the teaching of modern languages, and the inspection of education.1 1 Beginning with 1933, the International Bureau of Education has published yearly an Annuaire international de I’education et de Venseignement. It consists mainly of the statements made at the conferences by the delegates, about education in their respective countries during the preceding year. 52172°— 38 - 7 90 BIENNIAL SURVEY OF EDUCATION, 1934-36 TECHNICAL EDUCATION An International Congress of Technical, Agricultural, and Home Economics Education was held at Charleroi, Belgium, May 16 to 18, 1925.2 The Province of Hainaut, probably the most industralized Province in Belgium, aided by the National Ministries of Industry, Economic Affairs, Agriculture, and Sciences and Arts of Belgium and with the cooperation of the Subsecretary of State for Technical Education in France, organized and managed the Congress. Charl¬ eroi is the seat of the rather unusual and in many respects famous Universite du Travail (University of Labor) and in its buildings most of the sessions were held. The attendance was large. The League of Nations, France, England, Bulgaria, Spain, Luxembourg, Holland, Italy, the Saar, Switzerland, Poland, and Belgium were represented. The discussions were on the general organization of technical and vocational education, recruitment of students, moral aspects of technical education, the home and family of the industrial worker and provision for the educational use of leisure, apprentice¬ ship, vocational guidance, vocational and industrial drawing, com¬ mercial education, and vocational agriculture. Speaking at the final plenary session, the general reporter said: The points of view that you have expressed are remarkable both for their number and quality 5 and, an extraordinary thing, no one is infected with either too much precision which would paralyze initiative or too much lack of precision which would provoke error. That is a vertible mission for our schools. The members of the Congress seem to have taken care to conserve to technical education that great elasticity of programs and of regulations which gives it force and which permits it to progress rapidly without having a confusion of laws, arret^s, and decrees. The International Congress of Vocational Technical Education organized by the Province of Liege, Belgium, and held at Liege, August 1 to 5, 1930, was more widely representative. Twenty-four countries had delegates in attendance. They included Bolivia, Bra¬ zil, and Uruguay of the Latin American countries; Egypt, Persia, China, Turkey, and the Union of South Africa ; and several European countries that had not taken part in the previous Congress. The discussions were more restricted in scope. Vocational guidance and selection ; the help of legislation, and of industrial groups and work¬ ers, in developing technical education; post-school studies; and the formation of teaching personnel were on the program. Finally, each country reported on the status of technical education within its boundaries; and the congress considered the creation of an international office of technical education. With respect to this 2 Five such congresses had previously been held : Roubaix, 1911 ; Lyon, 1921 ; Marseille, 1922 ; Ghent, 1923 ; Brussels, 1924. FOREIGN COUNTRIES 91 last question the Congress resolved that it wished to see created in the League of Nations ... a permanent International Office of Technical Education established preferably in the form of an autonomous section of the International In¬ stitute of Intellectual Cooperation and having connection with the Inter¬ national Bureau of Labor. The permanent International Office of Technical Education would have for its mission to aid and coordinate the efforts of the Nations to perfect technical education, it would encourage them to expand its benefits by legislation, and would give them the means through the exchange of pro¬ fessors, a coordinated study of sciences applied to special technologies, and study of their instruction and means of instruction, and of vocational organization. It would aid in raising the general culture of the masses, a real way of bettering the condition of the workers. The Office would be charged with organizing an annual conference on technical education. The French Association for the Development of Technical Educa¬ tion organized and held an International Congress of Technical Edu¬ cation in Paris, September 24 to 27, 1931. It was more widely repre¬ sentative than either of the two previously described. Delegates were in attendance from 38 countries, the League of Nations, and the Inter¬ national Bureau of Labor. Out of Latin America came representa¬ tion from Argentina, Brazil, Chile, Colombia, Ecuador, Haiti, Panama, Peru, Uruguay — evidence of the growing interest in vo¬ cational education in a section of the world where it had not been playing an important role. China, Egypt, Greece, Japan, and Turkey, as well as most of the European countries, participated. The Congress considered seven main questions: Vocational guidance; Na¬ tional collaboration with professional groups, patrons, and workers in the organization of technical education ; recruitment and training of teaching personnel ; recruitment and training of sales and publicity people ; general culture in the technical training of the engineer ; the cinema in vocational guidance ; the technical press and its relation to technical education. During the interval between the congress at Liege in 1930 and this one at Paris in 1931, a provisory International Bureau of Technical Education had been opened in Paris and had been operating for some 3 months when the Paris congress was held. The Paris congress took note of the work of this provisory Bureau and in order that its activi¬ ties be not interrupted assigned the Bureau certain tasks, and in view of the aid offered by the public authorities of France and the Chamber of Commerce of Paris, decided to establish an international bureau in Paris and charge it with organizing the next International Congress of Technical Education at Brussels in 1932. 92 BIENNIAL SURVEY OF EDUCATION, 1984-36 Accordingly the International Bureau of Technical Education with its headquarters at 2, Place de la Bourse, Paris, came into being in late 1931 or early 1932 and in the latter year organized and held the International Congress of Technical Education at Brussels, Septem¬ ber 25 to 29. Twenty-nine nations, the League of Nations, the Inter¬ national Bureau of Labor, and the Institute of Intellectual Coopera¬ tion were represented by 1,164 members and 360 reports were pre¬ sented. This meeting had six sections dealing with: Terminology; vocational guidance; vocational courses for apprentices and nonap¬ prentices and their general culture content ; methods for aiding tech¬ nicians to perfect their general and technical training while working at their callings ; the industrial stages in the training of the engineer, and his social role; and divers questions such as apprenticeship contracts, courses for the unemployed, etc. In 1933, the International Bureau began publishing its official organ, Les Informations du B. /. E. T7., now the Bulletin Interna¬ tional de VEnseignement T echnique. The Bureau called and held the next International Congress of Technical Education at Barcelona, Spain, May 17 to 19, 1934. This Congress also had six questions for consideration: The role of tech¬ nical education, from an economic point of view, and from a social point of view; vocational guidance; apprenticeship; apprenticeship and unemployment; higher grades of workmen; and various items including the technical press and technical education. As to the first of these questions, the role of technical education, the congress adopted the following resolution : Considering the economic and social importance of technical and voca¬ tional education, as shown by the facts, it cannot be contested : That such instruction has nowadays the form of a complete education at once vocational, civic, and humane ; That by the flexibility of its methods, by the extent of its information, by the character both economic and ethical of its purposes, it fits per¬ fectly the necessities of modgrn life ; That it should thus enter into the plan of development of every civilized nation ; Resolves : That technical and vocational education should have in the National education of every country, the place that its uncontested importance merits. The Sixth International Congress of Technical Education called to meet at Rome May 28 to 30, 1936, was postponed until December 28 to 30 of that year. Its sessions were devoted to discussing tech¬ nical education and economic life; vocational guidance and its con¬ tinuance; training of workshop personnel; training of women for their special role in economic life; and various topics such as the FOREIGN COUNTRIES 93 technical cinema. The proceedings of the various congresses have been published.3 COMMERCIAL EDUCATION Congresses of commercial education were held at Bordeaux in 1886; Paris, 1889; Bordeaux, 1895; London, 1896; Antwerp, 1898; Venice, 1899; Paris, 1900; Milan, 1906; Vienna, 1910; and Budapest, 1913; but most of the early meetings, excepting that at Antwerp, were quite as much concerned with technical as with commercial edu¬ cation. Not until the meeting at Milan in 1906 did the congress and subsequent congresses devote their attention wholly to commercial education. An International Society for Commercial Education was formed at Zurich, Switzerland, in 1901. It continued to function until 1913, then practically went out of existence, and congresses were no longer held. On September 25, 1926, a meeting was held, again at Zurich, to reconstitute the International Society for Commercial Edu¬ cation. The attempt was successful. Under the direction of the Society an International Congress of Commercial Education was held at Amsterdam, Holland, September 1 to 6, 1929. The following year, September 8 to 11, 1930, an Inter¬ national Congress of Higher Commercial Education was held at Liege, Belgium. Two hundred members representing 29 nations were present. This congress recommended that (1) all interested countries improve the higher studies in commerce in order to place them on a level with other university studies, notably by extension of the general culture courses and courses of a scientific and juridical tendency, and by a more rigorous selection in the admissions to these schools; (2) aid the movement toward legal recognition of degrees in higher commercial education; (3) set a minimum of study in higher commercial education in the different countries so that the diploma may rank with the academic degrees ; and (4) maintain and develop in higher commercial education the study of modern lan¬ guages oriented in the sense of economic relations among the nations. 8 Province de Hainaut. Congrgs international de l’enseignement technique, agricole et manager. Charleroi, 16, 17 et 18 Mai 1925. Two volumes. Charleroi, Imprimerie Pro- vinciale, 1926. CongrSs international de l’enseignement technique professionnel organise par la Province de Li6ge sous de Haut Patronage du Gouvernement. Rapports, discussion des rapports, voeux 6mis. Ligge, Imp. A. Larock, 1931. Congr6s international de l’enseignement technique, Paris, 24—27 Septembre 1931. Compte rendu des travaux. Two volumes. Paris, Secretariat, Grand Palais, Avenue Alexandre, III. 1932. Bureau international de l’enseignement technique. Congr£s international de l’enseigne- ment technique, Bruxelles, 25, 26, 27, 28, 29 Septembre 1932. Compte rendu des travaux. Two volumes, Paris, B. I. E. T., 1933. Bureau international de l’enseignement technique. Congr&s international de l’enseigne- ment technique, Barcelone, 17, 18, 19 Mai 1934. Two volumes. Paris, B. I. E. T., 1934. Congr&s International de l’enseignement technique, Rome, 28-29—30 Decembre 1936. Two volumes. Rouen, Imprimerie Wolf. 1936. 94 BIENNIAL SURVEY OF EDUCATION, 1934-36 The next International Congress, announced as the Fifth Triennial Congress of the International Society for Commercial Education, was held in London July 25 to 29, 1932. That was the nadir of the economic cycle, and the resolutions of the Congress asked that young people after the completion of their theooretical training be enabled to move freely from one country to another for a stay in practical business ; pointed out that national well-being depends upon the well¬ being of the world, and all must take a view in international affairs which sees national interests as reciprocal ; and asked that the quality and standard in commercial education be not reduced because of economic difficulties. The Sixth International Congress was held at Prague, Czechoslo¬ vakia, September 1 to 6, 1935. More than 600 members came from 26 different countries. Among the more important of its resolutions were : The teacher (of commercial subjects) should be scientifically trained alike from the point of view of economics and of pedagogy and practical work. As regards scientific pedagogical instruction, it is essential to re¬ serve an important place for philosophy (ethics, logic, and psychology). The teaching at commercial universities should be particularly of a highly scientific character ; the professors should, however, remain in con¬ tinual close contact with the practical side of business. This also applies to teachers in schools of commerce. TEACHERS' ASSOCIATIONS A World Conference on Education was held at San Francisco, Calif., in 1923. It set up a program to be followed that it hoped would secure international cooperation in educational enterprises; foster the spread of information about education in all forms and among all peoples; and cultivate international good will and pro¬ mote the interests of peace throughout the world. Toward those ends it made 20 recommendations. Among the more important of these were that a World Federation of Education Associations be established; May 18 be designated as “Good Will Day” to be ob¬ served in the schools of the world; an international commission on illiteracy be appointed; and international school correspondence be fostered. Accordingly a World Federation of Education Associations was founded. It has held conferences as follows : First Biennial Conference, July 20 to 27, 1925, Edinburgh, Scotland. Second Biennial Conference, August 7 to 13, 1927, Toronto, Canada. Third Biennial Conference, July 25 to August 4, 1929, Geneva, Switzerland. FOREIGN COUNTRIES 95 Fourth Biennial Conference, July 27 to August 1, 1931, Denver, Colo. Pacific Kegional Conference, July 25 to 30, 1932, Honolulu, Hawaii. Fifth Biennial Conference, July 29 to August 4, 1933, Dublin, Ireland. Synchronized conferences of the World Federation of Education Associations, International Federation of Associations of Secondary Teachers, and International Federation of Teachers’ Associations, August 10 to 17, 1935, Oxford, England. Seventh World Conference, August 2 to 7, 1937, Tokyo, Japan. Because of the breadth of its interest and its strong slant toward education for world peace and better international understanding, the biennial conferences of the World Federation are more compre¬ hensive than those of most other international education organiza¬ tions. The Oxford meeting is typical. It had sections on adult education, broadcasting, colleges and universities, commercial educa¬ tion, educational crafts, elementary education, geography, health, the Hermann- Jordan peace plan, preparation of teachers, preschool and kindergarten, rural life and rural education, secondary education, social adjustment, teachers’ organizations, and visual education. At¬ tendance generally ranges from 1,500 to 2,000 and from 50 to 60 countries are represented. The proceedings of all the conferences except the Seventh have been published. Those of the Seventh should be available soon. THE NEW EDUCATION “All manner of men speaking all manner of tongues poured into Elsinore those first Conference days. Finns, Norwegians, and Swedes from the north jostled with Italians, Spaniards, and French from the south; there were Americans, Germans, English, Indians, Chi¬ nese, Latvians, Poles, and British from all corners of the Empire. Men and women from forty-three different countries came together to pay homage to the cause of childhood and to pledge themselves anew to carry on the search for truth.” This was written of the Fifth International Conference of the New Education Fellowship held at Elsinore, Denmark, August 8 to 21, 1929. The Fellowship, founded in 1915 to promote progressive edu¬ cation, had held four previous conferences and is continuing to hold them at regular intervals. The topic of the Fifth Conference was the new psychology and the curriculum. “Education for a Changing Society” was the theme of the sixth conference held at Nice, France, July 29 to August 12, 1932. Over 1,800 members attended from 52 countries. gg BIENNIAL SURVEY OF EDUCATION, 1934-36 The conference called at Cape Town and Johannesburg, Union of South Africa, in July of 1934, was regional in designation but inter¬ national in scope. The general subject was the adaptation of educa¬ tion to meet the rapidly changing needs of society, with special ap¬ plication to South Africa. Over 6,000 persons were in attendance and 3,000 of them were full delegates. It came at a peculiarly suit¬ able time for South Africa. The findings of the Poor Whites Com¬ mission had shown the special and difficult situations that education in the Union was facing and the free discussion of a large group of people from many countries could not but be helpful. The twenty-first annual anniversary of the Fellowship was cele¬ brated by the Seventh World Conference at Cheltenham, England, July 31 to August 14, 1936, and was devoted to the discussion of edu¬ cation and a free society. Most of the talks hinged on two points; how to achieve the free personality, and the relation between the individual and the community. On the first of these, The New Era , the English official publication of the Fellowship, commented at the time: In planning the sort of education which we hope will ensure the evolution of a free society, we cannot give the children freedom, we can only set up the environment in which they can develop freely. We can but try to remove all those obstacles which obstruct the development of free person¬ ality, and plan the school so that it shall give opportunities for practising the type of conduct in which wTe believe. But having removed as many obstacles as we can and having provided the material for growth, we must leave our children to find their own social philosophy. They can only build a philosophy of life if we enable them to get the facts. ADTJLT EDUCATION A world Conference on Adult Education was held at Cambridge, England, August 22 to 29, 1929. It was planned and carried out by the World Association for Adult Education, an organization then in its tenth year of life, and was attended by over 400 adult educa¬ tionists from 46 countries. The general sessions considered the principles and problems of adult education; extensive and intensive adult education ; adult education and the industrial worker ; the rela¬ tion of humanistic to technical instruction ; and the problems of world cooperation — the function of the World Association. In the closing address of this Conference, the speaker commented on the World War as follows: For 4 years the world stopped thinking, except about war, and the chil¬ dren who were in the world at that time were instantaneously converted into old men. FOREIGN COUNTRIES 97 and went on to say The presence in any generation of a third or a half of the whole body of that generation at an age and in a condition when they can be de¬ scribed as having the generosity and the aspiration of youth, is a redemp¬ tion of any civilization. That we have had to live, in this period of philosophically and intellectually increasing lack of certainty, in a world full of old men and old women, wanting youth, has made the last ten years a very puzzling if not a very menacing thing to the human race. A great philosopher and friend of mine once defined education as being the prolongation and cultivation of the curiosity of childhood. That seems to me to be a very profound definition, and it suggests that this Adult Education Association seems to be not only the herald of a cultural renais¬ sance, but to be taking this somewhat tired world of ours by the hand and leading it back into the more hopeful attitude of being children once again. o - ' UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR HAROLD L. ICKES : SECRETARY OFFICE OF EDUCATION : J. W. STUDEBAKER COMMISSIONER A REVIEW OF EDUCATIONAL LEGISLATION 1935 AND 1936 being Chapter VIII of Volume I of^the BIENNIAL SURVEY OF EDUCATION IN THE UNITED STATES I 1934-36 BULLETIN , 1937, No. 2 [advance pages] Prepared by WARD W. KEESECKER Specialist in School Legislation Office of Education UNITED STATES GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE WASHINGTON : 1937 For sale by the Superintendent of Documents, Washington, D. C., Price 10 cents .. -n ■ : a . • \ ■ CONTENTS Page Foreword _ v Introduction _ 1 State School Administration, Organization, and Functions _ 2 State Control Over School Expenditures, School Budgets, Business Efficiency, Etc _ 4 School Revenue _ 6 New State-Aid Programs _ 7 Local School Administration, Consolidation, etc _ 12 Higher Education: General administration and finance _ 13 Junior colleges _ 16- Higher education for Negroes _ 17 Curricula in higher educational institutions _ 18 Scholarships in higher institutions _ 19 Miscellaneous measures relating to higher education _ 19 Teacher Training and Certification _ 26 Teachers’ Salaries _ 22 Teacher Employment, Tenure on Loyalty Oaths, etc _ 23 Teacher Retirement _ 26 Textbooks _ 29 Curriculum _ 31 Tuition and Transportation _ 33 School Health and Safety _ 34 School Buildings _ 36 Private Schools _ 37 Vocational Education _ 38 hi ;:oo . ■* s FOREWORD Contemporary educational legislation touches numerous phases of education and consequently is of interest to a wide range of educa¬ tional workers and citizens generally. A survey of educational legislation among the 48 States over a 2-year period involves, as a rule, a study of from one thousand to fifteen hundred enactments. The principal aims of such a survey are (1) to reveal what signifi¬ cant trends or developments are in process, and in what way they may affect the course of public education, and (2) to make available up-to-date legal information bearing upon the respective phases of education. In recent years educational workers and citizens generally have become increasingly conscious of the vital relationship which exists between the legal organization of public schools and efficiency in their administration. For example, many authorities in education have contended that the local school district as now legally con¬ stituted in many States is too small to be financially capable of maintaining adequate school facilities in an efficient manner. In order that this organization, which is said to impair the efficiency of public-school administration, may be changed, it is necessary that legislative action be invoked. Likewise, if additional funds for the support of education are needed, legislative action is necessary to supply them. Inherent in a State legislature is the power to overcome certain legal obstacles or to set up new legal instruments for improving the administration of public education. Under our system of govern¬ ment, educational authorities are privileged, and apparently are under a corresponding duty, to give professional guidance and direction to legislation which affects the course of public education. This review of recent legislation affecting education is therefore presented in the hope that it will be of service to those who plan, guide, and enact educational legislation. Bess Goodtkoontz, Assistant Commissioner of Education . CHAPTER VIII REVIEW OF EDUCATIONAL LEGISLATION 1935 AND 1936 INTRODUCTION It is the purpose of this chapter to show some of the more out¬ standing tendencies and examples of legislation affecting education in the United States during 1935 and 1936. During these years the legislature of every State had one or more legislative sessions, and, in addition, special sessions were called in many States. Moreover, many legislative and constitutional measures affecting education were referred to the people for determination. A study of recent educational legislation shows in some degree to what extent legislatures have responded to recent educational needs. In fact, new educational exigencies followed by fundamental legis¬ lative changes reveal how vitally important the educational preroga¬ tive of a State legislature really is. In recent years there has been an increasing awareness of the legal theory that education among the American commonwealths is in no way inherent in local government except insofar as legislatures or the people themselves may choose to make it so. The three most significant tendencies in legislation affecting educa¬ tion during the 2 years here reviewed are toward : (1) Increased State responsibility for the support of public education. (2) A strengthening of State instrumentalities of control over education. (3) The establishment of minimum State-aid foundation pro¬ grams of State-wide application. Some additional and more specific noteworthy trends manifest in educational legislation during the biennium are : Extension of State control over school budgets, expenditures, and indebtedness. Wider use of State revenue from non-property tax systems for the support of schools, accompanied by a tendency to depend less on property taxes for State school revenue. Increased efforts toward economies and efficiency in the business affairs of education. Extension of provisions for free textbooks for school children. l 2 BIENNIAL SURVEY OF EDUCATION, 1934-36 Improvement of provisions for health and safety of school chil¬ dren. Increased State administrative control over institutions of higher education. Extension of legislation to promote the establishment of junior colleges. Additional legislative control over the public-school curriculum. Improvement of facilities for higher education of Negroes. Better salaries for teachers. Improvement of facilities for teacher tenure and retirement. Better transportation facilities for school children. Legislation to facilitate the construction of needed school build¬ ings. Continued legislative interest in the reorganization of local school units, including consolidation. STATE SCHOOL ADMINISTRATION, ORGANIZATION, AND FUNCTIONS The tendency of legislation for many years has been towards the centralization of administrative control over public education in State authorities. This tendency continued to manifest itself during 1935 and 1936 in a number of States. Perhaps the most significant changes during the biennium in the organization and functions of the State school administrative organi¬ zation occurred in Ohio, Rhode Island, and Vermont. The Legis¬ lature of Ohio vested the administration of its “School Foundation Act” in the Director of Education with the approval of the State Controlling Board. This act includes provisions designed to effect the reorganization of local school districts. County boards are di¬ rected to promulgate plans for more efficient school district organi¬ zation, and, in case the affected boards of education fail to agree on the proposed district reorganization plans, the Director of Edu¬ cation is empowered to order such district consolidation or organi¬ zation as he shall deem in harmony with principles of economy and efficiency. The Vermont Legislature increased the membership of the State Board of Education from 3 to 5 members, and also increased the term of office of said members from 6 to 10 years. Furthermore, the Vermont Legislature stipulated that the State Board of Education, through the Commissioner of Education acting as the executive officer of the board, shall, as soon as possible, combine the several school districts of the State into supervisory unions each approximating 50 teachers with districts grouped in the interest of convenience and efficiency, subject to certain exceptions. In 1935 the Rhode Island Legislature reorganized and consolidated all boards, commissions, and departments of the State government. EDUCATIONAL LEGISLATION 3 The State Board of Education was abolished and the Director of Education was given general supervision and control of the public schools of the State. The Legislature made it the duty of the Director of Education to “perform the duties heretofore performed by the State Board of Education”, enforce the school laws, and prescribe the functions of each division in the Department of Edu¬ cation. A State Budget Director having control of school expendi¬ tures was also provided for. ( See State Control over School Ex¬ penditures, etc., p. 5.) The Legislature of North Carolina amended the “Public School Machinery Act” of 1933 and eliminated the Governor as ex officio member and chairman of the State School Commission, and made the Lieutenant Governor ex officio chairman of the Commission, and the State Superintendent of Public Instruction vice chairman. The reorganized State School Commission was authorized to appoint an executive secretary who shall select other employees necessary for the administration of the act. The North Carolina Legislature also created a State Textbook Purchase and Rental Commission of five members. ( See Textbooks, p. 30.) The Utah Legislature changed the composition and method of selecting the State Board of Education. All ex officio members, ex¬ cept the State Superintendent of Schools, were eliminated from the board, and a new board was created consisting of the State Super¬ intendent of Education and nine other persons, seven of whom shall be selected for 7-year terms by region school conventions (one con¬ vention to be held annually in one of the seven judicial districts of the State). The remaining members are to be appointed by the Governor. In November 1936, the Constitution of South Dakota was amended so as to provide for the election of the State and county superin¬ tendents of schools on a nonpolitical ballot. Mississippi reorganized the membership of the State Board for Vocational Education; and New Jersey reorganized the membership of its State Board of Examiners. South Carolina created a State School Book Commission. ( See Textbooks, p. 30.) During the biennium the Oregon Legislature placed the work of Americanization under the State Department of Education; and in North Dakota the Legislature reestablished the State equalization fund and vested its administration under the Governor, Attorney General, and the State Superintendent of Public Instruction. For legislative changes affecting State organization and functions with respect to fiscal affairs in the management of schools see State Control Over School Expenditures, etc., which follows. 4 BIENNIAL SURVEY OF- EDUCATION, 1934-36 STATE CONTROL OVER SCHOOL EXPENDITURES, SCHOOL BTJDGETSr BUSINESS EFFICIENCY, ETC. Recent years have been accompanied by numerous demands for economy and business efficiency in the administration of public schools. These demands have been due, in part at least, to the granting of increased State funds for the support of schools. The principle that laws should place school management on a modern businesslike basis free from faulty and improper practice has recently won legislative favor in many States. Apparently, legis¬ lators are of the opinion that business efficiency is as essential to good public-school management as it is to private enterprises. Legisla¬ tion designed to promote economy and efficiency in the administra¬ tion of public-school funds falls into three general classes: (1) Legis¬ lation to promote larger and more capable local school administra¬ tive units; (2) legislation providing increased State control over local school expenditures; and (3) the development of school budget systems. During the biennium here reviewed the legislatures of many States enacted noteworthy provisions to promote efficiency in the business affairs of education. Among some of these States are: Alabama,. Colorado, Indiana, Louisiana, Mississippi, New Mexico, Ohio, Okla¬ homa, Pennsylvania, Rhode Island, South Carolina, Vermont, Vir¬ ginia, West Virginia. Some of the noteworthy measures on this subject are summarized here : The Alabama Legislature established a budget system for all county and city school districts and required that said budgets for each ensuing year be submitted to the State Department of Education by July 1. This act provides that after the budget be¬ comes official the actual expenditures may exceed budgeted expendi¬ tures only upon the recommendation of the local superintendent the approval of his board, and the approval of the State Superin¬ tendent. The Legislature of Louisiana prohibited any expenditures of public money or credit by municipalities including school districts “with¬ out the regulation, supervision, and approval of the State Advisory Board created by the Constitution. “Furthermore the Legislature of that State created a State Bond and Tax Board and stipulated that no municipality or school district “shall have authority to borrow money, incur debt, or to issue bonds, or other evidences of debt, or to levy taxes * * * without the consent and approval” of the said board. In Mississippi the Legislature prescribed in considerable detail how the school budgets shall be prepared. All school districts were required, on or before July 15 of each year, to prepare and file with EDUCATIONAL LEGISLATION 5 the State Superintendent a budget of school expenditures for the next fiscal year. The budget must show estimated amounts to be expended for teachers’ salaries, transportation, tuition, etc., and also show the number of months for which funds will be available for the opera¬ tion of schools. At the same time county superintendents are re¬ quired to file with the State Superintendent detailed statements of the school revenues which will be available during the year. This act directs the State Superintendent of Education to prescribe forms for local school budgets and to examine county and district school budgets, approving or disapproving the same. If in his opinion there are insufficient funds to meet the expenditures called for in any budget, he shall return the budget to the district submitting it for revision, and shall require that it be revised by reducing the estimated expenditures. Local school expenditures were restricted to the amounts set forth in the budgets, unless exceptions are made with the approval of the State Superintendent. In New Mexico the Legislature vested in the State Board of Finance supervision and control of the budgets of all State offices and departments, including the department of education and insti¬ tutions of higher learning. The Board of Finance is authorized to adopt standard supplies and equipment and to require all in¬ stitutions to purchase in accordance therewith. Furthermore, the Governor and the said Board were empowered to classify all em¬ ployees in the State Department of Education and in institutions of higher learning and to fix their salaries. The Ohio Legislature (H. B. 466) made it mandatory for all boards of education to transmit to the State Director of Education, not later than August 15 each year, a copy of their budget of expenditures for the next ensuing school year. In this same act the Legislature included designs for county school surveys to pro¬ mote better school administration. County boards of education were directed and empowered to promulgate and carry into effect plans for developing more efficient district organization. The Legislature of Rhode Island created the office of State Budget Director and Comptroller, who shall hold office at the pleasure of the Governor, and who shall supervise all accounts of State depart¬ ments, including all expenditures for education. The Budget Di¬ rector may request detailed statement of financial condition of any department, and he shall prepare a consolidated budget report for the Governor to be embodied in an appropriation bill on or before January 1 of each year. The Legislature of Virginia forbade county supervisors or city councils to decrease in any school year the amount appropriated by them for schools, except by the same percentage of reductions as all other appropriations are reduced. 6 BIENNIAL SURVEY OF EDUCATION, 1934-36 In West Virginia the Legislature, “in order that every possible economy * * * may be realized”, provided for centralized pur¬ chasing of educational supplies through a newly created “depart¬ ment of purchases.” This act also created a standardization com¬ mittee to promulgate standards governing the quality, size, and variety of commodities or serves to be procured by the different State departments, including educational institutions of the State. Furthermore, the director of the purchasing department was directed to make available the services and facilities of his department to county, school, and other municipal local bodies. SCHOOL REVENUE Tax legislation affecting school revenue during the biennium can hardly be characterized as distinctive or regarded as really signifi¬ cant from a Nation-wide point of view. For the most part legisla¬ tion in this field continued along the same general trends which have been in evidence for many years. For example, the most outstanding tendencies were: (1) To utilize and develop nonproperty tax systems; and (2) to reduce property taxes as a source of State school revenue. Liquor and sales taxes. — The legislatures of some States expressly allocated receipts from liquor and sales taxes for school revenue. School funds were derived from liquor taxes in Georgia, Idaho, Maryland, Nevada, New Mexico, and South Carolina. Among some of the States which earmarked a portion of receipts from sales taxes for schools are: Arkansas, Idaho, North Dakota, Ohio, Oklahoma, Texas (sale of cigarettes), Utah, Washington, West Virginia, and Wyoming. (Missouri provided that sales tax revenue go to the State general treasury from which one-third is apportioned for education.) Miscellaneous taxes. — It is also noteworthy that business, service, or occupational tax receipts were in part allocated for school pur¬ poses in Florida, Louisiana, South Carolina, Washington, West Vir¬ ginia, and Wyoming. Furthermore, some of the revenue from min¬ eral or severance taxes in Idaho, North Dakota, and Washington was allocated for school purposes. A few outstanding examples of legislative changes affecting school revenue in different States are here summarized: Arkansas levied a retail sales tax and allocated 65 percent of the revenue therefrom to the common school fund. Florida levied a license tax on persons, firms, and corporations en¬ gaged in certain public works, the revenue therefrom to be paid into the county school fund. Louisiana levied an annual franchise tax on all corporations, $400,- 000 of revenue therefrom to be paid to the State University and Agricultural and Mechanical Arts College for improvements. EDUCATIONAL LEGISLATION 7 Michigan repealed the provision for millage levies in aid of the State University and State College of Agriculture, and thereby abol¬ ished the remaining vestige of State property tax; the amount of fund lost by repealing said tax to be replaced by funds from the State general fund. North Dakota enacted a retail sales tax to equalize taxation and to replace in part the property tax; and allocated $700,000 of the revenue from the sales tax to the newly established State School Equalization Fund, for the first year, and $1,950,000 for the second year. Oklahoma repealed its sales tax and corporate and personal income tax laws of 1933 which allocated major revenue therefrom for schools, and re-enacted said tax systems, and provided revenue there¬ from shall go to the general fund of the State. South Carolina Legislature authorized the following appropria¬ tions annually for schools: (1) $893,000 from the income taxes; (2) all of the revenues yielded by the imposition of additional corpora¬ tion license fees; (3') all the revenue derived from the sale of permits to sell beverages; and (4) after July 1, 1936, 65 percent of all revenue derived from the sale of and/or license of sale of beverages or alcoholic liquors. South Carolina also enacted a personal and corporate net income tax as a “property relief act”, the revenue therefrom to be paid into the State general fund. The Legislature appropriated 32 percent of the net money in the general State fund derived from the said income tax for the support of public schools. Utah authorized the use of the excess of the sales tax in making up deficiencies in the State school funds. (The State constitution provides that $30 per child shall be raised by the State. ) T V ashing ton extended the business and occupational tax enacted in 1933 and added a 2 percent sales tax; approximately 59 percent of the revenue from this act is appropriated to the State current school fund and 4 percent to higher institutions, the remaining going to State general fund and emergency relief. Washington also imposed limitation on the aggregate State and local annual property tax rate for school purposes. NEW STATE-AID PROGRAMS The establishment of minimum State-aid education programs financed by State funds constitutes the most outstanding develop¬ ment in school legislation during the 2 years here reviewed. Increased State responsibility. — Educational legislation during 1935 and 1936 reveals a vigorous and marked extension of the prin¬ ciple that the State should assume increased responsibility for the financial support of education. Among the States in which this 8 BIENNIAL SURVEY OF EDUCATION, 1934-36 principle won legislative favor are: Alabama, Arkansas, Arizona, New Jersey, North Dakota, North Carolina, Ohio, Oklahoma, Rhode Island, South Carolina, Texas, Virginia, Washington, West Vir¬ ginia, and Wyoming. Distribution of school funds , State-aid 'programs . — The methods of distributing State school funds were altered in many States, and an unusual number of States reorganized their equalization systems , or established minimum State-wide education programs, referred to in some States as “foundation” programs. It is obviously imprac¬ ticable to review here all recent noteworthy legislation in support of public schools. However, because of the current Nation-wide interest in State-supported school programs, examples of legisla¬ tion establishing such programs are here presented for a few States : FLORIDA In order to make more secure a minimum 8 months’ school system in the several counties of the State, the Legislature of Florida ap¬ propriated annually to the county school fund from the general revenue, a sum equivalent to $800 for each instruction unit as deter¬ mined by law, less a credit of whatever amounts accrue to county school funds from the State by existing law. Previously, in order to aid counties in the maintenance of an 8 months11 school term there was appropriated to the county school fund the flat sum of $7,500,000, less a credit of 1 mill constitutional tax, and less other amounts which may have accrued to the county school fund by any existing law, and less also sums derived by the State as interest on State deposits in banks of the State. MICHIGAN The Legislature of Michigan, by Chapter 192, 1935, revised the Thatcher-Sias Act of 1933 and provided for the distribution of (1) increased allowances of aid for elementary schools; (2) the direct payment of high-school tuition to receiving district; (3) increased transportation allowances; and (4) the requirement that district boards must levy at least 2 y2 mills for schools other than for debt service, capital outlay, and school board salaries. This chapter pro¬ vides for the distribution to schools of $36,000,000 in 1935-36, $37,000,000 in 1936-37, and $38,000,000 annually thereafter from the general fund. The Legislature designated the following total amounts allowed school districts with less than 800 school popula¬ tion, for elementary schools : 1 teacher and fewer than 12 pupils, $65 per pupil; 2 or more teachers and from 12 to 44 pupils, $750 for the first 12 pupils, plus $9 for each additional pupil ; 3 or more teachers and from 60 to 120 pupils, $1,962 for the first 60 pupils, plus $40 for each additional pupil ; 4 or more teachers and from 90 to 160 pupils, EDUCATIONAL LEGISLATION 9 $3, 162 for the first 90 pupils, plus $40 for each additional pupil ; and the gross amount for elementary schools with 5 or more teachers and 150 or more pupils is computed at $48 per pupil. A similar schedule of State aid was set up applicable to high schools which included larger amounts. MONTANA The Montana Legislature set up a State minimum foundational educational program , which provides : (a) $500 per elementary teacher classroom unit, plus 12 cents per pupil per day of attendance. (&) $600 per junior and senior high school teacher classroom unit, plus 15 cents per pupil per day of attendance. (c) Y2 the transportation cost of pupils residing 3 miles or more from school, provided the State board of education shall fix a uniform schedule of transportation rates for pupils, and that State aid be based on such schedule. This act included detailed stipulations governing “classroom units” in both elementary and secondary schools; a State Public School General F und was created by this act. Among other noteworthy pro¬ visions of this act are: (1) Forbade State aid to any school with fewer than 10 pupils (exceptions allowed for isolated cases). (2) County superintendents must certify to State Superintendent the total number of classroom units and aggregate days of attendance during last school year, and number of pupils residing 3 or more miles from school together with the cost of their transportation. (3) State Superintendent, not later than August 15 each year, shall certify to county superintendents the amounts of school funds to be allotted by the State for pupil transportation and payment of teachers on the classroom unit basis. NEW JERSEY The New Jersey Legislature reorganized its system of State aid for education, and created a minimwtn foundation program , which provides a minimum apportionment of State funds to districts of $13 per elementary pupil and $22 per high-school pupil. Additional aid was made available to certain districts as equalization aid which shall be the excess, if any, of the cost of maintaining the foundation program over the sum of an equivalent to a computed yield of 4.75 mill tax of such districts. For the purpose of this act the minimum cost of the foundation program shall be determined as follows in ele¬ mentary school districts employing 1 teacher, $1,482; 2 or more teachers with not more than 36 pupils, $82.33 per pupil ; 2 or more teachers with from 37 to 260 pupils, $2,964 for first 36 pupils and $53 for each additional pupil ; and districts with 261 or more pupils, $57 for each such pupil. A similar schedule was set up governing a State-supported program for high schools. 10 BIENNIAL SURVEY OF EDUCATION, 1934-36 NORTH DAKOTA The North Dakota Legislature reestablished the State equalization fund in order to insure a State minimum 7 months’ common school term, and vested the administration of such fund in the Governor,. Attorney General, and the State Superintendent of Public Instruc¬ tion. Under the revised plan, the first $500,000 accruing to the State Equalization F und each year shall be distributed among the elemen¬ tary schools on the basis of needs as determined by an investigation of financially distressed school districts. The State Superintendent was directed to determine by investigation what districts are unable to pay for the operation of schools for the minimum term or standard after having made the maximum financial effort to do so. In deter¬ mining whether a school district has made a maximum effort it must appear: (1) That the district has levied the normal maximum tax rate fixed by law; (2) that the revenue from local taxes and from State and county sources have been exhausted; and (3) that such district, under the law cannot issue additional warrants or certifi¬ cates of indebtedness, or that such obligations, by reason of district’s, financial condition, would be greatly depreciated in value. This act provided payment of tuition to districts receiving nonresident high- school pupils at the rate of $1.50 per week out of the equalization fund. Previously such tuition was paid to the district wherein the pupil resided. This act, furthermore, allowed payment of high- school correspondence courses taken with approval of the State De- * partment of Education. After payments to the financially distressed districts and the payment of tuition of nonresident pupils have been made, the remaining amount in the State Equalization Fund shall be distributed among the school districts on the basis of $125 per year for each grade school teacher unit, and $150 per year for each high-school teacher unit maintained. The State Superintendent was authorized to fix and define the number of pupils and teachers re¬ quired to constitute such “teacher-unit.” Such “definition shall be framed and formulated with the end in view of effecting efficiency in the schools, and the discouragement of the maintenance of small schools and small classes.” OHIO The Ohio Legislature completely revised the bases for the appor¬ tionment of the State’s public-school fund. This act is known as. the School Foundation Act (H. B. 466). Its administration was vested in the Director of Education with the approval of the State Controlling Board. Under this law the State will pay approximately one-half of the total annual cost of public elementary and secondary education in the State. Provision is made whereby the State will EDUCATIONAL LEGISLATION 11 pay to school districts the following amounts on per pupil in average daily attendance basis: (1) Part-time, continuation, and evening schools, 20 cents per day; (2) regular day schools, grades 1-8, in¬ clusive, 17 cents per day; (3) kindergarten classes for children under 5 years or over, 8 y2 cents per day. Additional aid was provided for districts in which a 3-mill levy, plus income from all other sources (local and State) are insufficient for the maintenance of schools upon the minimum cost of the foundation program ; and the amount of the additional State aid shall be the difference between the mini¬ mum cost of the foundation program and the amount of funds avail¬ able without such additional aid. The Legislature defined in detail the minimum operation cost of the foundation 'program , based on average daily attendance for a term not to exceed 180 days. It must be established to the satisfaction of the Director of Education and the State Controlling Board that the amount to be allowed per pupil shall be such as will enable the school to operate at a reasonable level of educational efficiency. In no case may the schedule of operating costs set up by the Director of Education be less than $1,150 per annum for each 1 -teacher elementary school and $2,400 per annum for each 2-teacher elementary school. The foundation program in¬ cludes provision for paying the cost of approved pupil transportation and tuition. This new Ohio law includes noteworthy provisions de¬ signed to effect the reorganization of local school districts. (See School Administration, District.) This act also stipulates that State aid may be withheld from any district which fails to comply with its provisions, including the plans for the reorganization of districts. It is furthermore provided that no district shall participate in the State Public School Fund if the total annual salary paid to its teachers is less than 75 percent of the total cost of the foundation program of said district, exclusive of transportation and tuition costs. OKLAHOMA The Oklahoma Legislature appropriated $8,200,000 per annum, most of which goes to school districts as primary aid to supplement funds for teachers’ salaries. The basis of the apportiomnent of these funds is a State salary schedule set up by the State Board of Education. ( See Teachers’ Salaries.) The Legislature stipulated a method of determining the number of teachers needed in each dis¬ trict on the basis of so many pupils in average daily attendance per square mile. In addition to the primary State aid for teachers’ salaries above indicated the Oklahoma Legislature provided supple¬ mental aid to districts where a 10-mill levy and other revenue, in¬ cluding the primary State aid, will not maintain the minimum school for the minimum term. But in order for any school district to 4001—37 - 3 12 BIENNIAL SURVEY OF EDUCATION, 1934-36 receive supplemental aid it must show affirmatively to the State Board of Education that the proportion of its teachers to pupils is proper, that the schedule of teachers’ salaries is reasonable, and that the school budget is commensurate with the actual needs of the district. Primary and supplemental State aid may be withheld from any school if the average daily attendance falls below 18 and if the school district fails to meet the standards established by the State Board of Education. The Legislature by this act stipulated that all State funds and revenue (other than those mentioned in sec. 3, art. II, of the State Constitution) shall hereafter be paid into the general State fund and be used to defray the expenses of State government. In so doing the act said : It is * * * not the intention of the Legislature to repeal any law the revenue from which has been levied and paid into the fund for * * * the common schools, but it is the intention * * * that such revenue shall hereafter be paid into the general revenue fund * * * and there¬ after appropriated by law for such uses and purposes as may be provided \ by law. ** TEXAS Texas increased its “Rural Aid Law” appropriation to $10,000,000 for the biennium, which is $4,000,000 more than for the previous 2 years. The Legislature stipulated that no school shall receive aid under this appropriation if its average daily attendance is less than 65 percent (formerly 70 percent) of the school census, and that teach¬ ers in State-aided schools shall have a minimum of 2 years’ college training or the equivalent. This act provided for an increase in the supervisory staff of the State Department of Education from 16 to 24 members. VERMONT Vermont reorganized the State-aid system for education and pro¬ vided that State aid shall be on the basis of district valuation and the number of “equated” pupils. This act defined “equated pupil” as a theoretical number of pupils determined by Mort’s tables which equalizes the variations in size of schools, and the difference in costs between elementary and secondary schools. The funds allotted for the minimum State program may be used only for legitimate items of current expense, including transportation, advanced instruction, supervision, and rural teachers’ salaries. In order to be eligible for State aid, towns must comply with law relative to teachers’ salaries, appointment of superintendents, detailed financial reports to State Department, and the raising of 75 cents on each $100 of valuation. LOCAL SCHOOL ADMINISTRATION, CONSOLIDATION, ETC. Noteworthy legislative enactments designed to effect the organiza¬ tion and consolidation of local units of school administration oc- EDUCATIONAL LEGISLATION 13 curred during the biennium in a few States. The Legislatures of California, Ohio, and Vermont furnished examples of enactments of this character. The California Legislature provided that every elemental’}' school district and high-school district, or every elementary, high-school, and junior college district having coterminous boundaries and under the jurisdiction of governing boards with the same personnel, shall be governed by one board of five members. This act stipulated that unified districts shall take over all obligations, funds, and property of districts becoming a part thereof (except bonded indebtedness). The Ohio School Foundation Act of 1935 included pixmsions de¬ signed to effect the reorganization of local school districts. This act stipulates that each year each county board of education shall make a survey of the county school district to determine the number of teachers and other educational employees and the number of trans¬ portation routes necessary. The county boards of education are directed to promulgate plans for more efficient district organization and to prescribe the transfers of territory, elimination of school dis¬ tricts, or the creation of new districts which will provide more eco¬ nomical and efficient systems of county schools. If the boards of education fail to agree on the proposed plan, the proposition shall be transmitted to the State Director of Education who shall order such transfer of territory or the creation of such new school districts as he shall deem in harmony with principles of economy, efficiency, and convenience. The Director of Education is also vested with full power to make the county surveys and to prescribe the alteration in case any county fails to do so. The Vermont Legislature stipulated that the State Board of Edu¬ cation through the Commissioner of Education, acting as the execu¬ tive officer of the board, shall, as soon as possible, combine the several school districts of the State into supervisory unions each approxi¬ mating 50 teachers with districts grouped in the interest of con¬ venience and efficiency, subject to certain exceptions. A number of other States enacted measures also designed to facili¬ tate district consolidation or to restrict the continuance of especially small districts. Among such States are Illinois, Iowa, Maine, Ore¬ gon, New Mexico, and Texas. HIGHER EDUCATION GENERAL ADMINISTRATION AND FINANCE The increased legislative control over institutions of higher learn¬ ing manifested during the depression continued, though in somewhat modified manner, during the 2 years under review. Only a few examples can be noted here. 14 BIENNIAL SURVEY OF EDUCATION, 1934-36 The Legislature of Georgia declared the “Regents of the Univer¬ sity System of Georgia” to be a governmental agency of the State and that all property held by said corporation is property of the State and subject to all limitations and restrictions imposed upon all other property of the State. This act required that tuition, matricu¬ lation fees, and proceeds of the sale of personalty shall be reported and remitted to the secretary-treasurer of the Board of Regents who shall transmit the same to the State treasurer, provided, however, that the dormitory rentals, mess hall charges, proceeds of athletic contests, and other similar revenues shall remain with the institution originating the same and shall not be paid into the State treasury. However, all such receipts shall be reported to the secretary-treasurer of the Board of Regents and be audited by the State auditor, whose reports shall be available to the Governor and the General Assembly. Perhaps one of the most outstanding legislative enactments within the biennium enhancing State control over the administration of institutions of higher learning occurred in New Mexico. The Legis¬ lature of that State vested in the State Board of Finance supervision and control of the budgets of all State offices, departments, and insti¬ tutions, including department of education and institutions of higher learning, subject to review by the Governor. The act requires all said departments to file their budgets with said State Board of Finance. The State board is empowered to supervise all purchases by the various government departments, and is authorized to adopt standard stationery, office supplies, and other equipment, and to pro¬ hibit the making of purchases other than in accordance with stand¬ ards adopted by the same. New Mexico empowered the Governor, with the approval of the State Board of Finance, to classify all employees in the State De¬ partment of Education and in the institutions of higher learning, and to fix their salaries within limitations, and to transfer em¬ ployees temporarily from one office, department, or institution to another. The Rhode Island Legislature reorganized and consolidated all boards, commissions, and departments of the State government. The State Board of Education was abolished, and the State College and the College of Education were placed under a State Board of Re¬ gents consisting of 10 members, namely, the Governor, Lieutenant Governor, the Chief Justice of the Supreme Court, the Director of Education, and the State Budget Director and Comptroller, ex offi- ciis, and 2 alumni members of the State College, 1 alumni member of the College of Education, and 2 qualified electors from the first and second Congressional districts, respectively, appointed by the Gov¬ ernor. EDUCATIONAL LEGISLATION 15 The West Virginia Legislature, as an economy measure, centralized the purchasing of supplies and commodities, printing, contractual services for State institutions, including educational institutions, in a State “Department of Purchases” and created a committee to pro¬ mulgate standards governing the quality, size, and variety of com¬ modities or services procured by the different institutions. The Legislature of South Carolina required all State institutions, includ¬ ing educational institutions, to purchase all materials, furnishings, and supplies after obtaining three competitive bids from within the State where practical when such purchases exceed $200. The tendency to reduce or eliminate millage taxes for the support of higher institutions of learning is still in evidence. For example, in 1935 the Legislature of Michigan repealed the provisions for millage levies in aid to the State University and the State College of Agriculture, and thereby abolished the remaining vestige of State property tax in that State. The amount of funds lost to the said State educational institutions by the repeal of the said taxes is re¬ placed by other proposals known as “mill-tax yardsticks”, which extend a definite amount from the general fund based upon assessed valuations of property upon which the mill tax was formerly levied. The W ashington State Legislature extended its business and occu¬ pational tax enacted in 1933 and provided that approximately 4 percent of receipts therefrom shall be used to aid in the maintenance of State higher institutions. The Legislature limited to 2 mills the aggregate annual rate of levy on real and personal property for the support of the State University. In 1935 Louisiana levied an annual franchise tax on all corpora¬ tions and provided that $400,000 of the annual receipts therefrom shall be paid to the State University and Agricultural and Mechan¬ ical College for improvements and expansion as authorized by law. The Nevada Legislature provided an additional $24,000 annually for the next 2 years for the State University derived from receipts from a license and stamp tax on liquor. In 1935 the Massachusetts Legislature increased appropriations for the State teachers colleges approximately $100,000 in excess of what was appropriated in 1934; also made a similar increase in the ap¬ propriation for the Massachusetts State College. Increased appro¬ priations are noted for English-speaking classes for adults, university extension courses, Division of Immigration and Americanization, public libraries, Division of the Blind, and for the Teacher Retire¬ ment Board. The salary of the State Commissioner of Education was increased from $7,500 to $9,000 per annum. Slight reductions were made in other lines of educational service. The tendency for many years to change the name of State normal schools to State “colleges” is still in evidence. This occurred in 16 BIENNIAL SURVEY OF EDUCATION, 1934-36 Maryland. In this connection it is interesting to note that in Cali¬ fornia the Legislature changed the designation of “State teachers colleges” to “State colleges” and authorized the said colleges to offer courses in liberal arts appropriate for teaching as a secondary func¬ tion, and provided that students not candidates for a teaching creden¬ tial may not be required to take more than 6 units of pedagogy. JUNIOR COLLEGES Legislation to enable the further development and control of junior colleges was enacted in several States during the past 2 years. Initial laws on this subject were enacted in Mississippi and South Carolina. The Mississippi act simply authorized any municipality or county which has organized or which may hereafter organize a junior college under the laws of the State to purchase lands or build¬ ings for such college on the installment plan and to provide for a tax levy to pay for the same. The South Carolina Junior College Act embodies somewhat detailed prescriptions governing the estab¬ lishment and maintenance standards of such colleges. The South Carolina Legislature authorized independent or special school dis¬ tricts, upon a three-fourths vote of the electors, to establish and main¬ tain junior college courses to consist of not more than 2 years’ work beyond a 4-year high-school course, and legalized any such junior college already established in said districts. School districts whose limits are co-extensive with the limits of any city of 5,000 inhabitants or more may, when authorized by a majority vote of the electors, establish or discontinue a junior college. The Legislature also vested the State Department of Education with the same supervision and control of said colleges as it now has over other departments of the public school system; limited the establishment of junior colleges to districts with more than $1,000,000 assessed valuation and which maintain an accredited high school; and required the approval of the State Department of Education which shall send a representa¬ tive to visit the district applying for establishment of such college and who shall make report to the department. The Michigan Legislature authorized school districts not main¬ taining a junior college to pay, upon majority vote of the electors, the tuition cost, in whole or in part, for the education of resident pupils wdio attend a legally established junior college in another school district. The Legislature also authorized any county in which a collegiate institution is maintained by a school district to contribute to said district as much as $50 annually per unit of membership, provided fees charged by the institution are uniform throughout the county. EDUCATIONAL LEGISLATION 17 The Legislatures of Arizona, California, and Texas amended their respective junior college legislation. Arizona provided State aid to any public county junior college in the amount of one-half the cost of maintenance up to $15,000 per year with the qualifications that the school buildings and equipment be approved by the superintend¬ ent of public instruction, that it have not fewer than 100 pupils in average daily attendance; that no part of the money be used for construction or repair of buildings, or the purchase of grounds or equipment ; and that a budget for 2 years be submitted to the Legisla¬ ture through the superintendent of public instruction for his certifi¬ cation of eligibility. California provided that the total amount in the junior college fund shall equal $90 for each unit of average daily attendance plus $2,000 for each junior college maintained during the preceding school year; and eliminated the provision that each junior college district shall annually be apportioned $100 per unit of average daily attendance during the preceding school year. California also au¬ thorized junior college districts to charge an annual tuition fee to each pupil for whose education the district is not entitled to receive funds from any other source, such tuition to be determined by the board but not in excess of the net cost per pupil to the district. The Texas Legislature amended its provisions for the establish¬ ment of junior colleges by authorizing two or more school districts to establish a junior college when they have a combined taxable wealth of not less than $9,500,000 (instead of $12,000,000), and when they have a scholastic population of 7,000 and not fewer than 400 students (was 500) for a period of 4 years in the classified high-school of said districts. HIGHER EDUCATION FOR NEGROES Recent years have manifested a definite tendency toward the improvement of facilities for the higher education of Negroes. A few noteworthy legislative enactments in this direction occurred in the 2 years here reviewed in Kentucky, Maryland, Oklahoma, and Pennsylvania. The Legislature of Kentucky provided for the payment by the State of the cost of obtaining college courses of instruction by any persons (Negro) who must (by reason of Section 187 of Constitu¬ tion) go out of the State to get such courses for the reason that there is no Negro institution in the State which offers such courses (especially applicable for Negroes). Cost of such instruction shall not exceed $175 per school year of 9 months. The Oklahoma Legislature provided for the payment by the State of tuition, fees, and transfer of qualified and morally satisfactory 18 BIENNIAL SURVEY OF EDUCATION, 1934-36 Negro youth who have completed 2 years of college work to enable them to pursue courses of study in higher institutions outside the State which courses are similar to those offered at the University of Oklahoma or other State-supported institutions. This measure was enacted by reason of Article XIII. Section 3, of the State Constitution which forbids the education of white and Colored youth together and thereby prevents Negro youth from pursuing the de¬ sired courses in the State institutions. The administration of this act was vested in the State Board of Education. The Maryland Legislature created a Commission on Higher Education for Negroes and provided scholarships for higher education of Negroes in insti¬ tutions in other States for the same reason. The Legislature also provided for the purchase of Princess Ann Academy by the Uni¬ versity of Maryland for $100,000. The Legislature of Pennsylvania stipulated that there shall be no distinction because of race, creed, or color in accommodations provided in public libraries, kindergartens, primary and secondary schools, academies, colleges and universities, extension courses, and all educational institutions. CURRICULA IN HIGHER EDUCATIONAL INSTITUTIONS Although legislative prescriptions governing the curricula in pub¬ lic institutions of higher learning have been seriously questioned in recent years, prescriptions of this nature are still in evidence. Legis¬ lative developments in this direction occurred in Florida, Kansas, Texas, and Wisconsin. The Florida Legislature required all higher State educational institutions to give instruction in nature study and the conservation of natural resources, including the study of fish and game, soil fer¬ tility and erosion, forests and minerals, and required all students in such institutions preparing to be teachers to take such course of instruction. The Legislature of Kansas directed all colleges or universities organized under the Morrill Act (land-grant colleges) to establish courses of military training and tactics compulsory for male students in their first and second years. Texas created a department of public safety, and directed the State University and all other State-sup¬ ported educational institutions to cooperate with the said depart¬ ment. Wisconsin required all teachers colleges and the State Uni¬ versity to offer instruction in Cooperative Marketing, and required instruction in such courses for certification to teach economics, social studies, and agriculture. EDUCATIONAL LEGISLATION 19 SCHOLARSHIPS IN HIGHER INSTITUTIONS A few noteworthy legislative measures in regard to scholarships in higher institutions of learning occurred recently in Illinois, Indi¬ ana, Louisiana, Michigan, New York, and Virginia. Illinois awarded the following normal school and college scholar¬ ships: 1 to each 4-year high school with fewer than 500 students; 2 to each said school with from 500 to 1,000 students; and 3 to each said school with more than 1,000 students. Each scholarship entitles the holder thereof to gratuitous instruction in any State normal school or teachers college for 4 years. The Legislature stipulated the procedure for selecting students entitled to said scholarships. In Indiana the two State Teachers Colleges were authorized to award two scholarships annually to each county; and the State University and Purdue University were each directed to award annually at least two scholarships to each county. The Legislature of Louisiana directed the State University and Agriculture and Mechanical College to give annually to each senator and representative a scholarship in the academic department for a student to be named by each said senator and representative from among the citizens of his district; such scholarships shall continue until each student so named has graduated unless his scholarship has ceased for other reasons. The Legislatures of Maine , Michigan , and West Virginia enacted laws to permit children of World War veterans to attend public higher institutions without the payment of tuition charges; and New York established 40 annual State scholarships of $200 each for such children. Apparently similar measures were enacted in a few other States. The Virginia Legislature made certain restrictions upon the grant¬ ing of scholarships in State educational institutions and prohibited the remission of special fees and charges in such institutions in certain designated cases. MISCELLANEOUS MEASURES RELATING TO HIGHER EDUCATION Some of the recent unclassified legislative enactments affecting higher education may be of interest here. The Legislature of Alaska established the University of Alaska in accordance with the provi¬ sions of the Act of Congress approved March 4, 1915; Colorado authorized State educational institutions to contract for the erection of dormitories and refectories on a self-liquidating basis; Florida granted women admission as students to the School of Pharmacy of the State University; Hawaii reorganized the Board of Regents of 20 BIENNIAL SURVEY OF EDUCATION, 1934-36 the Territorial University; Maine removed the student age limita¬ tion governing admission to normal schools; Massachusetts author¬ ized State teachers colleges to grant master’s degrees in education; New York granted to the members of the teaching and administra¬ tive staffs of the New York City Board of Higher Education the same protection of tenure which is provided for corresponding staffs of the City Board of Education; North Dakota made provision for a high-school education by correspondence free of cost, under the direc¬ tion of one of the State institutions of higher learning to be desig¬ nated by the State Board of Administration. The Legislatures of Massachusetts , Michigan , and Vermont re¬ quired teachers in higher institutions to subscribe to an oath of allegiance to Federal and State Constitutions. TEACHER TRAINING AND CERTIFICATION During the depression it was customary for many States to mod¬ ify, extend, or renew the validity of teachers’ certificates without requiring additional school attendance or teaching experience since the last extension. This practice continued during the 2 years here considered and legislative provisions of this character were enacted in Arkansas , Nevada , New York (applicable to New York City), South Carolina , and Tennessee. Colorado reduced attendance for¬ merly required at an institution of higher learning for the renewal of a teacher’s certificate from 10 to 5 weeks. Oregon increased the professional requirements for elementary teachers. The Legislature of that State stipulated that teacher-training courses for elementary teachers must include one term of professional training in addition to the standard 2-year normal course, and that after January 1, 1941, such preparation shall consist of a standard 3-year elementary teacher-training course. The Ohio Legislature revised its provisions governing the certifi¬ cation of teachers and designated the following grades of certificates : Temporary, Provisional, Professional, and Permanent, each of which may be issued in each of the following types: (1) Kindergarten-pri¬ mary; (2) Elementary; (3) High school; (4) Special; (5) Elemen¬ tary principal; (6) High-school principal; (7) Supervisor (8) Superintendent; (9) Vocational. This act provides that the Direc¬ tor of Education shall establish standards and courses of study for the preparation of teachers, shall provide for the inspection of insti¬ tutions desiring to prepare teachers, shall approve such institu¬ tions as maintain satisfactory training procedures, and shall properly certificate the graduates of such approved courses and institutions. The Legislature abolished certification based on examination, and required for provisional certificate 2 years of college training for EDUCATIONAL LEGISLATION 21 types (1) and (2) and graduation from a 4-year college for all other types. Most of the legislative prescriptions for different types of certificates were repealed and more powder was vested in the State Director of Education and the State Board of School Examiners. Michigan enacted a new law governing teacher certification. This law authorizes and requires the State Board of Education to pre¬ scribe requirements and issue certificates for teaching to graduates of the teacher-training departments of all educational institutions of the State, as said State Board of Education shall determine. In regard to this act the Michigan State Superintendent of Public Instruction issued the following statement: “The new law accom¬ plishes a reform in the control of the certification of teachers which has been advocated by professional leaders and organizations for many years. (In News of the Week , Department of Public Instruc¬ tion, May 22, 1935.) The New Jersey Legislature provided for a new State Board of Examiners with fewer ex-officio members and a larger percentage of membership appointed by the State Board of Education upon their nomination by the Commissioner, the appointed members to hold office for 2 years instead of 1 year; effective July 1, 1936. Minnesota authorized school boards of independent school districts in order to encourage further preparation and education of teachers to stipulate in their teachers’ contracts the salary such teacher may receive, conditioned upon attendance at summer schools. Arkansas authorized any county or district board of education which desires to cooperate with any public teacher-training institu¬ tion to enter into contract with said institution for the operation and maintenance of a public school, grades 1 to 12 or any part thereof, to be used for training-school purposes by said institution. Missouri increased from $170,000 to $300,000 the State appropria¬ tion for the ensuing biennium for teacher-training courses in connec¬ tion with high schools in cities having more than 70,000 population. Other recent legislative enactments during the biennium pertain¬ ing to teacher-training and certification are as follows : Alaska pro¬ vided for the certification of teachers in private schools; Maine re¬ moved the student minimum enrollment age of 17 years formerly required for entrance to normal schools; New Jersey permitted 20 percent, instead of 10 percent, of normal school tuition money to be used as a loan fund to aid needy students; New Mexico repealed the 1-year residence requirement for teachers’ certificates and permitted the granting of 1 year temporary certificates to persons meeting other requirements, and required 6 semester or 9 semester hours of work in Xew Mexico institutions of higher learning for a regular teacher’s cer¬ tificate; Texas stipulated that teachers in State-aided schools shall 22 BIENNIAL SURVEY OF EDUCATION, 1934-36 have a minimum of 2 years of college training or the equivalent and a State teacher’s certificate of certain prescribed standard; Vermont repealed the provision which permitted school directors to grant teachers’ certificates to high-school graduates by examination; Wis¬ consin stipulated higher qualifications for teachers of industrial arts and for supervisory teachers, and required teachers in economics, social science, and agriculture to have completed a course in coopera¬ tive marketing. The Legislature of Wisconsin also authorized counties to borrow money to establish joint county normal school buildings. The Legislature of South Dakota required State institu¬ tions of higher education to accept State teachers’ certificates in fulfillment of all college-entrance requirements and also required that college credit (not to exceed 36 semester hours) be given to holders of certain types of certificates. TEACHERS' SALARIES It is doubtless encouraging to teachers to note that during the past 2 years legislatures in many States have found it possible to restore in a certain degree reductions in salaries imposed during the depres¬ sion. In 1935 Delaware restored one-half of the salary reductions imposed in 1933. Hawaii authorized uniform restoration of a fixed percentage, not to exceed 11 percent, in the salary schedule for all classified positions and educational employees. The Legislature of Indiana provided for an increase of $2.50 per month for each year’s experience up to and including the fourth year, and also a similar increase based on each 18 weeks’ of training above the required 72 weeks until 144 weeks’ training has been earned. Minnesota author¬ ized salary increases for summer school attendance. Iowa raised the fiat minimum teacher’s salary from $40 to $50 per mpnth. New J er- sey extended the $70 per month minimum salary for teachers until July 1, 1937, and limited salary reductions to persons whose contract salary is more than $1,000 per annum. In North Carolina the Legis¬ lature removed the minimum and maximum statutory limitations on the salaries of county and city school superintendents to be paid from State funds and provided that said salaries shall be in accordance with a schedule set up by the State Board of Education. Oregon provided for the minimum teacher’s salary of $75 per month which had been suspended in 1933. Vermont increased the minimum salary for teachers with the lowest grade of certificates, and also the minimum salary of union school superintendents; and Wisconsin raised the minimum salary of supervising teachers from $1,000 to $1,200. In contrast with the legislative tendency above reported, the Legis- lature of Maryland made reductions in the salaries of county teach¬ ers and school officials. EDUCATIONAL LEGISLATION 23 The Legislatures of at least two States, Oklahoma and South Car¬ olina, enacted laws which provided State-wide salary schedules in connection with State aid programs. The Legislature of Oklahoma provided from State funds a minimum monthly salary schedule for teachers based upon the teacher’s certificate or training as follows : Elementary certificate on — Salary Examination _ $50 40 hours’ college work _ 65 2 years’ college work _ 75 3 years’ college work - 80 Bachelor’s degree - 90 Master’s degree - 100 The South Carolina Legislature stipulated that in the State-aid- for-schools program the maximum annual salaries of teachers paid from State funds shall not exceed the following respective amounts : (1) Teachers holding first-grade certificate, $588; provided, that in no school shall the average salary exceed $315 per annum for teachers in this class. (2) Teachers holding second-grade certificates, $350; provided, that in no school shall the average salary exceed $315 per annum for teachers in this class. (3) Teachers holding third-grade certificates, $210; provided, that in no school shall the average salary exceed $175 per annum, for all teach¬ ers in this class. TEACHER EMPLOYMENT, TENURE, LOYALTY OATHS, ETC. The employment and tenure status of teachers has been of vital concern for many years, and during the biennium there was an unusual amount of legislation on these subjects. Legislation per¬ taining to these subjects vary from outright tenure provisions to specifications in teachers’ contracts, teachers’ oaths, restrictions against religious or political discussion, residence, etc. In recent years there has been an unusual amount of legislation requiring loyalty oaths of teachers which is often regarded as an infringement upon academic freedom. Legislation of this character was enacted during the past biennium in Arizona, Georgia, Massa¬ chusetts, Michigan, New Jersey, and Vermont; Congress forbade teachers in the District of Columbia to “teach or advocate Com¬ munism”; and South Dakota forbade school districts to employ an alien who has not declared his intention to become an American citizen. Alaska forbade any school board member to inquire into the religious or political affiliations of any applicant for a teaching position. The Legislatures of California and New Jersey required school boards in dismissing teachers because of abolition of position to observe seniority of service. New Jersey forbade discrimination in 24 BIENNIAL SURVEY OF EDUCATION, 1934-36 dismissals on account of residence, age, sex, marriage, race, religion, or political affiliation. The Legislature of New Mexico repealed its 1-year residence requirement for teachers’ certificates; Nevada, how¬ ever, required 80 percent of its teachers to be residents of the State. The Legislature of South Carolina gave every teacher freedom to choose her residence and boarding place and forbade interference by any school trustee in this respect. Kentucky , Nevada , and West Virginia provided additional restrictions against the practice of nepotism by school officials; Oklahoma made it unlawful for any person to give or agree to give any gratuity in consideration that he or any other person shall be employed as a teacher in the public schools ; and Pennsylvania forbade any board of school directors to demand or accept any gift from any teacher within its employ; Idaho prohibited teachers or school employees from selling anything to pupils or parents. The Arkansas Legislature provided that no teacher may be appointed for the next ensuing year until the annual school elections have been held and the new directors are present on the board. In Mississippi the Legislature provided that in special consolidated school districts having five “supervisors’ districts” the school prin¬ cipals shall be elected prior to the teachers and on the recommenda¬ tion of the superintendent with the approval of the trustees of each school, and that thereafter the district superintendent, the principal, and trustees of each school shall agree upon a list of teachers for each school to be nominated by the district superintendent to the county board of education; and the county board shall elect only such teachers as are nominated in the said manner. Legislation in North Carolina affecting the employment of teach¬ ers included the following provisions: (1) Each county board of education shall appoint biennially a committee of from three to five persons for each school district, which committee shall select the teachers and principals for said district subject to approval of the county superintendent and the county board of education; (2) county and city boards of education shall give written notice to any teacher, principal, or superintendent within 30 days after close of school term, who have not been re-elected for the next ensuing year; (3) all city school superintendents shall be appointed for 2 years instead of 1 year; (4) the State School Commission may make pro¬ vision for sick leave with pay for any teacher not exceeding 5 days per year. The Virginia Legislature authorized the State Board of Education in its discretion to pay 80 percent of the salary of teachers absent on account of illness or quarantine and to deduct 3 percent from the State teachers’ salary fund for this purpose. EDUCATIONAL LEGISLATION 25 Legislation which may adversely affect the employment status of teachers occurred in Delaware. The Legislature of that State re¬ pealed its law which required that boards give to teachers whose services are to be discontinued at the end of the year a notice in writing by March 15 and the reasons for terminating their employ¬ ment, and provided instead that notice be given by May 1 — no state¬ ment about reasons required. A number of States enacted legislation to improve the tenure rights of teachers. The outstanding enactment of this character oc¬ curred in Louisiana. The Legislature of that State provided a system of teacher tenure with the following principal features: (1) Probationary period of 3 years during which dismissal may be made only upon written recommendation accompanied by valid reasons therefor by the parish school superintendent; (2) the parish school board shall give written notice to any teacher found unsatisfactory at end of probationary period that he has been discharged or dis¬ missed, and in the absence of such notice such probationary teacher shall automatically become a regular and permanent teacher; (3) all teachers who have already served satisfactorily for more than 3 con¬ secutive years shall be declared regular and permanent teachers; (4) no permanent teacher shall be removed except upon written and signed charges of willful neglect of duty, or of incompetency, or dishonesty, and then only if found guilty after a hearing by the school board, which hearing may be public or private at the option of the teacher; and (5) said teacher shall be furnished, at least 15 days in advance of hearing, a copy of the written charges against him, and the teacher may employ counsel to assist him at the hearing. The teacher also has the right to appeal to the court of appropriate jurisdiction. The Legislature of California extended its provisions for the ex¬ change of California teachers with teachers of foreign countries so as to provide also exchange with teachers of any State or Territory of the United States. It also extended the period of exchange from 1 to 2 years, and stipulated that acceptance of such exchange pro¬ visions shall not affect any tenure or retirement rights. California authorized any school district having an average daily attendance of 850 or more to establish a civil service system for its noncerti heated employees. The Legislature of the Territory of Hawaii authorized the Depart¬ ment of Public Instruction to grant a year’s leave of absence with part pay to teachers who have completed 8 or more years of service, and also provided that the tenure rights of teachers may not extend to intercept the provisions for compulsory retirement at the age of 65. Furthermore, the Hawaii Legislature directed that special con- 26 BIENNIAL SURVEY OF EDUCATION, 1934-36 sideration be given to teachers on leave of absence, or who were dropped under economy programs, when filling vacancies. The teacher-tenure law of New Jersey was clarified by a legislative stipulation that the services of teachers and principals shall be dur¬ ing good behavior and efficiency “after employment for 3 consecutive academic years together with employment at the beginning of the next succeeding academic year.” The New York Legislature authorized any board of education to appoint a committee for the purpose of trying a case of charges pre¬ ferred against a teacher or officer, the report of said committee to be subject to action by the board; and limited to 1 year the pro¬ bationary period of teachers who have rendered satisfactory service as substitutes for 2 years. The New York Commissioner of Educa¬ tion was prohibited by law from interfering, except for cause, with the tenure rights of employees in the teaching examination and supervisory service in a city of 400,000 or more population where such persons have completed their probationary periods and received permanent appointments. TEACHER RETIREMENT The problems of establishing and developing teacher-retirement systems have received prolific attention in recent years. During the biennium, legislation was enacted in approximately one-half of the States which for the most part tended to improve teacher-retirement systems. The outstanding recent legal developments occurred in Louisiana, Missouri, Texas, and Utah. In November 1936, the elec¬ tors of Missouri and Texas ratified amendments to their State con¬ stitutions which expressly empowered their respective State Legisla¬ tures to establish State-wide retirement systems for teachers. The Legislatures of TJ tah and Louisiana in 1935 and 1936, respec¬ tively, enacted provisions for the establishment of State-wide retire¬ ment systems for teachers, each under State administrative boards of seven members. The Utah State retirement board was directed to adopt mortality tables and to establish and maintain, under the di¬ rection of competent actuarial advice, a complete system of records and accounts, and provided that the State retirement fund shall be designated as follows : (1) An annuity fund, 90 percent of contributions by teachers. (2) A disability fund, 10 percent of contributions by teachers. (3) A reserve fund, gifts and receipts from various sources. (4) An accrued liability fund, transfers from annuity and disability funds, etc., under certain conditions. (5) An expense fund, appropriations by State for “operation” of system. Each member of the retirement system pays to the annuity fund such proportion of his salary as actuarial data may determine necessary, EDUCATIONAL LEGISLATION 27 which shall be credited to the individual account of each member; payments to the disability fund go into the common fund. Any teacher who has served for 30 years (20 in State) or who is 60 years of age if a woman, and 65 if a man, may retire. Teachers’ benefits vary according to length of service, salary, etc. Teachers in any city retirement system whose funds have been transferred to State retire¬ ment system shall receive annuities according to such (former) city system. The TJtah Legislature also strengthened the existing retire¬ ment systems of cities of the first and second classes. The Louisiana act made membership in the State retirement system compulsory for all new teachers, but left it optional with teachers already in service. Under the terms of the State system, retirement is optional at 60 years of age and compulsory at 70, unless retained for not more than 2 years on the approval of the State Retirement Board. Upon retirement a teacher shall receive : (a) An annuity — actuarial equivalent of accumulated contributions; (b) a pension equal to annuity allowable at 60 years of age; (c) if teacher has a “prior service certificate” (showing teaching service prior to estab¬ lishment of retirement system) in effect he shall receive an additional pension equal to annuity which would have been provided at age of 60 “by twice the contributions which he would have made during prior service had the system been in operation and he contributed thereunder.” Provision is made for disability retirement after 10 years’ service, which shall consist of an annuity plus a pension equal to 75 percent of the pension that would have been payable upon retirement at 60 years of age. Legislation was enacted in Alabama , Mississippi , and New Mexico , which authorized local authorities to retire aged teachers. Missis¬ sippi authorized the trustees of any separate or consolidated school district to retire on part pay teachers who have taught 40 years (in district) ; provided no retired teacher shall receive more than $500 per annum, and provided that not more than 3 percent of the total school budget be expended in payment of retired teachers ; such retirement sums shall be paid from local school district levy. The New Mexico act authorized the Board of County Commissioners to retire needy teachers with 35 years’ service (in State) ; the retirement allowance not to exceed half of their annual salary for preceding 5 years and not more than $1,200 per year, such retirement sums to be raised by local property taxes. The Alabama act, is limited to counties with 75,000 to 100,000 population and to incapacitated teachers; boards of education in such counties are authorized to re¬ tire any disabled teacher who has taught in such county 21 years or more and the amount of pension shall be half of salary received during said period but not to exceed $600 per annum, and shall be paid out of the regular school fund. 28 BIENNIAL SURVEY OF EDUCATION, 1934-36 California made substantial changes in its State teachers’ retire¬ ment law. Among some of the changes are: (1) Increased the teach¬ ers’ contributions to the Public School Teachers Permanent Fund from $12 to $24 per year; (2) required each school district to con¬ tribute to said fund $12 annually per teacher; (3) increased • the annual retirement salary for 30 years’ service from $500 to $600 per year with proportionate increases to those retired on account of disability. Furthermore, teachers employed after July 1, 1935, who are subject to the Retirement Law, were required to deposit 4 percent of their monthly salary, less $2, in an annuity deposit fund which is administered by the Teachers Retirement Salary Fund Board. Upon retirement the accrued annuity with interest is added to the retirement salary provided for in the act. The Illinois Legislature increased the monthly teachers’ contribu¬ tions to the State Teachers’ Pension and Retirement Fund from $1 to $2 for teachers having less than 10 years’ service; from $2 to $4' for teachers with between 10 and 15 years’ service ; and from $4 to $6 for teachers who have taught more than 15 years ; and provided that the total amount of pension and annuity of teachers retired on ac¬ count of the said funds may be as much as $500 (previously $400) per annum. Illinois also increased the levy for retirement fund, the teachers’ contribution for the same, and teacher annuities in cities having more than 500,000 population. Noteworthy amendatory legislation occurred in many other States. Kentucky revised certain sections of the teacher-retirement act for independent cities of the first and second classes so as to extend the provisions of the said act to independent cities of the third class. The Legislatures of Connecticut and Indiana extended the time within which teachers may become members of retirement system. Maine provided that teachers who are 55 years of age and who have fulfilled the required service and who are without work, needy, and dependent, may receive half of the amount of their pension till they are 60 years of age when they will receive the full amount. Massa¬ chusetts permitted teachers who become disabled before attaining the age of 60 to retire after 15 years of service, instead of 20, as previ¬ ously required, and stipulated that annual pensions in such cases shall not be less than $400 ; Massachusetts also permitted teachers on leave of absence to make contributions to retirement fund. New Jersey changed the rate of contribution to pension fund by employees of boards of education in counties of first class, from 2 percent to 3 percent of salaries of said employees. New York forbade reduction in the retirement salary of persons (including teachers) who are members of the State employees’ retirement system even though such employees have had a reduction in salary since 1932. North Dakota EDUCATIONAL LEGISLATION 29 provided that teachers who were honorably discharged from the United States armed service in the World War shall have the time of such service counted as “teaching service”, under the provisions of the teacher-retirement system. Ohio authorized reinstatement in the retirement system members who have withdrawn their accumu¬ lated deductions, provided such members repay the amount of such deductions, and interest at 4 percent. Pennsylvania provided for a State annuity of not less than $20 per month for teachers and super¬ intendents 62 years of age and who have taught in the public schools for 20 years (15 years if separated by reason of disability) and who separated from the public-school service prior to the establishment of the retirement system ; Pennsylvania also permitted school employees to elect to contribute to the Teachers’ Retirement System on the basis of their 1932-33 salaries, and required the State and the school dis¬ tricts to contribute on an equivalent basis. The Legislature of Oregon created an interim commission of three representatives and two senators to study plans for a teachers’ retirement fund and to recommend legislation to the 1937 Legislature. TEXTBOOKS Practically every biennial period reveals some legislation to ex¬ tend free textbook systems for public-school children. During the 2 years here reviewed more States than usual enacted legislation in behalf of free textbooks or to provide textbooks at a reduced cost. Noteworthy legislation for the extension of the usual free text¬ book systems was enacted in Florida , Georgia , O hio, and Tennessee . Florida extended the provision of its free textbook system so as to provide at State expense free textbooks for use of all pupils of the public elementary and high schools of the State. (Previously free textbooks at State expense was limited to pupils of the first six grades.) The Georgia Legislature stipulated that revenue derived from the license and excise taxes on malt beverages shall be used for the purpose of furnishing free textbooks to children attending the common schools. The Legislature of Ohio made it mandatory (in¬ stead of permissive) for school districts to furnish free textbooks but permitted districts to limit the furnishing of free textbooks to grades 1 to 4, inclusive, for the school year 1935-36 and to grades 1 to 8, inclusive, for the school year 1936-37. It is provided, how¬ ever, that any district may limit its purchase of free books to six subjects per year, the cost of which shall not exceed 25 percent of the entire cost of the free textbook system for the district. In Tennessee the Legislature authorized county courts to levy a tax for purchasing and distributing without cost to pupils in elementary and high schools all textbooks required of said pupils by the “cur¬ riculum” presented by the school boards of the various counties. 30 BIENNIAL SURVEY OF EDUCATION, 1934-36 The latest, and perhaps most interesting, legislative developments in behalf of reducing the expense of school books authorized school authorities to establish textbook rental systems. Legislation of this type occurred in Indiana and North Carolina in 1935 and in South Carolina in 1936. The North Carolina Legislature created a State Textbook Purchasing and Rental Commission of five members con¬ sisting of the State Superintendent of Public Instruction, the At¬ torney General, the Director of the Division of Purchasing and Control, and two members appointed by the Governor. This com¬ mission was charged with the duty of promulgating rules neces¬ sary to : 1. Acquire textbooks for use in public schools. 2. Provide a system of textbook distribution under a rental system. 3. Provide a uniform rental charge, not to exceed one-third of the cost of the books ( must be furnished free to indigent children ) . 4. Adopt a system of accounting of all books and provide for an annual audit of the textbook commission. 5. Prohibit the interchange of books between white and colored schools. The Legislature appropriated $1,500,000 to inaugurate the State Textbook Rental System. The Indiana Legislature provided that school districts, upon peti¬ tion of 51 percent of the voters thereof shall adopt and provide text¬ books sufficient in number for all resident pupils ; and by separate act school districts were authorized to rent textbooks to pupils at an an¬ nual rental not to exceed 25 percent of the retail price of the books. The Legislature of South Carolina created a State School Book Commission composed of the Governor, the State Superintendent of Education, the Director of the Division of Textbooks (established by same act), one member of the State Board of Education, and three county superintendents of education. This commission was authorized and directed to provide all textbooks for use in the public schools on a rental system whereby pupils pay an annual rental in an amount to be fixed by the commission and in its discretion graduated as to grades and to be sufficient to pay all costs of administration of the system and the purchase of books. The rentals shall be paid by or for each pupil at the opening of the school term. This act does not abrogate the power of “school districts or counties as now have or hereafter may have the right to set up rental or free textbook systems”, but permits said districts to abandon their local textbook systems and to become a part of the State rental system.1 Under this act the new textbook commission is authorized to adopt textbooks for a period of 3 years. Furthermore, this act authorizes the School Book Commission to rent or buy outright the books to be used in the 1 The State rental system does not apply to any school district or county which before August 1, 1936, elected not to come under the provisions of this act. EDUCATIONAL LEGISLATION 31 State and to borrow money and issue negotiable notes and pledge books purchased and rentals collected for the discharge of rental or purchase contracts. “The full faith and taxing power of the State are pledged for the payment of said notes.” Moreover, it is stipu¬ lated that after 3 years of operation the School Book Commission is directed to waive rentals for as many of the grammar school grades as available funds will permit, and after 5 years or earlier if funds are available, the Commission shall waive rentals for as many of the high-school grades as funds will permit, to the end that textbooks shall be supplied to all school children of the State without charge at the earliest possible date. Legislation especially designed to reduce the cost of textbooks ap¬ peared in Louisiana and New Mexico. Louisiana required that all textbooks furnished free to pupils which, whenever possible, be printed and bound within the State under contracts let by the State Printing Board. The State Board of Education was directed to adopt for a minimum period of 4 years such books for which the authors, publishers, or owners of copyrights shall agree to grant to the State publishing rights or the leasing of plates for State printing thereof. In case the State Board is unable to acquire publishing rights it is directed to have textbooks written on its own initiative. Under this law pupils are to receive at public expense not only text¬ books but also school supplies, including library books, paper, pens, ink, pencils, etc. Legislation in New Mexico authorized the State Board of Educa¬ tion to receive and expend monies in connection with the sale and distribution of textbooks in order that books be made available to the children at the lowest possible cost. Legislation affecting the period of adoption of textbooks occurred in Louisiana, Nevada, and North Dakota. Louisiana changed the period for which textbooks may be adopted from 6 to 4 years, and North Dakota stipulated that the change of basic textbooks used in public schools shall not be oftener than once in 5 years instead of 3 years, as was previously provided for. The Nevada Legislature postponed the adoption of textbooks 1 year — from 1935 until 1936. Legislation was enacted in Nevada which granted school districts the option as to whether they shall provide free textbooks. Pre¬ viously the law required that local districts furnish books and supplies without cost to pupils. CURRICULUM The problem of determining what subjects shall be taught in the public schools continues to receive considerable legislative attention. During the 2 years here considered more States than usual enacted 32 BIENNIAL SURVEY OF EDUCATION, 1934-36 legislation affecting the curriculum in public schools. Laws were enacted in Alaska, California, Connecticut, Indiana, North Carolina,. South Carolina, and Wyoming designed to promote the teaching of the effects of alcohol and narcotics upon the human system. Legis¬ lation in Illinois, Massachusetts, and New York required the display of the American flag in public schools ; and in Massachusetts school children were required to salute the flag and recite the “Pledge of Allegiance” thereto. The Legislatures of Connecticut and Indiana required instruction in constitutional government. The Connecticut act requires that the history, constitution, and government of the United States be a. required course of study for a period equivalent to 1 year in the curriculum of all high schools. The Indiana law stipulates that the State requirement for graduation from a “commissioned” high school shall include one unit of work devoted to the State and National constitutions, and that such course shall cover the historical, poli¬ tical, and philosophical aspects of the subject. The Legislature of Florida enacted several measures affecting pub¬ lic-school curriculum. In that State all high schools and colleges are now required to give instruction in nature study and conserva¬ tion of natural resources, including the study of fish and game, soil fertility and erosion, forest and minerals; and all students in high schools and teachers colleges are required to take such courses of instruction. Nature study is prescribed as a fundamental require¬ ment of promotion in at least two of the elementary grades of the public schools. The State Superintendent of Public Instruction is directed to prepare or designate a textbook or suitable subject mat¬ ter for use in public schools in aid of the teaching of conservation of natural resources. Provision was made by the appropriation of $7,500 for the establishment of a Forestry Department in the State University. The Legislature of Florida also required the State Board of Education to prescribe and require the teaching of State history in such grades of the public schools as the said board in its discretion shall determine. Other legislation enacted during the biennium affecting the sub¬ ject matter taught in public schools is here mentioned: Kansas di¬ rected all colleges or universities organized under the Morrill Act to establish courses of military training and tactics compulsory for male students in their first and second years. North Dakota en¬ larged the curriculum offerings to high-school students in small schools by permitting them to take by correspondence at public expense approved courses which are not offered by the local high school. Utah authorized the Land Board or Industrial Commission to loan $30,000 to State Agricultural College to be used for experi- EDUCATIONAL LEGISLATION 33 mentation and for teaching forestry, range and wild life manage¬ ment, and such other uses as the college may determine. Wisconsin required instruction in public schools concerning conservation of material resources; Wisconsin also required that all public schools, colleges, and universities offer instruction in cooperative marketing, and required instruction in such courses for certification to teach economics, social studies, and agriculture. Wisconsin furthermore required all public and private elementary and high schools to give at least 15 minutes each week to instruction on the true and com¬ parative vitamin content and food and health values of dairy prod¬ ucts and their importance for human diet. TUITION AND TRANSPORTATION Tuition. — Apparently all States have made some legal provisions for free public elementary and secondary school facilities for all children. However, the realization of this goal has not been fully attained in every State, especially for many children classed as “nonresidents” or for those children residing in districts which do not maintain adequate school facilities, particularly of secondary level, or for children who reside a remote distance from a school of suitable grade. During the biennium many legislatures gave favor¬ able consideration to the educational problems of such children. Legislation to provide public funds for the payment of school tuition under varying conditions was enacted in California, Idaho, Illinois, Kentucky, Maine, Michigan, Minnesota, Missouri, Montana, New Jersey, North Dakota, Ohio, Rhode Island, Texas, Virginia, and Wisconsin. There is a tendency to provide for the payment of nonresident tuition charges out of State funds. A few examples of legislative provisions to this effect are here mentioned: The Legislature of New Jersey in its minimum foundation program provided a mini¬ mum apportionment of State funds to districts, $13 per elementary pupil and $22 per high-school pupil, and stipulated that the said amounts shall be allowed to school boards sending pupils to other districts. North Dakota, provided payment of tuition to districts receiving nonresident high-school pupils at the rate of $1.50 per week out of the State equalization fund. Previously such aid was to be paid by the district wherein the pupil resided. North Dakota also allowed State aid in payment of approved high-school correspond¬ ence courses, not to exceed $40,000. Ohio provided that the cost of tuition shall be included in its newly established “school founda¬ tion” program. Rhode Island stipulated that in the administration of the State equalization aid the Director of Education shall ap¬ portion such amounts as will provide $100 per capita for each 34 BIENNIAL SURVEY OF EDUCATION, 1934-36 high-school pupil, including pupils in non-high-school towns who attend high school in adjacent towns. The Legislatures of Maine and Texas provided that if any local district fails to pay the tuition of its children attending school in another district the State Superintendent of Schools may pay the tuition and deduct the amount from the home district’s share of the State apportionment. Transportation . — During the past 2 years legislation was enacted in many States which tended to extend transportation facilities for public-school children. Among States enacting such legislation are : Connecticut, Delaware, Illinois, Michigan, Minnesota, Montana, Nebraska, Ohio, Pennsylvania, South Carolina, South Dakota, and Vermont. A few examples of such legislation to provide transportation facil¬ ities for school children are here given : Ohio provided that the cost of maintaining approved pupil transportation (and tuition) shall be included in its newly established School Foundation program; and made it the duty of the Director of Education to prescribe means and methods of transportation and to recommend costs there¬ of, taking into consideration scarcity of population, etc. Pennsyl¬ vania appropriated $2,500,000 to subsidize during the biennium the transportation of school pupils. South Carolina directed the State Superintendent of Education and the Comptroller General to ex¬ pend $234,000 for the transportation of pupils for the fiscal year 1934^35. South Dakota authorized boards of education to close small schools and pay a transportation fee in lieu thereof provided expenditures for closings shall not exceed $150 per family in each school closed. Vermont eliminated the provision of its school law which forbade transportation of pupils who resided within 2 miles from school. The Legislatures of Louisiana , Massachusetts , and New York authorized school boards under certain conditions to extend to pupils attending private schools transportation facilities similar to those provided for public-school children. SCHOOL HEALTH AND SAFETY During the biennium an unusual amount of legislation was en¬ acted designed to protect the health and safety of children attending school. Legislation of this general purpose occurred in varying forms in approximately three-fourths of the States. Laws intended to assure care on the part of operators of motor vehicles on the highways when passing school buses were enacted in Alabama, Mis¬ sissippi, Nevada, and New Hampshire. In a number of States EDUCATIONAL LEGISLATION 35 measures were enacted governing the construction, inspection, or operation of school buses. Among the States enacting legislation of this character are: California, Indiana, Mississippi, New York, North Carolina, North Dakota, Ohio, Oklahoma, and Virginia. A few examples of legislation of this nature follow: Indiana required the State Director of Public Safety to inspect school buses and required drivers of said buses to furnish a cer¬ tificate of health and physical fitness and that they be of good moral character. A committee was directed to prescribe regulations for the construction of buses. School buses must be equipped with safety glass and fire extinguishers. Mississippi made it the duty of school superintendents to select safety councils of suitable persons not less than 14 years of age from the student body who shall be assigned to duty on each school bus to act as safety counsel and traffic aide to said children. Bus driver and safety council member before crossing any railroad track were required to ascertain that no locomotive is approaching. The new law in Ohio requires school bus drivers to give satisfactory and sufficient bond, to be 21 years of age and of good moral character and physically qualified, and to pass a physical examination. The Virgina Legislature stipulated that “no person shall drive any school bus” unless he has had a reasonable amount of experience in driving motor vehicles, and has satisfactorily passed a rigid ex¬ amination pertaining to his ability to operate a school bus with safety. The State Division of Motor Vehicles was directed to adopt rules for the examination of school bus drivers. Legislation which provides that school bus operators carry lia¬ bility insurance may reasonably be construed as intended to afford financial protection or compensation in case of accidents. Measures of this character were enacted in Florida , New Jersey , and Vermont . In North Carolina the Legislature provided State compensation for school children killed or injured while riding in a school bus in amount not exceeding $600 for each child killed or injured; and Florida authorized school boards to insure children against accidents while being transported to and from school. The Legislatures of Alaska , South Carolina , and Virginia enacted legislation designed to promote safety in the construction of school buildings; fire drills were required in Connecticut ; and California required every public and private school to be equipped with a first-aid kit. Measures designed to promote the health of undernourished school children were enacted in Neio York , Pennsylvania , and Vermont by authorizing the distribution of milk through the public schools for such children ; and the State of W ashington authorized school boards 36 BIENNIAL SURVEY OF EDUCATION, 1934-36 to furnish milk free to school children under 14 years who are in need of the same. In Illinois , North Carolina , and Vermont school boards were authorized to provide hot lunches for school children. The Legislature of Wisconsin required public and private schools to give at least 15 minutes’ instruction each week concerning the true and comparative vitamin content and food and health values of dairy products and their importance for human diet; and directed the State Superintendent of Education to prescribe the course of study for such instruction. The Legislature of Vermont authorized boards of school directors to expend annually not to exceed 3 percent of the annual school bud¬ get for “such health service activities as may be necessary to provide for the improvement of the physical efficiency of school children of indigent parents. Expenditures for this purpose may include the purchase of milk for * * * undernourished children, the purchase of ingredients for hot lunches, also expenditures for glasses, dental service, the removal of tonsils, and other health services which are approved by the town health officer and the teacher or public health nurse.” SCHOOL BUILDINGS Recent legislation enacted in many States affect the construction and maintenance of public-school buildings. Some of the States which enacted laws to authorize and facilitate the construction of school buildings are: Alabama (Alaska), California, Colorado, Dela¬ ware, Illinois, Indiana, Mississippi, Missouri, Nebraska, New York, North Carolina, South Dakota, and Virginia. The Virginia Legislature enacted several measures of interest. In 1936 the Legislature of that State authorized the issuance of bonds by county school boards for the purpose of providing funds for school building improvements, including the purchase of sites for buildings, and the furnishing and equipment of school buildings. The time of said bonds shall not exceed 30 years and the rate of interest shall not exceed 6 percent. By another act the Virginia Legislature also authorized the State Board of Education to loan from the State Library Fund as much as $50,000 for any one school building project. Previously this amount was allowed only in cer¬ tain cases. This act also provided for payment of principal in an¬ nual installments during periods from 5 to 30 years. Previously the payment of such loan was to be made in 15 annual installments. Furthermore, the Virginia Legislature authorized the State Board of Education to require such changes in public-school buildings as may be necessary for safety against fire and panic hazards, and to withhold from any county, city, or town failing to meet such require¬ ments certain State school funds. EDUCATIONAL LEGISLATION 37 The Legislatures of Vermont and South Carolina provided for State systems of insurance to cover all public-school buildings. A Montana act required all school boards to pay into the State treasury insurance premiums on their school buildings. The law provides that when the State Insurance Fund exceeds $1,000,000 the premiums shall cease until the said fund is less than $700,000. The Legislature of South Carolina stipulated that the cost of its school building insurance system shall be paid by the Sinking F und Commission. PRIVATE SCHOOLS During the past 2 years several measures were enacted into law designed to secure minimum standards or to regulate certain activi¬ ties of privately controlled educational institutions. The Legislature of Connecticut stipulated that no person, school, association, or corporation which has heretofore been granted author¬ ity to confer any standard academic, professional, or graduate degree and which has not prior to July 1, 1935, exercised such authority, shall confer any such degree until it shall be determined by the State Board of Education that its organization and equipment are such that it is fully competent to meet the degree standards set and maintained by similar institutions. The New York Legislature made further restrictions against the use of the name of “college” or “university” and stipulated that no individual or association shall advertise or transact business under “any name, title, or descriptive material indicating or tending to imply that said individual, association, * * * conducts, carries on, or is a school of law, medicine, dentistry, pharmacy, veterinary medicine, nursing, optometry, chiropody, architecture, or engineer¬ ing, unless the right to do so shall have been granted by the board of regents of the University of New York in writing under seal.” The New York Legislature also stipulated that “no educational corporation or association that holds itself out to the public to be nonsectarian and exempt from taxation * * * shall deny the use of its facilities to any person, otherwise qualified, by reason of his race, color, or religion.” The Oklahoma s Legislature prohibited any business college or other school giving resident instruction and having its domicile out¬ side of the State, or agent of such school, to canvass prospective students in Oklahoma for the purpose of selling scholarships or tuition in such college or school until such school or its agent shall have filed with the Secretary of State a surety bond of $2,000 con¬ ditioned that such school will faithfully perform all contracts made in soliciting students, and until such school or agent shall obtain from the Superintendent of Public Instruction a license to solicit 38 BIENNIAL SURVEY OF EDUCATION, 1934-36 prospective students in the State. This act stipulates that no license shall be granted until application therefor sets forth the name of the college, the number of instructors employed, the courses of study and subjects given, and any other information which may be required by the State Superintendent of Public Instruction. The Oregon Legislature stipulated that no private institution of learning shall “confer or offer” any degree upon any person without first having submitted the requirements for such degree to the State Board of Education and having obtained its approval of such re¬ quirements (not applicable to institutions which have conferred de¬ grees for 15 years, or to schools which are in good standing of the Northwest Association of Secondary and Higher Schools). Under this act the State Board of Education may inspect private schools and institutions and if they fail to keep up the required standard the said board “shall revoke its approval to confer degrees”, but such revocation shall be subject to the right of review by the circuit court of the county in which the school is located. In California the Legislature provided that private non-degree- conferring schools and educational institutions which grant diplomas and certificates may incorporate under the civil code provisions ap- licable to the incorporation of degree-conferring institutions. Wisconsin required both public and private schools to include in their course of study at least 15 minutes per week of instruction on the true and comparative vitamin content and food and health values of dairy products and their importance for human diet. The Legislatures of Massachusetts and Vermont required teachers in private schools to take an oath of loyalty to the Federal and State Constitutions. The Alaska Legislature provided for certification of teachers in private and denominational schools, for the examination of eighth grade pupils in private schools, and for monthly attendance reports and annual reports from such schools to the Territorial Commis¬ sioner of Education. VOCATIONAL EDUCATION At least two enactments affecting vocational education have re¬ cently occurred which should be mentioned; one is a State act, the other a Federal one. In 1935 the Legislature of New York stipulated that vocational schools which may be established by boards of education shall be of secondary grade and be conducted in accordance with the rules of the Board of Regents and to include certain specified courses of train¬ ing. This act also provided that boards of education may employ qualified persons for the vocational educational guidance of minors EDUCATIONAL LEGISLATION 39 and may establish a guidance bureau as part of the school system. Boards of education of each city and school district having a popula¬ tion of 100,000 or more shall establish a guidance bureau. In this act boards of education maintaining any kind of vocational school were directed to appoint a supervisory board of 5 members representing the local trades, industries, and occupations. Furthermore, the Board of Regents was directed to appoint a supervisory council on apprentice training of 5 members representing the trades, industries, and the industrial occupations of the State, such council to make studies and surveys. In 1936 the United States Congress enacted what is known as the “George-Deen Act” to further aid vocational education in the several States and Territories. This act becomes effective July 1, 1937. It takes the place of the George-Ellzey Act, which became operative July 1, 1934, under which an annual appropriation of $3,000,000 wTas authorized for the further development of vocational education for a period of 3 years ending June 30, 1937. The new Federal act authorizes an annual appropriation of $12,000,000 for vocational education — $4,000,000 for vocational edu¬ cation in agriculture, and an equal amount for vocational education in trade and industry and also in home economics. The act also authorizes an annual appropriation of (1) $1,200,000 for vocational training in distributive occupations — retailing, wholesaling, etc.; (2) $1,000,000 for training of teachers of vocational education in agri¬ culture, trade and industry, and home economics. The George-Deen Act differs from the George-Ellzey Act in four principal ways: (1) It increases by $9,090,397 the sum authorized for vocational education in the three fields — agriculture, trade and industry, and home economics — and by $1,054,000 the sum authorized for training teachers in these fields; (2) it requires States and Terri¬ tories participating in the grants to match only 50 percent of these grants for the first 5 years in which the act is operative, this per¬ centage being increased by 10 percent each year thereafter until it reaches 100 percent in 1947 ; (3) it authorizes funds to be used in programs providing training for the distributive occupations; and (4) it extends the benefits of vocational education to the District of Columbia. o ' ' UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR HAROLD L. ICKES : SECRETARY OFFICE OF EDUCATION : J. W. STUDEBAKER COMMISSIONER PARENT-EDUCATION PROGRAMS IN CITY SCHOOL SYSTEMS being Chapter IX of Volume I of the BIENNIAL SURVEY OF EDUCATION IN THE UNITED STATES : 1934-36 BULLETIN, 1937, No. 2 [ADVANCE PAGES] By ELLEN C. LOMBARD Associate Specialist in Parent Education UNITED STATES GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE WASHINGTON : 1939 For sale by the Superintendent of Documents, Washington, D. C. Price 10 cents . Contents Page Foreword . v I. Introduction . 1 II. Purposes and Activities of Parent Education Programs . 3 III. Characteristics of Parent Education Pro¬ grams . 4 Programs conducted as an element of adult educa¬ tion . 5 Programs conducted within home economics de¬ partments . 12 Programs conducted as cooperative projects ... 17 IV. Inauguration of a Program of Parent Educa¬ tion . 19 Financing a parent education program . 19 Qualifications and duties of a director . 21 Finding lay leaders . 21 Organizing the program . 22 Organizing local study groups . 23 Methods of conducting study groups . 24 V. Outcomes of Parent Education Work Seen by City Superintendents of Schools . 27 VI. Summary . 30 VII. Reference Materials Prepared Within State or Local Programs of Parent Education . . 31 VIII. Appendix . 34 hi Foreword The term “parent education” signifies many activities which have sprung up to meet new needs in education during the past 1 2 years. Some of these activities go on in colleges and universities where advanced students are prepared to take professional leader¬ ship in parent education, in national, State, and local situations. Other activities in this field are carried on in State departments of education, in city school systems, in governmental agencies, and in private organizations. The Office of Education has followed the trend of the parent education movement and has issued from time to time reports and descriptions of some of the activities that seem to be successful. The following report deals particularly with the activities in city school systems. Superintendents of schools, especially those who expect to start a program of parent education, will find the answers to some of their questions in this brief review of work in this field. The report should also prove helpful to all those working for the development of improved methods of child care and training, better home-school cooperation, and more understanding of the problems of family relationships. Bess Goodykoontz, Assistant Commissioner of Education. v Chapter IX PARENT-EDUCATION PROGRAMS IN CITY SCHOOL SYSTEMS B. Introduction During the past 10 years programs in parent education have been increasingly established by superintendents of schools as integral parts of city school systems. These programs are now in progress in at least 38 cities of the United States. Perhaps the feature that characterizes the work of parent education in the public schools is the active cooperation of parent-teacher asso¬ ciations and other community organizations upon which a superintendent must depend for the promotion of interest and enthusiasm if continuity in the programs is to be insured. The establishment of a parent-education program provides a way by which parents may get accurate information on the program and policies of the superintendent; it helps parents to improve their methods of guidance at home; and it shows them how, as a group and individually, they may cooperate successfully with school authorities in meeting school needs. Such a pro¬ gram for parents furnishes instruction in mental health or hygiene which will be of practical value in solving their own personal problems. This chapter has been prepared to answer inquiries of school administrators and others as to what constitutes a parent-educa¬ tion program, how and for whom it functions, what it costs, what it accomplishes, and what superintendents of schools think of parent education as they observe its progress in their own school systems. Specific information for this study was gathered through questionnaires which the Office of Education sent to super¬ intendents of schools in 300 selected cities,, each of whom had expressed an interest in parent education or had reported that projects were already established in their schools. In addition, 13 cities having parent-education work were visited by the staff member in charge of parent education in the 1 2 BIENNIAL SURVEY OF EDUCATION, 1934-36 Office of Education. During these visits conferences were held with superintendents and directors in charge of the work, and through first-hand observation of methods and practices inter¬ pretations have been made which would not have been possible otherwise. Through correspondence and printed reports, the information for this chapter was still further amplified. II. Purposes and ctivities of Parent Education Programs In general terms, a parent education program in a local com¬ munity under the sponsorship of the public schools is a combina¬ tion of promotional, administrative, teaching, and cooperative activities for the instruction of parents and for the development of leaders of parents’ groups. Reports indicate that many different activities constitute the program of parent education in the various city school systems. One activity, however, that of leading classes or groups of parents, was reported unanimously by the superintendents replying to the questionnaire. In some cities three types of groups are receiving instruction: Groups of potential leaders, groups of lay leaders in service, and groups of parents. Study groups are formed and instruction in such fields as child development and mental hygiene is offered to parents. The subject matter used in study groups is chosen to provide for the needs which exist in the local situation. It is hoped that through reading, instruction, and discussion parents will be able to obtain an objective view of themselves and an understanding of their relationship to their children. Specifically the program is designed to show parents better ways of guiding their children by giving them authoritative information about child growth and development; to help them to understand the principles by which the problems of family life may be solved; and, finally, to give them an understanding of what the school is doing for their children and of how they may cooperate with the school. Activity projects have been undertaken in many cities by the study groups. Establishing play groups, summer playgrounds, hobby shows, arranging and supervising trips for the school children, making toys for young children and preparing exhibits of group work are examples of the projects in which the groups engage. Some groups maintain a library which is kept at the school and in some places the public library furnishes boxes of books for the members to use. Committees of the study groups review books, pamphlets, or clippings, and plan programs, work for better home and school relationships, take care of the library, look up absentees, and serve in many other capacities. 158886°— 39 - 2 3 III. Characteristics of Parent Education Programs One important characteristic of programs in parent education common to all cities in all States, which has been mentioned previously, is the active support and cooperation of parent-teacher associations without which leaders would find it difficult to conduct a successful long-time parent education project. However, programs conducted in city school systems have varying characteristics according to the State in which the cities are located. For instance, in New York State lay leaders work on a strictly voluntary basis, receiving no monetary compensation for their services. Another characteristic of programs in New York State is a 2-year limit to the period of service for lay leaders, with in-service training during their 2 years of service. It is stated that this short term of leadership is preferred and prevents the group from becoming too dependent upon the leader. A characteristic common to all parent education programs in California is that lay leaders are responsible for parents’ study groups and receive compensation equal to that of other adult education workers connected with the school systems. The programs in Texas and Oklahoma, which were in progress in 1937, were organized, supervised, and conducted by the directors, but lay leaders were not being trained. However, it has been stated that lay leaders frequently emerge from the groups of parents who are instructed by the directors. In States where parent education programs have become more or less widespread in school systems some may be classified according to their allocation in the systems. For instance, in 12 cities the programs are conducted as elements of the adult education programs; in 14 cities they appear as integral elements of home economics departments; and in 12 other cities parent education projects are conducted directly under the supervision of the superintendent or assistant superintendent of schools, by directors of parent education in 4 of the 1 2 cities, by the head of the kindergarten and nursery school department and department of psychiatry in 2 cities, and by leaders in parent-teacher associations in the remaining 6 cities. 4 PARENT-EDUCATION PROGRAMS D PROGRAMS CONDUCTED AS AN ELEMENT OF ADULT EDUCATION When a parent education program is initiated in a city school system in New York State, the program may or may not be super¬ vised by a person in charge of adult education. Rochester is an example of a city where parent education is a part of the adult education program supervised by the assistant superintendent of schools. At the beginning in Rochester a full-time specialist was em¬ ployed who took full charge of the work, but in 1937 a second full-time specialist was added to the staff, who was assigned such activities as giving lay leadership training courses and conducting the programs for parents’ study groups In connection with this program a demonstration nursery school is maintained and WPA nursery schools furnish laboratory facilities to parents and leaders for observation and participation. Parents of the children in the demonstration school pay a tuition fee to the board of education of $12 per month for each child. A part of the responsibility of parents is to assist in the nursery school for periods varying from one day to a week. Reports of the Rochester department of parent education and child development point out that the program of study groups is carried on by lay leaders who “constantly analyze and evaluate their leadership and the general program. They suggest policies and methods for improvement, promotion, and extension. In lieu of financial rewards they naturally expect satisfaction in the form of stimulation and intellectual growth. * * * The loyalty and unselfish service, the objective attitudes of the leaders, and their complete freedom from ‘underground methods,’ make of them a group whose value to the department cannot be measured.” 1 The division of work between lay leaders and professional parent education workers is an important feature of every parent education program. The professional member (or members) of the staff generally performs the administrative functions of the project; arranges conferences and panel discussions; organizes 1 Rochester, N. Y., Board of Education. Report of department of parent education and child development. Rochester, board of education, 1937, p. 1. 6 BIENNIAL SURVEY OF EDUCATION, 1934-3 6 materials; conducts in-service training meetings; establishes and maintains cooperative relationships with community organiza¬ tions; supervises the work; confers with school officials and makes reports to the superintendent of schools. The program in Rochester public schools is greatly augmented by cooperation of the University of Rochester which has ex¬ panded its curriculum on the subjects of the home, child develop¬ ment, and family relationships. In addition to the university many organizations cooperate, especially the parent-teacher association and other organizations which furnish leadership and general support, including the local branches of the American Association of University Women, Federation of Churches, Council of Jewish Women, Home Bureau, health and nursing associations, and many local agencies. The Albany program in parent education presents some char¬ acteristics similar to the program in Rochester. In the first place both programs started with grants from a foundation; both had the advice and cooperation of experts in parent education connected with the State department of education; the work in both cities was augmented by the active cooperation of the university or college in the respective cities; programs in both cities have also had the active cooperation of parent-teacher associations. Under the direction of a full-time expert lay leaders are given in-service training in conducting parents’ study groups, and, in conference with the director, the lay leaders are given individual help on problems of leadership. Emphasis is placed upon the importance of the close cooperation of the Albany libraries with the parent education program. In a single year 2,000 books were circulated among parents who were members of study groups. In addition to giving in-service training to 27 lay leaders and preparing 75 potential leaders for service, the director of parent education conducted classes in the techniques of leadership, in discovering and evaluating source materials, and in citizenship, held conferences on personal problems, and during the year 1936-37 gave instruction to 55 high-school students, 30 members of the faculty, and 85 students in the New York State College for Teachers. As to the subjects which make up parents’ class discussions, each PAREXT-EDUCATION PROGRAMS group generally selects those which meet the needs and interests of the majority of the members and which they think will result in stimulating thought and growth. One of the unusual activities of the Albany program is the self-evaluation feature which lay leaders undertook together with members of parents’ groups, college students, high-school stu¬ dents, and others. As a result of this self-evaluation lay leaders reported a better understanding and practice of mental hygiene principles, broadened understanding of the job of parenthood and the significance of membership in the community, improve¬ ment in their own family relationships, better understanding of other peoples’ points of view, and development of new interests. For this study two other cities in New York State, Binghamton and Schenectady, have been selected for description because of their comprehensive programs in parent education and because of the successful results of the work over a period of years. In at least two important aspects the programs in these cities differ from those in Albany and Rochester. In the first place the work neither in Binghamton nor in Schenectady was initiated under foundation grants and neither of these cities reports the active cooperation of a college or university as do Albany and Rochester. Emphasis has been placed in the Binghamton program upon training lay leaders for study groups, furnishing professional leadership for the educational program of parent-teacher associ¬ ations, bringing about better understanding of the problems that are common to home and school, and securing cooperation be¬ tween the parents and teachers. The director of parent educa¬ tion states her specific duties as “providing opportunities for parents and teachers to think through together those aspects of child development with which they are mutually concerned; encouraging parents to visit schools, to meet principals and teach¬ ers, and to see classroom work; aiding teachers and school admin¬ istrators in their efforts to understand children’s home environ¬ ment insofar as it affects their school work; interpreting the school curriculum, procedures, and needs to school patrons; suggesting ways in which parents may work more closely with school admin¬ istrators to bring about desired results with their school children.” 2 * Binghamton, N. Y., Department of Education. Annual report for 1936-37. 8 BIENNIAL SURVEY OF EDUCATION, 19 34-3 6 In Schenectady (1937) there was no nursery school for demon¬ stration purposes but in Binghamton there were five emergency nursery schools used for observation and participation by the parent education department. The program in parent educa¬ tion in Schenectady was inaugurated through the influence of the College Women’s Club as a cooperative community project under a director of parent education who works closely with the superintendent of schools but who is technically on the extension staff in the Division of Adult Elementary Education. The di¬ rector prepares prospective leaders for service, instructs in- service lay leaders in the methods, practices, and materials of parent education, helps organize study groups, attends group meetings once a year and prepares study materials for the use of leaders and members of groups. School groups, church groups, community groups, or study groups within organizations are served by the director in Sche¬ nectady whose objectives are to “help parents gain insight into human relationships in order to enrich their lives and become more effective members of society both in their home and in the community; to promote a community-wide program of adult education in general, parent education in particular; and to assist in furthering a pre-school education program.” Five basic courses were outlined for leadership training classes on the subjects of child guidance, adolescence, mental hygiene, family relations, and techniques of group leadership. Two of the courses in subject matter and the course in techniques are generally given annually for leaders by the director. In addi¬ tion to preparing and giving courses the director develops bibli¬ ographies, makes addresses, and holds conferences. The discussion method of procedure is used by both profes¬ sional and lay leaders in conducting parents’ study groups and it is reported that those who enter into the discussions have an ex¬ perience that is mutually beneficial. Besides discussions the members of the groups present book reviews and reports. An annual parent education institute is held as well as other large meetings of general interest to the community. An unusual feature of the Schenectady program is the provision in the budget for travel and books which is made by the school board. The following table is a copy of the form which is filled out by PARENT- EDUCATION PROGRAMS 9 members of the parents’ study group, furnished by the University of the State of New York, the State Education Department, Child Development and Parental Education Bureau: Report Sheet for Members of Parent Group Class held at . Led by . Date . Meeting how often . Subject studied . Member’s name . Age .... Husband’s initials .... Age . Number of children : Boys . Ages . Girls . Ages . WIFE HUSBAND How many children in family? . Which child are you? Position in jamily Fill in both husband and wife column. How many children in family? . Which child is hus¬ band? . Grades 5, 6, 7, 8 H. S. 1, 2, 3, 4 Normal 1, 2, 3 College 1, 2, 3, 4 • Education Draw line through last year you attended school or col¬ lege. (Fill in both columns.) Grades 5, 6, 7, 8 H. S. 1, 2, 3, 4 Normal 1, 2, 3 College 1, 2, 3, 4 Specialized education Travel, study, special train¬ ing, post-graduate work, etc. (Fill in both columns.) Before marriage Present Occupation Fill in both columns. Previous Present Activities and interests Club membership? Special community interest? Special community activities? Positions held in clubs, com- i munity, churches, etc. 10 BIENNIAL SURVEY OF EDUCATION, 1934-36 What questions of parenthood and child training interest you? What books on parent education have you found the most helpful? Is your husband interested in parent education? . Have you been in parent education classes before? . For how long? . What organization do you represent in this study group? . In the Berkeley, Calif., public schools, where groups are desig¬ nated as classes, the program of parent education is conducted under the supervision of the director of curriculum who gives only part time to this service. In 1937 there were 15 lay leaders of classes employed on part time by the school system and 500 parents were under instruction by these leaders. The following regulations control parent education classes in Berkeley: Regulations for parent education classes. — Leaders and chairmen of parent education classes must observe the following regulations: 1 . Except in the case of preschool classes ^nd classes organized under the auspices of nursery schools, all classes should be organized upon recom¬ mendation of the local parent-teacher association. 2. The form “Request for Organization of Class in Parent Education” should be signed and forwarded to the Bureau of Curriculum not later than the second meeting of the class. 3. To be certified for compensation, classes must be held during the regular school term and on regular school days, not on Saturdays, Sundays, or school holidays. 4. The maximum number of meetings of a class for which compensation will be paid is 12 a semester. 5. A minimum of 15 paid registrations by the third meeting of the class is required for organization. 6. Leaders of classes are responsible for the following: (a) Reporting promptly after the third meeting of the class the number present, number enrolled and number paid, and the list of topics to be discussed by the class during the semester. (b) Reporting at the end of each calendar month dates on which they actually met classes. (c) An accurate and complete record of the enrollment and attendance in each class, in the form prescribed, and the making of the final attendance report immediately after the last class of the series. Nominal fees are charged for each person registered for the classes but arrangements for demonstration centers have not been made available for parents or others to observe or par¬ ticipate in Berkeley. PARENT-EDUCATION PROGRAMS 11 The program in Pasadena differs from that in Berkeley in three important respects: First, Pasadena has a full-time director; second, arrangements have been made for the observation and participation of parents and others in play groups and kinder¬ gartens; and, third, no fee is charged. The program in Pasadena has been in operation for 9 years and under expert direction it has become one of the comprehensive programs in this field. In 1937 there were 8 qualified lay leaders employed to teach 617 parents who were enrolled. The value of play groups like those in the Pasadena program is recognized. Parents with their preschool children and other observers visit these groups one or more mornings a week and a nursery school expert meets them and demonstrates methods of meeting situations with the children. The expert also helps parents understand the significance of their observations and subsequently holds a conference period for the discussion of the records which the parents have made while observing the children. The details of methods of conducting play schools employed in Pasadena and other California cities have been described in a bulletin entitled “A Study of Parent Education — Parent Education Through the Medium of Play Groups.” 3 In a report 4 of the Pasadena Superintendent of Schools the purposes of play groups were stated as follows: To give parents of young children an opportunity to: (1) observe and test those aspects of child psychology that had been under discussion in the study groups ; (2) study types of behavior offered by children other than their own; (3) contrast different developmental levels in the child group; and (4) note contrasts and similarities in the home behavior and group behavior of their own children. In addition to these has come the oppor¬ tunity to (1) observe the effectiveness of the technique of those who have specialized in child care and child guidance; (2) criticize their own tech¬ niques and modify them accordingly; (3) modify all techniques to apply to individual needs; and (4) consider their own attitudes in the light of child growth as studied and observed. The parent education work of the Baltimore city school system 3 Gartzmann, Pauline; Laws, Gertrude; and others. A study in parent education. Pasadena, Calif., Pasadena city schools, June 1935. 23 p. 4 In Report of Superintendent of Schools. Pasadena, Calif., Pasadena city schools, 1935, pp. 134-35. 158886°— 39 - 3 12 BIENNIAL SURVEY OF EDUCATION, 1934-3 6 is conducted as a part of the adult education program under the night school division with a supervisor of parent education in charge. In addition to the supervisor, there are nine white teachers and four colored teachers on the staff. Many educational institutions and agencies, such as Johns Hopkins University, Goucher College, the University of Maryland, Baltimore Child Study Association, Mental Hygiene Society, social agencies, the library, the museum, and clinic, cooperate in the Baltimore program of parent education. Parents are reported to be active in support of the work. In addition to parents’ study groups a training class for teachers is maintained. The teachers for this training are selected not only for their educational qualifications but for their personality. The training class for teachers meets weekly during the school year to discuss methods of conducting parents’ groups, materials such as subject matter and guides, and problems of study groups. Sixty-six groups of parents met weekly for 2-hour class periods in 1936-37 with a total enrollment of more than 1,200 parents. The enrollment in 1938 had increased to 1,665 parents, including both colored and white. There were 43 groups of white parents and 21 of colored. The programs of the classes included such activities as making reports, discussions, trips to various institutions, lectures on sub¬ jects related to family life and interests by specialists in various fields, and individual conferences. PROGRAMS CONDUCTED WITHIN HOME ECONOMICS DEPARTMENTS The parent education programs in city school systems in Ar¬ kansas, Oklahoma, and Texas have one characteristic in com¬ mon — they derive their budgets for parent education partly from Federal subsidies for vocational home economics and partly from general school funds. This naturally places parent education in the respective school districts under the supervision of home economics departments although heads of parent educa¬ tion programs in some cities may have worked previously in fields other than home economics, such as, for instance, those of education, psychology, or kindergarten. The programs of PARENT-EDUCATION PROGRAMS 13 two cities in Arkansas and Texas and three in Oklahoma have been selected for description in this study because of the varia¬ tions in the situation in each city. The parent education project in Little Rock is an integral part of the home economics program. The director gives only part time to parent education and the rest of the time is spent in home economics. Very close cooperation is maintained with parent- teacher associations by which the initial request for study groups was made to school officials. Churches and clubs have cooperated with the Little Rock parent education program. Preschool circles for parents whose children have not entered school and study groups for parents whose children are attending school are conducted by the director. A chairman of the parent education council contacts various parent-teacher associations and arranges for the appointment of a person to take responsi¬ bility for the details and arrangements of study group meetings. Fathers attend monthly group meetings sometimes in larger numbers than mothers. Little Rock did not in 1937 include the activity of training lay leaders except for Negroes, but in addition to conducting study groups and carrying on the regular work of the home economics program, the director held conferences with parents during the evening when fathers could be present, prepared exhibits of children’s books and toys, exhibited types of children’s clothing sponsored parents’ reading circles and parents’ bookshelf in cooperation with the public library, and arranged with parents for children’s afternoon play groups. When the parent education project was started in Little Rock parents living in prosperous areas of the city were particularly interested in two nursery schools to which they sent their children and paid tuition. But later, parents of lower economic levels became interested and also sent their preschool children to the schools. The nursery schools and the private kindergarten were established for demonstration purposes in the high-school build¬ ing where students in preparental education, as well as parents, observed the children and sometimes participated in the activi¬ ties. A tuition fee of $5 per month was charged for each child attending the nursery school. Tuition of children in the kinder¬ garten was reported as $30 per month per child. 14 BIENNIAL SURVEY OF EDUCATION, 19 34-36 Fort Smith, a city of about 30,000 population, has a parent education program which in 1937 had been continuous for 6 years. However, the director of parent education gives only part time to parent education and part time to the home eco¬ nomics program. Twelve of the fourteen schools in Fort Smith maintained study groups during the year ending 1937. Two hundred parents were enrolled in these groups which were led by the director of parent education. This program was conducted without the aid of demonstration centers such as kindergartens or nursery schools and the reports indicate that the program did not include lay leaders or lay leadership training. In Oklahoma the parent education programs in cities have also developed within the home economics program, financed as they are partly by public-school funds and partly by vocational home economics funds. In several of the large towns and small cities parent education projects have been carried on for limited periods, but in the two largest cities, Oklahoma City and Tulsa, there are comprehensive programs. Oklahoma City employs a full-time home counselor who directs the parent-education work. Nursery schools and kindergartens are available where parents of children in these schools may go to observe the activities of the children under guidance of a trained teacher. Here, too, parent-teacher associations have taken a leading part in study groups. In 1937 there were 41 such groups in Oklahoma City with a total attendance of 2,517 parents. By appointment, and following study group meetings, the home counselor in 1 year held 358 private conferences and conducted a radio parent education class 15 minutes weekly for 20 weeks for which 54 people enrolled from 24 different towns. Enrollees paid 50 cents to cover expense of mimeographing and mailing a series of 12 talks and the “true-false” tests. No lay leadership training classes were conducted in Oklahoma City up to 1937 and there were no classes conducted by lay leaders within the program of the city schools. The Tulsa project in parent education has developed under very favorable conditions. A former superintendent of schools laid foundations for the work and the parents were thus given in PARENT- EDUCATION PROGRAMS 15 advance an understanding of the purposes and principles under¬ lying parent education. Since 1924 there has been no interrup¬ tion of the parent education work although at first it was desig¬ nated as “mothercraft.” In the 41 public schools in 1937 there were 37 classes, some of which were held in the daytime for mothers and some in the evening so that both fathers and mothers could attend. Prospective lay leaders whose background of psychology is good and who are college graduates are trained to teach parents’ groups. These trainees must be parents and also they must be good homemakers. Class work of 24 weeks in preparation to lead study groups was offered in 1937. Especial emphasis was placed upon building a parents’ library and making additions to the local school parents’ library, both of which are essential to a parent education program. Study groups or classes for parents are the essential elements found in the Tulsa program as it was being conducted in 1937. One of the newer activities in parent education in Oklahoma is the experiment initiated in the fall of 1937 by Superintendent Holmes in the home economics department of the Muskogee public schools. A full-time parent education worker was em¬ ployed as home counselor and has begun a program for parents of children in all grades of all schools in Muskogee, grade by grade, from the first through the high schools, as well as a program for parents of preschool children. Classes are held mornings, afternoons, and evenings on a flexible schedule in order to give all parents, both fathers and mothers, an opportunity to attend meetings at an hour convenient to them. In spite of the fact that programs in parent education in Texas have been organized under Federal vocational home economics grants in addition to the required State and local funds, there is considerable variation in the way the programs are carried out in each city. In Dallas a full-time specialist who is a psychologist conducted the work in 1937 under the direct supervision of the super¬ intendent of schools with the cooperation of such organizations as the Dallas Council of Parents and Teachers, the Child Guid¬ ance Clinic, the Health Department of the Public Schools, the Civic Association, the Y. W. C. A., Big Sisters, and the churches. 16 BIENNIAL SURVEY OF EDUCATION, 1984-36 In a single year (1937) there were about 700 enrollments in study groups and 50 of these were men. Although there are private schools, kindergartens, and nursery schools in Dallas where arrangements might have been made for parents to observe the children and have experience handling situations, no such arrangements had been made up to 1937, but parents are getting considerable opportunity to observe and participate in the play groups they arrange in their own neigh¬ borhoods and report on the activities of the children in the group. The advantages of expanding the Dallas program to include a nursery school for experimental purposes and the training of lay leaders have been under consideration as goals for the future. The present program of courses covers the subjects of child guidance; the psychology of the preschool child, of preadolescence, and of adolescence; mental health; character training in the home; and the development of personality. For more than 8 years the parent education program of Houston has been in progress within the public schools under the guidance of a director of parent education who gives full¬ time to the work which is an integral part of the department of homemaking. An advisory committee in parent education which has been organized in Houston consists of representatives of 18 or more local organizations, agencies, and institutions interested in the development of parent education. Although the programs in some other cities in Texas do not include the training of lay leaders, it was reported that in Houston special training is given WPA nursery school teachers once a week throughout the year and that in addition to conducting the regular parent education work, the director meets parents of emergency nursery-school children once a week during the year. The director organizes and conducts institutes where experts dis¬ cuss subjects that are of vital interest to parents, such as various aspects of the growth of the preschool child, the school child, the successful family, and the art of living together; and in addi¬ tion to this she conducts a weekly radio program. The schedule for the organization of classes which is used in the Houston schools may be found in the section under Methods. Parent-teacher associations take a leading part in this program PARENT-EDUCATION PROGRAMS 17 as they do in most other cities having parent education projects. They appoint chairmen of parent education who meet the director for instruction and for planning the programs. The number of parents attending classes annually varies from 650 to 1,100. PROGRAMS CONDUCTED AS COOPERATIVE PROJECTS Superintendents of schools in many California cities where there were no directors of parent education reported that in re¬ sponse to a demand by parent-teacher associations, boards of edu¬ cation authorized the employment of lay leaders of study groups to be paid from local school funds. In some instances the projects of parent education have been supervised by the superintendents themselves and in others by the supervisor of adult education work, or some other person selected by the superintendent is in charge of the work. Monrovia, Pomona, Richmond, Alhambra, Santa Ana, Calif., and other cities are among those in which the parent-teacher associations and the boards of education take part in sponsoring study groups. Lay leaders work on hourly pay which is com¬ puted at the same rate as for all qualified adult education teachers. With the extension of the special secondary credential to parent education leaders by the California State Department of Educa¬ tion, a way was opened for certified lay leaders of study groups to receive remuneration from public-school funds. In the matter of remuneration the practice in California differs from that in New York State where lay leaders receive no compensation other than that which they feel the work offers in opportunity for growth and education. When school funds are made available for a program of parent education it results in a certain amount of desirable stability and continuity. The program in the city of Detroit demonstrates, however, that a program for parent education may be conducted successfully by using existing school facilities and a cooperating community group. This group in Detroit consists of nine mem¬ bers selected from the board of education, the Merrill-Palmer School, the extension service and the home economics depart- 18 BIENNIAL SURVEY OF EDUCATION, 1934-36 ment of Wayne University, and the vocational home economics division of the State department of education. Each registrant for a course in parent education pays a fee of 25 cents for the initial enrollment but no further charge is made for other courses. In Detroit the principals of the respective schools are the key persons who decide when classes may be formed. When a prin¬ cipal has made a decision, teachers are assigned by the division of homemaking education of Wayne University. The success of the Detroit parent education program is no doubt due to the unusual facilities for this type of education offered by the coop¬ erating agencies which communities rarely have to offer. Another example of a city in which a parent education program is carried on without a special budget is reported by the superin¬ tendent of schools in Grand Rapids where the work has been in operation for 9 years as a part of the psychiatric department. The work has been sponsored and supported not only by the board of education but it has also received the active cooperation of the leaders of the Parent-Teacher Council of Grand Rapids. In addition to their guidance programs with the children who are referred to them by the various schools, these psychiatric workers give a counseling service to individual parents and in¬ struction to study group members who frequently develop into lay leaders. They also give service to parent-teacher groups, groups of teachers, church groups, women’s clubs, . and many community organizations. IV. Inauguration of a Program of Parent Education Since parents are the chief beneficiaries it is to be concluded that parents will be active in working for the inauguration of parent education programs and that they will have made known the needs which call for the introduction of a new kind of instruction into the public schools. Community support through the development of forceful and stable public opinion combined with the genuine interest of parents, and their determination to make use of the opportuni¬ ties for education when they are offered, are essentials to the establishment of this new aspect of education. Without this genuine interest and active cooperation of the community, and especially of the parents, the superintendent will hardly be able to justify the incorporation of this new work in the school’s pro¬ gram. Many superintendents report that the interest of parents in parent education developed long before school authorities were willing or ready to inaugurate a program in the school sys¬ tem, and that when the program was initiated it was at the re¬ quest of the local parent-teacher associations. Groups other than parent-teacher associations, such as the college women’s clubs, American Legion auxiliary, W. C. T. U., Y. M. C. A., Y. W. C. A., Red Cross, and the farm bureaus, libraries, child guidance clinics, and churches, have also promoted parent education programs. FINANCING A PARENT EDUCATION PROGRAM The difficulty of securing public-school funds for a parent edu¬ cation program has doubtless retarded the development of this type of work in school systems, although interest in the further education of parents has grown steadily with the development and increase of parent-teacher associations. However, in 38 cities at least, the difficulty has been overcome and school funds had been provided up to 1937, The cities are located in 10 States: Arkansas, California, Georgia, Iowa, Michigan, Ne¬ braska, New Jersey, New York, Oklahoma, and Texas. In some instances parents are charged fees but the purposes for 19 20 BIENNIAL SURVEY OF EDUCATION, 1934-36 which the fees are used were not always stated in the reports. Such is the case in Berkeley, Calif., where parent education classes are conducted. The regulations state that registration fees are charged, but neither the amount of the fees nor the purposes for which they are used were given. In Little Rock, Ark., however, fees charged to parents for the program which is financed by Federal, State, and local funds, provide a nursery school. The school is used as the laboratory for observation and participation by members of study groups, and by students in the high school enrolled in child-management classes. Parents of children en¬ rolled in the school pay $5 per month for each child. In Westwood, N. J., a fee of $2 per person is charged for a course of 10 weeks, but in this case no explanation was made of the purposes for which the fees are used. In the following list the budgets for parent education in 30 cities are given as reported on the returns: Budget Budget Budget Budget Budget Budget $14, 429. 00 $2, 750. 00 $2, 200. 00 $1, 350. 00 $700. 00 $180. 00 5, 060. 00 2, 580. 00 2, 192. 50 1, 100. 00 575. 00 75. 00 4, 000. 00 i 2, 500. 00 1, 950. 00 1, 050. 00 290. 25 3, 679. 00 2, 440. 00 » 1,850. 00 765. 00 250. 00 3, 505. 50 i 2, 400. 00 1,600. 00 750. 00 200. 00 1 This amount reported by two cities. Annual budgets for parent education in 21 of the cities range from $1,050 to $14,429 and provide for the employment of a director to supervise a full-time program. In the 9 remaining cities the budget ranges from $75 to $765. Reports from some of these cities state that leaders are employed on an hourly basis. Budgets for parent education in 1937 in cities employing full-time specialists in parent education Cities Budget Cities Budget Pasadena, Calif . . . 2 $2,440 Tulsa, Okla . . $2,580 Albany, N. Y . . . . 1,850 Dallas, Tex . . 2,192 Binghamton, N. Y . . . . 2,500 Fort Worth, Tex . . 3,505 Schenectady, N. Y . . .. 1,850 Houston, Tex . . 2,500 Bristow, Okla . . . . 1,950 Tyler, Tex . . 2,400 Oklahoma City, Okla . . . . . 2,200 2 The amount of $2,440 stated above as the budget of Pasadena was for the salary of the director of parent education. There were also 8 lay leaders employed on part time at the night school at the rate of $1.90 per hour, but the report did not give the total amount expended for this service. PARENT-EDUCATION PROGRAMS 21 QUALIFICATIONS AND DUTIES OF A DIRECTOR Finding and employing a director for a parent education pro¬ gram is a problem which the superintendent should not at present find difficult since there are now many qualified persons in the field who can be secured for positions of leadership. The director of parent education must have had advanced studies in one or more of such fields as education, sociology, psychology, and home economics. In addition, a director must have organizing abil¬ ity, an adjusted personality, and an aptitude for work with adults. She should also be well oriented in education and in the policies and practices of the schools in order to be able to interpret the school to the parents when called upon to do so. Study groups are conducted under the supervision of a director of parent education, when there is one. It is generally the duty of the director to train prospective leaders of parents’ groups as well as lay leaders already in service. In addition, a director initiates and conducts many activities. She is responsible for arranging and conducting parents’ institutes and conferences; giving services to community programs; counseling parents; supervising play groups and parents’ observation and participa¬ tion in play groups, nursery schools, and kindergartens; preparing materials such as outlines, bibliographies, and forms for group work; sponsoring reading circles; and cooperating with the li¬ brary. Related activities include teaching classes of high-school students, leading groups in churches, giving instruction to nursery-school teachers and to public-school nurses, and con¬ ducting radio parent education classes. FINDING LAY LEADERS In some cities the director gives in-service training to lay leaders who conduct study groups. Discovery, training, certification, and employment of such lay leaders constitute an important problem of administration. The superintendent and his director of parent education sometimes find excellent material for lay leadership within the parent-teacher association, or there may be former school teachers or Sunday-school teachers in the com¬ munity who have desirable qualifications for the work. 22 BIENNIAL SURVEY OF EDUCATION, 1934-36 In order to qualify for service in the city public schools in Cali¬ fornia in the field of parent education certain requirements have been set up by the State board of education. A special adult education credential may be obtained in the field of child study and parent education if applicants qualify on the following points:1 1 . Evidence of established leadership or prestige in the group which is to be organized as a study group. 2. Evidence of not less than 5 years of first-hand experience with, and responsibility for, children of preschool age. 3. Evidence given by interview or in answer to written questions showing a grasp of the problems of parent education, the method and content of which satisfies the State department of education. Special qualifications for which California State officials look when selecting leaders are reported as follows: 2 1 . Ability to see the point of view of the young. 2. Abiding faith in the ultimate possibilities of human development and a clear notion of the place of education in the process. 3. Ability to share the untiring curiosity of the young. 4. Intellectual elasticity. 5. Freedom from prejudices and biases which would interfere with effective work with persons of any race, nationality, religious or political faith, or social group. 6. Ability to cultivate thoughtfulness rather than to supply information. 7. A disposition to acquire ever new insight into the process of learning. 8. A disposition to keep in touch with present activities and interests of children. 9. Ability to hold a tentative attitude when engaging in group discussion and when observing children. 10. Command of a larger body of reliable subject matter bearing upon human growth and development than can be used in group discussion. ORGANIZING THE PROGRAM! The work of organizing the program begins as soon as a direc¬ tor of parent education has been installed. The first step toward organization is to discover what resources for cooperation are available in the community. The superintendent may call a conference of leaders of parents’ groups and of civic, religious, 1 Objectives and suggested procedures for parent education in California. Sacramento, Department of Education, 1934. (Bui. No. 13.) 2 Ibid. PARENT-EDUCATION PROGRAMS 23 philanthropic, social, and educational groups which may or may not have an element of parent education in their respective programs. The purposes of this conference would be to establish coopera¬ tive relationships with all community groups, to discuss the new program for parents, and to discover what contribution each or¬ ganization might make to the project. Superintendents have reported many ways in which parent-teacher associations are cooperative, such as bringing parents together in groups, keeping alive the interest of parents, and assisting the director to find per¬ sons who have the aptitude and qualifications for lay leadership. One superintendent reported that the local branch of the Ameri¬ can Association of University Women had cooperated in creating interest in parent education and in forming a council of agencies which has been active in the development of the parent education project. As the result of such a conference a permanent council or committee on parent education might be formed to meet at stated intervals, or when the superintendent decided there was need to bring the group together. ORGANIZING LOCAL STUDY GROUPS The details of a program in a local community may vary but there are certain elements that are common to all situations. A leader or chairman, a secretary, and librarian are essential to the smooth running of the group. Meetings may be held in school, church, library, homes, or other convenient places in the morning, afternoon, or evening. If the meeting is for a 2-hour period, 1 hours may be used in discussion and one-half hour for consultation. The duties of the leader (or chairman as sometimes designated) in the Houston, Tex., program are specifically stated as follows:3 The chairman has the responsibility for all publicity. Good mediums for publicity are: The newspapers, school papers, announcements in churches, Sunday schools of the community, post cards, telephones, posters, (placed in the library, schools, or in local business places); verbal invitations to such groups as mothers’ clubs, literary clubs, P. T. A. meetings, other groups in the community and schools; homeroom mothers, personal contact (i. e. 8 Division of parent education, Houston Public schools, Houston, Tex. Organization of classes. (Mimeographed.) 24 BIENNIAL SURVEY OF EDUCATION, 1934-36 P. T. A. members agree to tell five friends or acquaintances) ; and house-to- house canvass. The chairman appoints a committee of two or three active parents to work with her, arranges for the place of meeting, and sees that it is in order for each meeting. This means that she should be present at the place of meeting 10 minutes before time for the class to begin and if she can not be there herself she should see that someone else takes care of these details. The chairman makes arrangements for care of the little children brought to class. This includes: (a) The person or persons who look after the children. (b) The place where the children will stay. (c) Material for them to play with. The chairman should greet the strangers; the secretary should take the attendance and perform other appropriate activities; and the librarian should obtain books from the library and return them, and be responsible for the books while they are in use by the study group. Membership is open to anyone interested who will attend the meetings regularly. Superintendents of schools are more or less familiar with the demonstration centers, which may be nursery schools or play schools, used in local parent education programs where parents and leaders in study groups or prospective leaders observe and frequently participate in the activities. Records are made of the observations by which the abilities and interests of the children as well as their social and emotional needs are revealed. In California, such cities as Pasadena, South Pasadena, Monrovia, and Alhambra have used play schools as the type of center for observers. METHODS OF CONDUCTING STUDY GROUPS Parent education methods depend upon parents’ needs, upon the ability of the leaders to awaken response in the groups they lead; upon the availability of facilities for learning, and upon many other factors. Dr. Gertrude Laws says4 that the basis of method is the par¬ ticipation of the learner, that in adult groups the learners should be aware of the method and critical of it. She goes on to discuss the orientation of members in a parent education group: 4 Laws, Gertrude. Parent education in California. Sacramento, State department of education, Bureau of parent education, Sept. 1, 1937. (Bulle¬ tin No. 17, p. 5.) PARENT-EDUCATION PROGRAMS 25 So little is known about adult education that members of a group have to learn to become integral parts of a group. The slowness of the development of skill in discussion is often irksome to some of the members of the group, but the development of such skill is as much a part of the task as learning the subject matter. * * * Learning to see oneself as an important member of a group — not more important nor less important than other members — is evidence of a fine balance which is all too rare. Many individuals have been brought up to think that there is something inherently virtuous in self¬ depreciation, and do not see themselves as an integral necessary part of the group. On the other hand, certain individuals are by nature egocentric, and have failed to learn that their own real importance is measured always in relation to the extent to which they recognize the importance of others. Experience in well-conducted adult study groups provides opportunity to learn a way to become an integral part of a group oneself, as well as a way to help children in this same learning. While there is no way to tell a leader how to bring about this learning or to tell a parent how to bring it about in a child, it is more likely to occur if the leader or the parent is aware of its importance. * * * The quality of hospitality the leader expresses toward different opinions in the group contributes more than her knowledge of subject matter to the development of an appetite for knowing the truth. A condensed outline of methods was prepared for the use of leaders of study groups in New York State Education Depart¬ ment.5 Excerpts have been taken from the outline which indi¬ cate at least 10 ways of conducting parents’ groups, but it was pointed out that there are still other methods that might be used. The 10 mentioned were: 1. Lectures by experts who give needed authoritative information to clarify the subject matter in which the group may be interested. 2. Lecture- question forum style, which means that after the experts’ dis¬ cussion of the subject, questions are presented from the floor. 3. Brief presentations on book or magazine article which are read in part or in whole, or questions on the subject matter presented in the article are answered. 4. Courses of study prepared in outline form, issued in a magazine, with questions for use in classes. 5. Theme prepared on subject matter assigned, and read by member of group. 6. Case study or incidents, with the purpose of placing some problem before the group and discussing it objectively. 7. Book review on fiction, novel, or drama. 5 Peabody, May E. Methods in leading study groups of parents. Albany, State education department, Child development and parent education bureau, 1936. 26 BIENNIAL SURVEY OF EDUCATION, 19 34-36 8. Panel discussion in which a small group discusses a subject before a larger group followed by participation in discussion from the floor. 9. Forum dialogue where two experts or qualified persons discuss a subject together before an audience in a friendly way. 10. Discussion method, in which the group is guided by a chairman or leader who starts the group with a leading question on a subject selected by the group. The leader analyzes and synthesizes all contributions to conclusions that may be pertinent to the members. The discussion method is pointed out as the highest type of group work in thinking and participation. Dr. Peabody in her interpretation of the discussion method stated: Groups have to be educated to this method, * * * and that is why you must know your group and do the thing that will elicit their interest until you can reach another level. To let the group remain at one level of group activity and thinking is not very constructive for you as leader, or for the group. * * * Method is only a means to the end. If there is real education the members must do active thinking concerning their own prac¬ tices and experiences and the leader should help them grow in evaluating these experiences and in reaching principles of action that mean something in their daily living. Groups grow from one level to a higher if the leadership is adequate. As to methods and procedures of parents’ groups, Superintendent Ramsey, of the Fort Smith, Ark., public schools says — The usual procedure in Fort Smith has been a 15- to 20-minute introduc¬ tory talk by the leaders, emphasizing the subject chosen for the day’s discus¬ sion. This is generally followed by comments, personal illustrations, pivotal questions asked by the leader, and a summary by the leader at the end of the hour. The group members are more willing to express themselves than they were formerly but still need encouragement and drawing out by the leader. Members of the group respond well to the use of case studies and questions referring to articles in magazines which they have read. In the Houston, Tex., program — A special attempt is made to create an atmosphere of informality. The lessons take the form of a round table discussion in which anyone is free to enter the conversation if he has a contribution to make to the subject in hand. After the lesson the leader discusses individual problems with the parents if they wish. Parents with special problems are urged to make a study of these problems and take definite steps to get rid of them. The leader will help with suggestions. Detailed outlines of each lesson with bibliography are available for those who wish them.s e Op. cit. V. Outcomes of Parent Education Work Seen by City Superintendents of Schools Parent education directors in the city schools have from the beginning evaluated and recorded the progress of their programs. Their annual reports are detailed and interesting. Concerning the value or progress of parent education programs in their respective school systems, several city superintendents have expressed their views in letters to the Office of Education. Supt. A. R. Coulson, of Albany, N. Y., thinks that specific gains have been made with leaders who through their experience have a better understanding of the principles of mental hygiene, a broadened understanding of the job of parenthood and of the significance of membership in the community, and he says that parents who are interested in the program seem to experience an improvement in their own family relationships. “In dealing with personal problems in the public schools through our child study and visiting teacher services,” writes Supt. J. W. Spinning, of Rochester, N. Y., “we discovered very early that most of the problems of children involved parental situations and relationships with which it is difficult to deal at moments of stress, and yet which vitally affect the child. If the values of common-school education are to be attained, as many children as possible must be well adjusted in their home life. “The parent education program with its demonstration nursery schools seems to be our best method of helping young parents to become informed upon the problems of school life. We think that as the parent education program broadens and strengthens, more young parents will realize that they need to study the facts and principles of child rearing just as they would find it necessary to prepare themselves for any other vocation. “We notice from year to year increased interest among mothers and fathers in problems of family life. We think that this has resulted from the activities of our parent education groups under trained instructors and of leadership groups under lay leaders who have come forward to increase the circle of our contacts. “The program in parent education has finally reached a point where we may say confidently that parent education is an integral part of the school program, it has the full confidence of the board 27 28 BIENNIAL SURVEY OF EDUCATION, 1934-36 of education and the community at large,” says Supt. J. A. Sexson, of Pasadena, Calif. He points out the difficulty of knowing what needs are satisfied by the program, but he thinks that an increasing number of mothers of young children are making use of these classes during the preschool period of the child’s life, and says that this is becoming so much a practice in the community that at the present time the demand for classes for mothers of young children is beyond the ability of the board to meet. Superintendent Sexson thinks that the effect of these classes upon parents and their attitudes toward the rearing of children is almost beyond belief. The whole attitude of the parent toward the problem of child nurture changes under the influence of these courses, with the result that the children are brought along to their school age entirely free from many of the handicaps which children often acquire due to unwise or unthinking parental influence during the preschool period. These changes in the attitudes of parents and in the responses of children are wholly constructive. We have not heard the slightest criticism, nor have we observed any indications of some of the bad influences which have at one time or another been associated with kinder¬ garten education. The program of education in these classes is wholly free from the formality of later educational procedures and it seems admirably adapted to the needs of both parents and children. We are enthusiastic about it and we feel that we have made a distinct contribution to our program of public education through these classes. “Parent education is entitled to first rank among the many modern movements in education for in the last analysis it is making the outstanding contribution to the welfare and sta¬ bility of our schools,” declares Supt. Daniel J. Kelly, of Bing¬ hamton, N. Y. He further states that — the schools’ greatest need is intelligent interest on the part of those who are most deeply concerned because of their children and their pocketbooks and that an understanding is bound to bring cooperation and support. This understanding includes the nature and the needs of children and youth together with the possibilities and responsibilities of the schools. Parents, therefore, have their own direct obligations to the schools and in no other way has this been met so effectively as in the rapidly growing parent educa¬ tion movement. PARENT-EDUCATION PROGRAMS 29 The State superintendent of public instruction of California, Walter F. Dexter, gives his opinion of the value of a program as follows: One of the most important things a school could do is to develop a sound program of parent education. The complex problems of social life cannot be solved by schools alone, nor by homes alone, but I have faith that there is enough intelligence and good will to find right answers. Purposeful effort will have to be made by parents and teachers to use the findings of research to this end. Fortunately, as problems become more complex, a greater amount of reliable knowledge is available to us. VI. Summary The information furnished by superintendents of schools for this study points to the following facts about the administration of parent education in the city school systems under consideration : (1) The programs in 37.8 percent of the cities reporting were conducted within the adult education program and since the aims and methods of parent education differ materially from those of adult education special provision seems to have been made for parent education programs; (2) in 35.1 percent of the cities parent education was conducted under home economics auspices; and (3) in approximately 27.1 percent of the rest of the programs parent education was conducted either under the immediate supervision of the superintendent or assistant super¬ intendent of schools, or within a psychiatric department, or by a director of curriculum. State, local, and Federal funds financed 35.1 percent of the projects in city schools. The Federal funds were subsidies either under Smith-Hughes or George-Ellzey enactments, or under both. More than half of the cities maintained centers for the observa¬ tion and participation of leaders in training parents and other students. Nursery schools, play schools, preschools, and kinder¬ gartens were types of centers mentioned most often. The training of potential leaders and of leaders in service appears to be an important part of the program where training has been and is now in progress and many directors of parent education in cities where such training has not been made a part of the program have expressed the need of it. The importance of the part the parent-teacher associations take in all programs for parent education is frequently pointed out. These organizations furnish the interest and inspiration, the publicity, and many times the potential lay leaders. They bring together the classes and serve the program in many desirable ways. 30 VII. Reference Materials Prepared Within State or Local Programs of Parent Education Publications are being prepared increasingly to aid local leaders of programs connected with the public schools. Sometimes the materials have been created by specialists in parent education in the State departments of education and again, they are pre¬ pared by a director of parent education in a school system. There is in addition to these materials a volume of other publications that is rapidly making up the literature of parent education. Methods, procedures, outlines, and forms, together with subject matter, make up the content of the various publications for local projects in parent education. The following short reference list is limited to publications prepared in and issued by State departments or parent education departments in the public schools. Arkansas. State Board of Education. Discussion outlines for preschool study groups. By Helen C. Smith and Druzilla Kent. Little Rock, State board of education, 1929. 27 p. This pamphlet is intended for the use of leaders. Presents many aspects of child development and family relationships. California. State Department of Education. The emer¬ gency education program in California. Sacramento, The department, 1936. 67 p. (Bulletin No. 5.) Description of the parent education aspect of the emergency education program. - Parent education in California. By Gertrude Laws. Sacramento, The department, 1937. 55 p. (Bulletin No. 17.) Contains material on developing a program, methods for adult groups, objectives for parent education, suggested procedures, and other important matter. Gartzmann, Pauline and Laws, Gertrude. A study in parent education. Pasadena, Calif., Pasadena city schools, 1935. 23 p. A description of the purposes and outcomes of the parent education project in play groups conducted in the Pasadena public schools. 31 32 BIENNIAL SURVEY OF EDUCATION, 1934-36 Huffaker, Lois G. Education for home and family life. El Paso, Tex., vocational school, 1935 (mimeograph.) A brief handbook and report of the parent education program in El Paso, Tex. New York. State Education Department. Child Develop¬ ment and Parent Education Bureau. Developing attitudes in children. Outlines for group discussion with readings. By Ruth Andrus and May E. Peabody. Albany, The depart¬ ment, 1935. 8 p. (mimeograph.) Eight units for study of hygiene attitudes of children. - Methods of leading groups of parents. By May E. Peabody. Albany, The department, 1936. 3 p. (mimeograph). A chart listing 10 methods of leading groups; descriptions of methods, their value and limitations. - Discovering lay leadership in parent education. By Ruth Andrus and associates. Albany, The department, 1935. 108 p. A report of the study of 579 lay leaders in parent education — their nationality, age, education, occupations, and financial status. Methods of conducting and training lay leaders and problems of these leaders. - - Points for lay leaders in parent education. Albany, The department, 1932 (mimeograph). Detailed description of the functions of a lay leader, suggestions for self-checking; brief definition of types of classes and sample registration blanks for use of leaders. ■ - Parent education in New York State. Parent education series, circular 1. New York State education department, The child development and parent education department. Albany, N. Y., The University of the State of New York press, 1937. 13 p. - Child development and parent education bureau. Record book of lay leader in parent education, 1933. Book used by lay leaders in making monthly reports to the professional leader. Pennsylvania. State Department of Education. Parent education. A manual of suggestions to aid school authorities in developing a program of parent-pupil-teacher relationships. Harrisburg, The department, 1935. 50 p. (Bulletin 86.) PARENT-EDUCATION PROGRAMS 33 Perkins, Esther Blakeney. (The) Home-school relationship. (An important factor in child development.) Binghamton, N. Y., Department of education, Division of parent education, 1934. 25 p. (mimeograph). Outlines for lay leaders’ training class on the home, the school, and the community. - New trends in education. Binghamton, N. Y., Depart¬ ment of education, Division of parent education, 1932. 56 p. (mimeograph). Units of study for parents on content, teaching methods, and modern principles of education and how they may be adapted to a school system- VIII. Appendix Parent Education in City School Systems TO SUPERINTENDENTS OF CITY SCHOOL SYSTEMS Name of person making report . Official position . City . State . 1. Circle numeral to indicate number of years parent education has been in operation under the board of education: 12345678910. 2. Give (a) name, ( b ) title of director or person in charge, and (r) state whether she gives full time or part time to this work . If part time, in what other field does she work? . 3. How many other persons are employed for parent education? . number on full time . ; number on part time . In what other fields do the part-time employees work? . 4. What events or situations influenced the inauguration of this work? 5. Name local agencies that cooperate in the program 6. Check sources of funds used in this parent - education program: (a) Public-school funds ( ); (b) foundation grants ( ); (c) Federal subsidies — state which ones . (d) fees from classes or groups . ; State fees charged per person . ; (e) other sources: . 7. What was the budget for parent education during the year 1935-36? 8. Are there available centers where parents or others may observe or participate, such as nursery schools or kindergartens? (Check) Yes ( ); No ( ). If so, describe the extent of the use of these centers by parents and others under instruction: . 9. Please state how many class meetings constitute a course for parent- education leaders: . ; for parents . ; for high- school students . ; for any others . Length of each class period . 34 PARENT-EDUCATION PROGRAMS 35 10. Give number of leaders, parents, high-school students, and others under instruction by parent education leaders during the year 1935-36: Type Num¬ ber Others (name) Num¬ ber Others (name) Num¬ ber 11. List and describe activities in parent education: O . UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR HAROLD L. ICKES .* SECRETARY OFFICE OF EDUCATION : J. W. STUDEBAKER COMMISSIONER DEVELOPMENTS IN EDUCATIONAL METHOD 1934-36 BEING CHAPTER X OF VOLUME I OF THE BIENNIAL SURVEY OF EDUCATION IN THE UNITED STATES : 1934-36 BULLETIN, 1937, No. 2 [advance pages ] PREPARED BY MARY DABNEY DAVIS, COORDINATOR L. C. EVERARD, CLINE M. KOON, EDITH A. LATHROP MARIS M. PROFFITT, DAVID SEGEL UNITED STATES GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE WASHINGTON : 1937 For sale by the Superintendent of Documents, Washington. D- C. Price 10 cents CONTENTS Page Foreword _ v Guidance in the School Program _ 1 State guidance programs _ 2 City guidance programs _ 3 Developments in guidance techniques _ 6 School clubs _ 7 Child guidance clinics _ 8 Counselors’ qualifications _ 10 Development in Measurement _ 12 Measurement and the instructional process _ 12 New areas for measurement _ 16 State-wide testing programs _ 18 Pupil personnel records _ 18 Character Development _ 22 Importance of character development _ 22 State and local school programs _ 24 Research in character development _ 28 Organizations aiding character development _ 29 Museum Service to Schools _ 31 Museum services _ 31 Preparation of teachers _ 32 Techniques for museum visits _ 33 Radio and Motion Pictures in Education _ 36 Educational influence of radio and photoplays _ 36 Instructional use of radio by schools _ 39 Instructional use of motion pictures by schools.^ _ 42 School Library Service _ 45 Significant values of library service _ 45 Extent of service _ 46 Trends and results _ 47 m ' FOREWORD This report presents a series of brief surveys of recent develop¬ ments in educational method. It points to the growing conviction that many of the aids and services once regarded as mere accessories to educational method are now among its essential elements. Many innovations of a few years ago are being accepted as basic equipment and as fundamental procedures effective in all parts of the school system from the nursery school to adult levels. Evaluations of the worth of these developments are specially important at the ele¬ mentary and secondary school levels where a large proportion of the country’s population completes its education and where the school’s functions and responsibilities should of necessity be most carefully considered. Two forces have operated to promote developments in educational method. On the one hand, social and economic changes have so modified family life that many responsibilities of child development and behavior guidance formerly assumed by the home have been shifted to the school. On the other hand, certain changes in educa¬ tional philosophy and recent findings of scientific research have directed the efforts of the school toward new undertakings. In both instances it has become apparent that a recognition of new responsi¬ bilities for the schools and new developments in educational method must go hand in hand. The school now centers its attention on the child’s personal, social, and cultural development through guidance and counseling ; through instruction fitted to his capacities, interests, and needs; through cooperation with the home and community; and through broad experience afforded vicariously by radio, motion pic¬ tures, museums, libraries, and other aids. Problems inherent in these educational procedures are discussed in the reports that follow. In the first review, Dr. Proffitt, recognizing the present widespread appreciation of individual differences, shows how guidance services are considered an essential function of education. His account sum¬ marizes briefly the work in guidance carried on by State and city departments of public instruction. The extent of occupational information courses offered in secondary schools is noted, the im¬ portance of school club activities for realizing guidance values is indicated, the increasing use of record forms in counseling and the efforts being made to improve them for guidance purposes are de¬ scribed, and practices relative to the qualifications of counselors are summarized. Child guidance clinics are given consideration because of their contribution to effective guidance service. v VI FOREWORD With the increased emphasis upon the complete development of each individual child there has been an extension and expansion of the methods of evaluating pupil growth. New tests of ability and achievement have been conceived. These aid in both the learning situation and the long-time guidance situation. The measurement of social behavior has also advanced paralleling the increasing attention paid to social adjustment in our schools. Dr. Segel describes the acceleration of measurement in these fields. Attitudes and social behavior have been recognized for many years as factors in successful learning and in necessary social adjustments. Progess in character development, reviewed by Dr. Davis, indicates the extent to which efforts to help boys and girls succeed have moved from generalities that anticipate a transfer of training, to specific work, both with groups and with individual pupils. This has helped to open the field of education for character to experimental study. Studies of the causes for juvenile delinquency and of adult malad¬ justment during social and economic difficulties have stressed the importance of this emphasis upon character development in the school program. Cooperation between schools and community museums is proving helpful in furthering the knowledge pupils obtain through their curriculum experiences. The guided visitations and illustrated lec¬ tures provided in many museums and the loan of material to schools by museums are described by Mr. Everard, who also refers tc^ the initiative schools are taking in organizing and maintaining both temporary and permanent exhibits within their own elementary and secondary school buildings. The spectacular expansion of the use of radio and motion pictures is described in Dr. Koon’s summaries of national surveys. The influ¬ ence of radio and motion-picture programs upon the individual and upon Nation-wide thinking are recognized as an immediate challenge to education. The review indicates some of the steps already taken to develop the use of these visual aids in schools and in general programs offered to the public. Curricula organized on the basis of centers of interest stimulate and require children to seek information. Increasing numbers of school and community libraries are supplying reference material available in books and are adding new services by loaning visual aids and setting up exhibits related to the school programs. Miss Lathrop reviews some of the factors affecting school-library services and summarizes many of the aids related to curricula in the elementary and secondary schools and the contribution made to library services by civic and educational organizations. Bess Goodykoontz, Assistant Commissioner of Education . CHAPTER X DEVELOPMENTS IN EDUCATIONAL METHOD, 1934-36 Guidance in the School Program Prepared by Maris M. Proffitt Educational Consultant and Specialist in Guidance and Industrial Education During the past few years there has been an increasing tendency to recognize guidance as an essential function in education, a func¬ tion necessary for the full realization of the potential values of school programs in terms of pupil outcomes. State, county, and local edu¬ cational organizations have stressed the importance of guidance and have made provisions for studying and promoting guidance activi¬ ties in the schools. This section on guidance is not intended to give a survey of the past, an interpretation of the present, nor a prediction of the future, but is intended to give an overview of present prac¬ tices, with brief reference to recent developments in the guidance movement. These are set forth in terms of activities which are actually being carried on at the present time, and which involve a definite guidance function, whether or not they are formally labeled “guidance.” Space permits the inclusion of only a few representa¬ tive programs. Some are given in considerable detail in the belief that specific examples are of more value than generalizations. Guidance programs are taking shape with more emphasis than formerly on methods used in the fields of psychiatry and personnel. The philosophy of guidance is in harmony with the developing psychology of individual differences, and with the more general as¬ sumption that differences in environment and opportunities are factors which condition an individual’s successful progress through the schools and his participation in social relationships, including employment. To support and to lend direction to the programs of guidance which have been developing throughout the country, and to pool the interests of those actively concerned with the guidance movement, the National Vocational Guidance Association was formed by educa¬ tors and laymen. Through the work of branch associations of this organization, the help of a national magazine,1 and the cooperative 1 Occupations — the vocational guidance magazine. National Occupational Conference, 551 Fifth Ave., New York. 1 2 BIENNIAL SURVEY OF EDUCATION, 1934-36 efforts of other national educational and personnel associations, many services are now offered to promote public support of guidance and to secure the participation of civic organizations in guidance work. STATE GUIDANCE PROGRAMS Most of the State departments of education have held and are continuing to hold meetings including programs which are wholly or partially devoted to guidance. State courses of study rather gener¬ ally include consideration of guidance. A number of States have issued publications for aiding and promoting it and others are out¬ lining guidance programs for the schools. A few States have made specific provisions relative to the inclusion of studies in occupations as a part of the school program; others have guidance workers on their staffs. The New York State Education Department has taken the lead in appointing a full-time supervisor of guidance. Though many States still remain without formal guidance pro¬ grams, a number, according to information furnished the Office of Education in 1936, have made some provision for guidance on a State-wide basis. The following may be noted : Alabama. — A 5-year committee on courses of study has outlined sl plan for occupational courses and guidance activities. California % — A State committee has done work similar to that in Alabama. Delaware . — A State-wide pupil-record system is stressed for guid¬ ance and other uses. Georgia. — Guidance has been promoted through summer teacher¬ training courses at the University of Georgia. Idaho. — Guidance is encouraged through the issuance of bulletins and periodicals. Iowa. — Vocations are included in the high-school course of study. Louisiana. — A State committee is working for the promotion of guidance services in the schools. Maine. — The agent for secondary education is fostering guidance in the secondary schools by working through the Maine Principals7 Association. Massachusetts. — Several guidance conferences have been held. Michigan. — An active State committee holds conferences, issues publications, and circulates books devoted to guidance. Two major projects are now going forward: (1) Development of personnel records for better elementary and secondary school guidance, and (2) promotion of guidance and testing on the college level. Missouri. — A guidance bulletin for junior-senior high schools was issued in 1933. EDUCATIONAL METHOD 3 Minnesota. — Guidance and occupational information appear in school manuals. Nebraska. — High-school manuals including guidance, safety edu¬ cation, and the study of occupations have been published. Nevada. — A class called “Student Relationships” is in the required course of study for high schools. This carries a guidance emphasis. New Hampshire. — In 1936, the State board of education published a detailed program of guidance for grades 7 to 12. North Carolina. — A new course of study including materials on guidance, home rooms, and occupations is being introduced. Ohio. — Guidance is included in the newly revised manual of high- school standards. Oklahoma. — The director of instruction and reorganization and the chief high-school inspector are cooperating in an active program fostering guidance. Oregon. — In 1936 the State formulated a definite plan for inaugu¬ rating guidance in the grades and in the high schools. The State department of education prepared two manuals to be used as guides and designated a representative from a teacher-training institution to act as supervisor in assisting local schools to set up their individual guidance programs. Pennsylvania. — Ninth-grade courses in school opportunities and occupations were issued in 1933, and a guidance handbook in 1935. South Carolina. — The State board of education has adopted a text on vocations. Texas. — A curriculum revision program includes a section devoted to guidance. Vermont. — A State committee on guidance is preparing a program. Virginia. — This State has a required course in occupations, recom¬ mends guidance through home rooms, and has published and dis¬ tributed a guidance bulletin. Wisconsin. — An annual conference of school supervisors considers guidance among other school programs. CITY GUIDANCE PROGRAMS City programs of guidance were studied and reported upon, both generally and specifically, in the National Survey of Secondary Edu¬ cation. Four general types were found, differing in centralization of authority and in detail of organization, rather than in the basic functions performed : 1. Centralized bureaus of guidance for secondary schools in city systems. 2. City school systems with a central guidance organization but with the individual secondary school considered the unit in the program. 3994—37 - 2 4 BIENNIAL SURVEY OF EDUCATION, 1934-36 3. Centralized bureaus or departments in individual secondary schools. 4. Central guidance organizations in individual secondary schools which utilize regular officers and teachers as guidance functionaries.2 A type not enumerated above was disclosed by information col¬ lected by the Office of Education in 1936. This type is the central guidance committee organization in which the guidance functionaries are all part-time workers, carrying on counseling activities in addi¬ tion to their other duties. For example, Birmingham, Ala., has a guidance committee composed of the director of vocational education, as chairman, and seven other members selected from among the ad¬ visers of boys and advisers of girls in the high schools. The com¬ mittee is appointed by the associate superintendent of schools, who has guidance as one of his responsibilities. Wilmington, Del., has a similar arrangement. Los Angeles, Calif., has a full-time supervisor of educational re¬ search and guidance, as does Oakland which has an assistant super¬ intendent of schools in charge of individual guidance. Other cities with full-time guidance directors are : San Diego, Calif. ; Bridgeport, Conn.; Hartford, Conn.; Atlanta, Ga. ; New Orleans, La.; Baltimore, Md. ; Boston, Mass. ; Detroit, Mich. ; Kansas City, Mo. ; Albany, N. Y. ; New York, N. Y. ; Yonkers, N. Y.; Cincinnati, Ohio; Cleve¬ land, Ohio ; and Knoxville, Tenn. This list is compiled from answers received in the informal survey mentioned above, and includes cities with populations of 100,000 or over. Some cities reported officials whose titles would indicate full-time guidance supervision, but whose duties actually include other functions. Many smaller cities not hav¬ ing a full-time director do have full-time guidance workers. More¬ over there are numerous cities with part-time directors of guidance. The most outstanding legal development with reference to city guidance programs came in 1935, when New York State required all cities having more than 100,000 population to provide for guidance in their schools. The law reads as follows : The board of education of each city and of each school district having a population of one hundred thousand or more shall establish, conduct, and maintain a guidance bureau. The organization and functions of each such bureau shall be determined by the board of education in accordance with the provisions of this section authorizing the establishment of guidance bureaus.3 In the field of elementary education little, if anything, has been done in formally organized counseling programs. Much is being 2 Reavis, William C. Programs of guidance. Washington, Government Printing Office, 1933. 144 p. (U. S. Department of the Interior, Office of Education. Bulletin 1932, No. 17 ; National survey of secondary education, Monograph No. 14.) 3 An act to amend the education law, in relation to the establishment of vocational schools and providing for vocational and extension education. Ch. 250, Laws of New York, 1935. EDUCATIONAL METHOD 5 done, however, through grade placement, diagnosis of learning diffi¬ culties, and other services to study individual children for the pur¬ pose of aiding their progress in school and supplying guidance and assistance in the development of social behavior. Home-room periods and activity-periods sometimes found in ele¬ mentary schools, frequently include work which has guidance value. In such programs a place is often given to a discussion of school courses, school activities, and individual problems that serve to orient and direct the pupil. Cumulative records of manifested traits and interests are kept by many elementary schools. These records have a very definite guid¬ ance function and are useful throughout the entire school career. In many elementary schools, especially in systems organized on the 8-4 plan, pupils in the last grade are visited and counseled by per¬ sons representing vocational, technical, and academic high schools, relative to the courses and opportunities offered. One notable new emphasis is directed toward the enlargement of duties of the visiting teacher or other official making home visits. These expanded duties frequently include guidance services. Be¬ havior study and social adjustment have become so allied to attend¬ ance problems that some cities consider their visiting teachers as part-time guidance workers. A characteristic of many city school programs, particularly on the secondary level, has been the departmental organization of instruc¬ tion. Specialization in school organization and supervision has resulted in the pupil’s coming under the tutelage of so many differ¬ ent persons that he spends but a comparatively short time with any one. Consequently, there is a lack of continuity of desirable teacher- pupil relations. It is to be remembered that after all the child is a unit and that he cannot be divided up among departmental and sub¬ ject teachers for the development of certain parts of him without running grave risk of interference with the unity of his development. City guidance programs which are school-centered, and which arc built around the teacher as a counselor, seem to have been most successful in permeating entire school systems. An example of this type is found in Providence, R. I., where guidance is included under instructional work and is emphasized as a function of education. An organization has been developed to compensate the individual child for the diffusion of responsibility on the part of the school staff. The assistant superintendent of schools has direct responsi¬ bility for the organization, direction, and supervision of guidance services in all the schools of the city and is, ex officio, a member of the department of personnel research and guidance. This department maintains continuous records on attendance, health, intelligence, achievement, aptitudes., and interests. It studies 6 BIENNIAL SURVEY OF EDUCATION, 1934-36 pupil adjustment in classes and in school subjects; investigates artic¬ ulation between grade levels; collects basic data for construction of the school program and for redefining school aims and curricular objectives; provides psychological and psychiatric examinations; collects and makes available information on schools and courses beyond the secondary level; and assists pupils in orienting them¬ selves to the school and its program. Counseling of individual pupils is done by teachers selected and trained for the purpose. A school counselor in Providence never ceases to be a classroom teacher for at least part time. Instruction in occupations, two periods per week, is given throughout the junior high school grades. Part of the period is set aside for educational and vocational conferences with individual pupils. The instruction is given by counselors, who are generally assigned some pupils in need of individual counseling. Directed effort is made in the Providence program to secure the cooperation of the entire school staff in the use of facilities and con¬ ditions which affect the welfare of the pupil. The classroom teacher, the school principal, the supervisor of school subjects — each has an opportunity to discover, stimulate, and develop pupil aptitudes and interests. It is the purpose of the Providence schools to obtain from all of these some contribution to the guidance function. The program includes a central office guidance clinic for the ex¬ amination of pupils referred by counselors, school principals, or parents. A central placement service is maintained wdiere records of placement and employment contacts are kept on file. Shop teach¬ ers and supervisors of guidance are scheduled one-half day each week to contact employers to determine opportunities for pupil placement. A regular and systematic follow-up program is in op¬ eration, constituting a valuable source of information for use by school officials in revising the curriculum and in developing desirable contacts for gaining the interest and support of the public in behalf of the schools. DEVELOPMENTS IN GUIDANCE TECHNIQUES The recognition of the pupil’s need for information in the intelli¬ gent choice of an occupational interest, for selecting courses of train¬ ing, and for adjustment in employment has been rapidly growing during the past few years. That schools are now generally includ¬ ing classroom instruction in occupations is shown by data collected by the Office of Education in 1934.4 Reports received from more 4 Proffitt, Maris M. Courses in occupational information. Washington, Government Printing Office, 1934. 47 p. (U. S. Department of the Interior, Office of Education. Bulle¬ tin 1934, No. 11.) EDUCATIONAL METHOD 7 than a thousand representative secondary schools showed that 68.5 percent of these schools were giving formal classroom instruction through organized courses in occupations. These courses usually come in the junior high school or the first and second years of a 4-year high school. The average length of these courses is about 5 weeks if the class meets every day. In most of the schools the course is either elective or limited to pupils taking certain curricula, or to special groups of students. Frequently in these courses pupils prepare workbooks covering such topics as: Self-analysis. How to study occupations. Choosing an occupation. Relation of education, work, and success. Why people work and how they cooperate. Kinds and distribution of occupa¬ tions. Preparing for your vocation. Securing and holding a position, and advancement. SCHOOL CLUBS The guidance function of education is often served by the work carried on in school clubs. Their great variety of activities con¬ tributes extensively to the realization of guidance objectives. The recent rapid increase in the number of school clubs has broadened the opportunities for guidance services through extracurricular activities. A study made by the Office of Education in 1934 based on returns from 883 representative junior and senior high schools shows that 92.4 percent of these schools have clubs.5 The following group clas¬ sification, each having many variations not listed, indicates the great number of exploratory experiences club work may include : Art clubs. Aviation and airplane clubs. Business and commercial clubs. Camera clubs. Character building clubs (national and local). Collectors’ clubs (stamps, coins, etc.). Debating and speaking clubs. Dramatic clubs. Farm, garden, and yard clubs. Foreign-language clubs. Games (chess, checkers, nonathletic contests). Health and welfare clubs. Honors clubs (scholarship, leadership, letters). Household arts clubs. Industrial arts clubs. Journalism (poetry and literary clubs). Music clubs. Nature study clubs (botany, geology, zoology). Personal culture clubs (etiquette, hy¬ giene, conversation). Science clubs (physics, chemistry,. mathematics). School service clubs. Social and recreational clubs. Social science clubs. Sport and athletic clubs. B Proffitt, Maris M. High-school clubs. Washington, Government Printing Office, 1934. 64 p. (U. S. Department of the Interior, Office of Education. Bulletin 1934, No. 18-.) 8 BIENNIAL SURVEY OF EDUCATION, 1934-36 Properly filled-in pupil records are essential for successful coun¬ seling services. Many schools are now developing and revising forms for recording data on individual cases. In the Cincinnati schools the following are in use : Mij high-school plan. — With the assistance of the counselor, the pupil com¬ pletes this form before entering high school. Counselor's record. — This includes data on tests, school grades, attendance, memoranda on conferences, and school plans. Study yourself. — This is a self-analysis blank. Teacher's estimate. — The teacher records estimates of personality, aptitudes, and interests. Student information. — Pupils record their personal and family histories and answer questions as to special interests. Cumulative record card. — This card contains comprehensive data on the pupil.6 As a further indication of trends in the use of record cards it may be noted that the Minneapolis schools in 1936 began using new cumulative record cards for all pupils from kindergarten to grade 10B, a total of 62,000. Rochester, N. Y., now supplies teachers with a class record book for both elementary and secondary schools pro¬ viding space not only for numerical grades and attendance records, but for social relations, work attitudes and habits, and other more subjective items useful in counseling. Michigan is developing a State-wide system of personnel records for the specific purpose of im¬ proving guidance in both the elementary and secondary schools. CHILD GUIDANCE CLINICS At the present time psychiatric clinics, or child-guidance clinics, have become recognized agencies for the adjustment of problem cases of behavior and personality. Clinics in general are community agencies, not officially connected with any other community organiza¬ tion. However, their functional relationship to the public schools and to the child-caring institutions of the community is necessarily close. In some cases the child- guidance clinics are directly connected with the school system. Clinics are doing much to advance the development of efficient practices in the diagnosis and treatment of problem cases in the schools.* An incidental, but important, result of clinical work is the heightened sensitivity to problems of the child on the part of schools and other agencies dealing with children. It is the intention of the clinic to study the child through the cooperation of all agen¬ cies interested in child life. A full clinic consists, therefore, of spec¬ ialists in medicine, psychology, psychiatry, and sociological research. 6 Survey report of the Cincinnati public schools made by the Office of Education. The Cincinnati Bureau of Governmental Research, Report No. 64, July 1935. 476 p. EDUCATIONAL METHOD 9 In smaller clinics, one person may attempt to cover more than one of these fields. It has been found that the clinic is of most value when problem cases can be reached early. For this reason child-guidance clinics have widened their scope beyond juvenile court cases to take in de¬ linquent children before any legal hand has been laid upon them. The number of clinics, both full-time and fully staffed and part- time and partly staffed, is increasing every year. More than 200 are row known to be in existence,7 of which more than half are full-time clinics. The budget and personnel vary considerably in the differ¬ ent clinics. With reference to length of treatment, the experience of the Los Angeles Child-Guidance Clinic revealed, in a survey of 236 con¬ secutive full-service cases, that the study and treatment of an indi¬ vidual case covered an average of 19 months, with the range running from 1 to 53 months.7 As is the case with many improved educational practices that re¬ quire a considerable sum of money to initiate, child-guidance clinics had their origin in and are now largely confined to cities and large administrative units. However, schools in the smaller places, seeing the good results accruing from the work of the clinics, began to think of ways and means whereby their services might be carried to smaller places. As a result, visiting or traveling clinics more or iess adequately equipped for service, have been provided by a number of States, including Massachusetts, Illinois, Rhode Island, Dela¬ ware, Connecticut, New York, New Jersey, South Carolina, and California. The visiting child-guidance clinic of the California Bureau of Juvenile Research, organized in 1929, 8 provides a complete clinic where services are available to the smaller communities in the State that meet necessary requirements. Thus the cooperation of local public schools, doctors, and social welfare agencies is made possible. The children studied and examined may have been suggested by any one of a number of agencies, such as schools, juvenile courts, welfare organizations, or physicians. However, children of school age are given preference, and from the names suggested, the clinic selects those cases which seem to indicate that the trouble is not merely a physical condition. In all cases, individual mental tests are given by a trained person. The child is studied by a psychiatrist to determine attitudes and in- 7 Stevenson, George S. and Smith, Geddes. Child guidance clinics : A quarter century of development. New York, Commonwealth Fund, 1934. 186 p. 8 Fenton, Norman. Organizing a mental hygiene program through the child guidance •conference. Sacramento, California State Printing Office, 1933. (State of California, Department of Institutions, Bureau of Juvenile Research, Bulletin No. 9, new series.) 10 BIENNIAL SURVEY OF EDUCATION, 1934-36 terests pertaining to his environmental conditions. A local physician makes the necessary physical examination, and social and welfare agencies, together with the parents, supply necessary information for an understanding of the case. After the records are completed, a conference of the clinical staff is held and a report prepared. The report is given to the liaison worker between the clinic and the com¬ munity. This person makes it available to persons and agencies having responsibility for providing the kinds of remedial treatment or other form of action recommended. Follow-up reports are made by the local agencies on the progress being achieved. Members of the clinic’s staff advise concerning further treatment and revisit the community for further consultation as time permits and need is manifested. COUNSELORS ’ QUALIFICATIONS With the development of guidance as a special function of educa¬ tion, attention has been given to the qualifications of workers in this field. It is now a rather general practice to stipulate that persons rendering guidance services meet special requirements. In New York State, for example, “A teacher or other staff member who devotes at least 50 percent of his time to counseling shall hold a certificate valid for such service in the public schools. This applies to advisers, counselors, deans, and others performing the duties pre¬ scribed.” 8 9 In order to make sure that no member of a school staff is perform¬ ing such functions unclassified as guidance activities, the State de¬ partment defines the following duties as guidance functions : Subject to the direction and supervision of the superintendent of schools, to plan, organize, and direct the guidance program of the school ; confer with parents, community agencies, teachers, and specialists on the educa¬ tional, health, social, moral, family, and vocational problems of pupils ; confer with pupils on curricular and extracurricular problems, school poli¬ cies, and related problems ; give instruction covering educational and occu¬ pational opportunities and related topics ; prepare and maintain cumulative pupils’ records ; secure reliable information about higher education, special training, and occupational opportunities ; organize and administer pupil placement and follow-up service ; advise the superintendent of schools and principal with regard to all matters relating to counseling; and to do related work as required.9 The guidance counselors in the Providence, R. I., schools are all selected from the teaching staff. Teachers manifesting personal qualifications and having had educational courses that contribute to an understanding of guidance work are chosen. Special training is 8 Certification for administrative and supervisory service: laws, rules, regulations, and information. Albany, N. Y., The University of the State of New York Press, 1935. (Certification bulletin no. 1.) EDUCATIONAL METHOD 11 then provided for those teachers who are to give part time to counsel¬ ing. They come under the direct supervision of the official respon¬ sible for the development of the guidance program. The Providence plan provides for 3 years of inservice training for each counselor. In Cincinnati counselors are a carefully selected group. In their selection emphasis is placed upon vocational experience, personality traits, knowledge of social service practices, university training with particular consideration to subjects related to child welfare, and spe¬ cific interest in the work. These counselors come under the super¬ vision of an official especially trained and experienced in the conduct of counseling and guidance services in the school system. -3 Development in Measurement Prepared by David Segel Educational Consultant and Specialist in Tests and Measurements The application of measurement to education has developed both intensively and extensively — intensively in that the use of tests in the classroom or guidance situation is becoming better defined and understood and more acceptable to school people ; extensively in that measurement is being extended to new administrative school units and educational or socio-educational agencies. Generally speaking, the acceleration in measurement has not only had as its objective the measurement of products of the curriculum and the abilities of the individual pupil, but also adjustments in testing techniques to paral¬ lel the changes taking place in educational practice and the need for knowledge about individual pupils. Selected evidences of growth in measurement are reviewed in this report. MEASUREMENT AND THE INSTRUCTIONAL PROCESS New -type testing which represents a departure from the old essay - type of examination began with an emphasis on skills and factual knowledge. Inasmuch as school practices vary with respect to the time of teaching the various fact items and skills, standardized tests do not always fit the curriculum. Their validity has consequently been questioned. In recent years, as the school has extended its ob¬ jectives to include appreciations, tastes, and preferences, attitudes of work, the application of principles to the physical sciences, the social sciences, and elsewhere, standardized new-type tests have become still less satisfactory as a means of measuring the effectiveness of the whole curriculum. Since the need for better types of tests has be¬ come generally apparent, important developments in adapting meas¬ urement to the objectives of the curriculum have taken place. A few of these developments will be noted. Tyler’s work at the Ohio State University has contributed ma¬ terially to the improvement of testing techniques. He has cooper¬ ated with the college instructors at Ohio State University in analyz¬ ing their subjects and in defining specific learning objectives to be incorporated in examination items. In science the basic material was found to be “a list of important facts, technical terms, and prin- 12 EDUCATIONAL METHOD 13 ciples which students might be expected to remember; a list of com¬ mon misconceptions which the course might help to eliminate ; a list of sources, both reliable and unreliable, of scientific information; collections of problems, problem-solving situations, and problems to be analyzed ; experimental data or facts encountered in everyday life from which students should be able to draw generalizations; a list of hypotheses which could be tested by the students; a list of scien¬ tific principles which the students should be able to apply to new situations; and a collection of laboratory techniques which the stu¬ dents are expected to master.” 10 An important outcome of Tyler’s work is a long-time program of evaluation of high-school instruction sponsored by the Progressive Education Association. Lindquist 10 has shown that objective test questions can be framed so that understanding can be tested. He describes the construction of such test items in connection with a study of the Iowa State test¬ ing program. The use of this improved type of question results not only in making the test more valid, but it tends to serve as an example to the teacher of the type of instruction he should carry on. Lindquist gives the following as a sample showing the differences in types of questions and the reactions of pupils to them. The items are taken from a physics test given to a random sampling of 325 Iowa high-school physics students. 1. What is the heat of fusion of ice in calories? (Answered correctly by 78 percent of the pupils.) 2. How much heat is needed to melt one gram of ice at 0° C.? (Answered correctly by 70 percent of the pupils.) 3. Write a definition of heat of fusion. (Answered correctly by 50 percent of the pupils.) 4. The water in a certain container would give off 800 calories of heat in cooling to 0° C. If 800 grams of ice are placed in the water, the heat from the water will melt (1) All the ice. (2) About 10 grams of ice. (3) Nearly all the ice. (4) Between 1 and 2 grams of ice. (Answered correctly by 35 percent of the pupils.) 5. In which of the following situations has the number of calories exactly equal to the heat of fusion of the substance in question been applied? (1) Ice at 0° C. is changed to water at 10° C. (2) Water at 100° C. is changed to steam at 100° C. (3) Steam at 100° C. is changed to water at 100° C. (4) Frozen alcohol at — 130° C. is changed to liquid alcohol at —130° C. (Answered correctly by 34 percent of the pupils.) 10 Hakwes, Herbert E., Lindquist, E. F., and Mann, C. R. The construction and use of achievement examinations. Boston, Houghton Mifflin Co., 1936. 497 p. 14 BIENNIAL SURVEY OF EDUCATION, 1934-36 In this test, each succeeding item represents greater difficulty than the one preceding. Items 4 and 5 cannot be answered by rote mem¬ orization but require an understanding of the basic principles in¬ volved. Intimate connection is being increasingly established between the curriculum and the use of "diagnostic”, "unit”, and "instructional” tests. The use of diagnostic instruments has been described in detail in the Thirty -fourth Y earhook of the National Society for the Study of Education.11 There are two general aspects to educational diag¬ nosis-one relating directly to instruction and the other having as its ultimate purpose the discovery of those individual traits which must be known if educational guidance is to be most effective. Unit tests are becoming an integral part of the unit of work or activity unit. Such tests are generally constructed by the teacher or the local school system. They are more closely related to actual -class instruction than any other tests except perhaps the so-called instructional tests which usually consist of drill material together with certain final tests, and which are being developed for insertion at the end of topics or units in courses of study and textbooks. Workbooks consisting largely of instructional tests are being issued in arithmetic, algebra, English, science, and the social studies. The use of tests for guidance has been increasing. In the kinder¬ garten or first-grade reading readiness and school readiness tests 12’13 are being used to classify entering children into reading and non¬ reading groups. Such tests have been found to be slightly superior to general intelligence tests for the purpose.13 In the other elemen¬ tary grades there has been notable growth in the use of batteries of tests which give, in addition to data for immediate instructional purposes, a picture of capabilities of the individual pupil in the different school subjects. This information is of value to the school in planning the pupil’s long-time program. In many rural schools the traditional examina¬ tion for graduation has been shifted to the lower grades where its guidance possibilities have been greatly increased.14 In the high school and the college great impetus has been brought about in the guidance field through sponsorship of the Cooperative Test Service by the American Council on Education. The work in u National Society for the Study of Education. 34th Yearbook. Educational diagnosis. Bloomington Ill., Public School Publishing Co., 1935. 523 p. 12 Harrison, M. Lucille. Reading readiness. Boston. Houghton Mifflin Co., 1936. 166 p. 13 Wright, W. W. Reading readiness — A prognostic study. Bloomington, Ind., Indiana University. (School of Education Bulletin, vol. XII, no. 3, June 1936.) 46 p. 14 Segel, David. Elementary school graduating examinations. Washington, Government Printing Office, 1935. (U. S. Department of the Interior, Office of Education, Bulletin 1935, No. 16.) 64 p. EDUCATIONAL METHOD 15 occupational research at the Minnesota Employment Stabilization In¬ stitute has contributed also to our knowledge of abilities deemed essential in certain types of occupations. This should be of value in school guidance. A study sponsored by the Office of Education, in which some 15 colleges and universities are participating, centers attention upon the factors in secondary education which may influence success in college. One of the studies undertakes to determine the relation between character ratings and college success. Advanced methods of using measurement in college guidance have been described in detail in a recent Office of Education publication.15 It is clear that there is developing a much closer relationship be¬ tween test results and the use to which teachers and others put them. An important element in this change is the adaptation of the type of test item to fit the learning situation or the ability of the pupil who is to be tested. In the early development of measuring devices, the new-tvpe test, i. e., the true-false, completion, multiple-choice, and matching, overshadowed the development of other types of items. It is now felt that the type of item incorporated in the test should be governed by the type of situation in which the test is to operate. There are many possible variations of the new-type test items mentioned, as well as many other methods of evaluation which promise to develop into worth-while methods. Behavior rat¬ ing scales, observation of activities, the case history method, the use of anecdotes, and variations of the essay type of examination offer possibilities.16 Another development which shows the more intimate adaptation of measurement to the school is just emerging from the experimental stage. This development involves a general evaluation of the school program through rating ty pes of pupil responses, of lesson planning, of class discussion, and of the teacher's administration of classroom activities. It is an extension of the earlier practice of rating teach¬ ers, school or class situations by measuring the achievement of the pupils. This method attempts to evaluate the socialization and the initiative of the pupils in the classroom situation more objectively than ever before. The timed schedule for observation is an integral part of this method. Wrightstone 17 has evolved perhaps the best 15 - Prediction of success in college : a handbook for administrators and investigators concerned with the problems of college admittance or guidance of college students. Wash¬ ington. Government Printing Office, 1934. (U. S. Department of the Interior, Office of Education, Bulletin No. 1934, No. 15.) 98 p. 16 Wrightstone, J. W. New tests for new needs. In Educational Method, 15:407-411, May 1936. 17 - Appraisal of newer practices in selected public schools. New York, Teachers College, Columbia University, 1935. 117 p. 16 BIENNIAL SURVEY OF EDUCATION, 1934-36 schedule of items to be observed. He has used, among others, the following items: 1. Pupil responses observed : (a) Initiative shown in preparing voluntary reports or exhibits. (&) Initiative shown in extemporaneous contributions from real experience. (c) Initiative shown in extemporaneous contributions from vicarious experience. (d) Initiative shown in suggesting means, methods, activities, solu¬ tions. (e) Responsibility shown in preparing assigned reports or exhibits. (f) Curiosity shown in asking questions on the topic, unit, or prob¬ lem. (t<7) Criticism of a contribution. 2. Teacher conduct of class discussions observed : (a) Allowing pupils to make a voluntary contribution. (&) Encouraging pupils to make a contribution. (c) Proposing questions or theses for pupils or class. ( d ) Referring pupils to sources of data or information. ( e ) Suggesting means, methods, activities, or solutions. ( f ) Discouraging or prohibiting a pupil from making a contribu¬ tion. (g) Recalling a pupil’s attention by direct word, look, or gesture. NEW AREAS FOR MEASUREMENT One general extension of testing at the present time has its origin in the newer administrative units that are now a part of the expand¬ ing school system. The kindergarten and nursery school at one end and the junior college and college at the other have created new demands of testing service. Similarly, CCC camps, the National Youth Administration,18 school placement agencies for educational guidance, and other extensions of educational and guidance facil¬ ities require appropriate tests for directing the development of their programs. This extension of the school system downward and up¬ ward, as well as the inclusion of newer types of activity, demands that more attention be paid to the grade placement of subject matter and to the individual pupil’s abilities and interests so that he may be guided into those educational experiences which will be of most benefit to him. For this reason there is a special need for pupil appraisal. The next paragraphs present some of the modifications and extensions of measurement which are designed to meet current need. Consider first the new program of socializing children. When objective measurement was first conceived and executed, no measures of social attitudes and interests were thought necessary. Today 18 Cherniss, Lillian. Psychological tests applicable to personnel and vocational counsel¬ ing. Springfield, Ill. National Youth Administration of Illinois, 1936. 90 p. EDUCATIONAL METHOD 17 schools almost universally claim socialization as one of their objec¬ tives. They are experimenting to identify social traits and to deter¬ mine methods of measuring them. The most common method has been to have teachers rate the pupils on various social traits. In a recent survey by the Office of Education it was found that there was little unanimity of opinion regarding any common name or descrip¬ tion of the social or character traits desired in pupils. Almost every school system had a different set of such traits. This state of inde¬ cision or confusion in the identification of desirable social traits indicates the point at which any advancement in evaluating must begin. Until the school is united as to what these traits are, any attempts at measurement will lack validity. The Haggerty-Olson- Wickham behavior rating schedules have been found valuable in helping to make uniform the recording of actual events of signifi¬ cance to an understanding of problem pupils and the rating of intellectual, physical, social, and emotional traits. Other methods of evaluating social traits include observation of behavior and, to a smaller extent, performance tests of character and tests of knowledge of social usage. It has been found difficult to conceal the real purpose of these tests from the pupils and the find¬ ings have, therefore, been open to question. A method which ob¬ viates most of this difficulty is the word association test.19 The large number of response words incorporated in this type of test reduces the significance which a given response may hold for the pupil, and consequently increases its validity. Performance tests of character traits which have been most successful are those devel¬ oped by Hartshorne, May. Mailer, and Shuttleworth in connection with their intensive work on such traits as honesty and cooper¬ ativeness. Colleges have extended their use of tests into a new field through comprehensive examinations.20 These are examinations character¬ ized by (a) a large area of subject matter and (5) by test items which depend more upon understanding and appreciation of the subject matter than upon a knowledge of specific items of informa¬ tion. They are a result of recent emphasis in college on broad, com¬ prehensive programs of education which put a premium upon independent study of students and which recognize their varying interests in attaining the goals of education set up by universities. Growth in the use of measurement in pupil personnel work and in the evaluation of the curriculum and instruction in regular schools is attested first, by the increase in the use of tests and other instru- 19 Kelley, T. L. and Krey, A. C. Tests and measurements in the social sciences. New York, Chas. Scribner’s Sons, 1934. 635 p. 20 Jones, E. S. Comprehensive examinations in American colleges. New York, Macmillan Co., 1933. 436 p. 18 BIENNIAL SURVEY OF EDUCATION, 1934^36 ments of evaluation and, second, by the increase in the number of school officials bearing the title of Director of Research, Director of Research and Guidance, or Director of Guidance. A plan just approved for New York City 21 enlarges the research bureau from one director to a director and three assistant directors, one of whom will be in direct charge of “tests and measurements.” This is fairly typical of recent enlargements of administrative staffs to provide guidance services. STATE-WIDE TESTING PROGRAMS State-wide testing in both the elementary and the high-school fields is receiving more attention than ever before. The admin¬ istration of testing programs is changing in many instances from a glorified competition where only a portion of the pupils in each school are tested, to serious programs involving all the pupils in the schools. This is a very important development, because it means that testing is becoming a technique which may influence for good or bad the educational and guidance programs of large areas. If the tests used contain items geared to the barest necessities of the educational program, then such a testing program becomes a mill¬ stone which holds down effective educational development. On the other hand, a testing program fully alive to the importance of vary¬ ing educational objectives and to the need of data for pupil guid¬ ance will be a program which tends to lead educational progress in its participant schools. PUPIL-PERSONNEL RECORDS There are two important types of pupil records now used in schools. Both types are undergoing changes. One type is the periodic report to parents, and the other is the permanent record of the individual pupil kept by the school for its use and for other schools to which the pupil may go. The report to parents is now undergoing considerable change in many schools. These changes are not, however, all in the same direction. The tendencies in report card construction show four significant trends: (1) There is a strong tendency to eliminate percentage marks, or even marks in groups of 4 or 5, such as A, B, C, D, F, or TO, 80, 90, etc. This tendency is more marked in elementary schools than in secondary schools. In place of letters or numerals, the ratings are usually simply S and U 21 Experimental Schools in New York City. In School and Society, 43 : 287, February 29, 1936. EDUCATIONAL METHOD 19 for satisfactory and unsatisfactory. In some cases there is no sym¬ bol if the work in the subject is satisfactory, but a check if the work is unsatisfactory. (2) Another important tendency in report-card development is that of reporting on social and character traits. The ratings asked for on the report card recommended by the Alabama Education Association used by many schools in Alabama (grades 7-12) are as follows : Character traits (suggest these ratings be made every second time reports are made on attend¬ ance and scholarship) Reporting periods 1 2 3 4 5 6 Ability to plan — Plans efficient ways of working _ Ambition — Eager to make progress _ _ Companionability — Is friendly and helpful to others _ _ _ _ _ _ _ Concentration — Directs attention to task at hand_ Cooperation — Works well with others for common good _ _ __ _ _ ___ Leadership — Leads successfully in things worth while _ _ _ _ - Perseverance — Sticks to important tasks in spite of difficulties _ __ _ _ _ _ Resourcefulness — Meets new situations success¬ fully _ _ _ Respect for property — Public *and private _ Self-control — Controls emotions, judgment, and actions __ _ _ _ _ _ _ Self-reliance — Reasonable dependence upon self _ Spontaneity — Responds readily to desirable situa¬ tions _ _ Study habits — Prepares work regularly and effi¬ ciently _ _ Thrift — Uses time, energy, and materials effec¬ tively _ _ _ Key to Marking System (use these letters for ratings on scholarship and character traits) : A = Excellent. C = Fair. F= Failure. B = Good. D = Poor. I = Incomplete. (3) The tendency to report to the parents on the achievement in the specific goals of the schools. The Bronxville schools provide an outstanding illustration in this practice. For example, in the Bronx¬ ville primary grades the report on oral English includes the follow- 3994—37—4 20 BIENNIAL SURVEY OF EDUCATION, 1984-36 ing as part of the goals the attainment of which is to be reported to parents : Takes part in class discussion _ _ (a) Talks willingly _ _ (&) Talks loudly and distinctly enough to be heard by group - - (c) Gives courteous attention to others _ _ Tells simple story or experience so that it is interesting to others - - Makes helpful contributions to class plans, reports, accounts, or plays _ _ Listens to stories or messages carefully enough to repro¬ duce important elements _ _ Has taken several parts in impromptu dramatizations _ _ In some cases this tendency is expressed through recording on the report cards scores obtained on standardized tests. Sometimes these scores are arranged graphically so that they may be readily com¬ pared with the pupil’s standing in his class, with his standing from month to month, and with the standardized norm. (4) The tend¬ ency to do away with reporting on any set form. No report cards are used, and teachers are asked to write a letter to the parents of each child in the class presenting problems, if any, of mutual interest and possible aid. In some cases the parents are asked to write a letter in return. Although these four different types of changes are going on with respect to report cards, it is probable that all these attempts to im¬ prove the report card come from a common feeling that the simple subjective rating by teachers on achievement alone was an inadequate report for modern education. It will be interesting to watch this movement develop. The cooperation of school with parents is needed. Just what type of report will bring this about best is apparently a matter of experiment. The records kept of individual pupils in school are designated as permanent or cumulative records. Schools differ immensely in their recording of information about pupils. Some keep a bare mini¬ mum — enough to identify the grade classification of a pupil in the elementary school and the credit classification (for purpose of grade placement) in the secondary school. Others are attempting to keep a fairly full record of the achievement of the pupils, their attendance and progress through the grades, social attitudes, extracurricular ac¬ complishment, test results, vocational plans, brief family history, and other data. Since research in some of the fields covered by cumula¬ tive records is still in its infancy, it is too early to be dogmatic about all the items which should go into these cumulative records. Re¬ search concerning the value of series of records over a period of time is especially needed. EDUCATIONAL METHOD 21 The more individual guidance and adjustment given to pupils by teachers, counselors, and principals, and the less formal our cur¬ riculum becomes, the more cumulative records are needed to carry the information about individual pupils. When entrance and pro¬ gression were fairly mechanical procedures adapted to an iron-bound curriculum which every child had to conform to, there was little need for records of individual pupils. The more flexible the progression of pupils becomes, and the more choices there are in the curriculum, the greater becomes the need for knowledge about the individual child. The need for better appraisal of pupil traits and abilities, better cumulative records, and better procedures of integrating these records is apparent. Character Development Prepared by Mary Dabney Davis Senior Specialist, Nursery-Kindergarten-Primary Education The present widespread interest in education for character develop¬ ment may be attributed to two influences. There is, first, a tradition that certain qualities of thinking and behaving are responsible for building our Nation and should, therefore, be deeply embedded in the character of our people. In the second place, the World War brought changes in home and community life which the recent de¬ pression has intensified. Mounting records of juvenile delinquency and a growing recognition of serious social maladjustments of adults are proof that many influences formerly guiding and protecting boys and girls no longer function. There is also evidence that incidence of both juvenile deliquency and adult maladjustments might have been avoided by adequate guidance during early childhood and school life. As a result, educational and social leaders are manifesting in¬ creased interest in providing guidance adapted to home and com¬ munity problems. The following report describes various evidences of interest in character development and reviews school activities, research in char¬ acter education, and programs of nonschool organizations. This may help to answer the question repeated so frequently “What is character education?” and to indicate what this emphasis upon thinking and behaving means in terms of citizenship objectives of the school program. IMPORTANCE OF CHARACTER DEVELOPMENT A review of the history of character education summarizes some of the goals maintained by different peoples for the education of their youth — “The American Indian educated for alertness, bravery, and honor; the early Hebrew for an understanding and application of the ‘way of life’ commanded by Yahwah; the ancient Chinese for veneration, justice, and benevolence ; the Spartan Greek for fortitude, courage, and patriotism ; the Athenian for refinement of personality and appreciation of beauty; the colonial Puritan for frugality, so¬ briety, and religious devotion.” 22 To the traditional traits of the 22 Meredith, Howard V. and Manry, James C. A brief history of character education. University of Iowa, Extension Bulletin, No. 290. April 15, 1932. 31 p. 22 EDUCATIONAL METHOD 23 colonial settlers in our country others have been added during the experience of founding a democracy, of developing frontiers, and of evolving from an agricultural to an industrial Nation. Some of these traits have been socially constructive while others have been negative in nature. Courage, honesty, self-reliance, respect for the rights of others, and neighborliness are among the long list of traits desired of citizens in a democracy, while such negative qualities as selfishness, dishonesty, greed, trickery, and an antisocial desire for power are among those which defeat the ideals of democracy. But in the present time of social and economic change certain diffi¬ culties in developing constructive and desirable traits in the oncom¬ ing generations seem of large proportion. There are controversies between adults and youth about standards of conduct suited to “yesterday” contrasted with standards for “today.” Research indi¬ cates that children have no one uniform code of morals. Rather they adapt codes to meet the insistent demands of the home, the school, Sunday school, or the playground. Adults are faced with the need of discriminating between essentials and trivialities in their own behavior and in the activities of youth. They also find it essential to base their own thinking and their guidance of boys and girls upon principle rather than on expediency, fears, and prejudices. The President’s Commission on Social Trends points to the neces¬ sity for beginning guidance in early childhood by stating that “Many of the adults who are involved today in serious social difficulties were the neglected, dependent, poorly nurtured, or otherwise maladjusted children of yesterday.” Other reports emphasize the influence of environment upon the standards of personal and social conduct. “Re¬ search ... is pointing definitely to the conclusion that the attitude of persons in the home, and others in close contact with children, is far more significant as an environmental factor affecting the future conduct of children than any physical or economic limitation of the environment. Not even chronic physical ill health itself has more serious effect upon the conduct of youth than does the environment factor of attitude' in the home, the church, and school.” 23 Programs of mental hygiene which have centered constructively upon the de¬ tection, correction, and prevention of conduct disorders direct atten¬ tion to the need for changes in school practices and for additions to both school and community services to aid all ages within the com¬ munity from the preschool child through the periods of youth and adult life. Much of the professional literature has emphasized social behavior and personality development as basic educational objectives implying 23 Copeland, Royal S. Health, character, and education. In Health and Physical Educa¬ tion, 7 : 8, January 1936. 24 BIENNIAL SURVEY OF EDUCATION, 1934-36 an integration of education for character with the generally accepted school activities. This philosophy of integration is expressed in the definitions of character education given in the Tenth Yearbook of the Department of Superintendence and in the February 1935 bulle¬ tin of the American Educational Research Association. It is the thesis of our study of character education that character educa¬ tion is not an additional subject in the curriculum, that it is not an extra¬ curriculum activity, rather it is the goal toward which all education is directed. It is not separate and apart from the commonly accepted objec¬ tives in education, it is rather inherent in all of them. * * * It should be said that in the broadest sense all the work of the school, the home, the church, and other organizations which assist the individual to adjust his behavior to the demands of social living is character education. In the school situation certainly all the work along such lines as educational guidance and classification, diagnostic testing and remedial teaching, mental and physical health, and the work in the socialization of the individual make contributions to character development. STATE AND LOCAL SCHOOL PROGRAMS Leadership has been taken by many State departments of public instruction in defining goals for character development, in construct¬ ing curriculums, and in coordinating educational, behavior-corrective, and welfare services. Recently the States of Nebraska and Oregon enacted legislation calling for programs of character education. Other States have guided character education through special cur¬ ricula, manuals, and handbooks, sections of general courses of study, supplementary curriculum materials, and statements of cardinal prin¬ ciples of education. Among the States which have issued such pub¬ lications since 1930 are Idaho, Indiana, Massachusetts, Nebraska, New Hampshire, New York, North Carolina, Ohio, Oregon, and Rhode Island. Virginia has published a Bible study curriculum for secondary schools. One of Nebraska’s publications is addressed pri¬ marily to adults and emphasizes the necessity of cooperation on the part of the home, the child, the school, and the community if the program of character education and citizenship training is to be effective. In at least two States, New Jersey and Michigan, there has been a direct attack upon character development. In the fall of 1934 the New Jersey State Commissioner of Education appointed a character education committee representing superintendents, principals, super¬ visors, and teachers in the city and rural schools, the faculties of col¬ leges, and the staff of the State Department of Education. The committee conceded that character education takes place in all life activities but centered its work upon the limitations, responsibilities, and opportunities of the school in providing for growth in character, EDUCATIONAL METHOD 25 as well as in intellectual and physical development. The first report 24 issued in 1935, outlined the committee’s tentative plans, presented guiding principles for the program, defined character, questioned the ability of the public schools to change character, and described the case study method of analyzing character traits and social maladjust¬ ments. The committee then solicited State -wide cooperation in assembling reports of individual and group case studies, reports of school procedures, and of research contributing to character objectives. In the winter of 1933-34 the superintendent of public instruction for the State of Michigan sought a frank appraisal of educational ob¬ jectives and accomplishments as they relate to other governmental problems. He delegated this appraisal to the Michigan Educational Planning Commission, representing organized taxpaying groups throughout the State, as well as other interested organizations such as the American Association of University Women and the Parent- Teachers Association. From the commission’s program there de¬ veloped a series of pointed questions relating to an overemphasis upon academic formalism in the school curriculums. It was pointed out that ‘‘the virtues that are peculiarly essential to successful living in a democracy — honesty and cooperation — seem to be buried in the growing consciousness of crime, selfishness in business practice, faith¬ lessness in public office, narrow and ill-founded thinking, and general apathy to social evils.” It was also pointed out that “to build a more effective and humanitarian, economic, social, and political structure, it is necessary to produce a type of citizen who recognizes his social responsibilities and who is willing to make a contribution to the im¬ provement of the social group * * *. Many believe this end can be accomplished by giving greater emphasis in the school program to character values and by evaluating all instruction and activities in terms of character outcome.” 25 There followed the formation of committees to carry a long-time project within the State: (1) To coordinate forces already at work in the field of character development; (2) to give greater stress to personality development in the curriculum; (3) to shape extracur¬ ricular influences to contribute more directly to the pupil’s ability to meet the experiences of daily life; (4) to provide more individual guidance by teachers and specialists for both normal and maladjusted children; (5) to adjust teacher-training programs to character educa¬ tion objectives; and (6) to promote parent education. Under the direction of a committee of schoolmen, a State-wide pro¬ gram was drafted, and this program has had the active support of 24 New Jersey, Department of Public Instruction. Character emphasis in education for elementary and high schools. Bulletin No. 1, June 1935. 59 p. aVoelker, Paul F. Educational reconstruction in Michigan. In The Nations Schools, 14 : 12-16, August 1934. 26 BIENNIAL SURVEY OF EDUCATION, 1934-36 an organization of school-board members with the Michigan Council on Education, representing 26 State-wide organizations actively en¬ gaged in education, serving in a consultative capacity. Throughout the State special projects have been carried on by school systems and by research centers in colleges and universities.26 A study within a city school unit, known as the Congressional Demonstration in Character Education, was developed in 1934 in Washington, D. C. The study was initiated after hearings con¬ ducted by the United States Senate Subcommittee on Racketeering and Crime gave evidence to prove that the average age of prison pop¬ ulation is 23 years, that the largest age group is found at 19, and that most criminal careers begin in childhood.27 After reviewing the ap¬ parent causes for crime and delinquency, Dr. Royal S. Copeland, chairman of the Senate committee conducting the hearings, cited the procedure a physician would follow in diagnosing and treating physical disorders. He then asked educators whether it was not} time for those in the educational system who are responsible for the health of character in children to give precedence to prescriptions for moral and social health over academic work. The goal formulated for the demonstration wTas to accumulate a body of experiences on which modifications in school organization, administration, supervision, methods of teaching, and materials of instruction could be based to the end that the school gives maximum consideration to the personal and social needs of pupils on the va¬ rious school levels. Ten schools were designated as experimental centers. The regular staff of each center was supplemented by a counselor and a small corps of research assistants. The director of the whole project was assisted by specialists in the centers studied and an advisory committee guided the development of the demon¬ stration’s program. The fields of study included records, guidance, curriculum, reme¬ dial and preventive work, and in-service training of teachers and school administrators. Four essentials accepted for the program of the study were : (1) It must be based upon principles of child growth and development; (2) it must be a demonstration of principles ac¬ tually functioning in a public-school system; (3) it must so evolve as to become an integral part of the school system as a whole and must result in recommendations for its continuation; (4) its methods and techniques must be worked out cooperatively by teachers and principals with the help of specialists and must be tested expen¬ se Voelker, Paul F. A program of demonstration and research. In The Educational Record, April 1935. Washington, D. C., The American Council on Education. P. 207-210. 27 Charters, W. W. The Copeland experiment in the District of Columbia. In The Edu¬ cational Record, October 1934. Washington, D. C. The American Council on Education. P. 403-418. EDUCATIONAL METHOD 27 mentally before recommendation for inclusion in the whole school system. With the curtailment of funds the study lost a year of the time originally anticipated for it. While the final report of the 2-year demonstration is not yet prepared, the project director has reported the procedures followed in each field of study and has prepared a manual of the procedures found helpful in the character education experimental centers. A comparison of character education programs among many dif¬ ferent city and county school systems shows a desirable lack of uni¬ formity.28 Some include certain characteristics in common, such as: (1) A gradual development over a period of years with continuing studies of the needs and resources of the community; (2) an ulti¬ mate, if gradual, extension of the program to include both elementary and secondary school grades, beginning most frequently with the kindergarten-primary grades; (3) a procedure based upon studies and research bringing teaching and administrative staffs into co¬ operative working units and encouraging pupils to participate in school government; (4) an expansion of home and community co¬ operation with the schools and an interchange of services. Methods of conducting character education in the classroom fall into three general groups: (1) A direct method whereby character traits are thrown into relief at a specified time in the year’s program or are given special periods in the weekly or daily program; (2) an indirect method of utilizing vicarious experiences in connection with regular school subjects and with no special class period assigned to character education; and (3) a combination of direct and indirect methods through using all appropriate experiences to emphasize character traits and give specific attention to their development.29 All three methods are expressed in various courses of study, both those dealing specifically with education for character and those dealing with the social studies. Certain policies of school administration have been directed toward the improvement of children’s attitudes and behavior. They include adjustments in the grouping and promoting of pupils to help prevent school failure and its attendant negative effects upon behavior; ex¬ pansions of cumulative or permanent records to make available in¬ formation about the personal and home life of the pupils for pur¬ poses of guidance; and a reorganization of the periodic reports of 28 Successful living. Seattle, Wash., Public Schools, 1935. 239 p. The social studies, A course of study for grades one to six. (Ch. II, Character educa¬ tion) State of Indiana. Department of Public Instruction. Bulletin 114. 1935. 247 p. Character emphasis in education. Bibliography. For elementary and high schools. New Jersey, Department of Public Instruction, October 1935. 49 p. (Mimeographed.) 29 National Education Association, Department of Classroom Teachers. Seventh Year¬ book. The Classroom teacher and character education, 1932. 272 p. 28 BIENNIAL SURVEY OF EDUCATION, 1934^36 progress sent to parents to place emphasis upon the pupil’s habits of work and social adjustments and the relation of these to progress in school subjects.30 In contributing to the general service of build¬ ing stable personalities many high schools have added counselors and student advisors to their staffs and many elementary schools have added experts in diagnostic and remedial teaching. Programs protecting the children’s physical health have been related more closely to behavior guidance.31 In addition, clubs and service socie¬ ties have been organized for elementary and secondary school pupils under such titles as Safety Patrols, Civic Pride Juniors, and Junior Citizens to entrust the members with definite social responsibilities. Still another aid considered especially vital for character develop¬ ment of school pupils is the poised and socially adjusted teacher. In recognition of the influence which the teacher’s personality, her ideals, attitudes, and emotional controls have upon the personal and social adjustments of her pupils, courses in mental hygiene have been added to the curriculum in some teacher-preparation institutions and to the in-service work with experienced teachers.32 RESEARCH IN CHARACTER DEVELOPMENT Experimental study in character development is a recent addition to research techniques. The delay in introducing scientific techniques into studies of character education has been due in large part to diffi¬ culties in establishing and defining character traits to be studied and in securing objective instruments for measuring qualities of growth that seem intangible and yet are recognized as controlling influences upon habit formation and learning abilities. To meet these difficul¬ ties many of the recent studies have defined problems of behavior in specific situations, and have refined the technique of studying them. For example, a recent clinical study summarized in a review of cur¬ rent research 33 reports that the best method of character education is one that prevents or reduces the moral and emotional conflicts of the individual. In other words, “if fear of punishment and the de¬ sire to surpass another child in school act as motivations for lying and cheating, then the removal of the fear of punishment and the competitive motive in school is the job for character education, not the attack on lying and cheating itself.” Another clinical study re- 30 Hartshorne, Hugh. Character education and school administration. In Educational Progress and School Administration — a symposium. New Haven, Yale University Press, 1936. 400 p. 31 Hughes, William L. Character building and health, the role of physical education. In Health and Physical Education, 7 : 9, January 1936. 32 Goldrich, Leon W. Influence of teacher personality upon pupil adjustment. In The Principal, June 1936. 11 p. 33 American Educational Research Association. Special methods and psychology of the elementary school subjects. Vol. V, no. 1, February 1935. Review of educational research. Ch. Ill, Character education. P. 31-36. EDUCATIONAL METHOD 29 ports an attack on economic and social problems as a major procedure in character development. It involves the use of a series of lessons prepared to teach children to be open-minded and non-gullible to propaganda about questions involving attitudes toward international, industrial, economic, and racial problems. The result of the study shows that the experimental group improved according to the criteria set up by the investigator. A recent summary of studies of methods of character education includes both methods used in classroom instruction and those of a less formal nature involved in athletics and other school activities. Two studies may be cited among those in the first group. One showed that growth in character results from social pressure, personal experience, and vicarious experience and concludes that the province of the school is primarily to furnish the vicarious experience. The other assembled and classified such proposed methods of character development for classroom use as: Direct attack through precepts, codes, etc. ; teacher’s marks and self-ratings ; incidental training through regular school subjects; discussions; first-hand experiencing; and a combination of the last two. Among studies bearing on non¬ classroom instruction three may be cited : One indicated that if special effort is made, improvement in character can be achieved through athletic programs ; another study described methods employed through club activities for developing character traits; and a third study emphasized the necessity of considering the cooperation of the home in any plan of character education. In another summary of research,34 studies are grouped into seven major categories: Moral character, delinquency, personality adjust¬ ment, attitudes, opinions and prejudices, sex education, and curricu¬ lum construction. These groupings point again to the variety of attacks upon character development. ORGANIZATIONS AIDING CHARACTER DEVELOPMENT Reports from 40 organizations working directly with youth for purposes of character development indicate a universal interest in the character development of boys and girls.35 Reports of the pro¬ grams of activities offered by these organizations show a wide varia¬ tion and a fortunate lack of regimentation. The variety of interests of youth toward which the organizations’ appeal is directed is indi¬ cated by the following classifications under which the reports are grouped: Independent societies like the Scouts; junior programs of adult groups such as the Rotary, Kiwanis, and De Molav ; plans con- 34 National Education Association, Department of Superintendence. Tenth Yearbook. Character education, 1932. 535 p. 86 Pendry, Elizabeth R. and Hartshorne, Hugh. Organizations for youth, leisure time, and character building procedures. New York, McGraw Hill Book Co., 1935. 359 p. 30 BIENNIAL SURVEY OF EDUCATION, 1934-36 nected with school programs such as Knighthood of Youth; plans pursuing some special interest such as sportsmanship and natural science; and programs developed by interreligious groups of which the Y. M. C. A. is an example. These programs are adapted to different ages of boys and girls and fill a drastic need caused chiefly by the lack of family life, crowded living conditions, and those excite¬ ments of life which carry no stimulus for contemplation or for calm consideration of individual responsibilities. Another group of organizations works chiefly to inform its mem¬ bers about the movement of character education and to enlist their cooperation in studies of behavior guidance at both the school and adult age levels. Keports of committee programs and of convention proceedings and the yearbooks of national and local parent-teacher associations and of educational and social welfare organizations pub¬ lished during the past 5 years indicate their active participation in this type of program. A third type of organization, indicated earlier, is working in the field of research to discover the situations and the methods through which character development may best b& guided. Museum Service to Schools Prepared by Lewis C. Everard Editor, American Association of Museums The basis of all museum instruction is the material object — the original work of nature or of man. Museum-school cooperation is successful in doing its peculiar part of the educational job insofar as it gives the pupil a chance to see and, if possible, to handle objects. This needs to be emphasized, since material has a way of being in¬ convenient for one reason or another, and there is always the tempta¬ tion, even in a museum, to substitute quantity-produced “visual mate¬ rial.” Mass methods of instruction in the classroom are especially conducive of this. Just as the schools and colleges have been providing laboratories, carpenter shops, and other facilities for handling materials, so they have been making increasing demands on the museums for the oppor¬ tunity to see and handle objects of many kinds. This demand on the museums is not the result of pedagogical thought alone ; it is partly the result of necessity for more and more knowledge of a greater and greater number of materials — new materials as well as old. The value of objects in making otherwise elusive ideas real is also important. MUSEUM SERVICES The museum has two ways of giving the school pupil the oppor¬ tunity to see and handle objects — by bringing him to the museum and by sending museum material to the school. All museums are using to some extent the first of these methods; most of the active museums are using the second. Visits to the museum are effective according to the proportion of the time at the museum spent in examining exhibits or other mate¬ rial, the skill and methods of the docents in demonstrating the ma¬ terial or in guiding the visitor in its observance, and the previous preparation for the experience. Most museums make some special provision for visiting school classes, but there seems to be no gen¬ erally accepted procedure. In a great many museums, at least a part of the time of the visiting group is spent in the lecture hall, and unless the group is small, the pupils experience in this the 31 32 BIENNIAL SURVEY OF EDUCATION, 1934-86 familiar mass methods of the school auditorium. Lecture hall time may be 15 minutes or more. The remainder of the museum time of the class is spent in exhibition halls, and the use of this time may be directed by museum docents through informal talks, museum games, or group discussions. In some museums the entire period of the museum visit is spent in the exhibition galleries under guidance of the docents, but this method is generally regarded as a concession to the practical difficulty of discussion with large classes. The program for a year’s work may be laid out systematically. In one city a plan worked out by the museum in cooperation with the Board of Education provides for one visit each year for each of the four upper grades in all the public schools, all classes from the same grade studying at the museum one general topic during the year. In another city regular programs and gallery talks correlated with the course of study in the different grades are given in coopera¬ tion with the school authorities. In another city classes visit the museum by appointment made with the individual teacher. These examples indicate the range of procedure. School work is often supplemented in the museum by direct rela¬ tions with the child during his own time. There are clubs and other groups meeting at the museum after school hours, voluntarily or in fulfillment of requirements set by the school teacher ; projects, story hours, hobby clubs, and entertainments of various kinds, sometimes arranged especially for school classes but more often open to all children. The lending of material from the museum to the teacher for use in the classroom is perhaps the most highly developed, though not the most generally used, of museum services to the schools. In some cities, as St. Louis and Cleveland, the school authorities maintain their own school-system museum, the chief function of which is to prepare and circulate school material. In scores of cities public museums provide the same sort of service as the school-operated museums, studying the needs of the schools in respect to objects and lantern slides, and circulating material in regular or special sets; catalogs and requisition forms are prepared for the use of teachers; motor trucks make regular deliveries. In most cities the funds nec¬ essary for really adequate service are not available and the museums do the best they can with what they have. PREPARATION OF TEACHERS The next most serious obstacle after lack of money is the indiffer¬ ence of many teachers with respect to illustrative materials. Two EDUCATIONAL METHOD 33 years ago Laurence Vail Coleman 36 described the situation as follows : Many teachers are not able to take entire advantage of illustrative material because they lack the background which alone can simplify the selecting of objects from a catalog and the using of these objects in the classroom. It is a clear indication of the importance of illustrative material, and not an argument against it, that background is required for its choice and that chil¬ dren make searching demands upon teachers in the presence of such objects. This teacher-training problem is one for the normal school — and also for the museum in cooperation with the normal school. The attention now being given it is not enough. However, some progress has been made generally in teacher train¬ ing, and a few museums have made a special point of it. Replies to a questionnaire sent to 240 museums by Mrs. Grace Fisher Ram¬ sey, of the American Museum of Natural History, in 1933, revealed that 52 museums wTere offering courses of one kind or another for teachers.37 Last year the American Museum of Natural History gave 10 courses for teachers in service or in training and sponsored 2 summer field courses in natural history for teachers; the Metro¬ politan Museum of Art gave 7 courses for teachers during the year. These courses are calculated not only to familiarize the teachers with the resources of the museums and provide background, but also to in¬ clude practical demonstrations of how museum material is used in the classroom and how the visit to the exhibition halls may be cor¬ related with the course of study in the schools. The Brooklyn Bo¬ tanic Garden gave courses for teachers in botany, nature study, horticulture, greenhouse work, plant culture, genetics, and trees and shrubs. Obviously only large museums with well-equipped depart¬ ments of instruction can conduct such programs; for most institu¬ tions a single course intended to acquaint the teachers of the city with the collections and facilities is all that can be expected of the museum. However, with the steady increase in the number of mu¬ seums and the pressure for expansion of their school service, the training of teachers in the use of this service is certain to become more and more important. TECHNIQUES FOR MUSEUM VISITS The technique of the museum visit and the use of lending material have advanced by the method of trial and error for many years. Recently there has appeared an interest in studying procedures peda- 36 Aid from museums to elementary teaching. National Education Association, Depart¬ ment of Elementary School Principals. Thirteenth Yearbook. June 1934. Pp. 240-243. ^Museum courses for teachers. The Museum News, December 1, 1933. Pp. 6—8. 34 BIENNIAL SURVEY OF EDUCATION, 1934-36 gogically. A notable instance is the recently completed experimental study conducted at the Buffalo Museum of Science, under auspices first of the American Association of Museums and later of Yale University.38 Some of the conclusions of this study are that children who visit a museum to learn about a subject not closely integrated with their school studies of the moment profit materially from spe¬ cific preparation for the visit, as by a silent reading lesson on the subject; that for sixth, seventh, and eighth grades the children learn as much from 2 hours spent in examining the exhibits with no formal lecture in the auditorium as they do from a combination of a lecture lasting not less than 15 minutes and the remainder of the time in contact with the exhibits; that children of the fifth grade appear to benefit from the 15-minute auditorium lecture; that in none of the grades did the children profit more from a 30-minute lecture than from a 15-minute lecture and a tour of the museum increased by 15 minutes. Conclusions reached in regard to methods of presenting the exhibits to the pupils on tour of the museum are that fifth-grade children learn more if the docent lectures before the cases than if museum; game cards or the group discussion method is used; that for the sixth grade the three methods in order of effectiveness are game cards, lectures before the cases, discussion; and that for the seventh- and eighth-grade children the discussion method is most effective. However, difference in teaching ability of the docents were found to be the most important factor of all. A recent inquiry by the Newark Museum brought out the fact that museums which have regular activities for preschool children follow the general educational practice of separating the children into a special age group. Combining groups of younger and older children has been found generally to drive the older children away or to de¬ tract from their enjoyment. Either definite times are set aside for the younger ones, or a separate room and leader is provided. Out of 35 museums that answered the Newark questionnaire, 11 have regu¬ lar organized activities for children under 7 ; others admit them to story hours or motion pictures. With the exception of seven good museums, six art and one general, in preparatory schools, museums in school buildings for the use of the particular schools have been only moderately successful. Their condition and their influence have a tendency to wax and wane, usually with the degree of enthusiasm displayed by one individual teacher who takes responsibility for the work. A particularly suc¬ cessful museum of this sort tends gradually to develop into a sepa¬ rate institution, eventually maintained by the board of education for Melton, Arthur W., Feldman, Nita Goldberg, and Mason, Charles W. Experimental studies of the education of children in a museum of science. Publications of the Ameri¬ can Association of Museums, New Series, No. 15. Washington, 1936. EDUCATIONAL METHOD 35 the benefit of all the schools; more of them fall into neglect on the departure or loss of enthusiasm of the particular teacher. In gen¬ eral, it has been found that too much help on the part of the large city museum, especially in the way of supplying material, results in less effectiveness; that school museums built up by teachers and pupils through their own efforts endure longer and exert greater influence. This does not mean that assistance from the city museum is not needed, but that it is most valuable when it takes the direction of guidance rather than direct help in the formation of collections. Such guidance is always available to teachers or school boards desir¬ ous of establishing a school system museum or a museum in a par¬ ticular school. School system museums, that is, museums maintained by city boards of education for the purpose of serving all the public schools of the community, have a uniform record of success. These museums, of which there are eight in the United States, are essentially maga¬ zines of objective material upon which the teacher may draw for the loan of material for use in the schoolroom; exhibit material on view at the museum is usually secondary to the loan service. SOME RECENT PUBLICATIONS ON MUSEUM SERVICES TO SCHOOLS Broderson, Gertrude. Our museum. In The Journal of the National Educa¬ tion Association, 25 : 211, October 1936. Classes for school children at the Trailside Museum of Bear Mountain Park, New York. In School and Society, November 30, 1935. p. 733. Hagie, C. E. School museums at Federal expense. In The School Board Jour¬ nal, 93 : 48, September 1936. Higgins, John Woodman. Industrial education and industrial museums. In Industrial Arts and Vocational Education, 25 : 137-141, May 1936. Hull, Edwin D. The botanical museum. In School Science and Mathematics, 35 : 825-843, November 1935. Quennell, C. H. B. A museum for boys and girls. In The New Era, 11 : 90, April 1930. Reports from the art and children's museums in the cities of Milwaukee, Newark, Duluth, Pittsburgh, Boston, and Toledo. In School Arts, October 1936. Vol. 36, No. 2. Shaw, George Eleanor. Their own art museum. In American Childhood, 15:14-16, February 1930. The Newark Museum, The young child in the museum. Statements from 35 museums concerning museum activities for children under seven. Newark, N. J. 1936. 27 p. The Toledo Museum of Art — The museum educates. Toledo, Ohio, 1937. 42 p. Radio and Motion Pictures in Education Prepared by Cline M. Koon Senior Specialist in Radio and Visual Education The tensions and torsions accompanying the present rapidly chang¬ ing social order have greatly complicated the educational process and forced the learner to master and coordinate a bewildering number of facts if he is to lead a happy and socially useful life. The problem of the worthy use of increased leisure time has been of growing sig¬ nificance during the past 5 or 6 years. Radio and motion pictures occupy important places in the educational and recreational life of America, and consequently there has been a gradually growing inter¬ est in the influence which they are exerting upon the understand¬ ings, habits, and attitudes of the American people. Vividly por¬ trayed impressions from the silver screen and radio undoubtedly influence many of the habit patterns later manifested in personal conduct, community relations, and national ideals. In addition to the educational influence of amusement and information diffused by photoplays and broadcasts, there is a growing awareness of the fact that educational films and broadcasts may be invaluable aids in instruction though the value of supplementary aids such as pupils’ work books and teachers’ manuals remains to be determined. While definite progress has been made in determining the educational im¬ portance of photoplays and entertainment broadcasts, the educa¬ tional utilization of these media as teaching tools is still in the exploratory stage. EDUCATIONAL INFLUENCE OF RADIO AND PHOTOPLAYS The influence of radio and photoplays upon thinking is evident when it is known that 660 radio stations are included in the vast sys¬ tem of broadcasting that has been developed in the United States during the past 16 years, and that 21,000,000 American homes own radio receiving sets, which are operated on an average of 2 to 3 hours daily. There are also 3,000,000 radios in automobiles. In addition to the radio, approximately 500 feature photoplays and many more short subjects are made annually and exhibited in 15,000 theaters to approximately 90,000,000 people weekly. It is obvious that these vehicles constantly are carrying ideas and information to the public in a vivid and impressive form. Govern- 36 EDUCATIONAL METHOD 37 mental agencies, the industries themselves, many educational and voluntary groups, and the public in general, are exerting their influ¬ ence to the end that right ideals and proper conceptions will be instilled through countless reiterations. Unfortunately, however, divergent motives and lack of agreement as to the objectives to be sought have led to conflict and duplication of effort, thereby greatly retarding the improvements of the offerings and the raising of standards of taste for entertainment motion pictures and radio fare. Through the Federal Communications Commission, the Govern¬ ment grants licenses for radio stations to broadcast with the provi¬ sion that they operate in the public interest, convenience, and neces¬ sity.39 In applications for renewal of licenses the stations are ex¬ pected to give an account of their stewardship for the public service use of the channels which have been assigned to them. By contrast, there is practically no Federal control of the production or distribu¬ tion of photoplays. Instead, the content of motion pictures is deter¬ mined by the producers themselves and their trade organization, the Motion Picture Producers and Distributors of America. Both are susceptible to the reactions of the public through box-office receipts and fan mail. The radio advertiser and the motion-picture exhibitor also exert considerable influence on the nature of broadcasts and films produced. The most extensive investigation of the influence of motion pictures on children and youth made in the United States was carried on through the Payne fund studies, extending from 1928 to 1933.40 Eminent psychologists, sociologists, and research workers in several leading universities studied what children learn from motion pic¬ tures and their effects on attitudes, emotions, and conduct. The report was published in nine volumes and showed that : 1. On an average, each child in areas where motion pictures are physically available goes to the movies once a week. 2. Three out of four of the pictures shown were related to sex, crime, or romantic love. 3. The child retains two-thirds as much as the adult from his attendance at the movies. 4. Motion pictures change children’s attitudes and these changes have a lasting influence. Partly as an outgrowth of the Payne Fund studies and partly as a result of other forces working in the same direction, churches and other social service groups started a movement in 1934 and 1935 39 U. S. Congress. Senate. An act to provide for the regulation of interstate and foreign communication by wire or radio, and for other purposes. Washington, Government Printing Office, 1934. 46 p. 73d Cong., Doc. 416. 40 Charters, W. W. Motion pictures and youth. A summary. New York, The MacMil¬ lan Co., 1933. 66 p. (Payne Fund studies.) 38 BIENNIAL SURVEY OF EDUCATION, 1934-36 to improve motion pictures. This movement has had two results: First, the industry has learned to produce pictures that were more acceptable to the public by treating more acceptable subjects, such as history and the classics, and by establishing a more rigorous con¬ trol of the content of films at the point of production. Second, the public has become sensitized as to the influence of motion pictures and a number of groups are working to raise the standards of taste for photoplays. Schools have responded by teaching photoplay appreciation. The wide survey of national visual instruction prac¬ tices made by the Office of Education revealed that 80 percent of the 9,000 school systems reporting sometimes encouraged their pupils to see selected motion pictures in the local theaters and use the informa¬ tion thus acquired in school activities.41 While no researches comparable to the Payne Fund Studies on motion pictures have been made in the field of radio, the National Committee on Education by Radio, the Women’s National Radio Committee, and other agencies such as the National Congress of Parents and Teachers have been stressing the influence of radio. Many minor studies and experiments have been carried out, the results of which demonstrate beyond doubt that radio programs have become a powerful force in national life and are exerting a lasting influence upon the habits and attitudes of the American people. It is evident that an incalculable new force has been released in the home circle. Radio programs make a powerful appeal to the imaginations of growing children even though the impressions formed are not as vivid and lasting as those made by motion pictures. What children are gaining in the way of ideas, attitudes, and conduct patterns from the radio is still largely a matter of conjecture. But it is certainly true that radio, as well as the motion picture, looms large in the lives of boys and girls. Research studies dealing with high-school pupils in Oakland, Calif., and Stamford, Conn., indicate that pupils spend an average of nearly 2y2 hours daily listening to the radio. While it is prob¬ ably true that much of this listening is not attentive, the pupil seems very susceptible to radio salesmanship and is definitely influenced by the sales talk of the advertiser. Teachers can ill afford to ignore the radio as a potent influence in pupils’ lives. It is evident that they can help to develop preferences in radio programs as they can in art, poetry, and music, and that teachers can encourage listening to worth-while programs until a discriminating taste is acquired. Even small children are not too young to be taught the beginnings of appreciation of good radio programs. 41 Koon, Cline M. and Noble, Allen W. National visual education directory. Washing¬ ton, D. C., American Council on Education, 1936. 270 p. EDUCATIONAL METHOD 39 Realizing that several thousand secondary schools are teaching photoplay appreciation and many more elementary and secondary schools are making some use of information acquired from radio programs, the Commissioner of Education sent an inquiry on April 25, 1936, to all teacher-training institutions in the United States to determine (a) whether teacher-training courses in radio or photo¬ play appreciation were being offered; (6) whether special instruc¬ tion along these lines was being included in other teacher-training courses; ( c ) whether the teacher-training institutions considered es¬ tablishing courses along these lines. Replies were received from 809 officials in 702 institutions. The study discloses that 8 of these institutions are offering regular courses in photoplay appreciation, 6 are giving combined courses dealing with both radio and photoplay appreciation. Fifty-three institutions have the offering of regular courses under consideration. Two hundred and seventeen are offering some instruction along these lines, and 23 are planning to do so. Eliminating duplications, 377 teacher-training institutions, or 53.7 percent of the institutions reply¬ ing, indicate that they are offering or planning to offer some instruc¬ tion in radio program and/or photoplay appreciation. INSTRUCTIONAL USE OF RADIO BY SCHOOLS Radio is a new avenue for aiding classroom instruction and for acquainting the public with the work of the school in such a way as to develop an intelligent and abiding interest in the work being done. Within the past few years there has been a rapid growth in the number of school systems taking advantage of this new means of communication both as a teaching technique and as a means of accounting for the school’s stewardship to the stockholders of this great corporation called the public-school system. The activities of certain national voluntary associations and special committees have given important service in helping to crystallize thinking and diffuse information in regard to the educational poten¬ tialities of radio. Among the latter should be mentioned the Ad¬ visory Committee on Education by Radio, the National Committee on Education by Radio, the National Advisory Council on Radio in Education, the Ohio Institute for Education by Radio, the National Association of Educational Broadcasters, and the recently formed Federal Radio Education Committee. The leavening effect of these groups has been felt throughout the country. The Advisory Committee on Education by Radio, composed of a group of distinguished educators and broadcasters, with the Commis¬ sioner of Education as chairman, was appointed in May 1929 by the Hon. Ray Lyman Wilbur, then Secretary of the Interior. The 40 BIENNIAL SURVEY OF EDUCATION, 1934-36 committee prepared a report of the advantages and limitations of education by radio and was dissolved in 1930. Partly as a result of the work of the Advisory Committee on Edu¬ cation by Radio, the National Advisory Council on Radio in Educa¬ tion and the National Committee on Education by Radio were formed. The former has worked on practical projects to extend the number and improve the quality of educational broadcasts on the air. It has served as a liaison agency between educators and broad¬ casters in organizing and presenting many educational series over the National networks. It has published a number of informational bul¬ letins. The latter (National Committee on Education by Radio) has concerned itself principally with the protection of the rights of edu¬ cational broadcasting and in assisting colleges to obtain and renew their licenses to broadcast. They have also promoted research and the exchange of information on radio in education. The Ohio Institute for Education by Radio holds annual sessions to enable leaders in educational broadcasting to pool existing infor¬ mation, and develop plans for cooperative fact-finding and research. The National Association of Educational Broadcasters has been in existence for approximately 10 years and serves to exchange experi¬ ences and cope with problems common to college radio stations. The Federal Radio Education Committee, appointed in December 1935 by the Federal Communications Commission, is composed of about 35 nationally known educators and broadcasters; the Commissioner of Education is chairman. The purpose of this committee is to work out practical plans to reduce conflict and promote cooperation between educators and broadcasters. Among the better-known broadcasts to schools are the following: NBC (Damrosch) Music Appreciation Hour American School of the Air. Hawaii School of the Air. KOAC School of the Air. North Carolina School of the Air. Ohio School of the Air. Puerto Rican School of the Air. Rochester School of the Air. South Dakota NYA School of the Air. WHAT School of the Air. Wisconsin School of the Air. WMAQ School Broadcasts. Standard School Broadcast. University of Michigan (Maddy) Music Lessons. Cleveland School Broadcasts. Providence School Broadcasts. Tennessee School Broadcasts. School broadcasts from some of the college stations such as WOSU at Ohio State University, WILL at the University of Illinois, and WSUI at the University of Iowa. EDUCATIONAL METHOD 41 A recent survey shows there have been 269 series of programs in¬ tended primarily for school reception broadcast since the fall of 1934. A list of the subjects treated and the number of series presented, follows : Classification of programs broadcast for school reception during the school years of 1934-36 ( 269 stations) Rank and subject ^TtaUonl 1. Music _ 74 2. Current events _ 25 3. Science _ 22 4. Drama _ 20 5. History _ 19 6. Literature - 18 7. English _ 15 8. Geography and travel _ 11 9. Health and safety _ 8 Rank and subject 10. Vocational guidance _ 11. Spelling bees _ 12. French _ 13. Civics _ 14. Agriculture - 14. German _ 14. Spanish _ 17. Stories - 18. All others _ 'Number of stations _ 7 _ 6 _ 6 _ 5 _ 4 _ 4 _ 4 _ 3 _ 18 Various estimates have been made of the extent to which these broadcast series have been used in schools. Estimates indicate the number of listeners varies from less than a hundred tuning in for some of the local school broadcasts to several million for the NBC Music Appreciation Hour. Data collected in the National Visual Instruction Survey indicate that approximately 1,500 school systems are using radio programs “often” in connection with their school work, and 4,500 systems “sometimes” use them. Three thousand school systems indicated that they never use radio programs. Eight hundred and forty-five centralized radio-sound systems and 11,132 individual sets were reported as belonging to school systems. About the same percentage of the total number of small and large school systems use radio programs. Intermediate and junior high-school grades make about twice as much use of radio programs as do primary and senior high grades. Approximately one-fourth of the school systems that make sys¬ tematic use of broadcasts in instruction indicate that they broadcast some programs for home and/or school reception. These broadcasts are usually sponsored by the school system or an individual school within the system, and deal with a wide variety of subjects, such as the library hour, children’s variety programs, the work of the school, public speaking, local history, music, dramatic sketches, school news, and short stories. Some of the programs are arranged in regular series and others are individual programs given from time to time as the occasion arises. More than 200 school systems in various parts of the country broadcast regular series of programs during the past 2 years. 42 BIENNIAL SURVEY OF EDUCATION, 1934-36 Among the more active school systems that have been broadcasting regular series of programs for school and/or home reception are : Atlanta, Ga. Bisbee, Ariz. Chicago, Ill. Cleveland, Ohio Des Moines, Iowa Detroit, Mich. Erie, Pa. Indianapolis, Ind. Lancaster, Pa. Manitowoc, Wis. New York, N. Y. Philadelphia, Pa. Phoenix, Ariz. Providence, R. I. Rochester, N. Y. Seattle, Wash. Tulsa, Okla. A noteworthy aid for radio in education has been the organization of workshops set up to prepare scripts and to produce educational broadcasts that make a definite appeal to listeners. These workshops, or student production groups, are being formed in colleges and in high schools. Without doubt the outstanding venture in this field is the Federal radio-education project carried out by the Office of Education dur¬ ing 1936. Based upon his belief that education by radio would become a vital and permanent factor in the dissemination of knowl¬ edge and the development of social insight, when educators become as skilled in using broadcasting for educational purposes as the com¬ mercial broadcasters use broadcasting for amusement purposes, the Commissioner of Education obtained a WPA grant to prepare and broadcast educational programs as a means of training educa¬ tional broadcasters and of demonstrating how to build and broadcast educational material. The project was set up to combine the expert knowledge of profes¬ sional radio directors and script writers with the instructional mate¬ rial and experiences of educators. The cooperation of the National Broadcasting Co. and the Columbia Broadcasting System was ob¬ tained, and for more than a year five weekly programs have been broadcast over coast-to-coast networks. From a broadcasting angle, these programs have been successful, since they draw about 12,000 pieces of mail a week. From an educational angle, satisfactory prog¬ ress is being made in the art of teaching by radio, and many centers throughout the country are profiting by the techniques being developed and the scripts written in the Federal radio-education project. INSTRUCTIONAL USE OF MOTION PICTURES BY SCHOOLS Schools sometimes make use of theatrical films and excerpts from them for instructional purposes. The outstanding efforts along these lines are being made by the Museum of Modern Art Film Library, the Committee on Social Values in Motion Pictures, and the National Cinema Workshop and Appreciation League. Based EDUCATIONAL METHOD 43 upon a grant from the General Education Board, the Museum of Modern Art Film Library has made a collection of prints from the earliest photoplay to the present time. These films have been arranged in a series of exhibitions to show the development of the art of making motion pictures. The Committee on Social Values in Motion Pictures is financed by the General Education Board also, and has for its work a study of the influence of photoplays on youth and the possibility of selecting excerpts from theatrical films lo present life problems in a dramatic way as a basis for discussion in character education. The National Cinema Workshop and Ap¬ preciation League is a West Coast organization of teachers of photoplay appreciation. Its purpose is to pool information that will enable teachers to make instructional use of wholesome ma¬ terial contained in photoplays like Pasteur , Romeo and Juliet , and travelogues. Many States and local committees are appraising films with a view to encouraging people to see the better ones. The National Survey of Educational Films in which the Office of Education collaborated with the American Council on Education, revealed that there are about 6,500 nontheatrical films, most of which are available for school use. Of this total number, however, only about 750 silent films and 75 sound films are up-to-date, easily avail¬ able, free from objectionable material, and rich in instructional content. The Educational Film Catalog contains annotated descrip¬ tions of most of the better instructional films.42 The extent of use of films in schools was brought out in the Na¬ tional Visual Instruction Survey, which revealed that out of reports from more than 9,000 school systems with an aggregate enrollment of nearly 17,000,000 pupils, approximately 22 percent of the school systems used motion pictures “often”, and 44 percent of the systems “sometimes” used them. A third of the school systems reporting “never” use films. Since the survey included reports from 95 percent of all school systems in cities of 5,000 population or more, and comparatively few from strictly rural systems, the data should be interpreted as apply¬ ing to urban areas. The extent of use is much less in elementary; than in secondary schools; and large school systems, in the main, make more than twice as much use of motion pictures as do small systems. From the following data it is evident that many projectors are used in schools that are not the property of the school systems. 42 Cook, Dorothy E. Educational film catalog. New York, the H. W. Wilson Company, 1936. 134 p. 44 BIENNIAL SURVEY OF EDUCATION, 1934-36 A total of 9,918 motion-picture projectors were reported as being owned by school systems. The different types follow : Number of projectors Size Kind of projector owned by schools 16 mm _ Silent _ 6, 006 16 mm _ Sound _ 449 35 mm _ Silent _ 3, 154 35 mm _ Sound - 309 The survey further reveals that 22 percent of the films being shown in schools deal with science ; 17.4 percent with geography and travel ; 15 percent with history; 8.7 percent with social studies; 8 percent with English; 8 percent with health; 5.2 percent with nature study; 4.2 percent with commerce and industry; and 11.5 percent deal with various other subjects. In conclusion, it should be said that responsibility for retardation in the use of these media as teaching tools lies both with the pro¬ ducer and the educator. The one needs to develop better technics for producing educational films and broadcasts and the other for adapting films and broadcasts to the educational program. It is evi¬ dent that curriculum specialists on the one hand, and practical broad¬ casters and film producers on the other, must learn to work together. To accomplish this end in the field of films, the American Council on Education and several other national agencies are interested in estab¬ lishing an American Film Institute. The most constructive step in this direction in the field of broadcasting is the establishment of the Federal Radio Education Committee. Beyond the realm of formal schooling in the area of informal adult education, both films and broadcasts are generally recognized as potent forces. School Library Service Prepared by Edith A. Lathrop Associate Specialist in School Libraries Conceptions of the nature of school library service have changed materially during the past few years. Only a short time ago the library facilities of a school met generally accepted educational standards if the school library consisted of a set of encyclopedias, a limited number of books designed to supplement the material found in the textbooks for certain subjects, particularly English and his¬ tory, and a few books termed “recreational” in character that were to be read at home or at school when lessons were learned. Very often these books were housed in the principal’s office. Today modern educational programs provide that the school library be housed in space that is planned definitely for library pur¬ poses; that it contain an adequate supply of books, periodicals, vis¬ ual aids, and other teaching materials suited to the needs of all grade levels found in the school ; and that it be administered by a profes¬ sional librarian. For school purposes professional librarianship in¬ cludes responsibility for the organization of library materials ac¬ cording to modern standards, familiarity with the literature suitable! for youth, a knowledge of the curriculum and teaching techniques used in the school, and close cooperation with the activities of chil¬ dren, teachers, and supervisors. SIGNIFICANT VALUES OF LIBRARY SERVICE Beginning with the kindergarten and primary grades the use of the library develops a respect for books and an appreciation for good literature. Young children soon learn that they are dependent upon the books, pictures, and other materials found in the library for' much of the information needed in developing their school projects. As the difficulties of reading are mastered the opportunities for inde¬ pendent thinking on the part of children are increased through the service of the library, thus forming a basis for adolescent and adult resourcefulness. Since education is a life process every individual out of school is more or less dependent upon the resources of public libraries, not only for much of the information needed in helping solve the many problems that arise in daily life but also for finding solace from the 45 46 BIENNIAL SURVEY OF EDUCATION, 1934-36 cares of a work-a-day world through recreational reading. The school has rendered its greatest service to the child when it has taught him to read intelligently, surrounded him with an abundance of wholesome reading matter, and guided him not only in finding information, but in evaluating it and organizing it for use. EXTENT OF SERVICE Very few statistics are available showing the extent of school library service. The Office of Education is now compiling data for both elementary and secondary schools which will give a more com¬ prehensive picture of the library situation in public schools than has hitherto been available. The latest available report of libraries in public high schools gives information on the number of librarians for all of the secondary schools reporting which includes those housed with elementary schools and those housed separately. It also gives data for the sepa¬ rately housed schools reporting showing the number of schools with libraries and the number of volumes in these libraries. In 1934 data compiled from approximately 62 percent of all of the high schools reporting show that less than one in every seven schools has a librarian for half time or more. For the same year the separately housed schools, which represent only about one-fourth of all of the high schools reporting, show an increase of 42 percent in the average number of volumes per school for the 8-year period from 1926 to 1934. In 1926, the number was 1,652; in 1930 it was 2,000; and in 1934 it was 2,287.43 In general, library service has reached its fullest development in accredited secondary schools which comply with certain standards relating to library books, library rooms, and the qualifications of persons employed as librarians. The poorest examples of library service in the secondary school field are found in the small high schools, most of which are located in rural areas.44 While recognition of the need for library service for elementary .schools came much later than that for secondary schools consider¬ able progress has been made. The platoon type of school organiza¬ tion which exists in a more or less modified form in a considerable number of elementary schools has stimulated library service because the library is an inherent feature of this type of school organiza¬ tion. Educational surveys, committees on revision of curricula, 43 Biennial survey of education 1932-34. Ch. 5. Statistics of public high schools, 1933-34, pp. 15-16, 66. Washington, Government Printing Office, 1936. (U. S. Depart¬ ment of the Interior, Office of Education. Bulletin, 1935, No. 2.) 44 Johnson, B. Lamar. The secondary school library. Washington, U. S. Government Printing Office, 1933, p. 94. (U. S. Department of the Interior, Office of Education. Bulletin, 1932, No. 17, National survey of secondary education, Monograph No. 17.) EDUCATIONAL METHOD 47 supervision of instruction, and the existence of strong public li¬ braries in areas served by schools are other factors that have con¬ tributed to its development. Generally, the outstanding examples of the modern conception of elementary school library service are found in city schools. State and local supervision of instruction, State supervision of school libraries, the existence of county libraries, and the traveling library service of State library extension agencies have contributed to the growth of library service for elementary schools in rural areas. While some excellent examples of modern library service can be found in rural elementary schools progress is slow. Surveys show that these schools lack books; that most State library extension agencies are not equipped to meet the demands made upon them by the rural schools; and that of the approximately 3,000 counties in the United States fewer than 300 have county library service and 46 of these are in one State — California. The fact that approximately 4% million children, representing more than a third of the entire rural elementary school enrollment of the country, are in 1- and 2-teacher schools shows the gravity of this situation. The way to provide better library service for rural schools lies not so much in awakening a consciousness of its need as in improving methods of financing and administering both schools and libraries. TRENDS AND RESULTS Since the last survey of trends in school library service made by the Office of Education covered the decade from 1920 to 1930 45 this review is confined to the major developments that have occurred from 1930 to 1936. Eight important trends are characteristic of this period as follows : 1. The integration of the library and the curriculum. — The activi¬ ties of the curriculum determine the uses made of available library facilities. The traditional curriculum with its subject-matter com¬ partments requires a library service which is very limited in com¬ parison with that needed to carry out an integrated curriculum such as, for example, the Virginia State course of study, which is or¬ ganized around 11 major functions of social life. It is in schools using curricula of the latter type that the library becomes the center from which every activity of the school radiates. Since the trend in curriculum revision is toward integration of subjects it follows natu¬ rally that there should be increased interest in the relation of the library to the changing curriculum. This interest is manifest in 45 Lathrop, Edith A. A decade of school library achievement. Biennial survey of edu¬ cation, 1928-1930, vol. 1, ch. 19, pp. 665-694. Washington, Government Printing Office, 1932. (U. S. Department of the Interior, Office of Education, Bulletin, 1931, No. 20.) 48 BIENNIAL SURVEY OF EDUCATION, 1934-36 the large number of articles which have appeared on the subject; in discussions of the topic at educational and library meetings; in an increase in the number of books and magazine articles of the informational type in school library collections as well as of visual aids; in a closer relationship between the librarian and other mem¬ bers of the school faculty ; in demonstrations and investigations ; and in an increasing use of libraries by the pupils enrolled. An investigation of the possibilities of integrating subject matter and library instruction through assignments in the social studies appears to indicate that, certain factors being favorable, the inte¬ gration method will provide sufficient library use of the right type to make the pupils permanently aware of the value of library service.46 A syllabus in English for grades 7 to 12, inclusive, pub¬ lished by the New York State Department of Education, presents suggestions regarding library skills that may be mastered through frequent opportunity for practical application of the work in Eng¬ lish classes.47 The Mount Auburn Elementary School in Cleveland, Ohio, was established some time ago by the Board of Education as a library- curriculum center. As a result of its program parents are building up home libraries for their children and other schools of the city are adapting the library-curriculum practices to their own situations. An experiment in Stephens College, a private junior college, may offer suggestions for public high schools. In this instance the li¬ brarian of the college is also dean of instruction and teachers are encouraged to work with students in the presence of books. A social science library is being developed with a librarian in charge who cooperates with individual student’s projects.48 2. Contributions to the needs of extracurricular activities. — Not¬ withstanding the fact that modern curricula are placing increasing emphasis upon life situations, there are certain school activities that fall outside the realm of established courses which are vitally con¬ nected with the general welfare of the school. They are the so- called extracurricular activities. The part contributed by the library and the librarian is essential to their success. The library is the informational center for these activities; if it does not have the materials needed the librarian can tell where they may be found. 46 Brooks, Alice R. The integration of library instruction with the high school social studies. School library yearbook, no. 5. P. 121-44. Chicago, American Library Asso¬ ciation, 1932. 47 New York. (State) University. Library instruction. Albany, University of the State of New York Press, 1933. 65 p. (University of the State of New York, Bulletin No. I926r Aug. 15, 1933.) 48 Johnson, B. Lamar. The Stevens college library program and its implications for the high school library. North Central Association Quarterly 9 : 403-6, April 1935. EDUCATIONAL METHOD 49 Cooperation with student councils, J unior Red Cross organizations, 4-H and other service clubs, as well as with committees of all kinds are some of the ways by which the librarian contributes to extra¬ curricular activities. Much is being said about the possibilities of the service that the library can render in supplementing the work of two agencies gen¬ erally neglected by the schools but used constantly by children — the moving picture and the radio. For some time the Cleveland Public Library has been distributing Motion Picture Bookmarks upon which are printed lists of books in the library which could be read profitably in connection with some of the excellent films being shown. Both school and public libraries are providing books of references for classes participating in the Nation-wide music appre¬ ciation programs conducted over the radio by Dr. Walter J. Dam- rosch and for other broadcasts of interest to school pupils. 3. Continuance of studies of children's reading interests . — Attempts to discover the reading interests of children and young people persist as evidenced by the number of studies and investigations which con¬ tinue to appear upon the subject. Already these have had a wholesome effect in throwing light upon problems in book selection and reading guidance but the field is in no wise exhausted. Statements from the findings of a few of these studies are repre¬ sentative of the character of the results. The subcommittee on read¬ ing of the White House Conference on Child Health and Protection emphasized the significance and present status of children’s interests in reading and called attention to the need for more reading mate¬ rials and better library facilities.49 Another study of reading in primary grades shows that there is need for a program that allows children freedom in choosing material according to their personal interests and volition.50 There is need also for a greater variety of materials and for teachers who are skillful in guiding the reading tastes and interests of children. One investigator, after a careful consideration of the elements which make reading interesting to children, is led to challenge a great deal of what is found in school readers and what is offered in children’s libraries.51 That the vol¬ untary reading of high-school students represents a higher quality than some are prone to think is revealed in a recent survey of the 49 Milam, Carl H.. ch. Children’s reading. A study of the voluntary reading of boys and girls in the United States. Report of the subcommittee on reading. White House Confer¬ ence on Child Health and Reading. New York, Century Co., 1933. 60 Boney, C. De Witt. A study of library reading in the primary grades. Teachers College, Columbia University, Contributions to education, no. 578, 1933. 61 Coxe, Warren H. Scientific literature on the reading interests of school children. Library Journal, 57 : 9-15, Jan. 1, 1935. 50 BIENNIAL SURVEY OF EDUCATION, 1934-36 periodical literature read by high-school students. Fndings indi¬ cate that although the reading of the group studied was strongly influenced by newsstand, drug store, and other commercial agencies,52 it was also influenced, to a lesser degree, by the school library. 4. Interest in acquainting teachers and librarians with reliable booh lists . — Keen interest in book selection has been manifested re¬ cently by many agencies and much effort has been expended by Fed¬ eral, National, and State agencies in acquainting school librarians and teachers with reliable book lists. The scientific procedures used in Terman and Lima’s Children's Reading and in the Winnetha Graded Book List have been continued. One result is the publication of the Right Book for the Right Childs Some State departments of education are recommending the adop¬ tion of standard lists rather than preparing lists of their own, or are suggesting that such lists supplement their own. Kentucky, Louisi¬ ana, and New York are examples of States which have recommended that The Standard Catalogue for High School Libraries be used in the selection of books for high-school libraries. The State Library and the State Department of Public Instruction in Michigan, which are required by law to cooperate in the preparation of book lists for schools, have recommended that their Preferred List of Books, pub¬ lished in 1930, be supplemented by certain other well-known lists that have been designated.54 5. Attempts to discover desirable courses of instruction for school librarians. — Since 1930 considerable attention has been centered upon preparation for school library work.55 During the school year 1934-35 a library science curriculum for teachers and teacher- librarians was given in the School of Library Service, Columbia University, as a project of the Joint Committee of the American Association of Teachers Colleges and the American Library As¬ sociation.56 Because of wide differences of opinions concerning the training of school librarians expressed at a conference of southern library work¬ ers called at Atlanta, Ga., in the fall of 1935, a committee was ap- 62 Lewis, Elizabeth. Magazine reading interests of high-school students : A survey of the periodical literature read in the Roslyn High School and a comparison with other studies of similar character made elsewhere. Master’s thesis, 1932. New York University. Mimeographed. 83 Right Book for the Right Child : A graded buying list of children’s books. New York, John C. Day Co., 1933. 357 p. 64 Book lists for primary and graded school districts : Aids to book buying for elementary and secondary schools. Lansing, Mich., State Department of Education and State library, 1984. 55 Fargo, Lucile F. Preparation for school library work. New York, Columbia University Press, 1936. 190 p. 56 Joint committee of the American association of teachers colleges and the American Library Association. How shall we educate teachers and librarians for library service in the school. New York, Columbia University Press, 1936. 74 p. EDUCATIONAL METHOD 51 pointed by the chairman of the School Librarians Section of the American Library Association for the purpose of testing opinions on the subject in various sections of the country. The returns indi¬ cate that some dissatisfaction appears on the part of both school librarians and administrators regarding courses of instruction for school librarians, because the library school curriculum is not related closely enough to the actual practices of the school library.57 The American Library Association reports that the District of Columbia and IT States require school librarians to hold certificates.58 6. Increase in the number of State school library supervisors. — Since 1930 supervisors of school libraries have been added to depart¬ ments of education in three Southern States — Alabama, Kentucky, and Tennessee. These supervisors are being maintained by subven¬ tions of the General Education Board -with the hope that after they have demonstrated their usefulness their work will be taken over by the States. Louisiana and North Carolina have recently pro¬ vided for such supervision following demonstrations. Ten States now have school library supervisors, one State, Michigan, having dis¬ continued the practice as an economy measure. Those, in addition to the five named, are Indiana, Minnesota, Neiv York, Virginia, and W isconsin. In all of the 10 States except Indiana these supervisors are placed in departments of education. In that State the super¬ visor is a member of the staff of the State library. 7. Stimulation of school library service through cooperation be¬ tween school and library groups. — State and national undertakings created for the purpose of working out projects in which both school and library groups are vitally interested are exerting a whole¬ some influence on school library service. In New Jersey, a joint committee composed of representatives of the State library association and the State teachers association has been created for the purpose of curbing theft and mutilation of library books. One of the most extensive efforts in cooperation is reported from California. In that State, studies in the school library field are being carried on through the cooperation of educational and library groups and the results are being published as bulletins of the State depart¬ ment of education. Four bulletins relating to library service in the elementary school 59 have been published and others are in progress. 57 Parks, Martha M., ch. Training of school librarians. Bulletin of the American Library Association, 30 : 680-81, August 1936. 58 American Library Association. Board of education for librarianship. Chicago, July 1936. Mimeographed. 69 Selection and distribution of supplementary and library books in California counties (Bulletin No. 10, May 15, 1934) ; Effective use of library facilities (Bulletin No. 11, June 1, 1934) ; Pleasure reading for boys and girls (Bulletin No. 17, Sept. 1, 1935) ; and The library in the elementary school (Bulletin No. 18, Sept. 15, 1935). 52 BIENNIAL SURVEY OF EDUCATION, 1934-36 In the field of the secondary school a comprehensive State-wide survey of conditions in secondary school libraries has been planned by a committee of the California School Library Association and is sponsored and supported by the State department of education. The results of this study will be published by the Department. Reference has been made in this section to a school library project sponsored by the American Association of Teachers Colleges and the American Library Association. Another national joint committee — that of the National Education Association and the American Li¬ brary Association — held conferences in connection with the 1936 annual meetings of the two organizations at which the library standards that are being developed by the Cooperative Study of Secondary Schools were discussed. 8. Contributions of civic and educational organizations to the field of school libraries . — The contributions made by civic, educational, and philanthropic organizations to school libraries include donations of books and funds, the preparation and publication of studies per¬ taining to school libraries, and active cooperation with interested agencies. The American Association of University Women is fostering li¬ brary service as a communal project through its State divisions and local branches. Books and magazines have been donated for schools, funds have been collected for the purchase of books, and interest in school libraries has been stimulated. The Jonesboro, Ark., branch has established a county library which is used by schools. The Nebraska Division is engaged in a St ate- wide rural school library project. The chairman reports that 6,500 books and magazines have been put into circulation chiefly through offices of county superintendents of schools and that a library-museum room has been opened in the public library at McCook for the use of out¬ lying rural schools. Branches in Kansas, Louisiana, Oklahoma, Oregon, Texas, and some other States are carrying on similar projects. The American Junior Red Cross assists school libraries by three continuing projects as follows: First, it replaces books destroyed by floods and tornadoes in cases where parents or school authorities are unable to replace them. Since 1930 several thousand dollars have been expended for this purpose by the National Children’s Fund which is contributed by members of local chapters. Second, it provides small library collections for schools remotely located from centers of population. Thirty-five hundred dollars was spent during each of the school years 1934^35 and 1935-36 for this purpose. Third, it donates books to schools that are in need of help. Informa¬ tion concerning schools needing assistance is obtained through the EDUCATIONAL METHOD 53 field representative of the national organization. In addition to these continuing projects, the organization carries on a number of special projects. One example is the establishment of a community library at Palmer, Alaska, the Federal Government’s newly de¬ veloped rehabilitation center for settlers from four northwestern States. The American Library Association is vitally interested in the im¬ provement of library service for schools. In 1936 it established at its headquarters a school and children’s division which included the employment of a school library specialist. The work of this division is concerned primarily with the collection of information on all phases of library service for children and young people in this country and in Canada. In addition to these services the Asso¬ ciation helps schools through its publications on school libraries and through its cooperation with other educational agencies. Men¬ tion has been made of the work of its joint committees with the American Association of Teachers Colleges and the National Educa¬ tion Association. Another example of cooperative effort is the pub¬ lication in 1934 of A Study of Rural School Library Practices and Services which was made by the specialist in school libraries of the Office of Education, United States Department of the Interior, with the help of a grant from the Carnegie Corporation. Local and State units of the National Congress of Parents and Teachers are doing much to stimulate reading among school children, to improve school library conditions, and to sponsor surveys of local library facilities. Many schools would be without library books and magazines except for their help. In Connecticut, more than a thousand dollars was spent for school library books. In Georgia, efforts have been concentrated upon the improvement of high-school libraries and upon the employment of a State school library super¬ visor. In Youngstown, Ohio, a mothers’ room has been placed in the public library for the purpose of helping mothers instill a love of books in their children from babyhood on. A report from the State of California shows that 125 local units of the “Congress” participated in a survey of methods for financing city and county libraries. This resulted in the improvement of housing facilities for libraries and in an increase in their revenues. This is signifi¬ cant from the point of view of the school because county libraries are used extensively by the public schools in California. Two departments of the National Education Association have published yearbooks on the subject of school libraries: Elementary School Libraries, published in 1933 by the Department of Elemen¬ tary School Principals ; and Rural School Libraries, in 1936, by the Department of Rural Education. The Joint Committee of the 54 BIENNIAL SURVEY OF EDUCATION, 1934-36 National Education Association and the American Library Asso¬ ciation which has been mentioned previously, began to function in 1931 with the following objectives : To facilitate and promote joint studies and other cooperative activities by the two associations in the field of school library service. This report indicates how much the concept of the school library has grown since its inception as merely a collection of school books. Today the school library is the center of curriculum activities. Teachers and pupils turn to the library for reference material and to the librarian for guidance in its use. Continual use of these serv¬ ices beginning in the nursery school and kindergarten and carried on through the elementary and secondary schools should do much to produce citizens who will be able to participate intelligently in the development of modern democratic living. INDEX Abel, James F.: Foreign education, VII: 1-97. Ability to learn, IV: 19-22. Academic courses, CCC camps, IV: 31-32. Academic freedom of speech, III: 32-35. Achievement examinations (Lindquist), X: 13. “Activity school,” Latin America, VII: 71-72. Adams, Lucy Wilcox: Adult education, IV: 6, 27. Administration and finance, higher institutions, leg¬ islation, VIII: 13-16. Administration and support, rural schools, V : 38-60. Adult education, II: 24; V: 64-66; (Proffitt), IV: 1-73; China, VII: 34-35; Europe, VII; 15-18; high¬ er institutions, III: 45-46; Rochester, N. Y., IX 5-6; world conference, VII: 96-97. Africa, education, VII: 46-59. Agricultural education, III: 78-79; CCC camps, IV: 33. Agricultural Experiment Stations, research activi¬ ties, III: 61-62. Agriculture, rural high school, II: 23. Albany, N. Y.: Parent education, IX: 6-7, 27. Alderman, L. R.: WPA education program, IV: 28. All-day vocational programs, II: 20. American Association for the Advancement of Sci¬ ence, research activities, III: 57. American Association of University Professors, study of effects of depression and recovery on higher education, VI: 58-59. American Association of University Women: Par¬ ent-education program, IV: 48-49. American Council of Learned Societies: Research activities, III: 57-58. American Council on Education: Report of Com¬ mittee on Graduate Instruction, III: 53; research activities, III: 62. American Home Economics Association: Parent- education program, IV : 49. American Library Association: Parent-education program, IV: 49. American Social Hygiene Association: Parent-edu¬ cation program, IV: 49-50. Anderson, Douglas S.: Ideals of engineering educa¬ tion, III: 77. Anderson, Sir George: Compulsory education, India, VII: 38. Angell, J. R.: Excerpt from address, Harvard Uni¬ versity Tercentenary, III: 6. Annuity plans, higher institutions, III: 18-19. Appointment policies, higher institutions, III: 36. Argentina: Education, VII: 75-80. Arkansas: Cost of pupil transportation, V: 57; curriculum development, V: 20-21. Arthur, C. M.: Vocational education, II: 17-25. Articulation, secondary schools, II: 34-36. Arts and sciences: Organization and instruction, III: 40-41. 226862-40 Asia, education, VII: 30-45. Assessments and tax rates, public elementary and secondary schools, VI: 7-9. Association for Childhood Education: Parent-edu¬ cation program, IV : 49. Attendance. See School attendance. Australia, education, VII: 60-63. Baldwin, Right Hov.. Stanley: Harvard men, III: 3. Baltimore, Md.: Parent-education program, IX: 11-12. Barker, Earl: Standardization of theological schools, III: 67. Barnes, Harry Elmer: Adult education, IV: 11. Barthelmy, M. Georges: Physical education in France, VII: 22-23. Beard, Charles A.: Adult education, IV: 14. Belgium: Adult education, VII: 16-17; technical education, VII: 26. Bentley, Jerome H.: Adult education, IV: 28. Berkeley, Calif.: Parent-education program, IX: 19. Bible and religious courses, higher institutions, IH: 69. Binghamton, N. Y.: Parent-education programs, IX: 7, 28. Bittner, W. S.: University and college extension work, IV: 56. Brazil, education, VII: 80-83. Bridgman, Ralph P.: Parent education, IV: 46, 47. Briggs, Howard L.: Wallkill, N. Y., education pro¬ gram, IV: 66. British Commonwealth of Nations Advisory Com¬ mittee, VII: 58-59. Broadcasts to schools, X: 40-42. Brookwood Labor College, Katonah, N. Y., IV: 41. Brunner, Edmund de S.: Adult education, IV: 19. Bryn Mawr Summer School for Women Workers in Industry, Mount Ivy Camp, Pomona, N. Y., IV: 41. Bulgaria: Vocational education, VTI: 27. Business efficiency, State control, legislation, VIII: 4-6. Butler, Nicholas Murray: Adult education, II: 8-9. Butterworth, Julian E.: County superintendency, V: 60; Organization for local administration and support, V: 38-60; Types of local school units, V: 44. California: Emergency education program, IV: 25-26; parent-education programs, IX: 4, 17, 22, 29, 53. Cambridge University: Relation to Harvard Uni¬ versity, III: 4-5. Canada: Education, Vn: 64-68. Capen, Samuel P.: Academic freedom, III: 34. 1 2 INDEX Capital outlay, public elementary and secondary schools, VI: 14-15. Carnegie Foundation for the Advancement of Teach¬ ing, research activities, III: 62-63. Cartwright, Morse A.: Adult education, IV: 8-9. Catholic seminaries, III: 68-69. CCC Camp education (Oxley), IV: 28-35. Central rural-school district, V : 55. Certification of teachers, legislation, VIII : 20-22. Character development (Davis), X: 22-30. Chase, Harry Woodburn: Academic freedom, III: 35. Child development, Rochester, N. Y., IX: 5-6. Child guidance clinics, X: 8-10. Child Study Association of America: Parent-educa¬ tion program, IV: 50. Children’s Bureau, Parent-education, IV: 48. Citizenship: WPA classes, IV: 25. City guidance programs, X: 3-6. China, education, VII: 30-36. Citizens Conference on Education, III: 8-9. City school systems, parent education, IV: 55; IX: 1-35. City schools: Provisions for exceptional children, VI: 5. Civic education through forums, IV : 68-72. Civilian Conservation Corps: Colleges, III: 11; sec¬ ondary education, II: 16; see also CCC camp edu¬ cation. Civilian rehabilitation, Federally aided, IV: 38-39. Coleman, Laurence Vail: Teacher training, muse¬ ums, X: 33. College education, experiments, III: 41-43. College student-aid programs, III: 9-10. Colleges and universities (Kelly and McNeely), VI: 45-59; see also higher institutions. Colombia, nationalization of education, VII: 69. Colonial Africa, education, VII: 56-59. Columbia Institute for the Deaf, Medical aid, III: 14. Columbia University: Doctor’s degree, III: 52. Commercial education, II: 19-20; international con¬ gresses, VII: 93-94. Commonwealth College, Mena, Ark., IV: 41. Compulsory education, China, VII: 34; Egypt, VII: 53-54; India, VII: 38; Turkey, VII: 43. Conant, J. B.: Nature of university tradition, III: 2. Conferences, higher education, III: 8-9. Consolidation of local school units, legislation, VIII: 12-13. Consolidation of rural schools, V: 50-54; Australia, VII: 62. Cook, Katherine M.: Education in rural and other sparsely settled areas, V: 1-70. Correspondence instruction, II: 15-16; Australia, VII: 61-62. Cost per pupil, public elementary and secondary schools, VI: 11-13. Costa Rica, nationalization of education, VII: 70. Coulson, A. R.: Parent-education program, Albany, N. Y., IX: 27. County superintendency, V: 59-60. County unit law, West Virginia, V: 40. Courses in occupational information, II: 41-42. Courses of study, secondary schools, II. 133-34. Covert, Timon: Financing public schools, VI: 35-45. Cressman, George R.: Administrative units, V: 43. Crippled children: Wisconsin program of education, V: 68. Cumulative records, X: 18-21. Cunningham, K. S.: Education in Australia, VII: 62-63. Current expenses, public elementary and secondary schools, VI: 9-11. Curriculum: Elementary schools, I: 17-19; higher institutions, legislation, VIII: 18; legislation, VIII: 31-33; rural schools, reorganization, V: 16-26; sec¬ ondary schools, II: 33-39. Cutler, Elliot C. : Harvard University Tercentenary, III: 2. Dallas, Tex.: Parent-education program, IX : 15-16. Davis, Mary Dabney: Character development, X: 22-30; educational method, X 1-54. Dawson, Howard A . : Functions of an administrative ' unit, V: 43; standards for a local school unit, V: 44-45. Deffenbaugh, W. S.: Effects of the depression upon public elementary and secondary schools and upon colleges and universities, VI: 1-59. Degrees, advanced, III: 52-53. Dental education, III: 72-73. Departmental examinations, Canadian schools, VII: 67-68. Depression and faculty members, III: 35-38 Detroit, Mich.: Parent-education program, IX: 17-18. Dexter, Walter F.: Parent-education programs, Cal¬ ifornia, IX: 29. Doctor’s degree, III: 49-51. Economic depression and higher education, III: 7-12. Educational legislation (Keesecker), VIII: 1-39. Educational method (Davis et al.), X: 1-54. Effects of the depression upon public elementary and secondary schools and upon colleges and uni¬ versities (Deffenbaugh), VI: 1-59. Egypt, education, VII: 53-56. Elementary and secondary schools, public, VI: 1-45. Elementary education (Goody koontz), I: 1-32; China, VII: 33. Elementary schools: Effects of the depression, VI: 1-45. Elementary teachers, rural, professional preparation, V: 28-32. Ellis, A. Caswell: Adult education, IV: 8, 11-12, 18. Emergency colleges, III: 11-12. Emergency education program, adult education, IV: 22-28. Emergency nursery schools, VI: 33. Emmanuel College, founding, III: 5. Employment, higher institutions, III: 35-36. Engineering: Study of graduate work, III: 53-54. Engineering curricula, higher institutions, III: 24, Engineering education, III: 75-77. Engineering experiment stations, research activities, III: 63-64. INDEX 3 England: Adult education, VII: 16. Enrollment: Canadian schools, VII: 65; elementary schools, I: 9-14; higher institutions, III: 26-28, 45; VI: 50-51; public elementary and secondary schools, V: 35; secondary schools, II: 1; sparsely settled areas, V: 2-7; university extension work, IV: 58-62. Erskine, John: Adult education, IV: 6, 16-17. Estonia: Vocational education, VII: 26-27. Europe, education, VII: 3-29. Evening classes, vocational education, IV: 37. Evening schools, VI: 32. Everard, Lewis C.: Museum service to schools, X: 31-35. Exceptional pupils (Martens), II: 4-6; V: 66-70; city school provisions, VI: 5; schools and classes, VI: 30-31. Extracurricular activities, secondary schools, II: 38-39. Faculties, higher institutions, effect of depression, III: 37. Fansler, Thomas: Qualifications of teachers of adults, IV: 17. FERA: Higher education, III: 9-10; parent-educa¬ tion program, IV : 48. Federal agencies, secondary education, II: 16-17. Federal aid to higher education increased, III: 13-14. Federal Council of Churches: Parent-education pro¬ gram, IV: 50. Federal Emergency Relief Funds, rural schools, VI: 19; see also FERA. Federal Government: Higher education, III: 9-12; parent education, IV: 47-48. Federal penal institutions: Enrollment, IV: 68. Finances, higher institutions, III: 17-18. Financial support, higher institutions, VI: 45-49; public elementary and secondary schools, VI: 6-15. Financing public schools (Covert), VI: 35-45. Flexner, Jennie M.: Emergency adult education program, IV: 27. Florida: State-supported school program, VIII: 8. Foreign education (Abel), VII: 1-97. Fort Smith, Ark.: Parent -education programs, IX: 14, 26. Forums and civic education, IV: 68-72. Forums in rural communities (Williams), V: 64-66. France: Physical education, VH: 22-24; technical education, VH: 25-26. Frank, Glenn: Adult education, IV: 10. Freedom of speech, higher institutions, III: 32-35. Gaumnitz, Walter H.: Types of rural schools and their enrollments, V: 2-10. Georgia: Higher education, in: 15. Germany: Adult education, VII: 18; nationalization of education, VII: 10-12; physical education, VH: 21-22. Goodykoontz, Bess: Elementary education, I: 1-32. Graduate study and research, III: 47-64. Grady, William E.: Adult education, IV: 6. Graham, Frank P.: Depression and education, III: 34. Grand Rapids, Mich.: Parent-education program, IX: 18. Gruenberg, S. M.: Parent education, IV: 45. Guidance (Proffitt), H: 39-42; CCC Camps, IV: 31; development of techniques, X: 6-7; in the school program, X: 1-11. Hart, Joseph K.: Adult education, IV: 6. Harvard University: Teacher’s degree, III: 52; ter¬ centenary, in: 1-6. Heyl, Helen Hay: Supervision of instruction in rural schools, V: 32-38. High school, small, n: 25-33; see also Junior high schools; secondary schools. Higher education (John), III: 1-92; administration and control, IH: 13-25; Argentina, VH: 79-80; China, VII: 32; conferences. III: 8-9; economic depression, IH: 7-12; Egypt, VTI: 55; Federal Gov¬ ernment, III: 9-12; legislation, VHI: 13-20; student body, HI: 26-31; see also Colleges and universities. Higher institutions: Closed or merged, HI: 13; col¬ lege organization and instruction, III: 38-16; grad¬ uate study and research, HI: 47-64; legislation, VIH: 13-16; teaching staff, HI: 32-37. Holmstedt, R. W.: School attendance units, V: 51. Homemaking education, II: 23-24. Hopkins, Harry L.: WPA education program, IV: 22-25. Houston, Tex.: Parent-education program, IX: 16-17, 23-24, 26. Howard University. Federal aid, III: 14. Ickes, Harold L.: Academic freedom, III: 34. Illiteracy: Argentina, VH: 76; CCC Camps, IV: 32; China, VH: 34-35; Egypt, VII: 53-54; Europe, VH: 14-15; Iran, VH: 42; Latin America, VH: 70- 71; Mexico, VII: 83-85; United States, I: 28-29; WPA classes, IV: 24-25. Income, public elementary and secondary schools, VI: 6-7. India, education, VII: 36-40. Indiana University Extension Division, IV: 62-64. Individual differences, secondary schools, II: 2-6. Instruction: CCC camps, IV: 35; public elementary and secondary schools, VI: 27-28; rural schools, V: 16-38; supervision, rural schools, V: 32-38. Insurance and annuity plans, higher institutions, IH: 18-19. International Child Health Congress, meeting, Paris, VH: 88-89. International Colonial Exposition, VH: 57-58. International Congresses and Conferences, VH: 88-97. International Council of Religious Education: Parent -education program, IV: 50. Iran, education, VII: 40-42. Irish Free State: Technical and vocational educa¬ tion, VII: 27-29. Italy: Adult education, VH: 17; nationalization of education, VH: 8-9. Itinerant teachers for handicapped children, V: 69. Jessen, Carl A.: Secondary education, II: 1^44. Job improvement, vocational training, IV: 5. John, Walton C.: Higher education, HI: 1-92. Jones, Thomas Jesse: Education in Africa, VII : 56-57. Junior colleges: Legislation, VIII: 16-17; number and enrollment, II: 12-15; organization and in¬ struction, IH: 38-39. Junior high schools, Canada, VII: 68. Keesecker, Ward W.: Educational legislation, VIII: 1-39. Kelly, Daniel J.: Parent-education programs, Bing¬ hamton, N. Y., IX: 28. 4 INDEX Kelly, Fred J.: College enrollment, III: 28; and McNeely, John H.: Colleges and universities, VI: 45-49. Kerchen, John L.: Workers’ education program, IV: 42. Kindergartens, enrollment, VI: 5. Koon, Cline M.: Radio and motion pictures in edu¬ cation, X: 36-44. Labor Institute, Rutgers University, New Bruns¬ wick, N. J., IV: 41. Land-grant colleges aided, III: 13-14. Language instruction, VII: 57. Languages, Union of South Africa, VII: 51. Lathrop, Edith A.: School library service, X: 45-54. Latin America, education, VII: 68-87. Laws, Gertrude: On parent-education groups, IX: 24-25. Legal education, III: 69-71. Legislation, VIII: 1-39; State colleges and univer¬ sities, VI: 51-58. Leigh, Robert D.: Adult education, IV: 16,22. Leisure time, adult education, IV: 14-15. Length of term, elementary schools, I: 19-21. Libraries, elementary schools, I: 21-22. Library service, school, X: 45-54. Lindquist, E. F.: Achievement examinations, X: 13. Little Rock, Ark.: Parent-education program, IX: 13. Local school units, consolidation, legislation, VIII: 12-13; project, Office of Education, V: 48-50. Lombard, Ellen C.: Parent education, IV: 43-551 parent-education programs in city school systems. IX: 1-35. MacCormick, Austin H.: Prison education, IV: 64-65. Martens, Elise H.: Exceptional pupils, II: 4-6; provisions for exceptional children, V: 66-70. Maryland: County unit system, V: 43. Massachusetts: Itinerant teachers for handicapped children, V: 69. Master’s degree, III: 47-49. McNeely, John H., and Kelly, F. J.: Colleges and universities, VI: 45-59. Measurement (Segel), X: 12-21; higher institutions, III: 21-22. Medical education, III: 71-72. Melcher, George: Adult education, IV: 8. Mexico, education, VII: 83-87. Michigan: State-supported school program, VIII: 8-9. Mildmay, Sir Walter: Founding of Emmanuel College, III: 5. Miller, Spencer, Jr.: Workers’ education movement, IV: 42. Mississippi: Higher education, III: 15. Moehlman, Arthur B.: Administrative units, V: 45-46. Montana: State-supported school programs, VIII: 9 Motion pictures in education, X: 36-39, 42-44. Mus'ehm service to schools (Everard), X: 31-35. National Catholic Welfare Conference: Parent education program, IV: 50-51. National Congresfe of Colored Parents and Teachers: Parent-education program, IV: 51. National Congress of Parents and Teachers: Parent- education program, IV: 51-52. National Council of Parent Education, Inc.: Parent- education program, IV: 52. National organizations for guidance, II: 40. National Research Council, activities, III: 58-59. National Youth Administration, III: 10; secondary education, II: 16-17. Nationalization of education: Europe, VII: 4-12; Latin America, VII: 69-70. Native education, Union of South Africa, VII: 50-51. Negroes: Enrollment, elementary schools, I: 13; graduate work, III: 55; higher education, III: 24-25; legislation, VIII: 17-18. New Jersey: State-supported school program, VIII: 9. New York State: Education Department; outline for study group leaders, IX: 25-26; parent-educa¬ tion program, IV: 52-53; IX: 4; prison education, IV: 65-66. Night schools, II: 15. Normal schools. See Teachers colleges. North Carolina: Higher education, III: 15. North Central Association of Colleges and Secondary Schools, changes in standards, III: 23. North Dakota: State-supported school program, VIII: 10. Northwestern States: Effect of emergency education program, IV: 26. Nursery schools and kindergartens, VI: 32-33. Nursing education, III: 74-75. Occupational information, courses, II: 41-42. Occupational training, CCC camps, IV: 33. Office of Education: Local School Units Project, V: 48-50; parent education, IV: 47-48; project in re¬ search in universities. III: 12; public forums, IV: 69-71. Ogburn, William F.: Adult education, IV: 6. Ohio: State-supported school program, VIII; 10-11. Oklahoma: Parent-education programs, IX: 4; State supported school program, VIII: 11-12. Oklahoma City, Okla.: Parent-education programs, IX: 14. Oregon: Higher education, III: 15. Organization for local administration and support (Butterworth), V: 38-60. Out-of-school girls, II: 22. Out-of-school rural youth, II: 20-22. Oxley, Howard W.: CCC camp education, IV: 28-35. Parent education (Lombard), IV: 43-55; programs in city school systems, IX: 1-35. Part-time schools and classes, II: 15; vocational programs, II: 20; IV: 37. Pasadena, Calif.: Parent-education program, IX: 11, 27-28. Pennsylvania: State Department of Public Instruc¬ tion, parent-education program, IV: 54; township and borough systems, V: 43; workers’ education program, IV: 43. Per capita cost, elementary and secondary schools, I: 31-32. INDEX 5 Personnel records, X: 18-21. Personnel work, higher institutions, III: 19-21. Pharmacy schools, III: 73-74. Physical education, Europe, VII: 19-24. Placement activities, CCC camps, IV: 35. Placement and follow-up, vocational graduates, II: 22. Play groups, Pasadena, Calif., IX: 11. Poor whites of South Africa, VII: 48-50. Population of United States by age, IV: 21. Pound, Roscoe: Tendencies in legal education, III: 70-71. Preschool care of the child, VII: 88-89. Preschool children, Europe, VII: 19. Primary schools, Egypt, VII: 54. Prison education, IV: 64-68. Private education: Argentina, VII: 79; China, VII: 35- 36; legislation, VIII: 37-38. Proctor, William M.: New philosophy of education, IV: 18. Professional education, III: 65-92. Professional preparation of rural elementary teach¬ ers (Robinson), V: 28-32. Professional staff, rural schools, V: 26-28. Proffitt, Maris M.: Adult education, IV: 1-73; guid¬ ance in the school program, X: 1-11; guidance, secondary schools, II: 39-42. Project in Research in Universities, III: 12. Promotions, higher institutions, III: 36. Protestant Episcopal Church: Parent-education pro¬ gram IV: 52. Protestant theological schools, III: 67-68. Public education: Argentina, VII: 78; six interna¬ tional conferences, VII: 89. Public elementary and secondary schools, VI: 1-45. Public forums and civic education, IV: 68-72. Public schools, financing, VI: 35-45. Public Works Administration, school buildings, III: 11. Publications, museum services to schools, X: 35. Pupil-personnel records, X: 18-21. Qualifications of teachers, public elementary and sec¬ ondary schools, VI: 26-27. Radio and motion pictures in education (Koon), X: 36- 44. Ramsey, J. W. Parent-education group procedures, IX: 26. Records, pupil, X: 18-21. Recreational activities, CCC camps, IV: 34. Recruiting of students, III: 29-31. Reorganized high schools, II: 7-12. Research: Character development, X: 28-29; gradu¬ ate schools, ELI: 55-64; in universities, project, III: 12. Rhode Island: Higher education, III: 15. Rhodes scholarships, III: 29. Robinson, William McKinley: Professional prepa¬ ration of rural elementary teachers, V : 28-32. Rochester, N. Y.: Parent-education programs, IX: 5-6; 29. Roosevelt, Franklin D.: Harvard Tercentenary, III: 4. Rural and other sparsely settled areas, education (Cook), V: 1-70. Rural elementary teachers, professional preparation, V: 28-32. Rural school buildings, V : 61-64. Rural schools: Administration and support, V: 38-60; consolidation, V: 50-54; current expenditures, VI: 11; enrollment and types, V: 2-7; FERA funds, VI: 19; instruction supervision, V: 32-38. Russell, James E.: Adult education, IV: 11. Russell, William F.: Adult education, IV: 10-11. Rutgers University, Labor Institute, IV: 41. Saenz, Moises: Education in Mexico, VII: 84-85. Salaries: Higher institutions, III: 36; VI: 49-50; teachers, legislation, VIII: 22-23; teachers, super¬ visors, and principals, public elementary and secondary schools, VI: 24-26. Scammon, Richard E.: Social discipline, III: 65-66. Schenectady, N. Y.: Parent-education programs, IX: 8. Scholarships and fellowships, 111:28-29. Scholarships, higher institutions, legislation, VIII: 19. School administration, State control, legislation, VIII: 2-3. School attendance: By age, IV: 21; Europe, VII: 12-14. School budgets, State control, legislation, VIII: 4-6. School buildings, I: 22; VI: 5-6; (Wilson), V: 61-64; legislation, VIII: 36; PWA, III: 11. School clubs, X: 7-8. School expenditures, State control, legislation, VIII: 4-6. School finance, Canada, VII: 65-66. School health and safety, legislation, VIII: 34-36. School library service (Lathrop), X: 45-54. School revenue, legislation, VIII: 6-7. School support, sparsely settled areas, V: 11-16. School term, length, VI: 4; public elementary and secondary schools, VI: 15-19. Schoolhouses. See School buildings. Secondary education (lessen), II: 1-44; Argentina, VII: 76-77; China, VII: 32-33; Egypt, VII: 54-55; Turkey, VII: 44. Secondary schools: Courses of study, II: 133-34; effects of the depression, VI: 1-45 enrollment, II: 1. Segel, David: Measurement, X: 12-21; tests and measurements, II: 36-37. Sexson, J. A.: Parent-education program, Pasadena, Calif.: IV: 27-28. Shanks, Allen L.: Prison education, IV: 67. Shih-Cheh, Wang: Education in China, VII: 31 . Siegel, Morris E.: Adult education, IV: 15, 19. Small high schools, II: 25-33. Smith, Rufus D.: College enrollments, III: 27-28. Social discipline, III: 65-66. Social Science Research Council, research activities, III: 59-61. Society for the Promotion of Engineering Education: Study of graduate work, III: 53-54. Southwestern Conference on Higher Education, III: 9. Soviet Union: Adult education, VII: 17-18; national¬ ization of education, VII: 9-10. Spain: Adult education, VII: 18. Sparsely settled communities, education, V: 1-10. Special schools and classes, VI: 30-35. Spinning, J. W.: Parent-education program Rochester, N. Y„ IX: 27. 6 IKDEX Standardizing organizations, higher education, III: 23. State agencies for guidance, II: 40-41. State and city councils for parent education, IV: 54-55. State and local school programs, character education, IX: 24-28. State-aid education programs, legislation, VIII: 7-12. State colleges and universities, legislation, VI: 51-58. State departments of education and rural schools, V: 10-38. State guidance programs, X: 2-3. State reorganization affecting higher education, III: 16. State school administration, organization, and functions, legislation, VIII: 2-3. State-wide testing programs, X: 18. Strayer, George W.: Adult education, IV: 72. Studebaker, J. W.: Forums, IV: 69, 71-72. Student-aid programs, III: 9-10. Student body, higher institutions, III: 26-31. Summer schools, VI: 31-32. Supervised farm practice, II: 23. Supervision of instruction, rural schools (Heyl), V: 32-38. Supervisory and teaching staff, public elementary and secondary schools, VI: 19-27. Teacher education, III: 82-92. Teacher employment, tenure, loyalty, oaths, legis¬ lation, VIII: 23-26. Teacher retirement, legislation, VIII: 26-29. Teacher training: Iran, VII: 42; museums, X: 32-33; Turkey, VII: 43-44. Teacher training and certification, legislation, VIII: 20-22. Teachers, rural schools, V : 7-8. Teachers associations, international, VII: 94-95. Teachers colleges, graduate work, III: 54-55. Teachers’ salaries: VI: 3; VIII: 22-23; rural schools, V: 9. Teaching staff: Elementary schools, V: 23-26; higher institutions, III: 32-37; public elementary and secondary schools, VI: 19-27. Technical and vocational education: Europe, VII: 24-29; Latin America, VII: 72-74. Technical education: Canada, VII: 66-67; Egypt, VII: 55; international congresses, VII: 90-93; Turkey, VII: 44; Union of South Africa, VII: 47-48. Tenure policy, higher institutions, III: 36. Tercentenary, Harvard University, III: 1-6. Tests and measurements (Segel), II: 36-37; X: 12-21. Texas: Curriculum development, V: 20, 24; parent- education programs, IX: 4; State-supported school program, VIII: 12. Textbooks, legislation, VIII: 29-31. Textbooks and supplies, public elementary and secondary schools, VI: 28-29. Theological education, III: 66-69. Thorndike, Edward L.: Adult education, IV: 12-13, 18-19. Transportation, rural school pupils, V: 55-59. Trent, W. W.: County unit laws, West Virginia, V: 40. Tuition and transportation, legislation, VIII: 33-34. Tulsa, Okla.: Parent-education programs, IX: 14-15. Turkey, education, VII: 42-15. Types of rural schools and their enrollment (Gaum- nitz), V: 2-10. Union of South Africa, education, VII: 46-53. United Parents Associations: Parent-education pro¬ gram, IV: 52. United States Department of Agriculture, parent education, IV: 48. United States Industrial Reformatory, Chillicothe, Ohio: Education program, IV: 66-67. United States Northeastern Penitentiary, education program, IV: 67. University admission, Canada, VII: 68. University extension, IV: 56-64. University of California: Workers’ education pro¬ gram, IV: 42. University of Istanbul, VII: 44. University of Wisconsin, School for Workers in Industry, IV: 41. University tradition (Conant), III: 2. Urban universities, programs, III: 45. Vermont: State-supported school program, VIII: 12. Virginia: Organization chart for curriculum work, V: 19. Vocational education (Arthur), II: 17-25; CCC camps, IV: 33; for adults, IV: 35-37; legislation, VIII: 38-39. Vocational guidance, Canada, VII: 67. Vocational rehabilitation, IX: 38-39. Vocational schools and classes, VI: 34. Vocational training: CCC camps, IV: 31; job im¬ provement aid for adjustment, IV: 5. Vocational training of adults, IV: 13-14. Wallkill, N. Y.: Education program, IV: 65-66. Walters, Raymond: College enrollments. III: 27. Wayne University, Detroit, organized, III: 16-17. West Virginia: County unit law, V: 40. Western hemisphere, education, VII: 64-87. Whipple, Caroline A.: Adult education, IV: 27. Williams, Chester: Forums in rural communities, V: 64-66. Wilson, W. K.: School buildings, V: 61-64. Wisconsin: Education of crippled children, V: 68. Women and girls: Education in India, VII: 38-40; Latin America, VII: 74-75. Workers’ education, IV: 39-43; Pennsylvania, IV: 43. Works Progress Administration: Adult education program, III: 46; IV: 22-28; higher education, III: 10, 12; parent-education programs, IV : 48. Wrightstone, J. W.: Observation schedule for ex¬ amination, X: 16. Wyer, Malcolm G.: Adult education, IV: 72-73. Youtz, Philip N.: Emergency adult education pro¬ gram, IV: 27. O