For Reference Not to be taken from this room L 111 .A3 DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR BUREAU OF EDUCATION REPORT OF THE Commissioner of Education FOR THE YEAR ENDED JUNE 30, 1915 VOLUME I NO LONGER PROPERTY OF FALVEY MEMORIAL LIBRARY natiomlIHRARV OF'EDUCATtOW U S DEPARTMENT Of EDUCATION MAR 2 6 2013 400 MARYLAND AVENUE fe w WASHINGTON. D.C. 20202 WASHINGTON GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE THE UNITED STATES BUREAU OF EDUCATION. Created as a Department March 2, 1867. Made an Office of the Interior Department July 1. 1869. COMMISSIONED. Henry Barnard'*, .CL: D.; March 1%, £867, to ' M dr'cK . John Eaton, Ph. D.. LL. T)’.?, March 16, 1870, to August 6, 18$6P ,.** . Nathaniel H. II. Dawson4,. L. H. D.,. August 6, 1886, to September 3, 1889. William T. Harris, Ph. LX. LL. D., September 1%, 1889 ,•* to 'June, 3Q, 1906. Elmer Ellsworth Brown, Ph. D., LL. D., July 1, 1906, to June 30, 1911. Philander Priestley Claxton, Litt. D., LL. D., July 8, 1911, to date. n CONTENTS Page. Introduction _ _ _ xra Chapter I. — Educational Legislation, 1915. Administrative control _ 1 The county unit _ 3 Code commissions _ 7 Taxation _ ’ _ 8 Consolidation of districts _ 9 High schools _ 11 Compulsory attendance _ 12 Health provisions _ 14 The school term _ 16 The training of teachers - 16 Teachers’ certificates _ 18 Teachers’ salaries _ 19 Teachers’ pensions - 19 Higher education - 21 Libraries _ 22 Manual and industrial training _ 22 Kindergartens _ 24 Textbooks _ 24 The employment of children - 25 Chapter II. — Education in the Larger Cities. The Gary duplicate plan in New York City _ _ _ 27 Readjustments in grades above the sixth _ 30 Standards of achievement - : - 34 Vocational education _ 36 Better opportunities for grade pupils _ 39 Atypical children _ 40 Health of school children _ . _ 41 Increased cooperation of civic authorities and institutions - 43 Schools as social centers _ 44 Organization of the Association of Urban Universities _ 45 Rights and duties of teachers _ 45 Chapter III. — Education in the Smaller Cities. The school board _ 47 The schools and the municipality _ 48 Business management _ .. _ _ _ 51 The full-time secretary _ . _ 52 School reports _ 52 The superintendent _ 55 Teachers _ 56 Course of study and organization _ 59 Growth of high schools _ 64 Kindergartens - 66 Cooperating with the community _ 67 School credit for home work _ 69 Home and school gardens _ 70 Cooperative courses - 70 Wider use of the school plant _ 72 Retardation _ _ : _ 74 School savings banks _ 77 Miscellaneous items _ 78 in IV CONTENTS. Chapter IV. — Rural Education. Page. Introductory statement - 82 Progress in the administration and supervision of rural schools _ 82 Consolidation _ 94 Preparation of rural school teachers _ 96 In normal schools _ ’ _ 97 In secondary schools _ 98 Training teachers in service _ 100 Relation of salaries to preparation and length of tenure _ 103 “ Standardizing ” the one-teacher rural school _ 105 Rural high schools _ _ 107 Progress in rural school extension _ 109 The division of rural education in the Bureau of Education _ 111 Chapter V. — Secondary Education. Extension of opportunities for secondary education _ 113 Reorganization of courses of study - 117 Influence of State inspectors of high schools - 121 Provisions for economy of time _ 123 The high school in the surveys - 130 Chapter VI — Higher Education. General tendencies _ 131 Surveys and legislative action _ 133 The reorganization of education in Vermont _ . _ 134 Survey of the University of Wisconsin _ 135 The survey of State-supported higher institutions in Washington _ 142 The North Dakota State board of regents _ 143 Other surveys ordered by State educational authorities _ 145 State-supported institutions of Iowa - 145 Inspections of higher institutions by the Bureau of Education _ 146 Legislation affecting higher educational institutions _ 147 The Nebraska initiative - 147 Entrance requirements - 148 Classification _ _ _ 151 Recognition of the junior colleges by the Association of Secondary Schools of the Southern States - 152 New associations and foundations _ , - - - 153 The Mayo foundation _ 153 The Association of Urban Universities _ 154 The Association of American Colleges _ 155 A college for teachers at the Johns Hopkins University _ 157 Academic freedom _ _ _ 157 The Lafayette case- - 158 The Utah case _ 161 The Nearing case - 165 Chapter VII — The Training op Teachers. Notable local events _ 169 Opening of Peabody College for Teachers - 169 Radical progress in Ohio - 171 Opening of University of Wisconsin High School _ 171 Normal school surveys in Wisconsin and Missouri _ 172 Contract renewed between Teachers College and Columbia University _ 175 General progress _ - _ 176 Increased professional requirements for teachers’ certificates _ 177 Increased facilities for practice teaching _ 179 Teacher training courses in high schools _ 182 Differentiated courses for primary and upper grade teachers _ 182 Advancing entrance requirements professionalize the normal schools _ 183 Generous appropriations for buildings _ 184 CONTENTS. V Chapter VIII — Medical Education. Page. Reductions In 10 years _ 186 Fewer but better physicians - 186 Forces which prompted improvement _ 188 The establishment of cellular pathology - 188 Germ origin of many diseases established - 188 Antiseptic surgery - 192 A new era in medicine - 192 Medicine now on a scientific basis - 193 Essentials of medical training - 193 The educational standard - 194 Progress of the past year - 195 Effects of higher standards on student enrollment - 195 Medical graduates in 1915 - 196 Fewer but no dearth of medical colleges _ 196 Further mergers an advantage - 197 Nonrecognition of medical colleges - 198 State requirements of preliminary education - 199 Conferences on medical education _ 199 Higher degrees in medicine - 205 Graduate medical instruction - 206 Rules for the classification of graduate medical schools _ 209 The joint conference - 210 Minimum expenses for maintenance of the first two years of an acceptable medical college _ 211 Minimum expenses for maintaining the clinical departments _ 212 Revised requirements for admission to medical schools - 213 Endowments for medical schools _ 217 Other gifts of the year to medical education _ 218 The Mayo foundation and the University of Minnesota _ 220 Chapter IX — Vocational Education. Present tendencies - l - - - 221 National aid for vocational education _ 224 State systems of vocational education _ 224 Massachusetts - 227 New York _ 227 Pennsylvania _ 231 Wisconsin _ _ _ 233 New Jersey - 235 Indiana _ i - . _ _ _ 237 California _ 238 Connecticut - 240 New Mexico - 241 Maine _ _ _ _ _ : _ 242 Washington _ 244 New work in State universities _ 245 Minnesota _ 245 Indiana _ 245 Wisconsin _ 246 California _ 247 Training teachers for vocational education _ 247 Activities of organizations interested in vocational education _ 249 National Society for the Promotion of Industrial Education _ 249 National Vocational Guidance Association _ a _ 251 Vocational Education Association of the Middle West _ _ = _ 252 National Education Association _ 252 The American Federation of Labor _ 253 National Association of Corporation Schools _ 255 National Association of Manufacturers _ , _ 257 Investigations and surveys _ 259 The Richmond industrial education survey _ 259 The Minneapolis vocational education survey _ 261 Survey of industries and mechanical operations in New Orleans _ 262 Other investigations _ 263 VI CONTENTS. Page. Vocational guidance - 263 Vocational education in the small city - 266 Achievements in typical centers - 268 New York, N. Y_ _ 268 Chicago, Ill _ — - 269 Pittsburgh, Pa _ 270 St. Louis, Mo - 271 New Haven, Conn - 271 Detroit, Mich - 273 Los Angeles, Cal - 274 Louisville, Ky - 274 Items of special interest - 275 Chapter X — Commercial Education. Importance of commercial education - 279 Essentials of commercial education - 283 Courses of study - 287 Scientific standards and tests - 291 Chapter XI — Agricultural Education. Agriculture in the elementary schools _ : _ 295 Agriculture in secondary schools - 298 Agricultural education at meetings of the year - 302 Agricultural education in other countries - 304 Educational work of the Department of Agriculture - 311 Educational work of the Office of Experiment Stations - 315 Chapter XII — Home Economics. Introduction _ 317 Government bulletins on home economics _ , _ 318 Home economics in State colleges and universities _ 322 State normal schools _ 324 Summer schools _ 326 State supervision - - 328 State courses of study - : _ 328 Textbooks for home economics teaching _ 330 Home economics in the public schools _ _ _ _ _ 330 Use of apartments or houses in public school teaching _ 332 Cafeterias as practice places for home-economics teaching _ 334 The rural school _ 335 Rural school luncheons and lessons in food preparation _ , - 336 Continuation schools _ 337 Home-economics education for colored students _ 340 Laws affecting home-economics instruction _ 341 Home-economics associations _ 342 Tendencies and developments in home economics _ ; _ 343 Chapter XIII. — Education for Social Work. Beginnings of social work _ _ _ 345 The curriculum _ 350 Recent progress _ 358 Chapter XIV. — Home Education. The problems _ 361 Home making promoted by the Government- _ 362 Home education in the Territories and dependencies _ ? _ 365 Home education promoted by organizations _ 368 Chapter XV. — Art Education. Present condition of art education in the United States _ 371 Professional art schools _ 371 Public schools _ 372 - Colleges and universities _ 374 Special events of the year _ 389 CONTENTS. VH Chapter XVI. — Kindergarten Education. Pago. Kindergarten conventions of the year - 391 Kindergarten courses in summer schools _ 395 The kindergarten and educational experimentation - 397 The kindergarten and the elementary school _ 399 Kindergarten training schools - 401 Kindergarten propaganda - 404 Legislation _ 405 Other items _ _ _ 406 Chapter XVII. — Educational Hygiene. Variety of agencies _ 408 Cooperation and health administration _ 410 Schoolhouse sanitation _ 413 Medical inspection of school children _ 416 Hygiene of the rural schools _ 423 Chapter XVIII. — School Surveys. Orange County, Va - 433 San Francisco, Cal _ 435 Rural and village schools, Colorado - 437 New Orleans, La _ 441 Covington, Macon, and Morgan Counties, Ala _ 442 Springfield, Ill _ 447 Blaine, Wash - 452 Chicago, Ill _ 453 South Bend, Ind _ 461 Upper peninsula, Mich _ 467 Bell, Collin, Fisher, Harris, and Nacogdoches Counties, Tex _ 469 Rabun, Clayton, Taliaferro, and Bullock Counties, Ga - 473 Richmond, Va _ 477 Seattle, Wash _ 478 Manual, domestic, and vocational training in the United States _ 479 Minneapolis (Minn.) business management _ 480 Ogden, Utah - 481 Hammond, Ind - - - 483 San Antonio, Tex - 484 The Dansville High School, New York _ 488 Oakland, Cal _ 489 Foreign surveys _ : - 490 “ Educational surveys ” _ 490 “A survey of school surveys ” _ 491 Chapter XIX. — Education op the Deaf. The training of teachers _ 493 Much reading of books _ 495 A constant language environment - 496 Better speech _ 498 Vocational training - 499 Pensions for teachers _ 500 Tests of efficiency and mentality _ 500 Chapter XX. — Education of the Blind. Progress of the day-school movement _ 503 Progress at the institution - 505 The blind and higher education _ 506 Classes for the conservation of vision _ 507 The prevention of blindness _ 507 Influence of providing work for the adult blind _ 508 Summer schools for adults _ 508 Home teaching _ 509 Embossed books and their circulation _ 509 The blind and museum extension - 510 Progress toward a uniform type - 510 VIII CONTENTS. Chapter XXI. — Library Activities. Page. Legislation _ 513 Public-library extension - 518 County-library systems - 519 State-wide use of university libraries - - - . - 523 Library service to immigrants - 527 Library exhibits at the Panama-Pacific Exposition - 531 Meetings of associations - 1 - 533 Recent books on library administration and technique - 535 Chapter XXII. — Educational Work op American Museums. Introduction - 539 Extension work of public museums of science - 540 Extension work of public museums of art - - - 546 College museums - 550 Museum work of secondary schools - 554 Museums of history - 554 United States National Museum - 555 New York State Museum - 555 Independence Hall, Philadelphia - 556 Conclusion _ 557 Chapter XXIII. — Educational Work op the Churches. Introduction - 559 Roman Catholic parish schools - 560 Lutheran parochial schools - 564 Presbyterian Church schools (northern) _ _ 567 Schools of the Presbyterian Church (southern) _ 569 Schools of the Baptist Church (North) _ 570 Schools of the Methodist Episcopal Church _ 574 Educational work in the Methodist Episcopal Church (South) _ 575 Schools of the Moravian Church - 576 Schools of the Congregational Church _ 577 Schools of the Reformed Church in America _ 578 Educational work of the Protestant Episcopal Church _ _ _ 579 Denominational schools for Indians _ I _ 579 Chapter XXIV. — Educational Work op the Young Men's Christian Association. The need and purpose _ 583 Educational activities - 584 Among different groups - 595 The educational secretary _ 597 The educatograph _ _ _ _ _ _ _ 598 Chapter XXV. — Educational Boards, Foundations, and Associations. Education boards and foundations - 603 General Education Board - 603 Carnegie Foundation for the Advancement of Teaching _ 605 Russell Sage Foundation - 607 John F. Slater fund - 608 The Jeanes fund - 610 Phelps-Stokes fund _ 610 Educational associations _ 611 National Education Association _ 611 International Congress on Education _ 611 American Institute of Instruction _ 615 National Association of School Accounting Officers _ 616 League of Teachers’ Associations _ 617 Association of American Law Schools _ 617 Society for the Promotion of Engineering Association _ _ _ 618 Catholic Education Association _ 619 American Association for the Advancement of Science — Section L _ 620 CONTENTS. IX Educational associations — Continued. Page. American School Hygiene Association - 620 Society of College Teachers of Education - 621 Association of History Teachers of the Middle States and Maryland _ 622 Association of Colleges and Secondary Schools of the Southern States _ 622 Central Association of Science and Mathematics Teachers _ 623 Conference of Academies and High Schools in Relation with the University of Chicago - 624 National Association of State Universities _ 625 Southern Association of College Women _ 626 Music Teachers’ National Association _ 626 National Commercial Teachers’ Federation Association _ 627 National Association of Dental Faculties _ 629 Lake Mohonk Conference _ 629 Religious Educational Association - 630 Conference on the Education of Backward Children - 633 Southern Conference for Education and Industry _ 633 Chapter XXVI. — Schools for the Natives of Alaska and for Indians. Education for the natives of Alaska - 635 The Alaska reindeer service - 638 Indian education during 1915 - 640 Chapter XXVII. — Education in Canada. Recent movements - 643 Current problems - 644 Religious instruction - 1 - - - - 646 University policies - 646 Chapter XXVIII. — Education in the Latin American States. Mexico - 649 Central America and Panama - - - 650 South America - - - 653 Introduction - 653 Brazil - 655 Argentina - — . - 657 Paraguay - 660 Uruguay - 660 Chile _ 664 Bolivia _ 664 Peru - 665 Ecuador _ ■ - 666 Colombia _ : - 666 Venezuela _ 66b Leading newspapers of South America _ 671 Chapter XXIX. — Education in Great Britain and Ireland. England _ 675 Evidences of progress _ 675 Industrial and scientific research - 677 Official report _ 1 _ 678 New demands in education _ 679 Scotland - 680 Medical inspection - - - 684 Ireland- - 687 Central authorities _ 687 Committee on investigation _ 687 Department of Agriculture and Technical Instruction-. _ . _ 688 System of agricultural and technical instruction - 688 Technical instruction - 689 Central institution _ 691 X CONTENTS. Chapter XXX. — Education in the Scandinavian Countries. Page. Introduction _ 693 Sweden _ 693 Primary education - 694 Secondary and higher education - 695 Norway _ 695 Distinction between rural and other schools - 695 Continuation and high schools - 697 Denmark _ 698 Special agencies of education - - 698 Welfare service _ 698 Chapter XXXI. — Significant Events in the Countries of Western and Central Europe. General conditions _ 701 Prance _ 701 Significant events _ 701 Switzerland _ 703 National exposition _ 703 Notable international conference _ 704 Education for colonial service - 705 Germany _ 709 Chapter XXXII. — Education in Southern and Southeastern Europe. Italy - 711 New commercial school at Milan _ 712 International prize contest _ 713 Illiteracy _ 714 National Association for Pedagogical Studies _ 715 Portugal _ 717 Spain - 718 Greece - 719 Chapter XXXIII. — Education in Russia. Administration _ 721 Statistical summary _ 722 Higher education _ 723 Technical education - 724 Appropriation for education _ 725 Work of the laboratory of experimental psychology _ 725 Special institutions _ 727 Chapter XXXIV. — Modern Education in British India and in China. British India _ 729 Extent and organization _ 729 Inception and progress of the system of modern education _ : _ 729 Recent events _ 730 Important reports _ 1 _ 731 " Proofs of success _ 732 Statistical summary _ 733 China - - - ; _ 733 General trend of efforts _ 733 Reports from Provinces _ 734 National education conference _ 736 Ministerial order _ 737 General policy of the minister of education _ 738 Schools for modern education _ 738 Detailed statistics for certain Provinces _ ’ _ 739 Universities under foreign auspices _ 746 Important pending measures _ 747 American activities in respect to the welfare of China _ 747 Chinese indemnity students _ 747 CONTENTS. XI Chapter XXXV. — System of Public Instruction in Japan. Page. Introduction _ 749 Administration - - _ _ 750 Elementary education - 751 Schools for special classes - 757 Training of teachers _ 758 Middle schools - 760 Higher (secondary) schools - 762 Professional and industrial education for girls - 763 Universities - 764 Technical education - 766 Auxiliary agencies - 767 Extension of the system to Chosen - 769 Art education _ 770 Expenditures - 771 REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF EDUCATION. Department of the Interior, Bureau of Education, IF ashing ton, October 15 , 1915. Sir: I have the honor to transmit herewith the manuscript for Volume I of the report of the Commissioner of Education for the fiscal year ended June 30, 1915. It has been found wholly impossible to complete the preparation of the material for Volume II by October 15, 1915, the time when, according to law (38 Stat. L., 886), it shall be submitted for publication. Inasmuch as it will never be possible to have the material of Volume II of this report ready for the printer before December 31, nor to pre¬ pare the material for Volume I with the necessary care and fullness of information much before that time, I respectfully recommend that the act referred to be so amended as to extend to that date the time within which the manuscript of this report may be transmitted to the Public Printer for publication. I also recommend that Congress be asked to pass a. special act authorizing the printing of Volume II of the present report at such time as it can be prepared, not later than February 15, 1916. The following statement will, I believe, show the need for this extension of time : For Volume II of this report original statistical information must be gathered from and with the cooperation of more than 20,000 dif¬ ferent agencies. The information includes comprehensive statistical accounts of more than 300,000 schools of all grades and kinds, public and private, rural and urban, in all parts of the United States and its possessions, with an enrollment of more than 22,000,000 children and youth and an annual income and expenditure of more than three-quarters of a billion of dollars. State and city systems of schools are reported by State and city officials in totals and not by individual schools, as are also systems of denominational and parochial schools. High schools, normal schools, colleges and universities, professional and technical schools, and many other institutions are reported sep¬ arately by their respective officers. No officer, either of an individual school or of a school system, can furnish the information required by this office until the data necessary for the complete report of that school or system have been received, tabulated, and totaled. Officers TTTT XIV EDUCATION REPORT, 1915. of many schools and colleges do not try to make up their reports until after the close of the summer vacation. The work of compiling statistics for systems of schools can not be begun until after reports from the constituent parts of the system have been received. Too often is it the case that the clerical force in the office of the superin¬ tendent of schools or of the board of education is not sufficient to enable the office to do its statistical work promptly. Education offices are almost always more deficient in clerical help than other public offices. In some cases the fiscal year ends with the middle or last of July or August, instead of with the last of June. This, of course, necessitates a corresponding delay in beginning the compilation of statistics. This bureau must depend for its information wholly upon the good will of officers of school systems and individual schools and other institutions and agencies of education. There is, I believe, nowhere any National or State law or any city ordinance or charter provision requiring any person to respond to the request of this bu¬ reau for information. The bureau has no money with which to pay for the labor required in putting the information for which it asks into the required form, which, because of lack of uniformity in methods of bookkeeping and accounting, is very often not the form required for the use of the State, city, or institution reporting. It has no statistical agent who can be sent to procure information when it is delayed or withheld. No penalty can be imposed either for delay or failure. I believe no similar task is required of any other bureau, department, or agent of the Federal Government. The delay of even a small per cent of the 20,000 unpaid voluntary correspondents of the bureau in filling out and returning the blanks and schedules on which the information is gathered for Volume II of this report causes a corresponding delay in the completion of this work by the statistical division of the bureau. After the blanks on which the ma¬ terial for this volume have been returned to this office they must be inspected, compared, corrected, compiled, and interpreted. Many of them must be returned for the insertion of items omitted or for the correction of items that have evidently been misunderstood or re¬ ported inaccurately. Much of the matter in Volume I of the report can not be completed until summaries of statistics for Volume II have been made. I feel sure that a careful consideration of these facts will convince Congress of the advisability of the amendment and of the special act recommended. I believe the Commissioner of Educa¬ tion has never been able to submit his report in form ready for the printer earlier than December 31, nor has it, I believe, ever been ready by this time except when special assistance was given this office by a detail of clerks from other bureaus of the Department of the Interior. commissioner's introduction. XV For many years the report of the Commissioner of Education has been submitted in two parts and published in two volumes. For the last three years the first volume of the report has included a more or less comprehensive interpretative survey of the progress of edu¬ cation in all its phases, both in this country and abroad. The dis¬ connected general studies which made up the body of this volume of the report in earlier years have been omitted, and the results of similar studies are now published separately as numbers of the bulletin of the bureau, about 50 a year, each number for distribution among such teachers and school officers as are especially interested in the subject treated. The purpose has been to bring together in the chap¬ ters of this first volume such an account of the growth of institutions of learning and of school systems, of the working of all the more important agencies of education, and of the development of educa¬ tional ideals and the progress of educational thought as will enable the reader to gain a knowledge of all that has been most worth while in the educational life of the world within the year for which the report is made, and to understand something, at least, of the trend of educational theory and practice. The difficulty of doing this thor¬ oughly and well is fully understood, but it is believed that the ideal is approached each year more nearly than the year before. The im¬ portance of having this done well will be more fully appreciated when it is remembered that this is the only attempt at such an annual survey of educational progress made anywhere in the world. No other Gov¬ ernment and no private agency publishes any similar volume. This is the one authoritative document, in so far as it is authoritative, on this subject for students of education in this and all other countries. Therefore, the greater the importance of its being well done. The second volume is a statistical report for the last preceding fiscal year of enrollment and attendance of pupils, of teachers, of salaries, of incomes and expenditures, of values of school properties, including buildings and equipment, and other items of interest about schools and other agencies of education in the United States and its pos¬ sessions. This is the only place in which such facts in regard to education are collected. It is, therefore, the source from which infor¬ mation is drawn for all other publications in which any such statistics are included, and upon which many thousands of executive officers and students of education in this country rely for all the data for their comparative studies. To the extent that the statistics in this volume are incomplete or inaccurate must all the studies based on them be defective. The importance of this is enhanced by the fact that a large part of the educational legislation of the country, and especially of legislation in regard to tax levies and appropriations for education, is based on or affected by deductions drawn from such XVI EDUCATION REPORT, 1915. studies. Policies of administration are frequently determined in the same way. While this report should be made as soon as possible after the close of the year for which it is made, it is still more important that suffi¬ cient time should be allowed that it may be as full and reliable as possible. A study of the chapters of the portion of the report submitted herewith and of certain other chapters which were not ready in time to be included in this report shows that within the year there has been in this country an increase in tendency toward democracy in education, toward giving to every child of whatever condition a full and equal opportunity with all other children for that degree and kind of education, that quantity and quality of education, which will develop in the fullest measure its manhood or womanhood, its human qualities, prepare it for the duties and responsibilities of democratic citizenship, for participation in civic and social life, and for making an honest living, contributing its part to the commonwealth, and serving humanity by some useful occupation, followed intelligently and skillfully with good will and strong purpose. In a larger de¬ gree than ever before are we beginning to understand that, next to the right to live, this is the most important right of every child. If democracy has any valuable and ultimate meaning it is equality of opportunity. But there can be no equality of opportunity Avithout equality of opportunity in education. If to any child this is denied and it is permitted to grow to manhood or womanhood without that education which prepares it for good li\dng, for the duties and respon¬ sibilities of citizenship, and for making an honest living by some intelligent, useful occupation, then there is nothing which individual or society can do, nothing which man or God can do, to make good the loss. More than ever before are we beginning to understand that material progress, social purity, civic righteousness, political stability and strength, and the possibilities of culture and the attainment of higher ideals, all depend on the right education of all the people. If any man or woman follows his or her trade or profession with less intelligence and skill than he or she might, the total amount of wealth produced is less than it might be. If any lack knowledge of fundamental principles of government and institutional life neces¬ sary for intelligent citizenship in our democracy, the civic and politi¬ cal life of city, State, and Nation is affected thereby. If the health, the culture, or the moral education of any has been neglected, all society and each of its members must suffer as a result. If any, through wrong education or the inculcation of false ideals, work at occupations for which they are not fitted or in which they may not serve themselves and society as well as they might in other ways, their own lives and the lives of us all are less full and satisfactory than commissioner's introduction. XVII they might otherwise be. We are all bound up in the sheaf of life together, and our interests from the lowest to the highest and from the highest to the lowest are inextricably interwoven. Therefore the liberal use of public funds for the support of schools and other agencies of education is more and more clearly recognized as good business, and careful thinking and planning for the fullest and best education of all the children of all the people as the highest duty of citizenship. The growth of this tendency toward equality of education within the year is shown by the larger interests in the care of the life and health of young children and a better type of home education ; in the reviving of interest in the kindergarten, especially for children for whom good home education is lacking; in increased appropriations for longer terms and better salaries for teachers, particularly in rural communities where school terms have been short and salaries of teachers have been small ; in the enactment of school attendance laws in some of the States which have not until now had such laws; in the adoption of the larger unit of administration of rural schools in several States: in the raising of standards of required preparation for teachers in some States and in the extension of the means of pre¬ paring teachers in normal schools, in departments of education in colleges, and especially in teacher-training classes in high schools; in the increased attendance in high schools; and in the differentia¬ tion of work and the adjustment of courses of study in schools of all grades to meet the needs of children of varying ability and the voca¬ tional life of the communities. Some progress has been made within the year in the reorganization of the 12 years of elementary and high schools on the basis of two equal periods of 6 years each. There is a better understanding of what college standards- should be, and col¬ leges are trying more and more to adjust themselves to these stand¬ ards. This is made easier by the constant improvement of the public and private high schools and especially of the public high schools. The elevation of the standards of professional schools is due largely to the demand for higher standards in professional life. This has been accelerated by several surveys of professional schools made by some of the great educational foundations. The demand for intelli¬ gent and comprehensive surveys of the equipment, administration, and work of individual colleges and schools and of State, county, and city systems of schools continues. The purpose of these surveys is not to find fault, but to make an intelligent accounting of the schools and their results to the people who support them and are served by them, and if possible to discover means of improving them and making them render a fuller measure of service. Within the year several very valuable surveys of this kind have been made, and more are now 12034° — ed 1915 — vol 1 - n XVIII EDUCATION REPORT, 1915. under way. The reports of these surveys already constitute a unique and valuable body of educational literature. The extension of our foreign commerce and particularly our closer commercial relations with Central and South American countries has brought a revival of interest in commercial education and in the study of the Spanish lan¬ guage. The great war in Europe and the events connected therewith have called attention to the need of preparation for defense against possible hostile invasion and created a new interest in military edu¬ cation. This war has affected materially the schools in the countries di¬ rectly engaged in it and in a smaller degree the schools of other European countries. The attendance at universities, colleges, and technical schools has been much smaller than in former years. Funds formerly available for education are now turned in other directions. Yet it is encouraging to note that in some of the countries at least the appropriations for public education are little, if any, less than for the years immediately preceding the beginning of the war. This shows the value which these countries attach to public education as an element of national strength. Within the year the work of this bureau has increased largely. Three new divisions have been added and some others strengthened. Because of the general interest in the organization of the bureau and the work which it understakes to do, I am including in this introduc¬ tion the paragraphs from the annual statement of the Commissioner of Education to the Secretary of the Interior which relate especially to this subject. The work of the bureau as a whole and of the several divisions for the year is set forth in detail in the body of the statement referred to, which can be had upon application to the bureau. FUNCTIONS AND ORGANIZATION OF THE BUREAU. The bureau has no administrative functions except those connected with the expenditure of the funds appropriated by the Federal Government for the maintenance of colleges of agriculture and mechanic arts in the several States and in Hawaii and Porto Rico, and those connected with the education, support, and medical relief of natives of Alaska. To the extent that funds appropriated for its use will permit, it performs higher and more important functions than could be performed by any administrative Federal education office. Definitely it attempts to do the following things : (1) To serve as a clearing house for accurate and comprehensive informa¬ tion in respect to all educational agencies and all forms of education in the United States and all foreign countries, and to disseminate this information among school officers, teachers, students of education, and all others directly interested in any form of educational activity. To this end it publishes an annual report in two volumes, the first containing an interpretative survey of the progress of education within the year in the United States and all other countries, the second containing statistics of education in the United States ; studies specific problems of education, school legislation, State and city school systems, colleges and universities, libraries, and all other agencies of education COMMISSIONER S INTRODUCTION. XIX in the United States and elsewhere, and publishes the results in printed bul¬ letins, multigraphed letters, and letters to school journals and the public press ; carries on an extensive correspondence with school officers, teachers, and others, and sends its experts to speak at meetings of National, State and local associa¬ tions. (2) To serve as a clearing house for the best opinions on school organiza¬ tion and administration, courses of study, methods of teaching, and many other matters connected with popular education. For each of these subjects there are a few men and women in the United States and elsewhere whose opinions, because of their greater knowledge of the subject, are most valuable. This bureau tries to find for each subject who these persons are and to make lists of expert advisers whom it may consult and to whom it may refer others. It also undertakes, after correspondence and personal conference with these experts, to formulate the consensus of expert opinion. In carrying on this part of its work the bureau’s experts attend and participate in congresses and conferences of educators. The commissioner also calls special conferences at the office of the bureau in Washington and elsewhere. Last year he called nine of these conferences — eight national and one sectional. (3) To advise legislatures, school officers, teachers, and others engaged in promoting and directing education. Its experts, upon request, address legisla¬ tures, meet with legislative committees and commissions, with State, county, and city school boards, with boards of trustees and faculties of normal schools, colleges, and universities, with library commissions, and with other similar bodies. It makes or directs surveys of State, county, and city school systems, and of individual schools or groups of schools, and reports its findings, together with constructive suggestions, to the proper officials. Within the year it has been engaged in nine such surveys, most of which are not yet completed, and has promised to make other similar surveys within the present fiscal year. In response to thousands of letters asking advice on specific subjects, the bureau makes hundreds of studies in its library and elsewhere and gives the results of these studies in individual and circular letters. (4) To promote on its own initiative and to assist education officers and the people of the several States and local communities in promoting what it believes to be necessary and desirable tendencies in education and in the organization of educational agencies, to the end that there may be full and equal opportunity of education for all. Within the year definite work has been done for the lengthening of school terms in rural communities; for the better preparation of teachers for rural schools : for more adequate salaries for teachers in schools of all kinds and grades ; for better attendance laws in some States and for the better enforcement of attendance laws in all States ; for readjusting courses of study in rural schools ; for working out a better method of teaching children to read than is now in common use and in promulgating this method ; in working out plans for teaching English in rural schools ; in promoting education in agri¬ culture, trades, and industries, and for home making; in the establishment of kindergartens ; in the consolidation of rural schools and in making homes for teachers and school farms parts of the equipment of rural schools ; in making sentiment for the promotion of teachers in graded schools from grade to grade with the children, so as to make possible a larger degree of continuity in the school work of the children ; in the promotion of school and home gardening in cities, towns, suburban communities, and manufacturing villages ; toward reor¬ ganization of the 12 years of elementary and secondary schooling into 6 years of elementary and 6 years of high school — the so-called six-and-six plan — instead of the present plan of 8 years of elementary school and 4 years of high school ; toward more flexible courses in the high schools and their more perfect adaptation EDUCATION REPORT, 1915. to all classes of children ; toward helping parents in the early education of their children in the home and in bringing the school and the home closer together ; in encouraging boys and girls to continue their education through systematic read¬ ing after leaving school ; toward the establishment of county libraries, the open¬ ing of city libraries to country people, and the establishment of school libraries ; for better schoolhouses and the care of the health of school children. This work is done through printed bulletins, multigraphed and press letters, correspondence, consultation with teachers and education officers, and addresses at meetings of associations, commercial bodies, and women’s clubs, and mass meetings of citizens. (5) To determine standards of measurement in education and to conduct and direct experiments in education, to the end that we may finally have a larger body of definite scientific knowledge about education and educational processes and methods. In the first of these the bureau had the assistance during the year of a group of 15 special collaborators working under the direction of Dr. George D. Strayer, of Teachers College, Columbia University. In the second it has been able to do very little, and it can not do much until there are special appropri¬ ations for experiments in education under scientific control. The bureau is now organized under the following divisions : Office of the chief clerk, the Alaska division, mails and files, library, statistical, editorial, higher education, school administration, industrial education and education for home making, agricultural education, rural schools, civic education, education of immigrants, education of negroes, school and home gardening, kindergarten, school sanitation and hygiene, and home education. The division of industrial education and education for home making, with three specialists ; the division of school and home gardening, with two specialists and one assistant specialist ; and the division of agricultural education, with one specialist, have been created within the year. The division of rural schools has lost one specialist and has gained two assistant specialists. The division of school administration has increased by the addition of one specialist. These additions and some others were made possible by an additional appropriation amounting to $30,600, which became available at the beginning of the fiscal year. The Alaska division has offices in Washington, Seattle, and Nome. The kin¬ dergarten division has offices in Washington and New York. The home education division has offices in Washington and Philadelphia. The division of school sanitation and hygiene has offices in Washington and Nashville, Tenn. All other divisions have offices only in Washington. There are substations under desig¬ nated directors at Columbia University, University of Chicago, George Peabody College for Teachers, and Leland Stanford Junior University. All of which is respectfully submitted. P. P. Claxton, C ommissioner. The Secretary of the Interior. CHAPTER I. EDUCATIONAL LEGISLATION IN 1915.1 By Wiliam R. Hood. Division of School Administration. Contents. — Administrative control — The county unit — Code commissions — Taxation — Consolidation of districts — High schools — Compulsory attendance — Health provi¬ sions — The school term — The training of teachers — Teachers’ certificates — Teachers’ salaries — Teachers’ pensions — Higher education — Libraries — Manual and industrial training — Kindergartens — Textbooks — The employment of children. The legislatures of 43 States were in session in 1915 — all except those of Kentucky, Louisiana, Maryland, Mississippi, and Virginia, which meet in even-numbered years. While a large mass of educa¬ tional legislation was enacted, the year was not especially conspicu¬ ous for departures from the usual course. The year was, however, notable for numerous constructive measures. Some of the more important subjects with which lawmakers concerned themselves were administrative control, health provisions, high schools, teacher train¬ ing, higher education, public-school support, compulsory attendance, the school term, libraries, and the curriculum in general. Legisla¬ tion only less vital to the public-school system was enacted on such subjects as child labor, social centers, mothers’ pensions, playgrounds, and the like. “Movements” for the consolidation of rural schools, vocational training, kindergartens, free textbooks, and the retire¬ ment of superannuated teachers went on apace. No entire new school code was enacted. ADMINISTRATIVE CONTROL. Changes in administrative control were made chiefly in connection with State boards of education and county boards or officers. In State school administration the trend is toward centralizing control in a board or body of persons exercising large powers and wide dis¬ cretion. It is also worthy of notice that ex officio boards are giving place to a different type: The older State board, composed of gov¬ ernor, superintendent of public instruction, and attorney general, 1 Based on volumes of official session laws from 26 States ; on summaries or other information from the remaining 17. 12034°— ed 1915— vol 1 - •! 2 EDUCATION REPORT, 1915. for example, is disappearing, and a body composed of appointive or elective members without regard to the holding of other State offices or educational positions is growing in popularity with legislators. Laws making more or less important changes affecting State boards were enacted in six States. The Vermont act of 1915 in¬ creased the powers and duties of the State board of education. As was formerly the case, the board is entirely appointive, the governor being authorized to designate its members. The board is to appoint a commissioner of education, approve the appointment of as many State supervisors as it may deem necessary, appoint superintendents of towns forming unions for the purpose of supervision, and have general control of the public-school system, including the certifica¬ tion of teachers and the adoption of a course of study. The commis¬ sioner of education, who may be appointed for an indefinite period, displaces the “ superintendent of education,” who was formerly ap¬ pointed by the State board for a term of three years. Under the 1915 act of Tennessee the governor and superintendent of public instruction were dropped from the membership of the State board of education and all members were made appointive. The old law provided for a membership of eight, composed of the gov¬ ernor and superintendent, ex officio, and six members appointed by the governor. The new law provides for the appointment of nine members for terms of six years. Terms are made to overlap, three members being appointed every two years. The constitution recog¬ nizes three “ grand divisions ” of the State — East Tennessee, Middle Tennessee, and West Tennessee; three members of the board of education must now be chosen from each of these grand divisions. Members serve without pay, but are allowed necessary expenses when attending meetings or otherwise discharging their official duties. In addition to other powers conferred by law, the board is directed to appoint a superintendent of public instruction to assume the duties of the office at the expiration of the term of the present in¬ cumbent. His salary and tenure are to be fixed by the board. The State board of education created by the Legislature of Wis¬ consin consists of the governor, secretary of State, superintendent of public instruction, one member appointed by the regents of the university, and one appointed by the regents of the State normal schools. To this board is given the exclusive management of all financial affairs of the educational activities of the State. North Dakota’s act of 1915 created a board of regents of State educational institutions. It is composed of five members appointed by the governor with the consent of the senate. The term of mem¬ bers is to be six years, and the compensation $7 per day each, includ¬ ing traveling expenses. This board succeeds to all the powers and EDUCATIONAL LEGISLATION. 3 duties of the normal school board and the boards of trustees of other State educational institutions. In Utah the State board of education, which formerly consisted of the State superintendent, the presidents of the university and the agricultural college and two appointive members, was increased to nine in number; there are six appointive members under the new act. The terms of members of the New Mexico board were increased and their per diem was raised from $2.50 to $5 each. THE COUNTY UNIT. The system of public school administration and support in most States is imperfect, and is often unjust to some communities. This statement is probably more true of support than of administration. For example: In 1913-14 two contiguous districts in Pennsylvania levied for school purposes 5 mills and 12 mills, respectively. In North Carolina a special tax district in a rural community was formed a few years ago in such a way that one of its boundaries ran parallel with and included a railroad for about 3 miles, thus taking away from the district on the other side of the railroad the possi¬ bility of taxing any part of the only corporation in either of the two communities. One of the less wealthy counties in Alabama derives about 65 per cent of its revenues from corporations, and as a matter of course these corporations are not evenly distributed throughout the county. If public schools in that county were sup¬ ported chiefly by district taxation it is clear that the schools of some districts would fare much better than those of others. To correct the conditions which these examples illustrate, and which are by no means confined to the States mentioned, many experts advocate a unit of administration and support larger than the school district. They argue that a larger unit, as for example the county, will effect a more nearly equal distribution of both the burdens and the oppor¬ tunities of public education. Hence the “ county unit ” was proposed for about 10 States at recent sessions of their legislatures, and the proposal met with favor in several cases. What appears to be the most sweeping law of this character enacted in 1915 was that of Alabama. In that State the county board of edu¬ cation was formerly composed of the county superintendent, ex officio, and four members elected by the chairmen of the several district boards. Its powers were limited to the general supervision of public schools outside of independent districts and to service in an advisory capacity to the county superintendent, but it was authorized to over¬ rule the actions of district boards. The act of 1915 created a board of five members to be elected by the qualified electors of the county. 4 EDUCATION REPORT, 1915. The chief powers conferred upon this board are (1) to elect a county superintendent of education and fix his salary; (2) to elect a county treasurer of public-school funds; (3) to fill vacancies in its own mem¬ bership for unexpired terms ; (4) to select assistant superintendents, supervisors, and necessary office force; (5) to select teachers upon nomination of the county superintendent and fix their salaries; (6) to erect, repair, and furnish schoolhouses, and determine all incidental expenses; (T) to fix the boundaries of school districts and locate schools;. (8) to consolidate schools and provide for the transportation of pupils; (9) to arrange for the transfer of pupils when advisable; (10) to control public school funds; (11) to appoint in each district one or more, but not exceeding three, persons whose duty shall be to care for school property, look after the general interests of the school, and report to the county superintendent; (12) to enforce the compul¬ sory-attendance law. From the duties enumerated here it will be seen that the county board as created by the legislature of 1915 will have full control of the public schools; the district board as it formerly existed is practically eliminated. Its authority over school property, the selection of a teacher and the conduct of the business of the dis¬ trict generally is taken away and centralized in the county board. In¬ corporated cities and towns are exempt from the provisions of the act, but another enactment providing for the administration of schools in municipalities of from 2,000 to 6,000 population places towns of less than 2,000 under the control of county boards of education. The Texas act of 1915 makes fewer radical changes than the Ala¬ bama law. Under an act of 1911 a board of county school trustees had to do mainly with high schools and graded schools in rural com¬ munities. The immediate control of these schools, however, remained vested in the district trustees. The county trustees were authorized to classify high and elementary schools and to arrange school dis¬ tricts, the chief purpose of the law being to provide high-school facil¬ ities, at least through the tenth grade, for rural communities. The act of 1915 extends the control of the board to the “ public free schools ” of the county, but independent districts having 150 or more children of school age are not affected. The law is one of that kind which is susceptible to more than one construction, but it is fairly clear that district boards will remain intact and that a measure of control of the common schools and the selection of the teaching staff for such schools will still be in the hands of the district board. The consolidation of two or more districts may be effected by petition of a majority of the qualified voters in each district concerned in the transaction. The county board acting in conjunction with the county superintendent is to apportion school funds, except to independent districts having a school population of 150 or more. EDUCATIONAL LEGISLATION. 5 The “ county-unit ” system of administration for rural communi¬ ties has strong points in its favor, but one who studies the subject should differentiate public school support from public school con¬ trol. The cases already alluded to in Pennsylvania, North Carolina, and Alabama, which might be multiplied many times if all American systems of school support were subjected to close scrutiny, show the need of a more equitable distribution of the burden of support, but, from the standpoint of administration, they do not prove that the local district should be practically abolished. Some of the arguments against the complete submergence of the district are (1) that it breaks up the proper balance which should obtain among the civil units composing the State, namely, the State, the county, and the local district; (2) that it results from the confusion of public school support with public school control; (3) that it will tend to stifle local initiative and enterprise; (4) that in a larger unit opportunity is offered for rivalry among constituent communities and for favoritism to those commimities in which members of the governing board are most interested; (5) that the interest and influence of dozens of men and women in each county, who might under the district system be vitally connected with the public schools as school-board members, are lost or dissipated by reason of the cutting off of such persons from direct connection with the schools. It would seem that any plan contemplating a larger unit than the district should be so devised as to leave to the district a measure of local autonomy. The control of the school plant and authority to employ a more efficient teaching force or to extend the term beyond that provided by State and county funds could be vested in the district, and at the same time a good county system could be maintained. Other States which enacted laws affecting county organization generally adopted some modified form of the 44 county unit ” or revised their statutes in minor particulars. Utah, however, extended the provisions of its law creating county school districts to all coun¬ ties and made the act mandatory, except that in counties having 5,000 school population or more, which were already divided into two or more high-school districts, these high-school districts were constituted county school districts. Formerly any county having a school population of 2,000 or more was authorized to form a 44 coimty school' district of the first class.” Under the 1915 act of Nebraska any county of less than 7,000 population was authorized to organize a county school district; the adoption of the provisions of the act was left to local option. Ten¬ nessee extended to county boards of education and to county high- school boards the right of eminent domain for the purpose of acquir¬ ing land for school sites. In North Carolina the compensation per 6 EDUCATION REPORT, 1915. diem of members of the county board was increased from $2 to $3 each. Three States — Ohio, Wisconsin, and Oregon — receded somewhat from positions formerly taken with respect to county administration or supervision. The 1915 act of Ohio amended the code sections which created the county board of education by giving the qualified electors a voice in the formation of districts and the location of schools. Under the older law the county board was authorized, with the mutual consent of district boards interested, to transfer the whole or a part of a district not exempt from the provisions of the act to another such district. Now such a transfer can be made only after due notice is given, and can not be made at all if a majority of the qualified electors of the district file a written remonstrance. In arranging schools in districts subject to the provisions of the act, the county board may likewise be stopped by written remonstrance of a majority of the electors. Chapter 751 of the Wisconsin acts of 1913 created a county board of education of five members to bo elected by the qualified voters and conferred upon it power to appoint one or more assistant county superintendents, a clerk, and a board of examiners for common- school diplomas; to form, alter, or consolidate school districts; and to fix the salaries of the county superintendent, assistant, and clerk. Chapter 531 of the acts of 1915 repealed this enactment and pro¬ vided for each “ county superintendent district ” a committee on common schools to consist of three persons chosen by the county board of supervisors. This committee is authorized to hear and de¬ termine appeals from the action of town boards, village boards of trustees, or city councils in the matter of creating, dissolving, or con¬ solidating school districts, but no consolidation may be effected if a majority of those voting at an election oppose it. The committee is directed to appoint, on nomination of the county superintendent, at least one supervising teacher to assist the superintendent in the super¬ vision of schools. In a county superintendent district having more than 125 schools the committee may appoint an additional supervis¬ ing teacher. The county superintendent is authorized to employ examiners for common-school diplomas. Neither the act of 1913 nor that of 1915 applied to cities having independent systems of schools. By an act of the Oregon Legislature of 1911 (ch. 79) there was created in every county having more than 60 schools a “ county edu¬ cational board,” whose duty it was to divide the county into super¬ visory districts comprising not fewer than 20 nor more than 60 school districts each and to employ a supervisor for each district so formed, except for one which was to be under the county superin¬ tendent. School districts which provided for supervision within themselves were exempted. The act of 1915 amends this law by EDUCATIONAL LEGISLATION. 7 directing the county educational board, on petition of a majority of the district directors of any county, to dismiss supervisors employed by them. The county superintendent is directed thereafter to dis¬ solve the educational board. CODE COMMISSIONS. The recognition of the need of occasionally codifying all general State laws and bringing them together in a form having legislative sanction is universal, but the prevalent method of making codes and then adding numerous amendments at each session of the legislature through a period of years is hardly satisfactory for the purposes of the school administrator. Pamphlet “ school laws,” published by State superintendents, who, of course, have no authority to amend them, are often found to contain inconsistencies and sometimes con¬ tradictions. The urgent need of enacting in most States complete “ school codes ” as single statutes is increasingly apparent, for where a single statute is made to cover the whole field of public education and is enacted with due deliberation it can be made comprehensive, clear-cut, and free from inconsistencies. From time to time one State or another has created a school-code commission and has directed it to make a survey of educational conditions and report to the gov¬ ernor or to the next legislature. The case of Pennsylvania’s commis¬ sion and resultant school code of 1911 is now well known. In 1913 three States created commissions to investigate school conditions and report their findings. In 1915 three others followed their example. The State of Washington has an excellent school system and a commendable body of school laws, but it appears not yet satisfied with its achievements. The legislature of 1915 created a commis¬ sion to make an educational survey of the State and to report, with recommendations, on or before April 30, 1916. Higher institutions, as well as all public-school activities, are to come within the scope of the investigation. The commission is composed of six members — three from the State senate and three from the house of representa¬ tives, who are named in the act. The commission provided for in the Utah act differs from the Washington commission in that it is to be composed of the State superintendent of public instruction, the attorney general, and three members appointed by the governor. This commission is to investi¬ gate educational conditions and to report, with recommendations, including an educational bill, on or before September 1, 1916. The Wyoming act provides for a code commission to be composed of the State superintendent and four other members appointed by the gov¬ ernor. It is directed to report a school code to the governor and the next session of the legislature. 8 EDUCATION DEPORT, 1915. TAXATION. Two distinct tendencies are noticeable in the 1915 enactments re¬ garding taxation for school purposes: (1) An increase of the maxi¬ mum number of mills on the dollar that may be levied, and (2) an inclination to make the larger units, State and county, bear more of the burden. Minnesota increased from 9 to 10J mills the total levy that may be made for schools in cities of 50,000 population or more. In cities of 20,000 to 50,000 the maximum was raised from 11 to 13 mills; it was raised from 9 to 15 mills in cities of 10,000 to 20,000. West Virginia increased the maximum rates of district school levies for building and general maintenance funds from 12J cents and 25 cents on the $100 to 15 and 30 cents respectively. In Iowa the largest amount that might be levied in consolidated districts under the old law was $32 per child of school age. The 1915 act increased this amount to $50 per child. Where an approved high-school course is maintained, $60 may now be levied. A school district in Kansas was formerly permitted to levy as much as 3^ mills ; now 4J mills may be levied, and a city of the third class maintaining an accredited high school may levy 6. North Dakota also raised its maximum rates of district taxes. South Dakota, Idaho, Montana, Utah, Nevada, and Oregon made less noteworthy changes in their tax laws. In some of these States, as Idaho and Utah, reductions of maximum rates were made, but the new schedules would appear to be sufficient to produce ample funds. Four States — Alabama, Texas, New Mexico, and North Dakota — enacted laws looking toward the raising of more school funds by counties. In the opinion of many school men this indicates a whole¬ some tendency. As has already been indicated in this chapter, there are valid arguments for a plan under which more school revenue may be derived from State and county sources. Such a plan would distribute more equitably the burdens of public school support; it is at least as much the business of the State and the county as it is of the district to provide public education. But they are not, as such, contributing equal parts with the district. Of the $507,227,455 re¬ ceived for public school purposes in the school year 1912-13, only $78,375,830, or 15.5 per cent, was received from State tax and appro¬ priations. If the States, as such, had contributed twice as much, their contributions would have been more in proportion to their responsibility. The amendment to the constitution which was proposed by the recent session of the Alabama Legislature looks toward an equal dis¬ tribution of school burdens among the three civil units — State, county, and district. This amendment, if ratified by the voters of the State, will authorize a county school tax of not exceeding 30 cents EDUCATIONAL LEGISLATION. 9 on the $100 in addition to that now permitted. A district tax of not exceeding 30 cents on the $100 is also provided for, but no dis¬ trict may levy a tax until the county tax reaches 30 cents. A State tax of 30 cents and a county rate of 10 cents are now provided. It will be seen that when a county once votes the full 30 cents allowed under the amendment, any district therein may thereafter vote 30 cents and may thus have available a 90-cent school revenue — one- third from the State, one-third from the county, and one-third from within its own limits. The Legislature of Texas also proposed a constitutional amend¬ ment. This proposal includes a new county tax of not exceeding 50 cents on the $100, which may be voted by the qualified electors. The maximum district tax is increased from 50 cents to $1 on the $100. The State tax of not exceeding 20 cents remains the same. There appeared to be no necessity for raising this rate, since the income from permanent school funds and school lands amounts to approximately $2,500,000 a year and is constantly increasing. In New Mexico the old law provided for a maximum county tax of 3 mills on the dollar and a district tax of not exceeding 15 mills. The 1915 act provides for a county tax of not exceeding 18 mills for all schools, municipal and rural. This act also directs that the State current school fund be apportioned to counties on the basis of the school census. Formerly one-half of this fund was set aside to aid weak districts. The North Dakota act of 1915 provided for a county tax of 1 mill on the dollar. If voted by a majority of those voting at an election, the county commissioners will be required to levy the 1-mill tax. CONSOLIDATION OF DISTRICTS. The consolidation of rural districts for the purpose of providing graded or semi graded schools received attention from a number of legislatures in 1915. Some of the more important enactments wert: those of Minnesota, Wisconsin, Ohio, West Virginia, Rhode Island, Delaware, Idaho, Oklahoma, and Nevada. This subject has already been mentioned in this chapter under the head of the “ county unit.” The Minnesota act reduces from 12 to 10 the minimum number of sections of land which may compose a consolidated district if it contains an incorporated viRage and has property valuation of be¬ tween $200,000 and $1,000,000. The majority of the votes cast in the proposed district determines the matter of consolidation, but a rural district may be annexed to an incorporated village containing a State high, graded, or semigraded school by a majority vote of the district and the approval of the village board. Consolidated districts are classified as class A when they maintain school at least i 10 EDUCATION REPORT, 1915. eight months, with four or more departments. Class B must main¬ tain two or more departments. An approved consolidated school must have an industrial department, library, and suitable equip¬ ment. The State superintendent of education is authorized to pre¬ scribe the qualifications of the principal and assistants. State aid is provided as follows : Class A districts, $500 ; class B, $250 ; an amount necessary to pay for the transportation of pupils. The State may also aid in erecting a building, but amount allowed can not exceed $2,000, or 25 per cent of the cost. The Ohio consolidation act of 1915 is probably unique. It author¬ izes districts furnishing free transportation to public-school pupils to provide “ depots ” from which to gather children and take them to school. The depots are required to be so constructed as to be com¬ fortable, and they must not be more than 1^ miles from the home of any child for whom transportation is provided. The new Rhode Island act empowers the town school committee, with the approval of the State commissioner of public schools, to unite any school with another. The older act authorized the union with another school of any school not having an average “ number belonging” of 12. The committee, which was formerly permitted , is now required , to provide transportation for pupils “ who reside so far from from any public school as to make their regular attendance impracticable.” In Delaware the powers of the county school committee relative to the alteration of school districts were by the act of 1915 trans¬ ferred to the State board of education. Chapter 371 of the Wisconsin acts adds a new section to the code and repeals or amends other sections. It provides that if two or more districts are consolidated by vote of the qualified electors and an approved school building is provided. State aid in erecting such building may be granted to the extent of $1,000. It also provides that the electors in consolidated rural districts must arrange for the transportation of all children residing more than 2 miles from the schoolhouse. In West Virginia school boards were given larger powers in con¬ solidating schools, building graded schools, and transporting pupils. The Legislature of Idaho provided that, on petition of a majority of the heads of families residing in a school district, the county com¬ missioners must call an election to determine the question of annex¬ ing the district to an independent district. A majority vote in each district concerned is necessary to effect the annexation. The act of Oklahoma permits independent districts having an area, population, and assessed valuation equal to that required of consolidated dis¬ tricts to provide transportation of pupils. The same act also permits the transportation of all pupils under 10 years of age in consolidated EDUCATIONAL LEGISLATIO 11 districts. The new Nevada law authorizes the county commissioners to consolidate districts on petition of a majority of the voters in each district affected. Another act of that State authorizes the formation of not exceeding six districts into an “ industrial school union ” for the purpose of providing manual training and the domestic arts. Iowa, Missouri, Nebraska, North Dakota, South Dakota, Washington, and a few other States enacted more or less important laws relating to the consolidation of districts. HIGH SCHOOLS. So many laws of 1915 had to do with secondary education that only a few of the more important enactments can be mentioned here. A Kansas act provides that the legal electors in territory compris¬ ing not less than 16 square miles may form a rural high-school dis¬ trict. An incorporated city or town may under this act be included in the district by a majority vote of both the rural community and the city or town. The older act did not apply to counties having a population of less than 10,000. Another act of this State authorizes the establishment of county high schools in counties having 2,000 population or more ; the older law required 6,000 or more. Nebraska provided for the consolidation, or union, of districts for high-school purposes and increased by $15,000 annually the appropriation for agriculture in secondary schools. In counties of Montana which do not maintain county high schools, a tax of 3 mills may, under the 1915 law, be levied for the maintenance of accredited district schools of secondary grade, and all eligible pupils of the county may attend. Similarly a tax of 10 cents on the $100 was provided for in Nevada, and counties having county high schools were authorized to estab¬ lish branches of such schools. A 1915 act of California equalizes high-school taxation by making all property in a county in which a high school is established contribute a reasonable share of support; the act reduces the tax in high-school districts and raises it in terri¬ tory outside of such districts, where only tax to pay tuition has hitherto been levied. The Wyoming Legislature authorized an addi¬ tional tax of 2 mills for secondary school purposes in districts main¬ taining a four-year course. In North Carolina the minimum amount of State aid was reduced from $250 to $200 for each approved rural high school, and the maximum amount was increased from $500 to $600. Since State aid in that State is conditioned on the amount raised by the local community, this act will have the effect of encour¬ aging the establishment of more high schools. Another form of legislation in 1915 was the provision in some States for the payment of tuition fees of high-school pupils not re¬ siding in high-school districts or in counties maintaining high schools. 12 EDUCATION REPORT, 1915. The Oregon act provides for a county tax to pay such fees. In Illi¬ nois the county superintendent is now directed to set aside the amount necessary for this purpose before distributing the State fund to the districts of his county. The 1915 act of Idaho provides that any district not maintaining a full four-year course shall pay the tuition of a resident pupil who has completed the course given in the district and who desires to attend high school elsewhere. The Legis¬ lature of West Virginia enacted a similar law. In Kansas provision was made for submitting to the qualified electors the question of levying a county tax for paying high-school tuition fees. The junior high-school movement received notable impetus in 1915. In California “ intermediate schools,” more generally known in other parts of the country as junior high schools, were legalized. Small communities and union high-school districts may now estab¬ lish such schools. Elementary school districts are authorized to pay the tuition fees of resident seventh and eighth grade pupils who at¬ tend intermediate schools in other districts. The Oklahoma act pro¬ vides for the formation of union graded districts for the purpose of maintaining schools offering grades above the sixth and grants State aid for building purposes. The Michigan act defines a high school as a graded school of 12 grades with at least three teachers devoting their entire time to grades above the sixth. The older law required at least two teachers for grades above the eighth. A graded school district having one teacher for the eighth, ninth, and tenth grades is not now required to pay high-school tuition fees elsewhere for high- school work of the ninth and tenth grades. COMPULSORY ATTENDANCE. The year 1915 was a notable year for the cause of compulsory school attendance. Four States — South Carolina, Florida, Alabama, and Texas — which did not have laws on the subject, enacted laws at the last sessions of their legislatures. This new extension of the com¬ pulsory attendance area carries required attendance at school into the section where it has hitherto met the most stubborn resistance; the area now practically includes the entire United States, Georgia 1 and Mississippi alone remaining without laws on the subject. The 1915 act of South Carolina is a local option law. Upon peti¬ tion of a majority of the qualified electors of a district or “ aggrega¬ tion of districts,” the coimty board of education is required to declare the law in effect in such district or districts, or, on petition of one- fourth of the electors, an election must be held to determine the mat¬ ter. All children between the ages of 8 and 14 who are physically able and who reside within 2J miles of school are required to attend 1 The legislature of Georgia convened in extra session in Nov., 1915, but at the time this chapter was written no attendance law had been enacted. EDUCATIONAL LEGISLATION. 13 for the full term, or at least for four months. Children between the ages of 14 and 16 are required to attend unless lawfully employed or if they can not read and write simple English sentences. The act of Florida, like that of South Carolina, is put into effect in a county or district by vote of the people. When the provisions of the act are adopted by vote of the qualified electors of a county or district, children between 8 and 14 residing therein are required to attend school at least 80 days, but a three-fifths’ vote of the electors is necessary to adopt the provisions of the act. In both South Caro¬ lina and Florida attendance at approved private or parochial schools is accepted. Other exemptions usually found in attendance laws are made. The new acts of Alabama and Texas are mandatory for counties and districts and are State wide in their application. Supt. W. F. Feagin, of Alabama, thus summarizes the act of that State : This bill, which does not become effective until October 1, 1917, provides for compulsory education of a mild type. The attendance period is 80 days in length, though the county board of education has the authority to decrease it to 60 days for any particular school. The compulsory period begins at the opening of the school in the fall, unless the county board of education decides upon some other date, and the compulsory ages are from 8 to 15 years, inclusive. Certain children are excepted, namely, those who have finished the seven ele¬ mentary grades; those living 2| miles or more from the nearest school, unless transportation is provided ; those physically or mentally incapacitated : those unable to attend school on account of poverty ; those attending private and parochial schools. Attendance officers are provided to investigate cases of non- attendance referred to them by the teachers, or by the superintendent, or by the board. Children who become habitual truants may be committed to State institutions for juvenile offenders, and parents and other parties violating this law may be fined or imprisoned. In Texas children between 8 and 14 years old will be required to attend 60 days in 1916-17, 80 days in 1917-18, and 100 days in each year thereafter. Exemptions are, (1) children attending private schools or receiving approved private instruction; (2) those procur¬ ing physicians’ certificates to the effect that their attendance at school is inadvisable; (3) deaf, blind, and feeble-minded children when adequate provision is not made for their education by the dis¬ trict; (4) those living 2-| miles or more from school, unless transpor¬ tation is provided; (5) those whose services are needed for the sup¬ port of the family, if the}- are over 12 years of age and have com¬ pleted the work of the fourth grade. More or less important changes were made in the laws of several States already having attendance requirements. California provided for assistant attendance officers to be employed on the basis of the number of pupils in average attendance. Massachusetts now requires the superintendent or other person in charge of a public or private 14 EDUCATION REPORT, 1915. school to issue “ tranfer cards” for pupils changing their residence. Connecticut provided for additional attendance officers. In North Carolina the duty of taking the school census was transferred from the attendance officer to the school committee. Another act of that State’s legislature authorized the county board of education, or the school board in any city or town of over 2,000 population, to extend the compulsory attendance period from the age of 12 years to the age of 13 or 14 years. South Dakota raised the maximum age from 14 to 16 years. In that State after the first 6 grades are completed the school board may reduce the time required to 16 continuous weeks until the 8 grades are completed or until the age of 16 is reached. Wisconsin now requires minors between 14 and 16 who are work¬ ing under a permit to attend an industrial continuation or commer¬ cial day school not less than 5 hours per week for 8 months or 4 hours for 10 months. Those between 16 and IT are required to attend not less than 5 hours for 6 months or 4 hours for 10 months. Pennsylvania enacted a similar law. There, in order to be law¬ fully employed, minors between 14 and 16, except those employed on the farm or in domestic service, must attend a school approved by the State superintendent of public instruction for not less than 8 hours each week, but this provision is inoperative where no ap¬ proved school is maintained. HEALTH PROVISIONS. For two decades the health of the school child has received an in¬ creasingly large amount of attention. At the time the legislatures of 1915 met, the medical inspection of public-school pupils was required, at least in certain districts, in 9 States; it was specifically permitted by law in 18 States, while in several others it was prac¬ ticed under general authorizations of the law. At the same time complete legal regulation of schoolhouse construction was found in 10 States ; moderate or partial regulation was found in 23 ; in several others some degree of regulation was provided for. The Connecticut act of 1915 amends chapter 207 of the Public Acts of 1907 by making the medical inspection of public-school pupils mandatory in cities and towns of over 10,000 inhabitants. It was formerly permissive in all districts. The school board is charged with the employment of one or more school physicians, except that in municipalities where the board of health is maintaining “ medical inspection substantially as provided for in this act, the board of health shall appoint and assign such physicians.” No physical examination may be made of any female child except by a woman physician, or, after notice to parent or guardian, by a male in the presence of parent or guardian or a female nurse. EDUCATIONAL LEGISLATION. 15 A Florida act provided for medical inspection under the super¬ vision of the State board of health. This act does not apply to cities of over 5,000 inhabitants where inspection has already been estab¬ lished by the city board of health and is continued in accordance with the rules prescribed by the State board. County physicians are made school inspectors, and where there is no such physician, the county commissioners are directed to appoint a school physician. Not more than 2,500 children shall be assigned to any one inspector. The 1915 act of Kansas permits provision for free dental inspec¬ tion in all cities of 40,000 population or more. In North Dakota a school board is now required to employ a medical inspector when petitioned by a majority of the persons hav¬ ing children attending the schools of the district. The older act only permitted the employment of an inspector. The new Wyoming law makes it the duty of teachers, under rules and regulations prescribed by the superintendent of public instruction, to examine each pupil for defects of eyes, ears, nose, and throat without coming into physical contact with the child. The act applies to teachers in in¬ corporated cities and towns. Acts amending laws providing for vaccination were passed in a few States. In Khode Island a child may now be exempt from vaccination on furnishing a certificate from a reputable practicing physician. New York amended its law by making vaccination com¬ pulsory for admission to schools only in cities of the first and second class. Whenever smallpox exists in any other school district or in the vicinity, the State commissioner of health is directed to notify the school authorities, and it is made their duty to exclude from the schools every child not producing a vaccination certificate from a duly certified physician. Several legislatures concerned themselves with schoolhouse con¬ struction and sanitation. A New Hampshire act directs the State board of health, on complaint of any responsible person, to inspect any schoolhouse or buiMing used for school purposes. The board of health may either order improvements or condemn any insani¬ tary building. Delaware now appropriates $1,750 annually for the improvement of schoolhouses for colored people. An act of the Michigan Legislature requires plans for all new buildings or addi¬ tions costing more than $300 to be submitted to the State superin¬ tendent for his approval. He is also authorized to condemn or order closed any unsafe or insanitary building. West Virginia created a State board of health and authorized it to “ make rules and regula¬ tions regulating the ventilation, warming, natural lighting, and excreta disposal in public halls, churches, schoolhouses, and public institutions.” An act of Illinois directed the superintendent of public instruction to prepare, with the advice of the State board 16 EDUCATION REPORT, 1915. of health, State architect, and State fire marshal, school building specifications, giving minimum requirements for heating, lighting, seating, ventilation, water supply, toilets, and safety against fire. The county superintendent is directed to inspect buildings and en¬ force compliance with the specifications prescribed by the State superintendent. The distributive school fund may be withheld from any district not complying with the State regulations. The Utah act provided for the appointment of a State architect to inspect plans and visit and inspect buildings in course of construction when the cost of the building or addition is $1,000 or more. THE SCHOOL TERM. Laws increasing the minimum school term were enacted in four States. In order to share in the distribution of the State school fund, towns in Maine must now maintain their schools at least 30 weeks. The shortest term formerly allowed was 26 weeks. The new act of Illinois raises from six to seven months the term required of districts of less than 1,000 population. Idaho now requires dis¬ tricts, other than independent districts, which have fewer than 75 children of school age, to maintain a seven-months’ term. New Mexico increased the minimum from five to seven months in rural districts and provided that municipal and four-room graded schools shall run nine months. THE TRAINING OF TEACHERS. The movement in recent years for the improvement of rural schools is affecting materially the training of teachers ; it is giving impetus to the demand for better teachers in rural communities. This de¬ mand is being met by the extension of State normal-school work and the development of normal training in high schools. Prior to Janu¬ ary 1, 1915, 14 States had provided for teacher training as a part of their systems of secondary education. Two additional States made similar provisions in 1915, and extensions were made in some other cases. West Virginia was one of the two States referred to above. The State board of education was directed to prescribe the course of study and rules for the government of teacher-training departments in schools of secondary grade. As many as 10 high schools maintaining these departments may each receive a special subsidy of $400 a year, but this subsidy may not be granted to any high school located in a county in which there is a State normal school or other State school offering similar courses of study for training teachers. EDUCATIONAL LEGISLATION. 17 The Florida act of 1915 directed the State board of education to establish a training class in one high school in each county, but this class must have at least 10 students in it. The State board is di¬ rected to apportion $500 to each class, if the county board appro¬ priates $500 to a teacher to devote his entire time to the department. A State appropriation of $25,000 was made to carry out the provi¬ sions of the act. Kansas increased its appropriation for normal training in high schools from $50,000 to $75,000 annually. In Missouri provision was made for granting State aid to train¬ ing schools for elementary teachers in cities of 75,000 population or more. These schools are required to offer two years of professional training above a four-year high-school course, and must have the ap¬ proval' of the State superintendent of public schools. Upon gradu¬ ation, students are entitled to a certificate of qualification to teach for three years in any elementary school of the State, and 16 months of successful experience while holding this certificate entitles the holder to a professional certificate for life. Nebraska provided for special courses in State normal schools for training rural school teachers. This act enlarges the course to in¬ clude social phases of rural life. The course covers common-school subjects, rural sociology, the management and organization of rural schools and rural community life, sanitary science, manual training, household economy, agriculture, and vocal music. New Mexico adopted a novel method of training teachers for rural schools. The 1915 law provides that the State superintendent shall appoint, annually, 50 student-teachers to study one year each in ap¬ proved normal schools which prepare teachers for rural communities. Applicants must be holders of third-grade certificates and must have taught at least two months; they must be able to speak and write both English and Spanish. An annual appropriation of $15,000 is made to carry out the provisions of the act. A normal school receiv¬ ing students under the act is allowed $300 for each student-teacher to pay necessary expenses. Several other normal-school laws of more or less importance were enacted. In California the functions of the joint board of normal- school trustees were transferred to the State board of education. Pennsylvania continued its policy of acquiring title to subsidized private normal schools by appropriating $100,000 for the purchase of such schools. Texas took the initial steps toward the founding of three new schools for training teachers, and Ohio provided for a commission to establish one new school. Several States, as New Jersey, Florida, and South Dakota, amended their laws relating to summer schools. 12034° — ed 1915— vol 1 - 2 18 EDUCATION" REPORT, 1915. TEACHERS5 CERTIFICATES. The certification of teachers is a subject to which legislatures de¬ vote no small amount of their attention. About one-third of the States which held sessions of their legislative bodies in 1915 enacted laws relating to the qualifications of persons desiring to teach. Lack of space here precludes mention of more than the main iirovisions of these laws. The State of Alabama, which had not previously authorized the acceptance of diplomas from approved higher institutions and of credentials from other States, authorized the State board of exam¬ iners to accept these evidences of qualification. California trans¬ ferred to the State board of education the matter of certificating teachers of special subjects, and authorized the State board to pre¬ scribe regulations governing the issuance of such certificates by county boards. The Legislatures of Florida and Oklahoma passed bills similar to that of Alabama regarding the acceptance of diplomas from higher institutions offering accredited professional courses. Idaho provided for the certification of high-school teachers; at least two years of study above a four-year high-school course are now re¬ quired of applicants to teach secondary subjects. An act of the Illinois General Assembly relates to the renewal certificates and authorizes the holder of a high-school certificate to teach also in the seventh and eighth grades. Kansas amended its law in various par¬ ticulars, the main provisions looking toward the requirement that elementary teachers be at least graduates of four-year high schools and that high-school teachers be college graduates. The act of Maine gives the State superintendent discretion in determining what is equivalent to a standard secondary school course in accrediting the credentials of teachers. A new requirement was added to the qualifications prescribed in Michigan. Hereafter no certificate may be granted in that State to any person over 21 years old who is not a citizen of the United States. The 1915 acts of Michigan also provide for the issuance of certificates to teachers of special subjects and require professional training of applicants who have not had experience in teaching. Missouri and New Mexico amended their certificate laws in less important particulars. The main provisions of North Carolina’s new law on the subject relate to the renewal of certificates and accrediting academies and professional work in approved higher institutions. The act of Washington authorizes the State board of education to prepare a list of accredited colleges and normal schools, both within and outside the State, to whose graduates certificates might be issued without examination except in the State Manual. West Virginia revised its law generally and provided for seven different grades, or classes, of certificates. EDUCATIONAL LEGISLATION. 19 teachers’ salaries. The amount of compensation which a teacher may receive is gen¬ erally left for local school authorities to fix by contract, but some States fix by law the minimum salary that may be paid. In 1914 there were 13 such States. No law of very great importance was enacted on the subject in 1915, but several noteworthy enactments were put upon the statute books. The act of Wisconsin provides that any rural school teacher who is retained in the same school after the first year shall receive from State funds $2 per month in addition to the salary paid by the district: if retained after the second year, $4 per month; if retained after the third year, $8 per month for that and each succeeding year. Successful rural school teachers who are graduates of a rural-school course of normal training equivalent to two years above the high school are entitled to State aid of $10 per month for the first year and to $15 per month for each succeeding year in which the school is successfully taught. In Ohio a teacher must have had at least one year of professional training in order to be entitled to the benefit of the law prescribing a minimum salary of $45 per month. Under the old law the amount of professional training required was only six weeks. The 1915 act of Oregon requires school boards to pay women teachers equal sal¬ aries with men’s where the same or like service is rendered, but con¬ sideration may be given to successful experience. Utah, under its act of 1915, requires a district to levy a tax of 10 mills on the dollar before it may receive State aid to maintain its school 28 weeks and pay its teacher $525 per annum. Under the older law 5 mills was the requirement. The single general educational bill which became a law at the regular session of the Georgia Legislature of 1915 related to teachers’ salaries. It provides for the prompt payment of salaries as they become due. teachers’ pensions. Though slow to adopt a general policy of civil pensions, the United States is now practically committed to a program of aid for superannuated teachers. In 1914 there were 14 States which had teachers’ pension laws applying to their entire areas, and 12 others had enacted statutes which applied to certain cities or school dis¬ tricts. The legislatures of 1915 added to this list 3 States which had previously had no enactments on the subject, and made State¬ wide the application of the laws of 4 others. The 3 additions to the list were New Hampshire, Montana, and Nevada. The 4 States which extended the application of their laws were Illinois, Indiana, Michigan, and Minnesota. Less important amendments were made 20 EDUCATION REPORT, 1915. to the plans in operation in Massachusetts, New Jersey, Pennsyl¬ vania, and North Dakota. The similarity of pension laws renders it unnecessary to attempt here an extended description of each act of 1915. The main principle running through all acts of this kind is that aged or incapacitated teachers who have taught a reasonable length of time may be retired on an annuity which is paid from a fund created by their own contributions, appropriations of public moneys, or both. A noticeable feature of teachers’ pension laws is the tendency toward the increase of contributions from public moneys to retirement funds. The Illinois law enacted in 1915 will suffice to show the trend in pension enactments. In Illinois the State board of trustees of the retirement fund con¬ sists of the superintendent of public instruction, the State treasurer, and three members elected by the contributing teachers. The State treasurer is ex officio treasurer of the fund. Teachers already em¬ ployed may or may not elect before September 1, 1920, to become members of the association. Those entering the service for the first time are deemed to accept the terms of the act. Members are divided into three classes: (1) Those having taught 10 years or less; (2) those having taught 10 to 15 years; (3) over 15 years. Assessments upon salaries are as follows: First class, $1 per month for first five months each year; second class, $2 per month for first five months each year; third class, $6 per month for first five months through a period of 10 years in this class. It is provided that assessments shall be withheld from salaries by the governing boards of school districts. An amount sufficient to meet all demands is appropriated from the common-school fund. This amount, until otherwise provided by law, must be equal to a tax of one-tenth of 1 mill on all taxable prop¬ erty of the State, except property in districts to which the act does not apply. Gifts and bequests may be accepted. Before being re¬ tired a teacher must have contributed the full amount of $400 or make up the deficiency. After 15 years of service, a teacher may be retired for disability, but the full $400 must have been contributed or the deficiency made up. Each teacher retiring is entitled to $16 an¬ nually for each year taught, but not to exceed $400. No person under 50 years of age may be retired, except for disability. Any teacher ceasing to teach before, becoming a member of the third class is en¬ titled to the return of one-half of the amount contributed by him or her. The word “ teacher ” is defined in the act to include a teacher, teacher-secretary, principal, supervising principal, supervisor, as¬ sistant superintendent, or superintendent. Cities of over 65,000 popu¬ lation which have retirement systems of their own are exempt from the provisions of the act. EDUCATIONAL LEGISLATION. 21 HIGHER EDUCATION. The Legislature of North Dakota enacted what were probably the most notable acts of 1915 relating to higher education. In that State important changes were made in both the support and the control of higher institutions. Chapter 148 of the act of 1913, which provided a tax of 1| mills on the dollar for the support of State educational institutions, was repealed; and, in lieu of this tax, provision was made for a levy sufficient to raise the lump sum of $347,880 annually. A stipulated part of this sum is to be ap¬ portioned to each institution. Another act of that State created a board of regents to have control of State educational institutions. This board is appointed bv the governor with the consent of the Senate. The term of members will be six years; two or one as the case requires will retire every two years. The compensation of each member is fixed at $7 per day and traveling expenses. The regents succeed to the powers and duties of the normal school board and the boards of trustees of other institutions. The act applies to State institutions of higher grade. The last Legislature of Texas proposed an amendment to the con¬ stitution which, if ratified, will separate the State university and the agricultural and mechanical college. Under the present consti¬ tution the agricultural and mechanical college is a branch of the university. The 1915 act of Massachusetts established a department of uni¬ versity extension, to be under the control of the State board of edu¬ cation. The State board is directed to appoint a head of this de¬ partment and the necessary assistants. The department is author¬ ized to cooperate with existing institutions of learning in the estab¬ lishment and conduct of extension and correspondence courses. Agents, lecturers, and instructors may be employed. An annual appropriation of $25,000 is made for the support of the work. In Nevada the various public-service departments of the university were consolidated and became the “ public- service division.” The legislature of that State also authorized the establishment of emeritus professorships, and created at Tonopah, under the control of the regents of the university, a State school of mines. A 1915 act of Wisconsin defines the several departments of the university, as, for example, the “ college of letters,” etc. The Tennessee Polytechnic Institute was established at Cookeville in that State, but the proviso was added that the towm must contribute as much as $75,000 in cash or the equivalent. Colorado provided for the levy of an addi¬ tional tax of five and one-half hundredths of 1 mill on the dollar for the support of the State university. 22 EDUCATION REPORT, 1915. LIBRARIES. The trend of legislation on this subject in 1915 was generally toward the extension of library facilities. The legislatures of sev¬ eral States enacted laws of this character. In Maine a State appro¬ priation of $1,000 was made for traveling collections of books for circulation among high schools in cities and towns having no public libraries. Connecticut increased from $3,200 to $4,000 the amount which the State public library committee may expend. A West Virginia act, known as the “ library law,” authorizes any city, toivn, or school district to hold an election to decide for or against the es¬ tablishment of a public library or reading room. The Legislature of Texas provided for the establishment at county seats of county libraries with circulating departments and authorized a tax of not exceeding 6 mills to support them, but a two-thirds vote of the qualified electors of any county is necessary to make the provisions of this act applicable to the county. Arizona provided for a State library with a law and legislative reference bureau. Under a 1915 act of California, not exceeding 80 cents for each pupil in attend¬ ance in a city or city-and-county school system shall be set aside as a library fund. The same State extended the privileges of county libraries to the high schools of the county by providing for branches. In Washington the common council in an incorporated town may now establish a library. Wyoming raised from one-fourth mill to one-half mill the maximum county library tax.1 MANUAL AND INDUSTRIAL TRAINING. The movement for giving, in the public-school system, a place for training workers in the industries was not neglected by the legisla¬ tures of 1915. In Connecticut the State board of education was authorized to establish public day, continuation, part-time, and evening industrial schools in addition to those already established. Under this act no child under 14 years of age may be admitted except in vacation time. The State board is also authorized to arrange with manufacturing and mechanical establishments to permit pupils to practice their prospective trades, arts, or crafts. Any school district may now establish an industrial school by vote of the people. The State board is charged with the duty of approving schools for the purpose of granting State aid. Massachusetts provided for the establishment of an independent industrial school in Hampshire County, and authorized any city or town to organize day and evening classes in household and other 1 See also Ch. XXI, Library Activities. EDUCATIONAL LEGISLATION. 23 practical arts for women. Formerly only evening classes of this character were authorized. Pennsylvania, which already had an industrial-education law, created a bureau of vocational training in the State department of education. An annual appropriation of $325,000 was made for voca¬ tional training. The Minnesota act provided that any approved high school, graded school, or consolidated rural school may be designated by the State board of education to give instruction in industrial subjects, such as agriculture, home economics, manual training, and commercial pur¬ suits. For the purpose of giving industrial training, a school district may become “ associated ” with a high, graded, or consolidated rural school by vote of the qualified electors of the district and the ap¬ proval of the board of the school with which association is sought. State aid is provided. Nebraska also made provision for industrial training and granted State aid. A Wisconsin act defined an “ apprentice’ as a minor under 16 years of age who enters the employ of another and receives for his services, in whole or in part, instruction in any trade, craft, or busi¬ ness. Another act of the same State permits an employed person over 14 years old to attend an industrial school in the district where employed and requires the district of his residence to pay his tuition fees. California authorized districts which maintain schools for eight months or more to establish vocation schools. The Oregon Legislature repealed the act of 1913 which permitted districts having a population of 20,000 or more to establish and maintain trade schools for girls. Florida authorized county boards of education and trustees of special tax districts to establish departments of home economics in their schools. As regards agriculture, the enactments of 1915 extended agricul¬ tural instruction in the public schools, established a few additional schools of agriculture, and accepted the provisions of the “ Smith- Lever Act.” The acts of a few States may be mentioned here. That of Rhode Island provided for the division of the State into three agricultural districts in which may be organized farm bureaus for the purpose of cooperating with the United States Department of Agriculture and the State in extension work. Ohio placed agri¬ cultural instruction in county districts, under the supervision of the county superintendent. The older law providing for the division of the State into four agricultural districts and for the appointment of four State supervisors of agricultural instruction was repealed. Iowa authorized cities of 20,000 population or more to acquire land outside of the city limits for a school garden and farm. Arkansas 24 EDUCATION REPORT, 1915. made for the biennium the liberal appropriation of $47,260 for agri¬ cultural and home-economics extension work in cooperation with the Federal Government. KINDERGARTENS. Decided impetus has been given to the kindergarten propaganda in recent years. The establishment and maintenance of kinder¬ gartens is now either required by law under certain conditions, spe¬ cifically permitted by law, or permitted under general authorizations in all States except one. Several States passed acts in 1915 affecting this form of school activity. The act of California authorized a district board, after maintain¬ ing kindergartens for one year, to establish others, and provided that a district tax of not exceeding 10 cents on the $100 may be levied for support. Connecticut raised to 4 years the minimum age of children that may attend; it was formerly 3 years. In Illinois the board of directors of a district having less than 1,000 population is no longer required to secure authority by vote of the people to establish kinder¬ gartens. Nevada authorized the school trustees of any district to establish kindergartens, on petition of the parents or guardians of 25 children between the ages of 4 and 6 years, and provided for a district tax of not exceeding 25 cents on the $100. North Carolina provided for a district tax of not exceeding 15 cents on the $100, if voted by the people, but this act appears to be inoperative by reason of not having been read three times on three different days in each branch of the legislature. The North Dakota law, which was for¬ merly permissive, is now mandatory in districts where a majority of the legal voters petition for the establishment of a kindergarten ; in cities of over 5,000 population only one-fifth of the legal voters is sufficient. TEXTBOOKS. No very conspicuous progress was made in school-book legislation in 1915. Texas provided for free textbooks and Oregon repealed its act of 1913. The new act of Texas provides that, on petition of 10 per cent of the qualified tax-paying voters of a district, an election shall be held to determine the question of levying a special tax for the purpose of furnishing free textbooks to all pupils of school age. The 1915 act of Oregon repealed a law similar to that enacted by Texas. Uniform textbooks is a subject which constantly receives attention from legislators. The North Dakota act of 1915 provides for uni¬ formity within districts. Adoptions are to be made by district boards from lists approved by the State superintendent. Books must be sold to pupils at not exceeding 15 per cent above the net price. It EDUCATIONAL LEGISLATION. 25 is also provided that when a family removes from a district not fur¬ nishing free textbooks, the school board may purchase books belong¬ ing to the children of such family. The board is authorized to fur¬ nish free textbooks and is required to furnish them free when di¬ rected by vote of the qualified electors. The Kansas act authorizes the State school book commission to adopt textbooks for high schools. The Texas act of 1915 is unique. It provides that all books adopted by the State textbook board shall be “ printed, bound, completed, and finished within the State of Texas.” This act, however, will not be operative where publishers present satisfactory proof that they can contract for editions at a substantially lower price outside of the State. THE EMPLOYMENT OF CHILDREN. The 1915 act of Maine followed the usual provisions of the more progressive type of child-labor legislation. Its main provision is that no child under 14 years of age may be employed in a manufac¬ turing or mechanical establishment, nor in any service for hire while the public schools are in session. Employment of minors between 14 and 16 years old is restricted to those to whom employment certifi¬ cates are issued by the school superintendent. This certificate must show that the child is over 14 years old and that he or she can read and write simple English sentences and do arithmetical problems through division. A health certificate may also be required by the superintendent or the factory inspector. Permits to work in vacation time may be issued upon the same conditions as employment certifi¬ cates, but no educational qualification is required for this permit. New Hampshire also provided for the issuance of permits to work in vacation time. An act of the legislature of Rhode Island regu¬ lated the employment of minors in street occupations. Connecticut raised from 12 to 16 the age at which children may be employed for exhibition purposes. The Legislature of Pennsylvania enacted a rigid child-labor law. The main propositions are : No Shild under 14 years of age shall be employed in any establishment or occupation, except on the farm or in domestic service. Minors between 14 and 16 who are employed must attend not less than eight hours each week a school approved by the State superintendent of public instruction; but this provision is not effective where no such school is maintained. Minors between 14 and 16 shall not be employed more than 9 hours a day, or 51 hours in a week, hours in school included. No minor under 16 may be employed in a dangerous occupation; no person under 18 may be employed in the more hazardous occupations or in any position injurious to health or morals; no person under 21 years old shall be employed where intoxicating liquors are sold. The industrial board of the depart- 26 EDUCATION REPORT, 1915. ment of labor and industries is authorized to determine what con¬ stitute dangerous or injurious occupations. The school record re¬ quired for the employment certificates of minors over 14 years old must show that the minor has completed work equivalent to the first six grades. A physician’s certificate showing physical fitness is re¬ quired for children employed between the ages of 14 and 16. The school record is not required for permits to work in vacation time. The person issuing an employment certificate must send it to the prospective employer of the minor, and the employer must ac¬ knowledge receipt. The State board of education when notified by the State superintendent that this act is not enforced in any school district is directed to appoint an attendance officer for such district. The compensation of this officer is to be deducted from the State funds to be apportioned to the district. Upon notice to an employer that a minor is not lawfully employed, the employer is required to furnish proof of lawful employment or dismiss the minor from his service. This provision, it will be seen, puts the burden of proof on the employer. The Michigan act added “ office or restaurant ” to occupations in which boys imder 18 and females may not be employed longer than an average of 9 hours a day or 54 hours a week. That State now pro¬ hibits the employment of a child under 15 in any factory, workshop, store, laundry, office, hotel, mine, bowling alley, billiard room or pool room conducted for profit. Formerly the age limit fixed in this provision was 14 years. The schooling certificate issued to any minor between 15 and 16 years of age must show that the work of the sixth grade has been completed. The older lawT required only the work of the fourth grade. Texas regulated the employment of women and girls. Utah now prohibits the employment of children under 14 in places where tobacco is sold. The Legislature of Wyoming, which had hitherto provided meager regulation of child labor, extended the provisions of its law on the subject. Now no minor under 18 ypars old shall be employed where intoxicating liquors are sold or otherwise handled, and no child under 14 may deliver messages to such a place. No child under 16 shall be employed in an occupation which is injurious to health or morals. No child under 14 shall be employed in a mine or other hazardous occupation, nor shall any such child work at any gainful occupation, except on a farm or in domestic service, for more than 9 hours a day or 56 hours a week. CHAPTER II. EDUCATION IN THE LARGER CITIES. By James H. Van Sickle, Superintendent of Schools, Springfield, Mass. Contents. — The Gary duplicate plan in New York City — Readjustments in grades above the sixth — Standards of achievement — Vocational education — Atypical children — Health of school children — Schools as social centers. Among the enterprises in large school systems that have received recent emphasis in the public press and to some extent in reports of superintendents the so-called Gary duplicate plan easily holds first place. The ever-increasing school enrollment, with its accompanying demand for more buildings and the higher ideal of what constitutes a suitable school building, has greatly increased expenditures for school purposes. When a scheme is proposed by which existing buildings may accommodate two sets of pupils, it is no wonder that wide interest is aroused. Amy plan that will lessen the expense of housing school children makes a strong appeal to boards of estimate, school boards, and the press. School boards are not willing, how¬ ever, to be hurried into adopting, for exclusive use in a situation quite different from that in which it originated, a plan so radically different from the customary one without carefully testing its applicability. THE GARY DUPLICATE PLAN IN NEW YORK CITY. The most notable instance of public interest in the Gary plan is found in New York City, where it is hailed by its advocates as a complete and satisfactory solution of the part-time problem which the city has been unsuccessfully grappling with for many years. Ac¬ cordingly, Supt. Wirt, of Gary, Ind., was engaged under a part-time contract at a liberal salary to direct the installation of his plan in several New York schools in congested sections of the city. Now, after less than a year of trial, those who control the finances urge the adoption of the plan for the whole city. Of the 12 or 14 schools in which the Gary idea is being tried, only 2 are working it out in any complete way — No. 45 in the Bronx and No. 89 in Brooklyn. In 27 28 EDUCATION REPORT, 1915. these two schools facilities are yet lacking for an absolutely fair trial. In the other schools a modification of the Gary plan, limited to the upper grades, is in operation. Obviously the plan has not yet had time or opportunity to demon¬ strate its applicability to the New York situation. The board of superintendents and the school board are opposed to sweeping action at this time. They regard the duplicate plan as yet on trial and believe immediate action would be ill advised. It is not generally claimed for the duplicate plan that it is less expensive than the customary plan, except in the matter of build¬ ings. This, however, is a large item, and if proof is forthcoming that the plan is at least equal in educational value to the single-class plan its wide extension may be expected. It is advocated largely, but not exclusively, on the ground of lower cost. There are those, however, whose approval is based upon the claim that by means of a longer school day it affords to the children wider opportunities for work, study, and play; that it distributes the burden of teaching more evenly over the entire teaching staff; and that it affords pre- vocational training to all children in all of the grades instead of confining such work to a small group of children in the seventh and eighth grades. The Gary system has commended itself to students of education for various reasons. It promises : 1. An enriched school life for fevery pupil. 2. A coordination of all existing child-welfare agencies and a fuller utiliza¬ tion of all facilities in present public and private recreational and educa¬ tional institutions. 3. A solution of the part-time problem. 4. A double school plan by which each school seat serves two children. 5. A wider use of the school plant. 6. An increase in the school day through a coordination of work, study, and play activities. 7. A program that would invest the child’s nonacademic time to greater profit and pleasure. 8. A socialized education in harmony with progressive thought of the day. On the other hand, those who oppose the immediate and wholesale adoption of the duplicate plan for the elimination of part-time ex¬ press doubt as to certain novel features of school administration which it embodies, such as departmental teaching for all children from the first year through the eighth, instruction of groups of children by pupils instead of teachers, the grouping together of younger and older pupils for auditorium, laboratory, and workshop exercises, the substitution of an auditorium period for classroom in¬ struction, the omission of formal physical training, supervised play with only four teachers for 12 classes, the deferring of scholastic work for first-year children until late in the afternoon. They urge EDUCATION IN THE LARGER CITIES. 29 that sufficient time has not elapsed to test the worth of the schemes and that prudence should suggest awaiting the outcome of experi¬ ments in the schools already selected before committing the entire city to the new plan. With regard to the extensive departmental teaching to which objection is urged, Mr. Wirt replies that it is not essential to the plan. It is part of the experiment in School No. 45, but not in No. 89. He points out that the time for auditorium work is secured, not by taking time from regular instruction, but by lengthening the school day. Mr. Wirt’s reply to the criticism that the plan does not provide sufficient supervision for the playground is that there is nothing in his plan to prevent the use of more teachers on the play¬ ground if it is so desired, but that four specially trained teachers are, in his opinion, sufficient to care for 12 classes during this period. Play is itself educational, he believes, when it is given under condi- tions that develop initiative and responsibility and create natural situations in which under wise supervision older children can exer¬ cise their instictive desire for leadership. Too much supervision of play by teachers would tend to limit the possibilities for the de¬ velopment of such qualities through carrying over to the playground the rigidity of the classroom. A further criticism is that outside instruction in the home or in the church is permitted, but that no means is provided for seeing that such instruction is the equivalent of regular schooling. To this criticism the reply is made that it would be very unfor¬ tunate if the school undertook to insure that such instruction should be the equivalent of regular schooling, for in that case the school would be supervising religious instruction, which the law expressly prohibits. The program simply provides that the child can be excused during the day to take private lessons at home or attend religious instruction, if the parent so desires. These periods are never taken from the academic work, and therefore do not detract from the regular work of the school. As in the case of play and auditorium, it is simply time which, in the traditional school, the child would spend upon the street. What is taught in these outside classes and how it is taught is not and should not be the concern of the school. The attitude of those who view the school chiefly from the angle of costs is illustrated in the following program announced by the controller : 1. The total elimination of any increase in the budget of the board of educa¬ tion for 1916. This means a saving of about $4,000,000. 2. The total elimination of part time and overcrowding in the schools. This is accompanied by intensive use of school buildings as they exist. New con¬ struction will be limited almost exclusively to new districts or where pres¬ ent buildings are in bad condition. 30 EDUCATION REPORT, 1915. 3. The extension of the school year from 40 to 44 weeks. 4. The lengthening of the school day from 5 to 6 hours. 5. The total elimination of extra pay for services in vacation schools and other forms of extra pay for persons employed on annual salaries . 6. A reduction of 10 per cent in the number of teachers’ positions. This is made possible by lengthening the school day and the school year. 7. A change in the system of promoting teachers whereby merit alone shall control. This means the eradication of the system of paying teachers more for service in seventh and eighth grades and the substitution of a plan whereby each teacher shall teach the classes for which she is best fitted. 8. The reduction of the common-school course to seven years. The controller thinks the reduction of the course from 8 to 7 years could be brought about if the year’s term were increased to 44 weeks instead of 40, and that the extension of the school day might make it possible for children to complete the course in even less time. The attitude of those who regard the schools first from the point of view of their purpose is voiced by the president of the board of education as follows: It. is but natural that the controller, from his official position should con¬ sider school problems primarily from a standpoint of finances rather than of education best for the children. The members of the board of education, how¬ ever, decide all proposals, first, upon the basis of what is the best for children and, secondly, upon the basis of less expense to the people. Even in communities where the part-time problem is either less acute or else nonexistent, and where the expenditures for schools have not become so burdensome as in New York, there will be de¬ cided interest in the Gary duplicate plan. This gigantic experiment in education, now in full operation in one of the smaller cities and in partial operation in the largest American municipality, is unques¬ tionably of vast importance, yet the changes required in installing the system in existing schools are so radical and so expensive that school authorities will be disposed to await the result of an adequate trial in New York City before departing from the present policy which reserves a seat for every child. Several brief reports have been made upon the plan as found in operation in the Gary (Ind.) schools. Another, more extended and more thorough, is projected under the auspices of the General Educa¬ tion Board, with Dr. Elwood P. Cubberly in charge. A thoroughly scientific study of the duplicate plan, such as may be expected from Dr. Cubberly, will be awaited with keen interest by boards of educa¬ tion, by superintendents of schools, and by the public in general. READJUSTMENTS IN GRADES ABOVE THE SIXTH. The advisability of introducing differentiated courses open to choice two years before a pupil is ready for the high school is less under discussion now than last year. The rapid spread of the idea, EDUCATION IN THE LARGER CITIES. 31 together with the wide acceptance which it has met, is in strong con¬ trast to the ordinary progress of a new movement in school organi¬ zation and management. Ordinarily it takes years of time to incor¬ porate in practice so radical a departure from traditional procedure. The discussion now relates rather to ways and means of introducing the courses than to the merits of the plan. During the past two years nine elementary schools in Boston have been reorganized on the intermediate plan. In other words, the work of the seventh and eighth grades in these schools has been re¬ organized to allow some choice of studies with opportunity for capable pupils to begin work carrying high-school credit. It is now recommended that the ninth grade be included and that a junior high school be established to provide for pupils of the seventh, eighth, and ninth grades, thus relieving the high school of its present first-year work. In many cities having crowded high schools the problem before the school authorities is whether to add to existing high-school ac¬ commodations or to relieve both grade and high school pressure by erecting separate school for grades T, 8, and 9. It is argued that this plan is not only better educationally, but less expensive than the one so long customary. In several recent surveys this plan has been advocated as a solution to difficulties otherwise well-nigh insur¬ mountable. Even in a city or a section of a city where new build¬ ings are not imperatively needed the educational merits of the plan seem sufficient to suggest reorganization of the upper-grade work. In the city of Buffalo, N. Y., the differentiated courses have been introduced in a section which, while densely populated, was already adequately supplied with school buildings. The plan adopted is suggestive of what may easily be done for similar areas elsewhere. In Buffalo it is called the “ group plan of organization of prevocational instruction.” Four adjoining school districts, Nos. 12, 37, 41, and 47, have been formed in a group, as follows: No. 12 continues the traditional courses. No. 37 offers a prevocational course for seventh, eighth, and ninth grade pupils along commercial lines. No. 41 offers a household- arts course for these grades. No. 47 provides an industrial- arts course for the same grades. The first six grades in all of these schools continue as formerly. Upon com¬ pletion of six grades pupils who live in any one of these four dis¬ tricts are given the opportunity of choosing the type of course they wish to follow. A boy may choose between the traditional, com¬ mercial, and industrial- arts courses. A girl may choose between the traditional, commercial, and household- arts courses. There are about 150 pupils in the traditional course, 200 in the commercial course, 125 in the industrial- arts course, and 125 in the household- arts course. These courses are conducted on the plan of half-time 32 EDUCATION REPORT, 1915. shopwork and half-time book work. The present is the second year of this work and the people in the districts affected continue to give substantial support. No extensions of the plan have been made this year, but future extensions are contemplated. This plan is feasible where the schools are near enough and where a sufficient number of pupils in one course are available to use one building economically. Before reorganizing the work in the four Buffalo schools a circular of explanation was sent to the parents of all children enrolled in them above the fifth grade, and the parent was asked to sign a card after indicating upon it his choice among the courses listed upon it. The following paragraphs from the circular made it clear to the parents that not all children could continue at the home school even if they chose the old line course. We can not have all four courses in each school building. Each school will do a special part of the work, all of which is equally- important. It is planned to divide the work as shown below, but it may be necessary to make changes according to the demands: Boys’ industrial work at School No. 47, Hickory, near Sycamore. Girls’ industrial work at School No. 41, Jefferson, near Sycamore. Boys’ and girls’ commercial course at School No. 37, Carlton and Peach. Preacademic (old line) course at School No. 12, Spruce, near Broadway, and in the other schools, if there is enough demand for them. These buildings are so near each, other that pupils in any one of the dis¬ tricts will have but a short distance to travel to reach any one of the centers. The junior high school plan as worked out in Rochester, N. Y., illustrates still another way of handling the problem. In a con¬ gested section of the city there were seven elementary schools, all overcrowded. Additional room had to be provided. Plans had already been drawn for additions to two buildings only, when the board of education took under consideration the erection of a central building in which might be gathered the pupils of the seventh and eighth grades of the surrounding schools, thereby giving the needed room and leaving these schools easily accessible for the younger pupils of the first six grades. The cost of these two additions alone would exceed $100,000, and it was estimated that the cost of all the additions required would fully equal, if it would not exceed, the cost of a central building. Six of these seven schools were, roughly speaking, in the circumference of a circle, while the seventh was approximately in the center of that circle. No one of these sur¬ rounding schools was scarcely more than one-half mile from the central grammar school building, thus making the maximum dis¬ tance to the central building not excessive for seventh and eight grade pupils. There was also another building problem which seemed to favor this central building plan. The East High School, which serves this particular community, was also overcrowded. If, then, the seventh EDUCATION IN THE LARGER CITIES. 33 and eighth grade pupils could continue their ninth year or first year high-school work in this central building, some measure of relief would be afforded to the East High School. These conditions, there¬ fore, pointed to the wisdom of the six-three-three plan of organiza¬ tion for this community. A grammar school central to this congested section was a com¬ paratively new building, having been first occupied in 1908. It was, furthermore, the largest grammar school in the city. It had a large assembly hall, a gymnasium, shower baths, and a swimming pool, a library, and other facilities which seemed to adapt it admirably for junior high-school purposes. It was lacking, however, in adequate shop room. It was decided, therefore, to add to the building the necessary shops and use this plant for the first junior high school. A new elementary school building was erected for the kindergarten and first six grades of this grammar school. The lines of work in this junior high school are the academic, the commercial, the household arts, and the industrial arts. At the present time no differentiation in courses is made until the beginning of the seventh A, or latter half of the seventh grade. This allows one-half year in which to study the needs, ability, and interests of each pupil. No pupil is assigned to any one of these courses until the home has been consulted, the entire record of the pupil in the elementary school studied, and the judgment of the present teacher secured. Even in the seventh A grade the differentiation lies in subject content rather than in subjects. All pupils, for example, continue arithmetic, the application, however, in each course being adapted to the nature of the work in that course. The boy in the industrial arts course finds practical application of his arithmetic along trade lines, while the pupil in the commercial course finds special application along business lines. This is illustrative of the general principle of differentiation throughout the seventh A work, so far as the book subjects are concerned. At this time also the pupils of the household arts and industrial arts courses begin to spend one-third of their time in shop or manual work and the remain¬ ing two-thirds in book work. At the beginning of the eighth grade or second year of junior high school work a sharper differentiation takes place. Here the study of foreign language and general mathematics, including arithmetic, concrete geometry, and elementary principles in algebra, is begun by the pupils in the academic course. All the pupils here expect to go on into the general and college preparatory courses of the upper high school. The foreign language, Latin, for example, and the English grammar and composition, are taught by the same teacher, while the literature of the English work is taught by the teacher 12034° — ed 1915 — vol 1 - 3 34 EDUCATION REPORT, 1915. of history and civics. Elementary science, drawing, music, penman¬ ship, and physical education, together with three hours each week of household arts for girls and shopwork for boys, make up the remaining schedule for the pupils of the academic course. This shopwork for the boys of the academic course is taken in the regular shops, and is given by the regular teacher of shopwork. Thus the manual training is linked with practical problems and is removed from the general and disciplinary field. The same principle applies to the girls of this course in the household arts work. In like manner no specialized work of secondary grade is at¬ tempted in the other courses until the ninth year, or regular first year high school period is reached. In the industrial arts course, the following types of shopwork are given : Machine, gas engine, print¬ ing, plumbing, cabinetmaking, and wood finishing. From the time the boy begins his work in this course at the beginning of the sev¬ enth A until he reaches the first year regular high school period, his time is spent, not in any one shop, but in all the shops, giving thereby a certain number of weeks to each. If at the end of this time, there¬ fore, he must go directly into the trades, he will have had some insight into the field of each, and some hand training, consistent with his maturity, that will be of service to him. On the other hand, if he is to continue his school work in the trades, he can with reason¬ able intelligence select his specialized trade. In other words, the work up to this point is prevocational rather than vocational. The school day begins at 8.30 and closes at 4.15, with one and one- fourth hours for noon intermission. This makes the school day six and one-half hours in length. The day is divided into four periods of one hour and thirty minutes each for actual instruction. During this time the entire school work of the pupil for the day is to be done. This gives a school day and a school period of sufficient length to provide for both the preparation and the recitation of lessons. STANDARDS OF ACHIEVEMENT. One of the important duties of the school superintendent has always been the testing of his schools by some type of examination. At times this duty has been delegated to the principal of each indi¬ vidual school or the teacher of each room. Undoubtedly much good has been accomplished by this procedure, blindly as it has been car¬ ried out in most instances. The stimulating and constructive effects have varied with the vision of the superintendent. Only too fre¬ quently high nervous tension has been the greatest apparent effect upon teachers and pupils, other results remaining buried in the superintendent’s office. EDUCATION IN THE LARGER CITIES. 35 The development of standard scales, tests, and scores promises to place this important school function on a more rational basis, not only giving the superintendent the information he needs in much more reliable form, but giving motive to the work of both teachers and pupils by recognizing accomplishment in a substantial manner and by replacing archaic demands for perfection by standards grow¬ ing out of the actual accomplishments of pupils of the same ages, grades, and mental abilities. City superintendents are making use of standard tests and scores in many ways. Often the tests are used first in a school survey; curiosity or pride is aroused as to whether progress is made during the ensuing year, so the tests are repeated ; and satisfaction with the comparative results shown by the returns leads to the continued use of the tests. Again, the influence of a university may stimulate neighboring superintendents to experiment with the tests, university professors and graduate students visiting the schools to do the actual work of testing. Sometimes the university seeks the schools as a laboratory, at other times the superintendent asks the cooperation of the trained workers in the university. In systems where large initiative is permitted, it is not unusual to find individual super¬ visors, principals, or teachers experimenting along this line, thus driving the entering wedge in introducing knowledge of reliable standards of achievement. There is general recognition of the inadequacy of present scales, tests, and standards, the leaders in the development of those now in use being among those most in earnest for their improvement. Only by use of those now available and experimentation with those in process of development can progress come, however, and it is encour¬ aging to see the initiative shown by some cities in this direction. Boston is working out a rational basis for judging grade work, seniors in the normal school helping by conducting the tests. Nash¬ ville is opening her schools to the professors from the teachers’ college located in the city, as New York, Boston, Philadelphia, Chicago, St. Louis, Cincinnati, and other leading cities have been doing. Newton teachers have collaborated with the department of education at Harvard in developing a new scale for measuring com¬ position work in the seventh and eighth grades. Detroit has inaugurated a system of measuring and following up the achievements of pupils. The appointment of S. A. Courtis to take charge of this work is another recognition of the fact that the public schools need the services of those most highly trained in par¬ ticular fields. Not only are the standard scales now known used in Detroit most intelligently, but the teachers have also cooperated with Mr. Courtis in preparing tentative scales in early-grade language 36 EDUCATION REPORT, 1915. work, and the sensible practice has been inaugurated of excusing from drill lessons those pupils who have reached a given standard in form work. This latter practice has brought about marked economy of time. In a paper read at the Cincinnati meeting, Mr. Courtis says — I was astonished to find, in checking up the time cost for one class of 20 pupils, that the total time set free in 12 weeks by excusing those who had reached the standard amounted to 1,460 minutes, or 13 per cent of the total time given by the class to the drill work. Other classes gave similar results. VOCATIONAL EDUCATION.1 The fitting of vocational education to real community needs, the humanizing of vocational programs, and the extension of the part- time plan to high-school pupils and pupils of working age in the grades are some of the recent developments of this subject. The Richmond survey and the surveys made in New York and Brooklyn as a preliminary step in the development of Dean Schnei¬ der’s progressive plans, point to the barrenness of certain trade fields, to the paucity of training required to fit pupils to enter the positions which will be open to them. Definite data as to needs in training skilled workers were also secured, however, and the work in those cities will be more definitely helpful because of this clearer under¬ standing of trade conditions. The industrial and tenchnical con¬ ference in Philadelphia also emphasized knowledge of trade oppor¬ tunities as coequal in importance with trade education. Training in the three R’s for pupils taking vocational courses will always find strong motivation in the projects with which the pupils are dealing and in the trades for which they are preparing. The first recognition of the needs in these special fields led teachers to swing entirely to lessons related to the vocational work. Experience has proved, however, that these pupils need preparation for leisure as well as for labor, and the courses are becoming adapted to meet both needs. Where classes are relatively backward in getting thought from the printed page, the teacher does not hesitate to present to them the literature of power through her own reading. The meeting of the Department of Superintendence of the National Education Association, held in Cincinnati in February, brought to the attention of the visiting association the many ways in which that city is developing in vocational education. The following statements are from a bulletin prepared for distribution at that time : THE MANUAL-TRAINING COURSE. Those boys who elect the manual-training course in the high school devote one and one-half hours per day for four years to shop work and mechanical draw¬ ing. * * * The purpose of the course is one of general training, but to those 1 For further discussion of progress in vocational education see Ch. TXt EDUCATION IN THE LARGER CITIES. 37 who later take lip some particular line of manual work it proves vocational. The University of Cincinnati recognizes the four years’ work in manual train¬ ing as 4 units of the 1G required for entrance. * * * boys’ technical cooperative course. It is presumed the boys who enroll in the technical cooperative course expect to learn some trade. Because of this the whole course is arranged to meet their needs without reference to college entrance requirements. Graduates from this course are, however, admitted to the cooperative engineering course of the University of Cincinnati. The academic work of this course differs from both the general and manual training courses, no language other than English being studied for the first two years. The shop wTork differs little from that of the manual-training course, .except that it is taken in two years instead of four, three hours per day being devoted to this branch alone. After two years these boys are introduced to a number of skilled trades and are better able intelli¬ gently to select their life work than the boys who have not had this training. They are now taken in charge by the coordinator, who finds places for them in commercial shops according to the line of work they choose to follow. In September they are arranged in pairs and spend alternate weeks in commercial shops and school. the domestic-science course. The purpose of this course is to provide one form of general training and a foundation for higher training in home economics. The University of Cincinnati credits this course, giving four units for the four years’ work. girls’ technical cooperative course. This course was planned for the girl who expects to earn her living on leav¬ ing high school and who wants definite help in finding her field of work. Cooking and sewing are given for four years. From this beginning the sewing takes on the trade phase. The girl does not sew for herself, but on orders for others. The fact that a garment is made for the trade, up to trade standards, creates the right attitude toward the work. At the beginning of the third year the girl elects to take trade work in either dressmaking or millinery and the cooperative program is put into operation. The girls spend one week in trade shop or establishment and one week in school. Two girls form a team and occupy one position in alternate weeks. prevocational education. In 11 schools of the city special adaptation has been made of the manual training and domestic science work in order to meet more completely the various needs of the community. The time allowance of these subjects is increased in some cases to five hours, or one-fifth of the school week, and in all cases is extended beyond the hour or hour and a half regularly devoted to the subjects in elementary schools. The work is extended also to grades below the sixth, in some cases reaching even as low as the second. The aim is to take care of pupils 12 years of age and over. The character of the work varies with the school. The general purpose, however, is to find the problems for the industrial work in the daily life of the school and the home. For girls this takes the form of real home problems in sewing, cooking, and the household arts. For boys the industrial work uses wood, metal, and other materials for the making of whatever may appeal to the boy’s interest and be of use in the school or home. 38 EDUCATION REPORT, 1915. SALESMANSHIP. The school was opened in May, 1911, with an enrollment of 200; each pupil attended one-half day a week without loss of pay. A graduate of the Boston school of salesmanship was appointed teacher of the class. The course in¬ cluded the study of textiles, salesmanship, color and design as applied to the work, business arithmetic, English, civics, hygiene, and economics. SALESMANSHIP IN MERCANTILE ESTABLISHMENTS. As this movement represents something of a departure in public education whereby teachers employed by the board of education offer Instruction to the employees in private establishments, it may be well to state the basis upon which it rests. The controlling motive is to be the educational and social improvement of the employees themselves, which shall result in improved service for the public. Upon these grounds the plan can be justified as a measure of public education, even though one of the direct results is an improved service for the employers. More satisfactory and valuable service for the employer follows, as a matter of course, from increased intelligence and skill on the part of the employees and from improved service to the public. With this position clearly understood and accepted, we have no hesitation in sending teachers into commercial and industrial establishments to perform their work under conditions most favorable for teaching the theory that is to be wrought out into practice under real commercial and industrial condi¬ tions. SALESMANSHIP IN THE HIGH SCHOOL. In September, 1914, salesmanship was introduced into Woodward High School as an elective in all grades. Ninety students are enrolled. In the commercial department it is planned to have a three-year course, beginning in the second year and extending through the fourth. Students are to work part time in the various department stores. A few high-school students are already working part time in the stores. MESSENGER SERVICE. In October, 1914, the superintendent of schools authorized the establishing of an elementary cooperative course for messengers, whereby boys would be permitted to attend school for half time, both the work and the study to be under the general direction of school officials cooperating with the officials of the messenger service. Only boys over 15 years of age are permitted to enter the service, the aim being to give to those boys permitted by law to leave school a chance to become wage earners and at the same time to receive extended school training. Conferences with the superintendents of the messenger companies followed, with the result that officials of the Western Union not only promised coopera¬ tion but offered to provide, at the expense of the company, the equipment nec¬ essary for teaching telegraphy and the services of an expert teacher, in order that boys electing to take a course in telegraphy might have full opportunity to master its technicalities. The boys who have entered the service meet alternate weeks for class instruction at the Guilford Continuation School. EDUCATION IN THE LARGER CITIES. 39 VOLUNTARY ATTENDANCE IN HOME ECONOMICS. Classes are formed in any school district where 20 or more women make application for a definite line of instruction. They meet once a week in a two-hour session. The enthusiasm and interest in this work is shown in the enrollment, which has reached 2,000. Specific training is given in one branch and a general course in home eco¬ nomics, including lectures and discussions on topics relating to household prob¬ lems. The aim in all work is to strengthen the bond between the home and the school and to awaken a spirit of community interest and helpfulness. VOLUNTARY CONTINUATION SCHOOLS FOB APPRENTICES. The continuation school for machine-shop and pattern-maker apprentices was organized about seven years ago, after an agreement had been entered into by a number of employers and the board of education, whereby apprentices were to be sent to school one-half day per week without loss of pay, the board of education agreeing to maintain the school, while the employers sent their boys and paid their wages. This school is in session throughout the year. The principal and his assistant spend Monday morning and Saturday morning visiting shops in which the boys are employed. The methods of teaching are unique, and most of the instruction is individual. Another field in which outside agencies are developing work closely related to that of the schools is in the introduction of visiting housekeepers. In New York and Cleveland the social workers of the United Charities have found fine opportunities for this service, and the tenement-house inspectors in our large cities have also been able to do much. If the home is considered as the real laboratory con¬ nected with domestic science and domestic art courses, as the shop is in connection with trade courses, some visiting relationship may become both possible and advisable. BETTER OPPORTUNITIES FOR GRADE PUPILS. Boston and Cincinnati are both dealing with the problem of closer adjustment between the kindergarten and primary grades. The object is not so much to save time for the pupils as to so integrate the work that the pupils will learn certain habits in the kindergarten which will be of value in primary work and will use in the primary grades more of the knowledge and skill attained in the kindergarten.1 Summer schools for elementary pupils continue to grow in favor. Newark, N. J., registered 10,000, and Jersey City over 8,000 during the last summer. Nashville gave credit this fall to those pupils who attended the demonstration school conducted at George Peabody College for Teachers last summer. Cincinnati, Ohio, and Decatur, Ill., are among the cities which are attempting this work on a small scale. 1 See also Ch. XV ; and Educ. Ball., 1915, No. 24. 40 EDUCATION REPORT, 1915. ATYPICAL CHILDREN. The public is becoming interested in the supernormal child; the press is eager for information regarding this type of child ; and the school is rapidly becoming aware that it has neglected this problem. Rapid advancement classes are held for these children in certain cities, in others extra work is given them in regular classes. But as yet few cities have had the courage to attempt to develop a pro¬ gram exactly fitted to their needs, nor have the psychological clinics said much regarding tests to discover the supernormal. Wherever psychological laboratories have been established in con¬ nection with the public schools they have found it impossible to keep pace with the surprisingly large demand for examination of sub¬ normal cases. These naturally attract most attention because an un¬ due proportion of the teacher’s time is consumed in the vain effort to have them master the traditional course of study, a course which is little suited to their needs. Ways and means are being sought to relieve the regular classrooms of these misfits. It is not an easy problem nor one to be solved without increased expenditures; for it means small classes, varied equipment, and materials which cost more per capita than books. All this benefits the supernormal child at least indirectly for it enables him to secure more attention in pro¬ portion as the regular teacher is released from the impossible task of keeping subnormal children up to grade. After the more obvious task of dealing with the subnormal has been accomplished the still more valuable service to the State of devising a suitable program for the supernormal will doubtless receive increased atten¬ tion. Among the plans for subnormal pupils the system of centers, begun in Boston in 1912, has been well developed in Newark, N. J. There are a few individual classes for defectives in out-lying schools, but most pupils of this type are cared for in a series of schools used by them alone. Classification is by mental age; each building has shops, gymnasium, and playground all sensibly equipped ; work in the usual school subjects is limited to those who can profit by it. One of these schools has a large kitchen with both kitchen and laundry appliances. Each class, except the youngest, spends one period a day in scrubbing, laundering, cooking, or dishwashing. Careful training is given in these home activities. Each child is at liberty to bring his lunch from home or to buy the lunch prepared in the kitchen. He is given hot soup if he brings a cold lunch. White tablecloths and napkins are used, and the lunch tables are carefully set and served. The children are very happy in the work. Parents report that they are more contented at home because they can take part in the home activities. There is a trade aspect also to the work, EDUCATION IN THE LARGER CITIES. 41 for these pupils may become unskilled laborers in small laundries, bakeries, and restaurants. St. Louis has opened a psychological clinic at the College for Teachers imder the direction of Dr. J. E. W. Wallin. Detroit has employed an educational clinicist on part time. It is now possible to engage a trained clinicist for brief periods, so that the best service is at the call of the smallest city. HEALTH OF SCHOOL CHILDREN.1 More and more is the health of school children considered as part of the business of the school. In no other department does the school administrator find it so easily possible to affiliate with the professions on one hand and the general public on the other. The public is accustomed to the school physician and is rapidly becoming used to the school dentist. The school nurse has become established as a necessary part of the administrative system. Both the practical and the theoretical sides of this subject have received marked attention during the past year. The school lunch problem came acutely to the front in New York because of the unusual suffering caused by unemployment, and the school lunch service was extended to meet these conditions. Other cities felt the same pressure and responded accordingly; but there seems to be growth also because of a realization that when the school’s requirements make it difficult for pupils to reach home easily for a warm lunch, it is the business of the school to face the lunch problem. The cold lunch eaten in a corner is not conducive either to health or to good social relations. This is a business proposition. Our busi¬ ness houses and factories are finding it to their interests to furnish luncheon opportunities to their employees, and New York has recently opened a lunchroom managed by civic authorities for the accommodation of civic employees. In many cities attention is still centered on the problem of equip¬ ment and administration. Those cities which have settled the admin¬ istrative problems of the school lunch are busy with the scientific and educational phases. Philadelphia’s studies of cost and value in calo¬ ries have been followed by attempts to work out a balanced ration. One New York school requires 1 cent to be spent for a proteid, 1 cent for bread; the rest of the lunch is a matter of choice. Other schools suggest several menus, each being a balanced ration. Cost, balance, and calorie value are the three factors in which the public needs education. The experiments on ventilation carried on by the New York State commission on ventilation are being watched with interest by school men. The College of the City of New York furnished rooms so 1 See also Ch. XVII. 42 EDUCATION REPORT, 1915. equipped that heat, motion, humidity, and freshness could each be separately controlled. College students volunteered to do mental work under varying conditions of ventilation, a small sum being paid them for their services. Results showed vaso-motor efficiency as studied by the Crampton method to be 50 per cent greater at 68° than at 86°. There was no change in mental efficiency with high temperature, nor with stagnant versus fresh air, though the stagnant air diminished the appetite. The presence of carbon-dioxide in much larger amounts than has been thought safe, had no deleterious ef¬ fects. These experiments will be continued. Conditions in certain New York schoolrooms will be changed in accordance with the knowledge thus gained, and we shall eventually have a scientific basis for our ventilating systems. New York’s board of health is experimenting with sunning and scrubbing as a substitute for fumigating both in homes and in pub¬ lic buildings, basing this practice upon the experimental work in destruction of germs carried on in Rhode Island. Comparison of results in the checking of contagious diseases in the districts in which the new methods are used with those where fumigation is continued, will be of interest to all school men. The aggressive work of State and city dental associations is bearing much fruit. Preservation of the first teeth is receiving more attention. Dr. Osier states that the loss to the Nation from the neglect of children’s teeth is as great as the loss from alcohol. No city as yet reports as comprehensive a program as that of Bridgeport, Conn., though a recent court decision in Ohio that the cleaning of teeth is a hygienic not a professional operation makes such a pro¬ gram feasible in that State. Meantime motion pictures, popular lec¬ tures, and the distribution of literature are awakening the parents. An “ oral hygiene week ” is used to focus attention upon this im¬ portant matter. Dental clinics are opening in many cities. Though the following statement of what the American school should be is far from realization in any city, nevertheless it sets up a fitting twentieth-century goal toward which the best schools are tending. It is from the Pittsburgh souvenir of the Pennsylvania State educational association: SCHOOLS WITH A PERFECT SCORE. A PITTSBURGH IDEAL. The schools of the people should give to the children: Ample provision for exercise and joyous play. Buildings simple, but stately; thoughtfully planned, skillfully built, gener¬ ously equipped. A course of study offering training for service and appreciation; presenting in the order of their importance those things which contribute to a strong, healthy body, an alert, sure mind, a fine, steadfast spirit. EDUCATION IN THE LARGER CITIES. 43 Those things in art or craft which develop to the full the latent ability of each one to serve his fellows with dexterous hand, a lofty mind, and a glad heart, rich in response to the beautiful and noble in life. Teachers who love children with a parent’s love and books with a scholar’s fondness; who find beauty and joy in service; are large of vision, learners always. A training which leads from learning and doing on to wisdom, to high ideals, to service as a sacred trust, to worthy citizenship, to character. And, having given these things to the children, the schools of the people should also give to all citizens an exalted, neighborly life more abundant, making the big red schoolhouse a radiating center for the final good of all Americans and then for the world. INCREASED COOPERATION OF CIVIC AUTHORITIES AND INSTITUTIONS. No better means has been discovered for training children in citi¬ zenship than the bringing about of situations in which children feel themselves to be integral parts of civic life. The sporadic campaign undertaken for improving civic conditions is increasingly likely to include the school children as workers with other civic forces. Clean-up day and fire-prevention day enlist the support of tlie schools. Fly campaigns are waged unceasingly. The Brooklyn Rapid Transit Co. is cooperating with the schools in a “ safety first ” campaign, hoping to train pupils to be more careful in crossing streets and in alighting from street cars. Police women have been appointed in 25 cities ; among these Chi¬ cago has 20, Los Angeles 5, Baltimore 5, Seattle 5, Pittsburgh 4, San Francisco and St. Paul 3 each, Minneapolis, Topeka, and Kansas City 2 each. While not primarily connected with the schools, they supplement the work of attendance officers in many ways, being especially helpful in looking after older girls. The Metropolitan Museum of Art and the American Museum of Natural History are both extending their work in connection with the public schools of New York City. Teachers are instructed how to explain exhibits to their classes; lectures are given in certain schools; slides are loaned; and the natural history museum is open¬ ing a branch exhibition museum in Washington Irving High School. In Providence, R. I., the Park Museum has arranged for some mem¬ ber of its staff to speak at each of the IT grammar school three times a year. This cooperation of museum authorities promises the same type of valuable help which our libraries have been giving so gen¬ erously for many years. The libraries are continuing to inaugurate new methods of helpfulness.1 Emphasis upon training in thrift is bringing the banks of many cities into close touch with the schools. In most cities the teachers conduct the necessary business; in others a social worker or a bank official visits the school. In Little Rock, Ark., six banks have united 1 See also Ch. XXII. 44 EDUCATION REPORT, 1915. to pay the salary of a manager for the school savings association, each child choosing the bank in which he will make a deposit. The growing practice of employing women in banks may be another step in helping children to realize that a bank is less official than it looks. This is a field in which the cooperation of outside agencies should be encouraged. That the teaching of thrift is of great importance no one will deny. It does not follow, however, that the actual book¬ keeping that is necessary in taking account of children’s savings should be assumed by the teachers in our public schools. It is suffi¬ cient for them to provide opportunities for the children to resort to the desk of the bank representative or philanthropic worker in the school office or hallway and by word and example encourage children to form the habit of saving. The detailed work involved in ac¬ counting penny savings is an unprofitable use of the energy and time of a teacher or school principal. It is easy to secure outside interest and cooperation in this enterprise, for it appeals strongly to organi¬ zations that are in an excellent position to assume charge of the details. SCHOOLS AS SOCIAL CENTERS. The passage of legislation enabling Washington, D. C., to use its school buildings as social centers promises valuable opportunities to the residents of the Nation’s capital city. There will be no lack of inspiring leaders in such a city. St. Louis has won a three-year fight for legislation to allow her to open her schools for social centers. Plans for individual neighborhoods will be developed largely by each, but a supervisor will probably be appointed to help with the organization. Boston expends about $30,000 annually in social- center work. In the auditorium of its new High School of Commerce, Spring- field, Mass., is providing motion-picture entertainments each Friday afternoon and evening. Three audiences of 1,000 to 1,600 persons have been accommodated at each performance thus far. At 2.30 p. m., a high-school audience is admitted; at 4 p, m., a grammar- school audience, and at 8 p. m., an adult audience, the last at a nomi¬ nal charge of 5 ' cents for each person to pay operating expenses. Among the films in the year’s program are several based on literature used in the grades and high school. The rental of the films is a charge upon the budget of the school. One of the science teachers has qualified as an operator and the prin¬ cipal of the school has general charge. The 5 cents admission fee collected at the evening performance for adults pays for this service and all incidental expenses. The motion-picture machine is the property of the school. EDUCATION IN THE LARGER CITIES. 45 ORGANIZATION OF TIIE ASSOCIATION OF URBAN UNIVERSITIES. The development of State universities has been recognized as a fine forward sweep of democratic education, but the municipal university is now making a strong appeal for support on the ground that it is still more democratic. It offers higher education to the youth of the city, who can live at home more economically than away. By co¬ operation with city departments it offers these the services of expert professors and earnest students; while the testing of theories in the light of actual conditions forces the theorist to improve his theories, and research is stimulated. It is still further claimed that by initiat¬ ing the future citizen into the mysteries of the conduct of civic af¬ fairs by actual constructive work, it may inaugurate the higher municipal consciousness so greatly needed. The organization of the Association of Urban Universities at Washington last winter emphasizes the growing importance of this problem. State legislation has been analyzed so that any city can easily find what statutory changes need to be made in order to permit taxation for a municipal university. Ohio still leads in numbers, universities at Toledo and Akron having been opened in addition to that at Cincinnati, the pioneer as a real municipal university. The way is being paved for such a university in Detroit, a city eminently fitted to support such an institution. RIGHTS AND DUTIES OF TEACHERS. Among the encouraging phases of educational growth is the in¬ creasing tendency among grade teachers to seek a larger responsi¬ bility professionally, to become a more intelligent part of the ad¬ ministrative school unit. The progressive superintendent welcomes this added cooperation, endeavoring to make it directly serviceable to the school system. The selection of textbooks, the organization of courses of study, the development of new lines of work, and the arousing of public sentiment in favor of increased taxation for school purposes, are matters in which teachers have rendered inestimable service to many communities. By careful study of salaries and liv¬ ing condition, certain groups have brought about more equable ad¬ justment of salaries. Other groups are making studies of the health of teachers which promise to be exceedingly valuable. Illinois has a plan of affiliation between the State and sectional teachers’ organizations whereby teachers can work together for needed legislation. The extension of woman’s suffrage has brought added power to teachers in many States. It can not arouse surprise that so new a force, working within an institution somewhat conservative in many of its procedures, causes questions to be asked as to the rights and wrongs of customary lines 46 EDUCATION REPORT, 1915. of action. Nor is it strange that different cities see these questions from varying angles. New York has been greatly agitated during the past year by the question of the teacher-mother. The decision of Commissioner Fin¬ ley that the attitude of the board of education was opposed to public policy operated to change the board’s rules and to reinstate a number of teacher-mothers. The commissioner, however, ruled against the reinstatement of two teachers, one of whom had considered herself justified in practicing deception, while the other had printed an un¬ dignified criticism of the board in the public press. Chicago has recently ruled against teachers becoming federated with labor unions, a subject which has been a bone of contention in Cleveland also. Final adjudication of these relationships as they come to the front will rest in our courts and in those charged with authority; no ques¬ tion being settled, if we maintain our traditions, until it has been determined on the basis of what is for the best welfare of the children in the schools. CHAPTER III. EDUCATION IN THE SMALLER CITIES. By W. S. Deffenbaugh, Chief of Division of School Administration, Bureau of Education. Contexts. — The school board — The schools and the municipality — Business manage¬ ment — The full-time secretary — School reports — The superintendent — Teachers — Course of study and organization — Growth of high schools — Kindergartens — Cooper¬ ating with the community — School credit for home work — Home and school gardens — Cooperative courses — Wider use of the school plant — Retardation — School savings banks — Miscellaneous items. During the past year or two the most important steps taken by many schools in the smaller cities have been the reorganization of the course of study, especially in the seventh and eighth grades, the introduction of some form of industrial work and domestic science, and a better cooperation between the school and the community. The greatest growth has undoubtedly been in the high schools — in enrollment, in improved courses, and in better buildings and equip¬ ment. THE SCHOOL BOARD. Few changes have been made during the past year by general legislative enactment or by special charter provision in the manner of electing school board members, in the length of term, in the num¬ ber of members, or in the relation of the school board to the city council. Eecent charter changes at Way cross, Ga., provide that the mayor of the city shall become a member of the board of education and a member of the finance committee. The declared object of the change is to bring about a closer relation between the city council and the school board. At Americus, Ga., the charter has been amended with the provision that the members of the board be elected by the city council as formerly, but that they be nominated by the board of education, the idea being that the board of education knows best what members take an interest in the schools. The school board at Henderson, N. C., which has formerly been self-perpetuating, is now elected by popular vote. The schools at Nyack, N. Y., by special act of the legislature, shift from a special charter administration to the 47 48 EDUCATION REPORT, 1915. general education law. The schools at Jacksonville, Ill., also change from special charter to the general law. THE SCHOOLS AND THE MUNICIPALITY. One of the most radical changes in the management of a school system in a small city has been at Asheville, N". C. An act amending the charter of that city provides that the schools be placed directly in charge of the board of commissioners, which is composed of three members — the commissioner of public works, commissioner of pub¬ lic safety, and the mayor, who is the commissioner of public accounts and finances. Since this movement of placing the schools under the direct con¬ trol of the city commission is so recent, the new charter provisions relating to the schools of Asheville are given herewith in full: PUBLIC SCHOOLS. The board of commissioners shall be charged with the duty of maintaining an adequate and sufficient system of public schools in the city of Asheville, and shall construct and maintain proper buildings, and to that end the public- school buildings and all other property now used or which may be hereafter acquired within the city of Asheville for school purposes shall be under their control and subject to the disposition of the said board of commissioners ; and the said board shall have the power and authority to condemn lands and to do and perform any and all other acts, to acquire and control school property, as is given or may be conferred by law upon said board with reference to acquiring lands for streets or any other public purposes, and may control school property and grounds in like manner as they are empowered to control streets ; and the said board of commissioners shall also have such power with regard to the public schools of Asheville as is now conferred by law upon the board of county commissioners of Buncombe County and the board of education of Buncombe County with regard to the public schools of the county ; and the said board of commissioners of Asheville shall have charge of the collection of taxes to maintain the schools and construct school buildings and the handling and disbursement of all moneys used for school purposes; and it shall be the duty of said board of commissioners of the city of Asheville to appropriate from the funds of the city, in addition to the special school funds, such amounts as may be necessary to discharge their duties of maintaining an adequate and sufficient system of public schools. The board of commissioners are charged with the duty of electing biennially a competent, skilled, and expert man as superintendent of the public schools of the city of Asheville, and also such other teachers and employees for the conduct of such schools as may be necessary for such time as they may indi¬ cate: Provided, All teachers and other employees in said schools shall be selected from a list submitted to the board by the superintendent; and if the board is unable or refuses to select from the list so furnished it shall call on the superintendent from time to time for other lists, which it shall be his duty to furnish. It shall be the duty of the superintendent in making his recommendations and the board in electing persons to serve the public schools’ interests to con¬ sider ability, education, character, and efficiency for the performance of the EDUCATION IN TITE SMALLER CITIES. 49 duties for which such person or persons’ names are being considered and allow these qualities to control in making such selection. Only persons who are bona file residents of the city shall be entitled as pupils to the benefits of the public schools thereof : Provided, however, if there be fa¬ cilities after providing for the education of all residents, nonresidents of the city may be admitted by the board of commissioners to the public schools of Asheville upon the payment of such charges as the board may determine, by order spread upon its minutes, is just. It shall be the duty of the superintendent of schools of Asheville to devote his time and attention exclusively to them during the school year, except when leave of absence is granted by the board of commissioners for short periods for good cause. He shall have immediate and direct control over all teachers and janitors of the school buildings, and other persons in charge thereof, and shall be responsible for their efficiency, and he shall have power to discharge any teacher or other employee connected with the schools, for any cause satisfactory to himself, and to maintain discipline and order, and establish rules and regula¬ tions for the government of the schools, and from his rulings, with respect to these matters, there shall be right of appeal to the board of commissioners. He shall report to board of commissioners, within 24 hours after any employee is discharged, the fact of such discharge ; and if the superintendent is requested by any member of the board of commissioners to state his reasons for discharg¬ ing any employee, he shall, within 48 hours after such request is made, make to the board of commissioners, in writing, a full report of his action, and of all reasons influencing him to discharge such employee. The superintendent of public schools of Asheville shall be subject to be removed from his office by the board of commissioners for inefficiency, or other cause satisfactory to the said board, and from that action by the board there shall be no appeal or review. The argument generally advanced in favor of placing the schools under the city commission is that all the affairs of a city should be managed as a business corporation by one board; that under this plan the departments of the city work together harmoniously; that where the schools are under the board of commissioners the health department, the police department, and the finance department will cooperate more heartily and promptly with the schools than they do in cities where the schools are considered a distinct department, sepa¬ rate and apart from the city government. How this theory works out in practice will be awaited with equal interest by those who claim that the schools should not have a separate management apart from municipal affairs, and by those who claim that the school department is large enough and important enough to have a management of its own by a board independent of the city commissioners or the city council. Though there has been but little legislation within the last year or two regarding city schools, the opinion has been expressed on several occasions that there “is still much for State legislatures to do before all the cities of the country have good schools.” An in¬ stance is cited in the American. 3 cKqoJJqt March, 1Q15, of a council 12034° — ed 1915 — vol 1 - 4 50 EDUCATION REPORT, 1915. in a small city killing a needed bond issue for school purposes and a few evenings later floating a bond issue to purchase some equipment for the city. The editor, commenting upon the action of the city council, says: The board of education, not the city council, knows whether more school- houses and grounds are required ; it is the board of education which should have the right to say when the people shall be asked to vote on bond issues or purchases for school purposes. All over the country where city councils have the power to revise school budgets or to grant or withhold school-build¬ ing appropriations or to decide whether school-bond issues shall be submitted to the people they are buying apparatus and doing paving and raising the wages of city officials with money that belongs to the children. In the State of New York an attempt was made at the last session of the legislature to secure what was considered needed school legis¬ lation. There was offered for the first time in the history of the State a bill to reorganize the school system of all the State. Under the plan proposed all provisions of law relating to the schools of cities now carried on the charters of cities were repealed. It was the intention of the framers of the bill to bring together all the statutes relating to the schools of cities into one general act and to remove school provisions from the charters, so that the continual modification of the charters of cities by the legislature would not involve the schools. There was much opposition to this from the municipal officers, but it is reported that considerable progress was made. Although the bill was defeated, a similar bill will be intro¬ duced in the next legislature. Dr. Thomas E. Finegan, assistant commissioner of education of the State of New York, writing in regard to the lack of a general plan of organization in the management of city schools and of the various special acts of the legislature, says : 1 The school systems of the cities of this State have never been organized upon a general plan having special reference to policies which the students of school administration are generally agreed will produce the best educational results. In fact, the school systems in the cities of this State have not been organized upon a general plan of any character. The schools in the cities have very generally been organized in accordance with the ideas of the municipal officers of each city. The cases are rare in which the men charged with the responsibility of the management of the school systems of a city have been consulted as to the basis of the legal structure of such system. This procedure in such matters has resulted in a general policy of associating the laws govern¬ ing a city school system with the statutes regulating the municipal functions instead of associating such laws with the general statutes on public education. In 35 cities of the State the laws regulating the local management of the schools are incorporated in the charters of such cities. In 12 other cities the laws governing the local direction of the schools have been enacted as special statutes. The antiquated, proviSiqn^ .enacted into the consolidated school act, now the education Jlaw^ ever a quhr^qr,.'^ a .century ago, together with cer- 1 University of the State of New York*. “Bulletin No. 577, p. 59. EDUCATION IN THE SMALLER CITIES. 51 tain special laws, regulate the local control of the schools in the five other cities of the State. * * * These laws in many cities give to the municipal authorities greater power in the management of the schools than is given to the legally designated school officers. In such cases the schools are regarded by the municipal authorities as mere municipal bureaus and looked upon as furnishing the same legitimate patronage to sustain the political end of the city government as the street de¬ partment, the fire department, the police department, and other purely city de¬ partments. The cities whose schools are managed by their regularly chosen school officers with freedom and independence have the best and most flourishing schools. The cities whose schools are submerged into the municipal government and whose school policies are dominated from the city hall have the poorest schools. The propositions to revise city charters, which are constantly pre¬ sented to the legislature, create a feeling of unrest and uncertainty in educa¬ tional matters which is detrimental to the schools in 'those cities in which the laws regulating the schools are a part of the city charters. The schools in about one-half of the cities of the State have suffered from this action within the last three years. The special laws which control the schools in other cities are in many instances inadequate to the proper management of a modern city school system. It should be unnecessary for a city of the second class to come to the legislature to obtain authority to erect a technical high school, or for a city of the third class to be compelled to obtain permission from the legislature to permit its citizens to vote upon a proposition to appropriate $24,000 for the erection of an elementary school system, as has recently been the case. These are questions which each city should have the power to determine. The laws governing their schools should confer that power. BUSINESS MANAGEMENT. As an example of what boards in the smaller cities are beginning to do to manage the business affairs of the schools efficiently, the fol¬ lowing account of a plan inaugurated by the school board of Alpena, Mich., in September, 1914, is given: During the summer before installing the new system the superintendent took a complete inventory of every dollar’s worth of property owned by the schools. The assets were inventoried as follows : Real estate, buildings, furniture, equip¬ ment, fuel, supplies, unexpired insurance. Inventory sheets covering every¬ thing of value in each building are kept on file in the superintendent’s office, duplicates of the same being in the hands of the principals of the several buildings. New furniture and equipment added during the year increase the fixed investment and are noted on the inventory sheets. A general ledger account is kept for each of the accounts noted above. All purchases are now made from the superintendent’s office, purchase orders of which duplicates are kept, being issued for each purchase made. The duplicates are checked when the goods are received and are then transferred to a binder designed for filled purchase orders. Bills for the same presented before the 5th of the month are approved by the finance committee of the board of education, ordered paid by the board of education at its regular meeting, and paid by voucher check drawn on the treasurer, signed by the president and secretary of the board, and issued from the superintendent’s office. This obviates the necessity of receipts for the payment of bills. Teach¬ ers’ salaries are paid at the bank from a monthly pay roll, one warrant covering all. 52 EDUCATION REPORT, 1915. Supply requisitions are sent to the office twice each month by ward princi¬ pals for school and janitors’ supplies. These are filled, priced, and charged to the school at the end of the month, the stock rooms being credited with the amount taken from them. . The cash book keeps an account of all school receipts, such as primary funds, interest, tax appropriations, nonresident tuition fees, etc. It also records all warrants issued and the distribution of the same to the various departments. It is self-balancing. The expense ledger is a record for the month and year to date of the expense in salaries, supplies, fuel, insurance, repairs, etc., by schools and departments. The ledger and journal are simply double-entry records of the daily transactions. The monthly statement, including a balance sheet, is a recapitulation of the month’s business, a statement of the average attendance by schools and departments, and a comparison of the total expense and per capita cost of education by school and department for the present and corresponding month of the preceding year, and for the present and preceding years to date. It is always accessible to the patrons of the schools and is easily understood by the uninitiated. THE FULL-TIME SECRETARY. Some boards in cities of more than 10,000 population have found it profitable to employ a secretary to give all his time to clerical work. The duties of such an officer consist not merely in recording transactions, but in acting as business agent under the direction of the superintendent. Where this plan is in operation it is possible to hold one person, instead of a half dozen committees, responsible for carrying out the orders of the board relating to business matters. In some cities the superintendent’s clerk is profitably made the secretary of the board. One superintendent in a city of about 12,000 population, who has recently had his clerk made secretary of the school board, says: The superintendent becomes the executive head of the school system in the full sense of the word both in respect to professional and business matters. In fact he really becomes a sort of general manager with a threefold function — supervisor of instruction, inspector, and business manager. Under proper con¬ ditions this in no wise interferes with the prerogatives of the school board, but it does eliminate the assumed prerogatives of individual members of the board. The superintendent must get his authority from the board as a whole or from committees to whom definite duties are assigned. Instead of our secretary being a school-board member, whose private duties make it necessary for him to consider his secretaryship a side issue, we employ a man who gives all of his attention to our business. As a consequence the business phase of the administration of the schools is “up to the minute,” and professional matters are not sidetracked on account of the slowness of the business department. SCHOOL REPORTS. Superintendents are beginning to make careful investigations of school conditions and to report the facts with interpretations to the school boards and to the public. Some of the reports now contain EDUCATION IN THE SMALLER CITIES. 53 fiscal statistics properly classified, with per capita costs worked out for each item of expenditure for elementary and high schools, and in a few instances per capita cost for each building. Several reports contain tables showing the per capita cost of each subject taught in the high school. In one report at least the cost of fuel is reduced to a unit basis of 1,000 cubic feet. Most reports for 1914 contain tables showing enrollment by ages and grades. Some few introduce tables showing to what extent retardation has been reduced. Other statistical tables showing present conditions as compared with con¬ ditions a few years ago are included in a fewT reports. Though only a few reports contain tables showing progress from year to year or from period to period, there is every indication of a tendency to make a greater use of comparative statistics. Several of the reports practically amount to school surveys made by superintendents and their assistants. It is realized that a super¬ intendent should continually “ survey ” his schools and embody the significant facts in his annual reports. Dansville, N. Y., affords an excellent example of this.1 Another investigation of note was that made under the direction of the superintendent of schools at Man¬ kato, Minn. In September, 1914, the superintendent appointed a com¬ mittee consisting of the high-school principal, the principal of five grade schools, and five teachers for the purpose of making a study of the matter of vocational guidance in relation to the schools of Mankato. The committee adopted the following aims and program for its work: AIMS. 1. To find ont whether or not Mankato has a problem of children leaving school without guidance and without proper training to insure their earning an incotne sufficient for an efficient standard of living. 2. To gather statistics which would enable us to compare from local condi¬ tions the advantages toward occupational life of a high-school course with leaving school before entering the high school. 8. To find out why children do leave school before entering the high school. 4. To find out what occupational opportunities exist in Mankato and what employers demand in regard to the training of the pupils. 5. To find out if the school is meeting this demand. 6. To gather a fund of information along vocational lines that will be useful in the work of vocational counseling. PBOGRAM OF WOBK. 1. A survey of the causes for children leaving school after having reached the age of 16 or finishing the eighth grade and before entering the high school. 2. The causes for pupils in the high school leaving school before finishing their course. 1 See chapter on School surveys (Ch. XVIII). 54 EDUCATION REPORT, 1915. 3. A survey of the vocational career of those who have left the schools before finishing and after graduation from high school. 4. A survey of the vocational opportunities in Mankato. 5. A careful consideration of the facts secured and a report, with recom¬ mendations, to the board of education. For lack of space a summary of conclusions can not he presented in the chapter, but the following tables are presented because of their significance : Occupations at Starting Work. Those who left school before enter¬ ing high school, per cent entering each occupation : Per cent. Delivery boy - 16 Elevator boy _ 2. 5 Candy factory _ 2. 5 Farming and gardens _ 5 Apprentices _ 6 House and domestic _ 6 Tub factory _ 5 Waitress _ 5 Clerks _ 10 Foundry, machine shop _ 1. 25 Overall and shirt factory _ 2. 5 At the Free Press _ . _ 1. 25 Offices and banks _ 3. 75 Railroad work _ _ _ ^ _ 1. 25 At 5-cent and 10-cent stores _ 5 Help at home (girls) _ 12 Knitting mills _ 1. 25 Miscellaneous _ 6. 25 Those who left during their high- school course: Per cent. Stay at home _ 20 Clerking _ 20 Farming _ _ 17 Apprentices in trades _ 13 Office work _ 8 Laborers _ 8 Miscellaneous _ _ 4 Those Who Finished High School. (Out of school 3 or more years ; 437 persons listed. ) Per cent. Those in colleges, normal, profes¬ sional courses, or whose occupa¬ tion required such preparation. 58 Engaged in commercial and busi¬ ness pursuits _ ... _ 17 Home makers (married or helping at home) _ _ 19 Miscellaneous _ 6 Occupations — listed in order of num¬ ber engaged : Teaching. Married (home makers). Colleges. Mercantile pursuits. Normal schools. Lawyers. Dentists. Doctors. Banks and offices. Staying at home. Engineers and architects. Farmers. Salesmen. Musicians. Stenographers and bookkeepers. Business colleges. Railroad work. Librarian. Physical directors. Art students and workers. Laundrymen. Army. Private secretary. Nurse. Linotype operator. Land and real estate business. EDUCATION IN THE SMALLER CITIES. 55 The wages received by the people investigated in the groups who left school before entering high school and those who left during their high-school course are here given : Approximate wages earned at present by all earning. Weekly wage. Below high school. High school. *4 to *6 . Per cent. 38 Per cent. 0 $tj to SS . 22 10 ?8to*10 . 22 30 $10 to *12 . 13 35 $12 to *15 and above . 5 25 THE SUPERINTENDENT. School boards in the smaller cities are gradually granting superin¬ tendents more power in the selection and promotion of teachers, and in the selection of textbooks. Some of the rules recently adopted by school boards define rather definitely the powers and duties of the superintendent and indicate the general tendency to enlarge his duties and make him responsible for the efficient management of the system of schools under his charge. It is now recognized by many school boards that the superintendent must be the head of the system and that any meddling on the part of the board or of individual members of the board in matters that belong to a paid expert is to be condemned.1 Salaries of superintendents in the smaller cities are steadily ad¬ vancing. It is now possible for a superintendent in a city of from 10,000 to 25,000 population to have an income of about $2,400 a year. In some of the more progressive of the smaller cities the salary of the superintendent is now $3,000 or $4,000 a year. During the past year the salaries of a number of superintendents were increased $500 a year, and in some cities the increase was as much as $700 or $800 a year. School boards are beginning to realize that if a school system is to make progress steadily there must not be a change of superintendents every year or two, and that it is usually better to advance the salary of the superintendent who is producing good results than it is to take chances on securing another superintendent who may prove equally efficient. It may also be noted that there is at the present time less use made of superintendenev positions as stepping stones to other professions. A few years ago it was not unusual to find a superin¬ tendent in the smaller cities preparing for another line of work. Superintendents in these cities are beginning to discuss their own problems rather than the problems of the larger cities. One of the 1 For copies of rules and regulations adopted by progressive cities, see Bulletin, 1915, No. 44, “ School Administration in the Smaller Cities.” 56 EDUCATION REPORT, 1915. largest round-tables at the Department of Superintendence of the National Educational Association is that for superintendents of schools in cities of less than 25,000 population. A program was first arranged for such superintendents for the department meeting in 1914. In 1915 President Henry Snyder formulated a program of unusual interest. This round-table proved so popular and helpful that it was unanimously voted by those in attendance to ask the presi¬ dent of the department to arrange, if possible without interfering with the general program, two sessions at the department meeting in 1916. Some of the State educational associations have provided round¬ table programs for city superintendents, but several of the associa¬ tions existing in States where there are a number of city superin¬ tendents fail to provide such programs. If special programs for rural school supervisors prove beneficial to these officials, programs relating especially to city school problems would, no doubt, prove helpful to city superintendents. In a few of the States city superintendents held special con¬ ferences for the study of their problems. In New Jersey, for ex¬ ample, there were held during the year 1914-15 three such confer¬ ences of two days each for superintendents in the smaller cities. Among the topics discussed were : Methods of helping inexperienced teachers, profitable district and grade meetings, efficiency of super¬ vision as measured by, results, and efficiency of supervision as meas¬ ured by instruction. In addition to these conferences the State superintendent of public instruction arranged for a special con¬ ference week of superintendents and principals during the summer. TEACHERS. Reports continue to indicate that school boards in the smaller cities are gradually raising the standard for beginning teachers. Many boards will not now employ high-school graduates unless they have had two years of professional preparation in addition to a four-year high-school course. Salary schedules are also being changed or modified, so that teach¬ ers who attend summer training schools or in some way make further preparation are rewarded with an increase of salary. Salary sched¬ ules that promote teachers upon experience alone are still common, but the tendency is to promote teachers largely upon merit and addi¬ tional preparation. The following rules regarding the promotion of teachers are typical of many received at this bureau : 1 1 Other interesting promotion plans for smaller cities are those of Ann Arbor, Mich., Newton, Kans., and Waynesburg, Pa. EDUCATION IN THE SMALLER CITIES. 57 ALPENA, MICH. For grade teachers the minimum salary of a normal or college graduate without experience will be $500 ; with experience the salary will be $550. For all others the salary will be $450 without experience and $475 with experience. Annual increases of $25 will be given until the maximum of $600 is reached. Teachers who attain the maximum salary may, after a four-year period, receive $650 provided they have fulfilled all the conditions ; after a second four- year period such teachers may receive $700. Regular teachers in the grades who have taught 10 years or more will receive the maximum salary beginning with 1915-16. Teachers who have taught 10 years or more in graded schools may receive the maximum salary beginning 1915-16, with the privilege of having the first four-year period shortened to a two-year period. Teachers who have taught five years or more and who have complied with the conditions (a) or (c), namely, attend one of the State normal schools or some reputable college or university for two summer sessions, or spend two months in extensive travel and make such reports as may be required by the superintendent of schools, may receive the maximum salary. All other teachers in the grades shall be paid salaries for the year 1915-16 as follows : Those receiving $440 will receive $475 ; those whose salary is $470 will receive $500; those who receive $540 will be paid $575; those whose salary is now $570 will receive $600. Six plans are provided under which the teachers may be promoted and receive increases. They are: Plan I — a, d, /, g; Plan II — a, e, f, g; Plan III — b, d, f, g ; Plan IV — b, e, /, g; Plan V — c, d, /, g ; Plan VI — c, e, f, g. The conditions which the teacher must observe are as follows : (a) Attend one of the State normal schools or some reputable college or university for two summer sessions. (b) Carry on systematic study of some definite line of work assigned by the committee on examinations, and pass satisfactory examinations in this work. This work is to be equivalent to that of the two summer terms at one of the State normal schools. (c) Spend two months in extensive travel and make such reports as may be required by the superintendent of schools. (d) Attend the State teachers’ association two years, and make reports as may be required by the superintendent of schools. ( e ) Spend four days (not more than two in any one system, and not more than two during any one school year) visiting schools in other systems as des¬ ignated by the superintendent and make such reports as he may require. (/) Subscribe for two educational publications, one of which shall be devoted to some other grade or subject than the one taught by the teacher, and make such reports as may be required by the superintendent. (g) Attend teachers’ meetings regularly, and prepare the work thoroughly. A teacher desiring to apply for an increase beyond the maximum shall notify the superintendent in writing at the beginning of the year of the intention to take advantage of one of these plans, and state which plan has been selected. The committee on examination will determine when a teacher has complied with any of the above conditions. In many of the smaller cities teachers’ salaries are so low that it is impossible to obtain normal or college graduates, or if they are obtained and prove successful they remain for only a year or two. In many of the high schools in the small towns and cities near 58 EDUCATION REPORT, 1915. larger cities that offer more salary the teaching corps changes en¬ tirely within a few years. In one city of 12,000 population, located within 40 miles of a large city, 12 of the 15 high-school teachers have found better positions in the large city or in its suburbs within the past three years. Practically all the small cities within a radius of 40 or 50 miles of this large city are continually losing their best teachers to the large city because it can offer better salaries. The following table showing salaries paid teachers in different groups of cities explains, in part at least, why teachers are constantly migrat¬ ing to the larger cities : Comparison of teachers' salaries in different groups of cities. Minimum. Maximum. Average. In cities having more than 250,000 population: High-school teachers . $450 203 $3*150 2, 400 $1, 746 1, 018 1 216 Elementary teachers . In cities having 100,000 and fewer than 250,000 population: High-school teachers . 480 2,400 Elementary teachers . 195 1, 960 791 In cities having 50,000 and fewer than 100,000 population: High-school teachers . 180 2,000 1,069 Elementary teachers . 270 1, 500 3,400 688 In cities having 25,000 and fewer than 50,000 population: High-school teachers . . 400 1,009 Elementary teachers . 200 1,710 641 In cities having 10,000 and fewer than 25,000 population: High-school teachers . 100 2,250 1,500 897 Elementary teachers . 38 602 In cities having 5,000 and fewer than 10,000 population: High-school teachers . 100 1,800 795 Elementary teachers . . . . 104 1,350 533 One of the subjects engaging the attention of superintendents is the improvement of teachers in service. Among the plans worked out are increased salary for attending college or university summer schools, general teachers’ meetings, grade meetings, special demon¬ stration classes. At the general teachers’ meetings topics bearing upon general class¬ room management and teaching are discussed by the superintendent and the teachers, by a superintendent from a near-by city or by a professor of education from some college or university. This plan is a great improvement over the old plan of holding teachers’ meet¬ ings where questions of interest to only one or two teachers were dis¬ cussed. The grade meeting now has a place in all progressive-school sys¬ tems. At these meetings problems peculiar to the particular grade are discussed. Often a teacher presents the result of some study she has made in regard to the teaching of a subject in the grade. In connection with the grade meetings demonstration lessons are some¬ times given. For example, a teacher who has made a marked suc¬ cess in teaching arithmetic presents a lesson to her pupils while the other teachers make notes and afterwards discuss the method used. EDUCATION IN THE SMALLER CITIES. 59 Another kind of meeting helpful to teachers is conducted by the principal of the building at which problems relating to general dis¬ cipline are discussed. Often the teachers of the building organize into a reading circle under the direction of the principal and read and discuss during the term two or three books on education. Many of the smaller cities, in States where a city may hold a teachers’ institute apart from the county institute, have taken ad¬ vantage of this provision. A superintendent in a city of about 15,000 population reports that he began holding his own institutes because the county institute was a large mass meeting of 500 teachers where it was impossible for a teacher to derive anything of value from the lectures, most of which were of a popular nature. Since organizing his own institute he has divided the work into depart¬ ments, primary, intermediate, grammar, and high school. A special instructor is employed for each of these for the morning sessions. At the afternoon sessions some one lectures upon a general topic. The superintendent reports that this plan is vastly better than that of meeting with the county institute where instructors too often deal in glittering generalities and the impractical. The use of standard tests, it is uniformly reported, has had a most salutary effect. Many teachers are spurred on to greater efforts when the score made by their pupils in arithmetic, for example, is much below the median for the school. They begin to question their own methods of teaching. Devices for grading teachers on certain points, it is also reported, have been a means for holding the teachers up to a higher standard. A few of the score cards used by superintendents were included in chapter 4, volume 1, of the Report of the Commis¬ sioner of Education for 1914. It is not claimed that these tests are perfect, yet they are better than the happy-go-lucky methods of former days for estimating a teacher’s worth. COURSE OF STUDY AND ORGANIZATION. ELEMENTARY COURSE OF STUDY. Much effort has been spent in simplifying the courses of study. In arithmetic, for example, there is an attempt to eliminate obsolete subject matter. In language study stress is placed upon speaking and writing with clearness rather than upon the mere mechanics of composition. Hygienic living is emphasized and not the memorizing of anatomical terms,, while courses in geography dwell upon the fact that the study of the earth is not a study of the location of capes, etc., but a study of the work of the world. In brief, courses of study show much improvement in the arrangement and in the selection of mate¬ rial, though many schools in the small towns and cities still adhere to old-time courses, teaching subject matter that never had and never will have any direct bearing on life, especially on child life. 60 EDUCATION REPORT, 1915. REORGANIZATION. Many smaller cities are experimenting with the administrative reorganization of the lower elementary grades. At Beaver, Pa., the superintendent has worked out a scheme of departmental work for the elementary grades differing from the usual plan of organization in the elementary school. Grades 1 and 2 constitute one department; grades 3, 4, and 5 a second department; and grades 6, 7, and 8 a third department. In each building there are three teachers for grades 1 and 2, thus making it possible to main¬ tain a separate room for the children in the first half of grade 1. The average registration in each room is 32. The superintendent says that this experiment has more than met expectations in point of efficiency, economy, and the attention given to the indUidual pupil. As Neosho, Mo., the schools have been reorganized so that each subject or group of subjects is taught by a special teacher. The superintendent says that the plan is solving the problem of super¬ visors for the special subjects. One teacher, for instance, teaches all the drawing, another has charge of the playground work, and some construction work for the lower grades. Another teaches all the writing and drawing. The greatest interest in the reorganization of the schools has cen¬ tered on the seventh and eighth grades. For some time the fact has been apparent that pupils lose time in passing through these two grades ; that the work of the elementary school has been unnecessarily dragged out over two extra years; and that a child can come into possession of the school arts in six years. It is felt more and more that in many schools the seventh and eighth grade work repeats very largely that of the fifth and sixth grades. In the fifth grade a pupil studies common and decimal fractions and in the seventh grade he studies these same subjects; in the sixth grade he studies percentage and interest; and again in the eighth grade. In the fifth grade he studies the geography of the United States from a small textbook, and again in the seventh grade, but from a larger textbook. By the time a pupil reaches the seventh grade he has gone over most of the subjects offered in the elementary course. The last two years simply repeat, and the methods em¬ ployed are practically the same drill methods of the fifth and sixth grades. For this reason it is claimed that pupils in the grammar grades are to a great extent merely marking time. Other arguments for a reorganization in the seventh and eighth grades are sufficiently familar. SIX-YEAR HIGH SCHOOL. Many superintendents have been reorganizing their schools on what is popularly known as the six-and-six plan — six years in the elementary grades and six years in the high school, the high-school EDUCATION IN THE SMALLER CITIES. 61 course being divided into two administrative units, a junior and a senior high school of three years each. In some schools the junior high school consist of only two grades, the seventh and eighth. Reports indicate that the movement to reorganize on a six-and-six plan is in full swing, and that it is not confined to any one section of the country, though possibly making greater progress in certain sec¬ tions. Reports also indicate that many more superintendents would establish junior and senior high schools were it possible to do so. Often it is impossible to centralize the upper grammar grades in one building or to have them in the high-school building. In the small cities there are usually only one seventh and eighth grade in a building, so to work out the junior high-school idea as it should be is rather difficult without a central building. Many superintendents are looking ahead and laying plans for new buildings, so that the six- year high-school idea may be worked out completely. A school organized on the departmental plan is not entitled to be called a junior high school. This is one step, but not the vital one. A six-year high school, if it means anything, means a complete reorganization as to aims and method. In chapter 6, volume 1, of the Commissioner’s Report for 1914- the junior high school was discussed at length, and some courses of study were included. None of these showed what changes had been made in the elementary schools. A reorganization of the upper six grades should also mean a reorganization in the lower six grades. The aims of each should be more clearly defined than at present. The work now done in the lower grades should not be made more difficult, as some opponents to the six-year high school claim will be the result. The superintendent of schools at Lewiston, Idaho, has effected a complete reorganization from the first grade up, so that the aims of the elementary school and the high school may be fully realized. He says : The elementary course of stdy is undifferentiated, and emphasizes the idea that here is preeminently the place in which the fundamental facts, habits, drills, and attitudes should be fixed as working tools and the child’s impulses and instincts be developed as working interests. Physical training, organized playground work, art, music, elementary manual arts, ethics, dramatization of reading work, are strongly stressed in the elementary grades. A grade circu¬ lating library has recently been provided in the way of 200 sets of “ classics ” (40 classics to the set), each set of classics encased in a strong cardboard box and given out on requisition. The reading matter in these “ literary wholes ” covers a wide range of interest for each grade, and the teachers have found it wise to devote at least one-half of all reading time to this line of work. Stereo¬ scopes, views, and other illustrative material is sent out on the same plan. The first half of the elementary course is known as the primary school and the second half as the intermediate school. In order that the teacher’s person¬ ality and responsibility be made more effective, teachers in the primary school 62 EDUCATION REPORT, 1915. are promoted with the pupils, making it possible for a teacher to direct a class three years. This is also true of the intermediate school. The position of elementary-grade supervisor has been created during the past year, relieving grade principals from classroom supervision, and the plan has proved a most successful one in coordinating and unifying the grade work. All promotions are made semiannually, based entirely on the judgment of the teacher (approved by the supervisor and superintendent). No final examinations are given for promotion. The last week of each semester is spent in unifying and classifying the work gone over. The Lewiston High School is organized on the basis of six years’ work and is divided into two administrative units of three years each — a junior and a senior high school, each wfith its own principal and assembly. The new high- school building of 36 rooms, exclusive of assembly rooms, is divided into two sections, with a combination gymnasium and auditorium between them. One Wing is occupied by the junior high school and the other by the senior high school. This facilitates exchange of work between the junior and senior high school. All high-school work is closely organized by departments. The heads of departments constitute a school council. The school day consists of six 60-minute periods, preceded each morning by a 20-minute general assembly in each high school. Each Wednesday the entire high school meets for a joint assembly. Four units of credit constitute a regular high school year’s assignment, hence 24 units are required for graduation. Of the 24 units 3 may be earned in sub¬ sidiary work, and classes are now organized in band, orchestra, violin, piano, chorus, glee club, dramatics, debating, wireless telegraphy, photography, art work, and several other lines of activity. In order to receive credit, classes must meet regularly once a week and be in charge of high-school teachers or some teacher regularly authorized for this work. One-fourth credit a year is given for successful work in any line of work deemed worthy of educational credit. All promotions are made by units of credit earned, based on the average of the term’s work. No final examinations are given to determine promotions. Good students, in regular attendance, by doing outside work will be able to graduate in five years. The junior high school is the crux of the entire reorganization movement. Here is the place for the wisest, ablest teachers available, who will exercise unusual care and sympathy in introducing pupils to departmental teaching and work of a prevocational nature in which the pupil has an opportunity to try his powers, to test himself, to find himself, as it were. It is confidently ex¬ pected that the junior high school will greatly transcend the work heretofore done by the grammar school. The junior high school does away with the sharp distinction which has hitherto existed between the eighth and ninth grades and permits an earlier introduction of many subjects which have hitherto been reserved for the high school — a reservation which is extremely unwise. The Lewiston High School experienced an increase of more than 20 per cent in attendance this year over that of the previous year, having in regular attend¬ ance at the present time 465 students. The Lewiston High School makes the same requirements for teachers in the junior high school that it does in the senior high school. In the first year of junior high school the following subjects are required: Arithmetic, English (reading, grammar, and spelling), history-geography, to¬ gether with drills in music, penmanship, and physical culture. Electives are Spanish, German, and Latin, sewing and cooking, shop work, fine and indus¬ trial arts. The second junior year requires mathematics (arithmetic and alge¬ bra), English, history, and citizenship (one-half) year, elementary science, EDUCATION IN THE SMALLER CITIES. 63 labratory work (one-half) year., Electives are a continuation of the work offered in the first junior year. The third junior year has only one required subject, and that is English, and from this on all work is elective except English. All work, however, must he elected by majors and minors. Five years’ regular high-school work is offered in Spanish, German, and Latin, and six years’ work in shop work, which includes forging and actual construction work. Six years’ high-school work is offered in home economics. The senior high-school industrial work for both boys and girls is made strongly vocational. Agricul¬ ture was introduced this year, and we are now offering two years’ work. Forty- five boys are taking this work. Not only are individual cities working out programs for junior high schools, but State departments have turned their attention to the matter. Some years ago the schools of New York State were reor¬ ganized with six years in the elementary grades, the seventh and eighth grades being designated as the intermediate school and the ninth to twelfth grades as the high school. Prof. C. D. Koch, in¬ spector of high schools in Pennsylvania, offers for the first time a program of studies for a junior high school. This outline is exceed¬ ingly suggestive and will no doubt be of interest to superintendents in the smaller cities where such schools are located or where there is prospect of organizing. The program is as follows : Program of studies for a junior high school, as outlined by Prof. G. D. Koch. [Figures indicate hours per week.] Studies. Seventh year. English . Literature, lan¬ guage, spelling . . . Arithmetic . Mathematics . Science and geography . Social studies . Geography . Hygiene and physi¬ cal training . American history, including current events . French ; German, Spanish, Latin... Business iorms and penmanship . Drawing . Foreign languages . Commercial subjects . . . Industrial arts . Music . Sewing (girls) . Shop (boys) . Vocal . Minimum number of hours assigned per week . . . Total Eighth year. Ninth year. num¬ ber of hours. Literature, gram- 5 mar, spelling . 5 4 Arithmetic . 4 3 Geography or agri¬ culture . 3 Hygiene and physi- 1 cal training . 1 American history, including current 3 events . .. 3 French; German, 4 Spanish , Latin. . . 4 Bookkeeping, ste- 4 nographv . 4 1 Drawing/. . 1 2 Cooking (girls) . 2 2 Shop (boys) . 2 1 Vocal . 1 24 .24 Literature, compo¬ sition, oral and written . . 5 540 Algebra . 4 432 General science or physical geogra¬ phy . 3 432 Physical training. . . 1 Community civics and survey of vo¬ cations . . 3 324 French, German, Spanish, Latin... 4 432 Bookkeeping, ste¬ nography . 4 432 Drawing . 1 108 Homemaking (girls) 2 216 Shop (boys) . 2 216 Vocal . 1 108 .24 Elective in each year: One loreign language or commercial subjects. 64 EDUCATION REPORT, 1915. In discussing this program, Dr. Koch declares : A minimum amount of time expressed in 60-minute hours per week is as¬ signed to each of the school studies. This is not to be taken to mean that the recitation periods must be an hour long. The time prescribed means that at least this much time should be given weekly to the studies herein outlined. It is a minimum requirement. The five hours assigned to English includes some time for reading, language, and spelling. About half of this time should be devoted to reading. This distribution gives four hours to arithmetic, four hours to geography and hygiene, three hours to history, four hours to the study of a foreign language (optional), three hours to the manual arts, and one hour to vocal music. With a foreign language or commercial subjects this gives a total of 24 hours of required work. A five-hour school day will allow one hour of unassigned time. This may be used at the discretion of the teacher on the studies needing more than the allotted time. A longer school day will give more time to be used in this way. The time allotment has no thought of fixing the method of handling the recitations. This is left to the judgment of the principal and teachers. Part of the time may be used by the pupils in preparing work for the recitation or the whole hour may be given to study and recitation under the supervision of the teacher. The chief point is to see that all the pupils give to the studies the full amount of time assigned to them. The teacher of arithmetic should see that each pupil of the class actually works at arithmetic one full hour for each of four days in a week or 48 minutes for each of five days. With this plan consistently and persistently followed, teachers may be assured that the character of the work in this sub¬ ject will be much improved. GROWTH OF HIGH SCHOOLS. Even in schools where junior and senior high schools have not yet been organized important changes in the course of study have taken place. One result of the better adaptation of high-school courses to the needs of the children has been the large increase in high-school enrollment. The following tables will show the increased enrollment in the high school as compared with the grades for the two years 1911 and 1914: EDUCATION IN THE SMALLER CITIES, GO Increase in grade and high school enrollment from 1010-11 to 1913-11/ in certain cities from 10,000 to 25,000 population. Enrollment in 1910-11. Enrollment in 1913-14. Per cent of increase. 1910-11 to 1913-14. Grades. High school. Grades. High school. Grades. High school. Selma, Ala . 1, 183 120 1,470 212 24.26 76.66 Riverside, Cal'. . 2,513 486 2,767 676 10.11 39.09 Trinidad, Colo . 1,939 221 2, 040 289 5.21 30. 76 Middletown, Conn . 1,300 453 1,389 623 6.84 37.52 Athens, Ga . 2, 125 162 2,649 254 24.65 56. 79 Boise, Idaho . 3,322 625 3,264 989 -2. 04 58.24 Freeport, Ill . 2, 731 450 2,473 567 -9. 44 26.00 Richmond, Ind . 3,110 567 3,599 685 15.72 20. 79 Marshalltown, Iowa . 1,844 350 2,249 539 21.96 54.00 Ottumwa, Iowa . 3,590 400 4.284 621 19.33 55.25 Fort Scott, Kans . 1,839 258 1,936 431 5.27 67.05 Henderson, Ky . 2,200 160 2,235 213 1.59 33. 12 Auburn, Me . 1,891 364 1,738 376 -8.09 3.29 Beverly, Mass . 2,864 682 3,232 861 12.85 26.24 Port Huron, Mich . 2,696 382 2,864 421 6.23 10.21 Mankato, Minn . 1,117 300 1,232 417 10.29 39.00 Meridian, Miss . 3, 752 298 4,909 451 30.84 50.34 Hannibal, Mo . 2,655 291 2,950 370 11.11 27. 14 Great Falls, Mont . 2,763 422 3,041 515 10.06 22.03 Grand Island, Nebr . 1,918 273 2,258 309 16. 51 13.55 Portsmouth, N. H . Asbury Park, N. J . 1, 435 304 1,672 403 15.07 32.50 2,161 177 2,465 323 14.06 82. 48 Plainfield, N. J . 3, 1S4 440 3,480 643 9.26 46. 13 Cortland, N. J . 1,347 303 1,416 324 5. 12 6. 93 Durham, N. C . 2,966 403 2,983 551 .57 36. 72 Fargo, N. Dak . 2, 048 318 2, 325 455 13.52 43.08 Alliance, Ohio . 2, 156 333 2, 654 490 23.09 47.14 Chickasha, Okla . 2,276 156 2,400 219 5.44 40.38 Salem, Oreg . 2,219 421 2, 538 752 14. 37 78.62 Wilkinsburg, Pa . 2,677 400 2,690 560 .48 40.00 Central Falls, R. I . 1,907 126 1,908 148 00 17.46 Spartanburg, S. C . 3,201 202 3,911 219 22. 17 8. 41 Aberdeen, S. Dak . 1, 793 344 1, 575 446 -12. 15 29.65 Beaumont, Tex . 3, 471 409 3,837 606 10. 54 48. 16 Barre, Vt . 2,609 237 2,263 365 -13. 26 54.00 Newport News, Va . Charleston, W. Va . Appleton, Wis . 2,825 227 3, 441 326 21.80 43. 61 4,532 389 5,272 486 16.32 25.93 2,396 372 2, 404 407 4.22 9. 40 Total . 92,565 12,825 101,813 17,561 9.98 36.84 12034°— ed 1915— yol 1 - 5 66 EDUCATION REPORT, 1915. Increase in grade and high school enrollment from 1910-11 to 1913-14 in certain cities from 5,000 to 10,000 population. Enrollment in 1910-11. Enrollment in 1913-14. Per cent of increase 1910-11 to 1913-14. Grades. High school. Grades. High school. Grades. High school. New Decatur, Ala . 944 71 1,139 102 20.65 43.66 Bisbee, Ariz . 1,774 108 2,385 157 34.44 45.37 Helena, Ark . 1,151 149 1,356 191 17!81 28.12 Alhambra, Cal . 740 182 1,371 334 85.27 83.51 Canon City, Colo . 838 167 854 191 1.90 14.37 East Hartford, Conn . 1,707 154 1,959 232 14.76 50.65 Fitzgerald, Ga . 1,160 98 1,391 140 19.91 42.85 Lewiston, Idaho . 867 185 1,100 249 26. 87 34.59 Granite City, Ill . 1,439 143 1,941 170 34.88 18.88 Crawfordsville, Ind . 1,418 306 1,666 406 17. 48 32.67 Grinnell, Iowa . 919 317 1,037 376 12.83 18.61 Newton, Kans . 1,238 227 1,240 330 45 37 Ashland, Ky . 1,636 137 1,711 171 4.58 24.81 Gardner, He . 1,025 153 945 210 - 7.80 37.25 Concord, Mass . 944 280 834 411 - 11.65 46.78 Houghton, Mich . 1,458 252 1,815 273 24.41 8.33 Albert Lea, Minn . 1,250 200 1,300 277 4.00 38.50 Greenville, Miss . 1,672 207 1,803 254 7.83 22.70 Columbia, Mo . 1,503 365 1,617 457 7.58 25.20 Hastings, Nebr . 1,813 399 1,832 437 1.04 9.52 Rochester, N. H . 1,096 199 1,222 276 11.49 38.69 South Orange, N. J . 1,124 170 1,333 244 18.59 43.52 Roswell, N. Mex . 1,500 300 1,336 397 - 10.93 32.33 Tonawanda, N. Y . 1,320 241 1,331 258 7.05 Concord, N. C . 1,550 87 1,754 . 140 13.16 60.92 Bismarck, N.Dak . 568 135 794 200 39.78 48.14 Van Wert, Ohio . 1,240 282 1,164 342 - 6.12 21.26 Ardmore, Okla . 2,147 213 2,031 247 - 5.40 15.96 Astoria, Oreg . 1,310 240 1,461 266 11.52 10.83 Mount Pleasant, Pa . 923 118 1,073 185 16.25 56.77 Bristol, R. I . 1,307 127 1,561 168 19. 43 32.23 Sumter, S. C . 607 171 1,673 379 175. 61 121.63 Mitchell, S. Dak . 989 243 979 332 - 1.01 36. 62 Bristol, Term . 1,236 159 1,272 224 2.10 40.88 Gainesville, Tex . 1,322 247 1, 335 275 11.33 Montpelier, Vt . 915 185 887 198 - 3.05 7.02 Bristol, Va . 1,000 131 1,147 154 14.70 17.55 Olympia, Wash . 1,237 279 1,254 347 1.37 24.37 Elkins, W. Va . 1,132 88 1,226 195 8.30 121.59 Grand Rapids, Wis . 1,149 263 1,225 309 6. 61 17. 48 Laramie, Wyo . 776 122 949 175 22.29 43.44 Total . 49,944 8, 100 56, 303 10, 679 12.73 31.83 KINDERGARTENS. One phase of school work that has received but little attention in the smaller cities is the kindergarten. Many school boards have not established kindergartens because of a lack of funds, others have not yet been convinced of the need for kindergartens. In many cities the high school and the grades have grown so rapidly in enrollment that the problem of housing the kindergarten has been a serious one. In one city, for example, a kindergarten was maintained for several years by a women’s club, the school board providing the use of a room in the school building. Increased enrollment in the grades finally necessitated the use of the room, and the kindergarten had to be abandoned. The lack of kindergartens in the smaller cities is due mainly to the fact, however, that public sentiment has not been sufficiently aroused EDUCATION IN THE SMALLER CITIES. 67 to the value of kindergarten training. Nevertheless, considerable kindergarten progress has been made within the past year in the smaller cities. During the term 93 cities in the North Central States have established kindergartens, Michigan leading this group with 22 cities and 44 new kindergartens. Notable progress has also been made in New York, New Jersey, Wisconsin, and California. The following table, compiled from statistics collected by the Kin¬ dergarten Division of the Bureau of Education, shows the progress made by cities of 25,000 population and less in the several States : Statistics of public school kindergartens in cities of less than 25,000 popula¬ tion for the year 1914-15. States. Total number of cities in which new kin¬ dergartens have been estab¬ lished. Total number of new kinder¬ gartens. Total number of new children enrolled. 3 10 483 o 0 0 23 32 1,230 28 324 o Colorado . . 1 1 Connecticut ... _ _ _ _ _ - . - . - . 3 8 Delaware . . . . . . - . - . 0 0 Florida . 2 3 74 o Georgia . . . . - . - . 0 0 0 0 n Illinois . 3 8 328 1, 415 939 316 50 40 o Indiana . . . . . . . . . 6 31 38 17 Kansas . . . . 8 12 Kentucky . 1 1 Louisiana . . - . 1 2 Maine 0 0 Maryland - . . - . 0 0 o Massachusetts . . 0 0 o Michigan . 22 26 595 244 164 60 0 Minnesota . 7 9 Mississippi . 3 4 Missouri ..... _ _ - . - . 1 2 Montana . 0 0 Nebraska . 9 11 320 o Nevada _ - . . . . - . 0 0 New Hampshire . 1 1 50 1,104 106 568 0 0 147 New Jersey . 20 44 N ew Mexico . . . . . . 3 4 New York . 15 26 N orth Carolina . 0 0 North Dakota . . 0 0 4 5 Oklahoma . 0 0 o Oregon . . . 0 0 o Pennsylvania.... . . . 3 3 152 Rhode Island... - . . 0 0 0 South Carolina. .. . 2 2 62 South Dakota . 1 2 110 Tennessee . . 1 2 70 1 2 30 Utah . 2 2 21 V ennont . . 3 3 48 Virginia . 0 0 0 W ashington . 1 1 30 West Virginia. . . 1 1 20 Wisconsin . 16 27 348 Wyoming . 2 2 70 Total . 186 325 9,546 .68 EDUCATION REPORT, 1915. COOPERATING WITH THE COMMUNITY. The attempt to bring the school into closer touch with the home and the community is meeting with marked success in many of the smaller cities, though only a beginning has been made in the use of community resources as an aid to the schools. Cooperation be¬ tween school and home has been found necessary from the fact that the schools have been getting out of touch with real life and that children have been taught too much under artificial school condi¬ tions and not enough under real life situations. Then again it has been recognized that the schools of a community can not make progress unless parents heartily cooperate with school officials in the attempt to make the schools meet new conditions. Parent-teacher organizations have proved helpful in bringing home and school into closer relations. The following accounts may be taken as examples of the value of having parents and teachers meet together. Holland, Mich. — The meeting of the parent-teacher association is held once a • month in each building. Matters pertaining to the welfare of children, their health, care of their teeth, their conduct out of school and in school, and their home life are discussed. Physicians, dentists, juvenile judges, and others who are authorities on various subjects are secured to speak at these meetings. The entertainment feature is quite strongly emphasized, the programs consist¬ ing of music, exercises by the children, and stereopticon travel talks. A nursery is provided in the building at the time of each meeting so that mothers may bring their children and have them well cared for while they are attending the exercises. Committees from each club visit the sick, take flowers to the sick or to homes where there has been a death, and send cards of congratulation to families where there have been recent births. Visiting committees see to it that those who most need the meetings have personal invitations. Mount Pleasant, Pa. — A large per cent of the population of Mount Pleasant is foreign born. A parent-teacher association has been organized principally to make school friends of these people. Our programs are shaped to this end. In the first place, we are careful to hold the meetings in the evening, when the fathers can attend. Invitations, signed by the teacher, are sent to each home, These are followed up by the attendance officer, who makes the meeting the object of a house-to-house canvass among the foreigners and negroes for about a week before the meeting. The program is made up of adults and children, divided about equally in the number of parts taken. At least one adult from the foreign parents is given a place. Then possibly a minister, a teacher or two, or a good business man makes a short address on vital topics affecting the best operation of the schools— regularity of attendance, cooperation of parents with teachers, selec¬ tion of books for home libraries, the kind of toys to give children, sanitation, food, etc. The teachers are careful to select at least one-half the children from foreign homes for the program. Following the formal program, which lasts about an hour, light refreshments are served by girls from the upper classes at the expense of the school district. While refreshments are being served the teachers move about among the parents, calling them by name (learned from the attendance officer), reporting EDUCATION IN THE SMALLER CITIES. 69 and making friendly inquiry about the children. On tables in the halls are placed written work, drawings, kindergarten material made up, etc., for the inspection of the parents. The immediate result is a rare good time for these people. The practical results noticeable are : Better attendance and more orderly conduct on the part of their children. SCHOOL CREDIT FOR HOME WORK. The movement to give school credit for definte home work is still progressing. A number of high schools now allow one or more units for work done at home, in the store or the shop, under the supervision of the school authorities. The giving of credit for any kind of work that a parent certifies his child has done is not gen¬ erally considered advisable, though some schools report good results where this plan has been tried. The giving of school credit for some definite home project properly standardized and supervised is recognized as a great aid in bringing the work of the home and the school closer together and of offering an opportunity to pupils to work on some industrial or agricultural project under real condi¬ tions. The great problem that superintendents are compelled to solve in this connection is the proper supervision of the work with the funds in hand or securing such supervision without adding any great amount to the annual budget. Space does not permit presentation of the many different plans of providing for school credit for home work, but the following is cited to show what one of the smaller cities is doing to bring about a closer relation between the school and the industries of the home and the community. NEWTON, KANS. First. Sixteen units are required for graduation, at least 15 of which shall be regular credits. One credit may be granted for systematic and definite home credit work as outlined below. Second. Seventeen units are required for graduation “ with credit,” two of which may be for home or continuation work ; provided, however, that gradua¬ tion “ with credit ” will be granted any student who completes but 16 “ regular credits ” with an average standing of 85 or above. Third. Eighteen or more units are required for graduation “ with honors,” three of which may be for home or continuation work ; provided, however, that graduation “ with honor ” will be granted any student who completes but 16 “ regular credits ” with an average standing of 90 or above. Credit, as indicated above, will be given for the following outside work when properly certified to: Regular weekly music lessons, instrumental or voice, under an accredited instructor, one-fourth unit per year for not to exceed four years. Active membership in any high-school or approved city musical organization, one-fourth unit per year, for not to exceed four years. Active membership in high-school literary work, consisting of rhetoricals, debate, public speaking, expressive reading, and dramatics ; provided, however, 70 EDUCATION REPORT, 1915. that an extra one-fourth unit’s credit will be given in English for the working out, taking part in, and filing with the superintendent a typewritten copy of the speech in any inter-school debate. Steady work on the farm, in the home, in the store, bank, shop, factory, office, etc., 14 units for three months. # Judging with degree of accuracy different types of horses, cattle, hogs, and chickens, one-fourth unit. China painting, oil painting, art needlework, or other handicraft, or other home-decoration work with satisfactory exhibit, one-fourth to one unit’s credit. Definite Bible study, one-fourth for each year, provided the applicant for such credit submit a certificate of at least 90 per cent of attendance and take an examination, given or authorized by the school, or submit such other evidence as the school may require. The superintendent of schools at Chippewa Falls, Wis., reports that he has brought the schools and the home into closer relation by having the pupils write a report each week of everything they have done that pertains to domestic economy, the parents being required to indorse the report. Particular stress is laid upon such points as the ventilation and care of rooms; the preparation of entire meals ; and the making of purchasing lists. A statement of results is required and a discussion of these is made during class periods to enable the pupils to understand and correct their mistakes. From 1 to 10 per cent credit, depending upon the amount of work done, is added to the monthly stand¬ ing. This system is used from the seventh to the twelfth grades, inclusive. HOME AND SCHOOL GARDENS. The home and school garden movement has also made considerable progress in the smaller cities during the past year. Especially in the South and the West there is abundant opportunity for the school to cooperate with the home in the cultivation of gardens, the school furnishing the necessary instruction and supervision. Among the many schools that have assisted in introducing home gardening may be mentioned those in Gadsden, Ala. ; Rome, Ga. ; Asheville, Char¬ lotte, Goldsboro, Hickory, Monroe, Raleigh, and Statesville, N. C. ; Bristol, Murfreesboro, Clarksville, and Park City, Tenn. ; Darling¬ ton, Rockville, and Sumter, S. C. ; Alexandria and Bristol, Ya. ; Charleston, Huntington, and Chester, W. Ya. ; Lexington and Frank¬ fort, Ky. ; Hot Springs, Ark. ; Milton, Mass. ; New Rochelle, Tarry- town, and Dobbs Ferry, N. Y. COOPERATIVE COURSES. No definite data have been collected showing to what extent coop¬ erative industrial courses such as those at Fitchburg, Mass., and York, Pa., have been introduced into the schools of cities of less than 25,000 population, but several cities report such courses. At West¬ brook, Me., for example, the city cooperates with the paper mills, EDUCATION IN THE SMALLER CITIES. 71 silk mills, and machine shops in maintaining a full-time cooperative school. The course of study meets the requirements of college en¬ trance and at the same time contains two options, paper making and textile work. Instruction in the process of paper making and tex¬ tiles, stud}r of machines, and other mechanical details is given. Stu¬ dents spend one-half day each week in the mills. This work is sup¬ plemented with analytic chemistry, mathematics, history, and physics as applied to these industries. Upon graduation students are taken into the mills if they so elect, or they may enter the University of Maine. An interesting experiment in cooperation has been made at Mont¬ clair, X. J. The superintendent became convinced that cooking in microscopic quantities did not afford the girls an opportunity to work under home conditions. He has attempted to solve the problem in the following way:1 On the day when bread making is scheduled the members of the class are privileged to take orders from the home for a certain number of loaves, to be furnished at the cost of material. The girls thus cook in sufficient quantity to duplicate home conditions. At the same time the work is done at no cost to the department, and best of all there is no waste of good material. Inciden¬ tally, the school receives two by-products which are of no inconsiderable value. In the first place, the home is very much interested in the girls’ work and the plan tends to establish a very cordial relationship between the school and the home. In the second place, the department is stimulated to do its best. That the above plan provides real conditions for the domestic- science class is evident from the following facts : Last year one of the school kitchens turned out, in a single day, 120 dozen cookies; 60 dozen doughnuts was another result of the plan. Canning on a prac¬ tical basis receives considerable attention, 28 quarts of tomatoes and 2 gallons of chopped pickles being representative undertakings. An¬ other phase of the practical work is the cooking and serving of com¬ plete meals in the school dining room. The extension of school work so as to bring the older persons in the home to school is another item of progress that may be noted. At Athens, Ga., for example, there is organized each year a class for cooks actively engaged in service. This class meets twice a week for six or eight weeks. In addition to the instruction furnished by the domestic science department, the services of expert cooks in the city are secured. This course proved so popular that the school board decided to make it a permanent feature of the school system.2 One hundred and fifty-two were enrolled during the last term. 1The School Netts „ March, 1915, p. 7. 2 See also Ch. XII, Home economics. 72 EDUCATION REPORT, 1915. WIDER USE OF THE SCHOOL PLANT.1 The smaller cities are making great strides in their attempts to educate the whole community by opening the school buildings in the evenings for educational classes and for social and recreational pur¬ poses. School buildings are now used as community centers more than they were a year or two ago. Wisconsin continues to offer interesting instances of this develop¬ ment. In several places in the State steps have already been taken toward employing the school principal as civic and social secretary.2 The school board of Osseo, Wis., has voted to engage the principal of the schools of that town as civic secretary. The school board at Sauk City, Wis., has reengaged the principal of schools with the specific understanding that he is to act as civic secretary, the servant of the adults and older youth, not as a matter of unauthorized and extra effort, but as a definite part of the service for which he is hired by the community. Neilsville,3 Wis., is another city which has inaugurated a civic secretary and organized a community association to cooperate with him. Nine public school principals in Wisconsin have been made vil¬ lage or town clerks, but Neilsville is said to be the first place where the board of education has added to its staff a civic secretary whose full time will be shared by the city in promoting its business, recrea¬ tional, and municipal work. The inauguration of the civic secretary in Neilsville was the occasion of a great mass meeting. Congratu¬ latory messages were read from many prominent people in the United States, among them Miss Margaret Wilson, who expressed her appre¬ ciation of the unique action the people of Neilsville were taking, referring to it as an appointment of unusual importance and sig¬ nificance. The use of school buildings for community purposes can not pro¬ ceed very far without a paid director. Even if school boards can not appropriate funds for such purposes, a superintendent who is trying to promote the social-center idea need not fail. Cities that can not employ a civic secretary may well imitate what is being done at Boise, Idaho, and other places which are exemplifying the get- together spirit in promoting evening meetings in the schools. At four schoolhouses in different sections of the city of Boise one enter¬ tainment a week is given, these being furnished once a fortnight by a joint committee from the three large women’s clubs and in the alternating weeks by the mothers’ clubs. 1 See Education Bulletin, 1915, No. 28 : “ Extension of public education,” by Clarence Arthur Perry. 2 See Education Bulletin, 1915, No. 13 : “ The schoolhouse as the polling place.” 3 The Playground , vol. 9, No. 6, p. 205. EDUCATION IN THE SMALLER CITIES. 78 At Plainfield, N. J., the use of the school buildings in the evenings is carried on in four different fields: 1. In cooperation with the public library a number of schools are opened once a week as library substations. 2. Two or more buildings are used for free enter¬ tainments, lectures, etc., and for evening high school and evening elementary schools. 3. The public are encouraged to use the school buildings for various social purposes, the schoolrooms being fur¬ nished to clubs or individuals quite freely at a price to cover ex¬ penses of operating. 4. Evening recreation in lines other than educational in the usual sense of the term are offered under the direction and stimulus of two paid secretaries, who devote their whole time, day and evening, to this work. The movement has been under the management of a public recreation committee, who have worked in close cooperation with the superintendent of schools. The funds for the support of the work have come from three sources: A grant from the city council, a grant from the board of education, and fees charged at the various occasions. The utilization of school buildings for university-extension lec¬ tures may be noted in several centers. At Mannington, W. Va-., for example, the superintendent of schools arranged with the State uni¬ versity to furnish a series of lectures to the people of Mannington,, who subscribed to an expense fund. The lectures were free to the public and were well attended, not only by persons who possessed the advantages of a higher education but by those lacking such ad¬ vantages. A similar course will be offered this year. A special questionnaire was sent to the towns and cities of West Virginia by the bureau to ascertain what use the town and city boards are making of the school plant for social-center and recre¬ ational purposes. The following tabulation of the replies received no doubt represents what the average small city is doing to bring about a wider use of the school plant : Bridgeport— Election and general citizens’ meetings. Blue field. — Entertainments given by the school. Belington. — Lyceum lecture course, plays, box parties, lectures, musicals, students’ socials. Cameron. — Literary work and entertainments. Carhondale. — Religious worship and miners’ meetings. Ceredo. — Social affairs bearing directly or indirectly upon the schools. Charles Toicn. — Entertainments, glee club, civic league. Davis. — Sunday school and community meetings in colored schools. Chester. — Camera club, literary societies, German club. East Bank. — Social-center meetings, literary societies, political meetings, enter¬ tainments for visiting athletic teams. Fairmount. — Bible-study classes, use of motion-picture machine by civic and professional organizations. Gary. — Social-center meetings, lectures, entertainments. i 74 EDUCATION REPORT, 1915. Grafton. — Boy-scout meetings, literary societies, German club, camp-fire meet¬ ings, parents’ meetings, students’ socials, church entertainments. Huntington. — Parent teachers’ meetings, Sunday school occasionally, churches granted temporary use, colored Y. W. C. A. in colored high school. Harpers Ferry. — Dramatic club, men’s club, W. C. T. U. meetings, fire-asso¬ ciation meetings, high-school lectures and entertainments. Keyser. — Civic club, lyceum course, general town meeting, boy scouts. Littleton. — Social center, lectures. Mannington. — Sunday school, church societies, lectures. Martinsburg. — Polling place, public meetings. Hilton. — Boy scouts, socials, debates, farmers’ meetings. Morgantown. — Political meetings, Sunday school, mothers’ clubs, social gather¬ ings under auspices of teachers. Houndsville. — Entertainments by different societies. New Cumberland. — Odd Fellows meetings on third floor. New Martinsville. — Lecture course, temperance meetings, political addresses, entertainments by various local clubs. Oak Hill. — Farmers’ meetings, boy scouts, camp-fire girls. Shepherdstown. — Lectures. Spencer. — Literary societies, socials, entertainments. Thomas. — Patrons’ meetings, school socials, basket ball, classes for women in domestic science. Sistersville. — Farmers’ meetings, political conventions. Weston. — Athletics, church, Sunday school, entertainments, luncheons. RETARDATION. Though no data have been compiled showing to what extent re¬ tardation has been diminished, practically every superintendent reporting says that there is now a smaller percentage of overage children in the grades than there was several years ago. At Fort Smith, Ark., for example, the percentage of overage children has dropped from 37.2 in 1910 to 23.5 in 1914, and the percentage of underage children has risen from 3.6 in 1910 to 8.3 in 1914. The fol¬ lowing table shows the percentage of children in each grade above and under normal age in June, 1911, at Boise, Idaho, and the per¬ centage above and under normal age in June, 1915: Grade. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 Total. Percentage above normal age, June, 1911 . Percentage above normal age, June, 1915 . Per cent under age, 1911 . Per cent under age, 1915 . 12.6 6.2 19.7 19.2 6.2 8.4 26.9 32.2 7.3 9.0 31.6 43.1 13.9 9.0 25.2 44.1 18.2 9.3 24.7 45.3 17.8 7.7 25.6 40.4 23.1 7.6 26.2 34.5 31.5 8.1 18.6 32.8 18.1 7.8 23.4 The improvement in the smaller cities is due largely to the fact that (1) superintendents are beginning to study their problems; (2) teachers are giving more attention to the individual pupil, studying his needs and recording necessary facts; (3) there is a more flexible classification, made possible by shorter promotion intervals, as a half- year period, or better still, children in some schools are promoted at EDUCATION IN THE SMALLER CITIES. 75 aity time; (4) special classes are provided for retarded or exception¬ ally bright children; and (5) vacation schools of from four to eight weeks are affording an opportunity to children who have failed of promotion in one or two subjects at the close of the school year to pass on these at the beginning of the following term. That superintendents are making a study of the subject of retarda¬ tion is evident from the fact that nearly every published report now contains age and grade tables, while formerly no mention was made of age and grade. Some of the reports compare the amount of re¬ tardation of this year with the amount two or three years ago, thus showing whether any progress has been made in reducing the per¬ centage of retarded pupils. Superintendents are also studying this problem by requiring reports from principals and teachers of pupils whose promotion is doubtful, thus making it necessary for principals and teachers to study individual pupils. Though not all of the smaller cities have seriously attacked the problem of the retarded or the especially bright pupil, some schools are doing much to prevent retardation and to help pupils gain a grade or two. The following are some of the plans inaugurated within the past few years in several of the smaller cities : The pupils at Wausau, Wis., are given a chance under special teachers to make as rapid progress as possible. It was found that the most troublesome cases in the Wausau schools were those children who had much more than average capacity and who had become troublesome because they did not have enough to do. The superin¬ tendent discovered that from 30 to 50 pupils in each of the ungraded rooms make an extra half year each semester and some of them an extra year, and that they become better students, acquire industrious habits, and cease to be a disturbing factor in the schools. In the ungraded rooms there are also placed those pupils who for any cause have been absent for a time, yet have ability to catch up with their grades. As soon as they are prepared to reenter their grades they are taken out of the ungraded room and placed in the grade in which they were before their absence. A third class of pupils accommodated in the ungraded rooms are those who for any reason are slow or deficient in some one branch. In Elyria, Ohio, the school board has recently started a school of 20 boys from 14 to 17 years of age who have several times failed of promotion and showed but little prospect of getting into the high school. These boys are given academic work for one half the time under a specially selected teacher; for the other half of their time they are distributed through the various industrial classes of the upper grammar grades with the idea of giving them a chance of finding themselves in some line of industrial work. In many cases the teachers give them individual problems suited to their ability. 76 EDUCATION REPORT, 1915. At Anderson, Ind., the scheme of promoting through all the grades by subjects has been inaugurated. If a child is unsuccessful in arithmetic, for example, he repeats his arithmetic but goes cn in other subjects. In many instances the child repeats the arithmetic and has the various other subjects in the same room under the same teacher. Where this can not be done, at a certain period each day the child is sent to another room where the lower-grade arithmetic is taught. That unusually capable teachers should be placed in charge of spe¬ cial classes is evident, but in many of the smaller cities school boards have not been willing to appropriate funds for special classes. Some superintendents have worked out plans to help the retarded pupils without any additional expense to the city. These are no doubt only a step toward special* classes under specially trained teachers. The superintendent of schools at Jamestown, N. Dak., reports a plan that may commend itself to those superintendents who are trying to per¬ fect some scheme that does not involve additional expense to the city. He says: While considering the problem of the slow pupil and trying to find some plan which did not involve expense, and which was feasible in a small school, I hit upon the following scheme: I found out how many girls in the junior high school class intended to teach in rural schools when they received their high- school diploma. I then arranged to give these girls a course in psychology and pedagogy in the following way : A suitable textbook for the first was selected, then when this work was completed each girl was given practice-teaching expe¬ rience in the rooms of regular teachers in the grades. These teachers were told that these girls were not to be treated as visitors but were to be given a chance to observe and then were to be given such tasks as preparing seat work, marking spelling papers, giving extra time and special assistance to slow pupils, dull pupils, or those who had lost ground through absence. These girls were required to spend one or two periods each day in a given room for an interval of two to four weeks, and then they passed on to some other teacher for similar work. The girls were given credit on their high-school course for this work in the same amount which they would have received if they had pursued a regular textbook course. I found that retardation was reduced in a marked degree through this plan and that the student teachers received very valuable training and were able to get a much better salary when they went out to teach themselves than those girls who lacked this training. It also had the effect of helping some of these girls decide whether they really wanted to engage in teaching or not. It also relieved the situation where it was necessary to give a teacher too many pupils. More recently I have tried the same plan at Jamestown, N. Dak., and it works well, and has saved the city the expense of at least one extra teacher this year, because we have a class of sufficient size so that we can assign several girls to a given teacher, each one at a different period of the day. The children soon become accustomed to the situation and do not seem to mind it at all. At the present time 39 pupils, after being given the Binet-Simon test, have been grouped in two sections. In one are the feeble-minded and in the other those who, for reasons like absence, temporary ill health, discouragement, or wasted will power are below grade. The groups have separate rooms and are EDUCATION IN THE SMALLER CITIES. 77 in charge of teachers especially competent for this particular work. The chil¬ dren are, in the main, either of Irish or Italian nationality or of the Negro race and vary in age between 10 and 15 years and between the first and seventh in grade. The course of study arranged for them embraces the essentials of arithmetic, English, geography, spelling, physiology, and history taught in the corresponding grades of the primary and grammar school. The pupils enter the general con¬ tests and examinations given throughout the school, and when strong enough normal pupils are encouraged to return to the regular grades. Effort is con¬ tinually made to unite both book and handwork subjects so firmly that sewing and woodwork are, plus much review, the arithmetic, while cooking and agri¬ culture furnish the thought content for English. SCHOOL SAVINGS BANKS. During the past few years the smaller cities especially have been active in the matter of establishing school savings banks. In Con¬ necticut, for example, 26 such cities have within the last year or¬ ganized banks. Of the total number of school savings banks in the United States 75 per cent are in the smaller cities. What the schools at Conway, Ark., are doing to train pupils to thrift habits and business methods is worthy of note. The plan is described by the superintendent, as follows : Beginning some months in advance, we talked over the advisability of estab¬ lishing early in life the saving habit. Next we secured from the attorney gen¬ eral and from the State bank commission rulings to the effect that the pro¬ posed institution would not come under banking laws. Then we had a full line of bank stationery printed, the line including checks, pass books, deposit slips, identification cards, and last, but not least, beautiful lithographed stock certificates. Two loose-leaf ledgers, an iron box, and a converted cloakroom for the bank completed the equipment. On a day advertised a week in advance we began the sale of stock. No one except pupils, teachers, and members of the school board were allowed to buy. Only one share was sold to any person. At the close of the sale we had sold 82 shares and had $82 in our strong box. As soon as the stock certificates could be filled out and delivered the stock¬ holders met and elected a board of directors for the school year. By direction of the superintendent the stockholders elected three directors, the president and the secretary of the school board, the superintendent and the teacher of the business department of the high school being ex officio directors. It was also ruled in advance that the said teacher of the business department should be ex officio president of the bank. Immediately after the adjournment of the stockholders’ meeting the directors organized and elected a cashier to serve one month. It was arranged to hold the monthly meetings one week before the close of the month, so that the newly elected cashier should work a week with the outgoing cashier and learn the work. The work was too heavy for one to do in the short time allowed (30 minutes a day), and we elected the cashier for two months. He served one month as assistant and the second as chief. The president appointed his committees — one to audit the books at the end of each cashier’s term, one to buy supplies for the sales department, and one to look after investments, loans, etc. The last-named committee, as its first 78 EDUCATION REPORT, 1915. task, arranged with one of the local banks to place our funds from day to day. For the use of our money while in this depository we get 4 per cent interest on the average daily balance. The account is kept as an individual account to save the bank extra bookkeeping. It is understood that the local banks will all be used as depository in turn. MISCELLANEOUS ITEMS. In response to an inquiry by the Commissioner of Education, super¬ intendents in the smaller cities sent interesting statements of prog¬ ress. The following items are selected to show the general trend : El Dorado, Ark. — Farm demonstration and canning club work. Alhambra, Cal. — The development from a small academic high school to a large polytechnic high school with about 500 students ; the introduction of health inspection, manual training, cooking, sewing, etc. Bakersfield, Cal. — The establishment of seven kindergartens. Evanston, III. — A wider use of the school plant. Each building has been opened three nights a week and on certain Sundays. Classes in physical culture and social dancing are held after school hours. Streator, III. — The organization of a room for defective children. This school is in a house entirely apart from any other school activities. The girls are learning to cook, to prepare lunches, and to keep house. The boys have been engaged for a considerable part of their time this year in redressing old furni¬ ture for use in the home. Madison, Ind. — The establishment of a special school for children who are behind because of economic or social conditions. It has been found that there are a great many children in Madison who are bright and capable, and yet because of lack of encouragement at home or lack of ideals or poverty, are behind two or more years in their school work. As a class they have no interest in school work, their attendance is poor, and because of their dislike for school they are troublesome to the teachers. The experience so far with the special school indi¬ cates that it is possible to give such children a renewed ambition to succeed and to get from them a special amount of effort. Muncie, Ind. — The erection of an industrial and vocational high school at a cost of $300,000. The organization of junior and senior high schools. Exten¬ sion of industrial and manual training work, introduction of vocational and physical culture courses. Keokuk, Iowa. — The introduction of standard tests to bring about a more definite standard of efficiency ; the introduction of kindergartens, organized play, and supervised playgrounds. Parsons, Kans. — Improved salary schedule for teachers and the recognition that teachers must be elected and retained wholly on their merits ; the intro¬ duction of manual training and domestic science in the elementary schools; the abolition of all formal examinations in the elementary and the high school. Ithaca, N. Y. — The organization of distinct vocational classes both in the day and the night school and the segregation of the worst cases of retarded pupils. Emphasis has been placed on the night school and summer session. The be¬ ginning of the 6-3-3 plan; physical instruction has been begun in all ele¬ mentary and grammar grades. Ironwood, Mich. — In former years teachers from the ranks were appointed as supervisors of special subjects. This year specially trained teachers have been appointed as supervisors. EDUCATION IN THE SMALLER CITIES. 79 Solway, N. T. — The differentiation of curriculum to meet individual needs of pupils, socialization of the school, establishment of the junior high school, the reorganization of the commercial course, great reduction of retardation and elimination. Salem, Ohio. — Cooperation of home and school through teachers visiting homes of all children, parents’ meetings in school buildings, election of a school nurse to examine children and to visit the homes in the interest of bet¬ ter health. Mitchell, S. Dak. — The introduction of “ opportunity work.” The duty of the “ opportunity ” teachers is to look after the slow child, the exceptionally bright child, and the child who is not doing his best. Anderson, S. C. — The taking over of the cotton-mill schools on the outskirts of the city into the city system. Spartanburg, S. C. — The adoption of compulsory attendance. (In South Carolina the compulsory-attendance law recently enacted is a local option one.) Though the law has been in operation only a few weeks, opposition is prac¬ tically dead. Brigham City, Utah. — The elimination of nonessentials in the traditional course of study and the introduction and extension of practical work, such as potato, beet, tomato, onion, and corn culture, poultry and hog raising, and other farm activities. Danville, Va. — The establishment of an open-air school, a summer-vacation school, the purchase of 10£ acres for a grammar school and for public play¬ grounds. Stoughton, Wis. — Home-project gardens, supervision of play during the sum¬ mer vacation, organization of a junior high school, pupils in the seventh grade whose average was 85 or above were allow7ed to take some eighth grade work and enter the high school at the end of the year. Of 120 in the first-year high school 30 had skipped the eighth grade and did the best work by far. Plymouth, Wis. — The employment of an instructor in agriculture during the summer months to supervise work done by the boys on their own home farms, also to supervise work done on city lots by city boys. Two Rivers, Wis. — Reorganization upon the six-six plan. Prior to this many students stopped at the eighth grade, now practically all are retained until the end of the tenth year. Roslyn, Wash. — The establishment of free night schools. CHAPTER TV. RURAL EDUCATION. By H. W. Foght, Specialist in Rural School Practice , in collaboration with A. C. Monahan, Specialist in Rural School Administration, and J. L. McBrien, School Extension Agent. Contents. — Introductory statement — Progress in the administration and supervision of rural schools — Consolidation — Preparation of rural school teachers : In normal schools ; in secondary schools ; training teachers in service ; relation of salaries to preparation and length of tenure — Standardizing the one-teacher rural school — Rural high schools — Progress in rural school extension — The division of rural education in the Bureau of Education. INTRODUCTORY STATEMENT. The year 1914—15 has shown marked progress in a number of lines of work in rural education. These have been, in the main, a con¬ tinuation of plans for the reorganization and improvement in school conditions begun prior to the present year. Certain definite school policies and educational standards have by this time been accepted by educators for rural school reorganization that are bound to be of great value in unifying the many experiments now in progress to improve rural school conditions. In this work of unifying edu¬ cational effort, the rural school division of the Bureau of Education has found an important field of activity. The discussion in the present chapter naturally falls under the heads of administration, school practice, and school extension work and coincides roughly with the work of the three subdivisions of the rural division of the bureau. PROGRESS IN THE ADMINISTRATION AND SUPERVISION OF RURAL SCHOOLS. Administration. — Many serious attempts were made by State edu¬ cational authorities in the 40 States whose legislatures met during the past year to secure legislation providing for important changes in the administration of rural schools. In all cases the movements were either for strengthened State and county departments of edu¬ cation or for the adoption of larger units of local control or for both. A reorganization of State boards of education or of State depart¬ ments was attempted in 7 States; in 2 only were important changes made. The abandonment of the local “ district ” unit system for either the township or the county system, or the abandonment of a l?-084°— ed 1915— voe 1 - 6 81 82 EDUCATION REPORT, 1915. system where the management was divided between local district authorities and county authorities for the county system, was at¬ tempted in 16 States; in four instances the attempt was successful. Included in this number are only those attempts which received serious consideration and strong support. These attempts are worthy of note, because they serve to indicate the trend in rural administration. They seem to indicate that there is strong sentiment in favor of the State as a unit in education, with a State system headed by a State department of sufficient strength to direct and unify the educational development in the State, and intrusted with the control of sufficient funds to insure equally good educational opportunities in all portions of the State; also in favor of a local unit of administration and support large enough to secure efficiency and economy in management, and a distribution of the benefits of corporate and other wealth concentrated in small areas over other territory where it may be needed. The discussion created in the legislatures and elsewhere by these proposed measures has done much to spread information about more efficient school man¬ agement. The two States in which the organization of the State departments have been changed are Tennessee and Vermont. Tennessee has now, for administrative purposes, a system that per¬ mits rapid progress in rural-school development. Its general plan of administration includes a State board of education, appointed by the governor, charged with the general administration of school af¬ fairs, acting through the State superintendent, who is appointed by the board. Each county has its county board of education, elected by the people and having control of all schools in the county except those in independent city districts. The county superintendents are appointed by the county courts. Vermont has substituted for its old State board of education, appointed by the governor with the consent of the senate, a new board of five members appointed by the governor for five-year terms, and given definite and large functions concerning the general admin¬ istration of the schools of the State. This board appoints the State commissioner of education, fixes his term and his salary, appoints State supervisors as assistants to the State commissioner, and ap¬ points the school superintendents for the union superintendencv districts of the State, in which are included all towns and townships in the State with less than 25 schools. This means that under the new law all school superintendents in the State with but 10 or 12 exceptions are appointed by the State board rather than by local authorities, as in the past. Each town (township) remains a unit in organization and management as before. The State course of RURAL EDUCATION. 83 study, however, must be followed in all schools, and all teachers must be certified and approved by the State, and the State board is au¬ thorized to enforce these two provisions of the law. In Alabama, one of the States without a State board of education, an attempt was made to provide one. It was proposed that a board should be appointed by the governor, with the approval of the senate, which would act in an advisory capacity to the present State super¬ intendent of public instruction and the State department of educa¬ tion, and which would replace several independent boards. The bill met with favorable reception and was reported unanimously out of both the senate and the house committee on education. Little serious attempt was made, however, to secure the passage of the bill through either the house or senate on account of other important school measures before these bodies. In North Dakota an attempt was made to replace the existing board by a smaller board appointed by the governor. The present board consists of nine persons — the president of the State university, the president of the State agricultural college, the State superintend¬ ent of public instruction, the State inspector of graded and rural schools, the State high school inspector, all ex officio; one normal school president, one industrial school president, one county super¬ intendent, and one male citizen of the State not connected with the educational system. These four are appointed by the governor. The proposed board would contain no ex officio members whatever, but would provide a nonpolitical board and one not necessarily made up of education officers. This is in keeping with the general tendency. The 1915 Legislature of Wisconsin passed a “ State board of edu¬ cation bill ” providing a board whose function is to have “ complete control of all the finances of all the educational activities” of the State. In Illinois the legislature was asked to create a State depart¬ ment of education under the general supervision of a State board of education. The Legislature of Oregon was asked to reorganize the State board of education, which now consists of three ex officio State officers — the governor, secretary of state, and superintendent of public instruc¬ tion — and to confer upon the new State board additional functions. It was proposed in South Dakota, where there is no State board of education at the present time, to create one to consist of the superin¬ tendent of public instruction, the president of the State college of agriculture and mechanic arts, and four persons appointed by the governor, two of whom would be presidents of State normal schools, one a superintendent or principal of a city or town school, and one a county superintendent. 84 EDUCATION REPORT, 1915. In connection with this movement on the part of these States and others in recent years, it is worthy of note that while several States without State boards of education at the present time, or with State boards composed of ex officio State officers, are proposing boards made up wholly or in part of ex officio educational officers, that other States which have had boards made up of ex officio educational officers have given up or are proposing to give up such boards and to substitute boards composed of citizens of the States selected by the governors without reference to whether they are engaged in educational work or not. In several instances States have specified that all or a majority of the board must be persons not engaged in educational work. At least 12 States now organized on the district-unit basis made serious attempts to change their systems of local management to the county -unit basis, and one (New York) to the township-unit basis. Alabama and Texas, two States which already had a county or a semicounty system, passed laws providing for a more centralized county system. Utah, with the county system in part of the State, has applied its county law to all counties. New Mexico has adopted the county unit of taxation but not of administration. Alabama has had a county system of administration since 1903. The counties were divided into single school districts and three trustees were elected in each district. The county board of education consisted of the county superintendent, who was elected by the peo¬ ple for four years, and four others elected for four years by the chairmen of the school district trustees. The system had several weaknesses which it is hoped the new law will eliminate. Under it the single school districts were necessarily fixed territories and changes in boundary lines and consolidation of small districts into large districts w ere practically impossible. Furthermore, the county boards were largely influenced in their actions by the wishes of the chairmen of the district boards who appointed them, and conse¬ quently did not exercise the full authority of a county board. An¬ other weakness of the system was that all members of the board, in¬ cluding the county superintendent, came into office and retired at the same time. Under the new law the board is composed of five mem¬ bers serving for six years, with not more than one-third of the terms expiring each biennium. The board is elected directly by the people. The county superintendents, at the expiration of the terms for which those now in office were elected, will be appointed by the county boards instead of elected by the people. They will be required to give their entire time to the work; their salaries will be fixed by the boards employing them. The boards will select all supervisors and teachers on the recommendation of the county superintendent. The new law in effect adopts for all counties in the State the system RURAL EDUCATION. 85 under which Mobile County by special legislation has been organ¬ ized for several years. The principal changes brought about by the new law are given below. The first election of county board mem¬ bers will take place in November, 1916. Alabama. COUNTY BOARD OF EDUCATION. Old. New. PERSONNEL. Five members, four elected by tbe chairmen of the district trustees, the county superintendent being the fifth member. Five members elected from the county at large by the voters of the county, both men and women being eligible. QUALIFI CATIO N 8. Qualified elector of the county. Good moral character. At least a fair elementary education, of good standing in their respective communi¬ ties, and known for their honesty, business ability, public spiritedness, and interested in the good of public education. TERM OF OFFICE. For four years, the terms being con- Six years ; one or two members re- temporaneous. tiring at the end of each two-year period. GENERAL DUTIES. To control the public schools of the county outside of the incorporated cities and towns, except as otherwise provided by law, to make rules and regulations for the government of the schools, to acquire, purchase, lease, and sell property for school purposes, except as otherwise provided, to sue and contract. SPECIFIC DUTIES. To employ teachers nominated by the district trustees; to elect a county treasurer of public school funds; to employ assistants to the county super¬ intendent of education ; to control pub¬ lic school funds as provided by law. (a) To select a county superinten¬ dent of education and fix his salary. (b) To elect a county treasurer of public school funds. (c) To elect a successor of any member whose place becomes vacant by death, resignation, or otherwise, for the unexpired term. (d) To select, upon nomination of the county superintendent of educa¬ tion, teachers, assistant superinten¬ dents, supervisors, office assistants, and fix their salaries. (e) To erect, repair, and furnish schoolhouses, fix wages of employees, and determine incidental expenses. 86 EDUCATION REPORT, 1915. Old. New. (f) To consolidate schools and transport pupils at public expense; to authorize children in one county to attend school in another, or children in the country to attend .school in the city, and vice versa, for sufficient cause. (g) To control public school funds as provided by law. (h) To appoint one or more trustees for each school. (i) To enforce compulsory attend¬ ance as required by law. ( j ) To dismiss the county super¬ intendent or any other employee for cause. (k) To make a school census. REMUNERATION. Actual traveling and hotel expenses in attending the meetings of the board for not more than twelve meetings in any one year. SALARY OF COUNTY SUPERINTENDENT. Four per centum of funds disbursed Salary of not less than $1,000 a not to exceed $1,800 from State funds year, per annum, or salary of not less than $1,000 a year. Another important measure passed by the Alabama Legislature, providing for an election on a constitutional amendment, tends also to strengthen the county system of administration. This action is relative to the support of the schools of the State. Under the present law, which has been in effect for many years, the source of the principal support for the public schools is the State. The State fund is distributed to the various counties on the basis of school population and is expended by the county boards of education in such a way as to provide as nearly as practicable school terms of equal duration in all parts of the county, first appor¬ tioning to independent city districts their school population per capita share. This fund the counties, by a constitutional provision, may supplement by a local county tax, the maximum being 10 cents on $100 assessed valuation, but only on a three-fifths vote of the qualified electors of the county. Out of the 6T counties in the State only 46 have voted the local county tax ; the others expend no money on their schools except that received from the State. There is no provision for any tax districts smaller than the county. Sentiment in the State for a constitutional amendment permitting a county tax greater than 10 cents on the $100 has been crystallizing for several Two dollars a day for each day’s work for not more than 10 days in any one year. RURAL EDUCATION. 87 years, and there has been considerable agitation for a provision for local tax districts. The 1915 legislature has provided for an amend¬ ment to be voted upon in the fall of 1915. If it passes, it will provide that a county may tax itself for school purposes a maximum of 50 cents on the $100, and also that in counties levying a county school tax of at least 30 cents on the $100 local districts whose boundaries have been fixed and approved by the county board of education may, with the approval of the county board, tax themselves an additional 30 cents to be expended in the district for purposes also approved by the county board. Texas has been organized for the management of rural schools under a semicounty system. Each county has been divided into local districts, which formerly had the entire control of the schools. For high-school purposes a board of “ county school trustees ” was provided several years ago, and to this board were given several functions besides the management of the high schools. It was ex¬ pected to classify all schools in the county as “ primary, intermediate, and high schools,” and prescribe the course of study for all of these schools. In its classifications it was authorized to limit the number of grades in any school, to establish consolidated schools with high- school departments with the consent of the district trustees, and to apportion the State and county school funds. The 1915 legislature has passed a law which will go into effect in 1916 under the name of the “ Rural-school law.” This puts the general management and control of all the public free schools of each county in the hands of the county school trustees, who are elected by the people. The new board of county school trustees has all the powers and duties of the old board and, in addition, prescribes, in cooperation with the county superintendent, the course of study for all schools in the county; exercises the authority heretofore vested in the county commis¬ sioners with respect to subdividing the county into school districts, as well as the authority to consolidate school districts into larger districts; and to apportion, as prescribed by law, the school moneys to the various schools in the county. The county superintendent is made by law the secretary and executive officer of the county school trustees. Utah, in 1905, provided an optional county organization for ad¬ ministration in coimties with 2,500 school population or over. Eight counties adopted this plan, practically all that could do so under the law. The 1915 legislature has made the county-unit law mandatory for all counties in the State. New Mexico has adopted the county as the unit of taxation, but not as a unit of administration. Under this law, school directors of rural school districts, on or before the 1st day of May of each year, must submit to their county superintendent an estimate of the 88 EDUCATION REPORT, 1915. amount of funds necessary for conducting the schools for the follow¬ ing year. After approval by the county superintendents, the esti¬ mate will be sent to the county board of commissioners. The boards of education of municipal school districts are required to send similar estimates direct to the county commissioners. The county commis¬ sioners are required to levy a tax upon all taxable property of the county sufficient to produce funds to support and maintain schools in municipal districts and rural districts employing at least four teachers for nine months, and to support and maintain schools in other rural districts for at least seven months. No district may expend more than $60 per month for instructional purposes for each teacher holding a third-grade certificate, more than $75 per month for each teacher holding a second-grade certificate, nor more than $90 per month for each teacher holding a first-grade or higher certifi¬ cate. No rural school district shall be entitled to apportionment for more than one teacher for each 50 children or fraction thereof. Money for the purchase of land and the erection and repair of school buildings is to be raised by taxes in the local districts as heretofore. Nebraska has provided for the county unit of organization in the support and administration of the schools in counties of less than 7,000 population upon majority vote in favor of the county unit in the various counties. There are 27 counties in the State to which this law may be applied. The Nebraska State school code commission, provided by the legislature of 1913 and appointed by the governor, recommended an optional county-unit law for the entire State. The proposed law met with such violent opposition that it seemed im¬ possible to secure its passage and it was amended to apply only as stated above. The school code commission presented several other recommendations that would have affected rural school administra¬ tion, but none of them were adopted. Among the other States in which attempts were made to secure a larger unit of organization for the administration of rural schools than now exists were New York, Colorado, Minnesota, Missouri, Montana, Oklahoma, and Oregon. The Oklahoma attempt consisted of a measure before the State legislature, urged by the State superintendent of public instruction, for an optional county system which might be adopted by any county on majority vote and would give to a county board of edu¬ cation the control and management of all schools in the county ex¬ cept those in independent city districts. The legislature of Oregon was asked to pass an optional county-unit bill similar to the Okla¬ homa bill, but one which would give to the county board authority to appoint the county superintendent This could not be done in Oklahoma without a- constitutional amendment. Montana’s county- unit bill, defeated in the legislature by one vote, would have pro¬ vided for the State a county system very similar to that of Utah. RURAL EDUCATION. 89 The county-unit bill of Colorado, before the legislature in 1915 for the second time, seemed to meet with the general approval of the educational forces of the State. It was concerned almost wholly with the administrative unit, as the State now has a 4-mill county tax. The opposition, however, proved too strong to secure its pas¬ sage. The State teachers’ association has already begun a campaign of education preparatory to the introduction of the same measure in the 1917 legislature. The State school code commission of Minnesota reported in favor of the adoption of the county unit, but did not ask for legislation, because the sentiment against it in the legislature seemed too great to overcome. For the same reason the county unit bill proposed and prepared by the State teachers’ association of Missouri was withheld from the legislature, and an educational movement was started to create sentiment throughout the State in its favor, with the hope of having the bill passed by the legislature in 1917. In New York a bill was introduced into the legislature providing for the adoption of the township unit of administration, with a township board of education to have jurisdiction of all schools in the township except those in union free districts with 5,000 popula¬ tion or more, and employing a superintendent of schools. The board would consist of seven members elected by the people for three-year terms and would have all the powers and duties now con¬ ferred upon city boards of education or trustees of rural school dis¬ tricts relative to locating school houses, erecting buildings, assigning children to the various schools, appointing teachers, etc. The schools of the township would be supported by a township tax. The town¬ ship system would probably be a very satisfactory organization for New York, as the New York township in civil functions is similar to the New England township, which has proved for New England to be a conspicuously successful unit of administration in school affairs. The bill before the New York Legislature for the township system was prepared and urged by the State department of education. The State commissioner addressed to the State legislature a circular, in which he called attention to the necessity for legislation making possible the betterment of rural school conditions, pointing out that there were in the State 8,430 one-room schools, in almost half of which the average daily attendance was 10 or less. The State con¬ tributes from $125 to $200 to each of these schools, whatever the average attendance may be, and it has therefore a concern in the economic aspect of the problem. He called the legislature’s atten¬ tion to the fact that the district property valuation, basis for the support of schools in about one-half of the one-room schools is less than $40,000; that is, a valuation which at 1 per cent would yield a maximum of $400 for school purposes: also that 1,300 of these dis- 90 EDUCATION KEPORT, 1915. tricts have a valuation of $20,000 or less, and 2T a valuation of less than $5,000. He proposed two remedies; first, the consolidation of districts and transportation of pupils where necessary; and second, the creation of a larger local unit of taxation, and consequently of administration. In regard to these two measures Dr. Finley has the following to say: As to the first (1), voluntary consolidation has proceeded slowly. In recent years the legislature has sought to encourage the movement and has authorized consolidation by district superintendents; but, while the educational results promise to be wholesome, even under this plan progress is made only in spots and with difficulty. If there could be a redistricting of the entire State for school purposes, taking natural and social centers as the school centers, the problem, I believe, would in that way be most successfully solved ; but it would be a task requiring not only closest sympathetic study of local conditions and tendencies (a prodigious labor in itself), but the highest and most courageous intelligence and judgment that the State could command. The present district boundaries were many of them determined by economic and social and physical conditions which existed more than 50 years ago. (The districting was authorized under an act of 1812.) These conditions have been changed, not only by movements above referred to, but also by facilities of communication and transportation, and in many cases have been so changed as to give no reason for the continuance of these boundaries, except the con¬ venience of a few and a sentiment (most worthy in itself) which attaches to a school that has cherished associations. Consolidation is a method of making readjustments slowly and, chiefly, in extreme cases, to changed conditions. Arbitrary redistricting by the department or by a commission of the State would be a means of swift readjustment. The first is practicable but slow ; the second is ideal but also remote. There remains one other course; (2) That of widening the local area of taxation and administration, so that the burden may be more equitably dis¬ tributed and a better school provision more generally maintained without dimin¬ ishing local initiative or responsibility or increasing State provision or control. The so-called “ township bill ” is intended to call the attention of the legislature to this alternative plan. While the township system is in vogue in all the States immediately surrounding New York State, and while it has been for years discussed in reports and in meetings of school teachers and officers, it has not recently, at any rate, been brought effectively to the attention of the people as a whole. Even if, as is probable, your honorable body will not find itself ready to act favorably upon such a proposed plan this year, its presentation will at any rate invite your serious thought, and will through you reach the thousands of dis¬ tricts in the State which you represent, and there compel attention and have serious discussion. This department has no desire to impose a system from above, even if it could ; but it is under compulsion to urge upon your careful and courageous thought what it believes to be for the good of the schools of the State, that there may come a united effort, and sacrifice if necessary, for their improvement where it is most needful. Just as the schools of our cities are now managed as a whole by the several cities, it should be possible, without in any way impairing local initiative, interest, or pride, to plan for each township as a whole, to make each school a more vital force in the larger area and to relate it more closely to the daily life of the community which it serves. RURAL EDUCATION. 91 While the movement in all of the States mentioned above, except New York, is toward the county as a unit of local control, in 'Wis¬ consin there has been a reaction and legislation in the other direction. A semicounty system was provided for the State by legislation in 1913; the law providing it was repealed by the 1915 legislature be¬ fore the system had had a reasonable trial. This action can not be taken as an indication that the county plan adopted by Wisconsin was a failure, for it came before the system provided by the 1913 law was in full operation and before the parts in operation had been tested. The system adopted was far from the ideal and many of the provisions of the law providing it were very indefinite; however, these facts had little to do with its repeal. The “ county board of education bill,” as it was called in Wis¬ consin, was passed in August, 1913, after a long fight. As passed, it contained but few of the provisions of the original county bill presented to the legislature. It provided for an elected board of five members in each county, the first election to be held on the first Tuesday in April, 1911 (April 7). The newly elected boards were required to meet and organize on May 5 (1914), on which date they were to assume the powers and duties conferred upon them by the law, with a few important exceptions. Each board, for instance, was given power to fix the salaries of the county superintendent and his assistants and to audit the accounts of the superintendent’s office. This function, however, it could not exercise till the expiration of the terms for which the superintendent then in office was elected. The terms of the superintendents ended in July, 1915. The law was repealed before this date. The principal duties given the county boards of education were the general oversight of the work of the county superintendents, fixing their salaries and appointing and fixing the salaries of their assistants, also the power to change district lines and to consolidate schools. The immediate management and control of the schools rested with the local district trustees as before. The law repealing the “ county board of education bill ” provides a “ county committee on common schools,” composed of three per¬ sons appointed by the county board of supervisors. The function of these committees is to appoint for their counties special county super¬ visory teachers as assistants to the county superintendents. For every county of 60 or less teachers one supervisor is required ; larger counties must have two. The committees have no other functions. Three States have made provision for extensive inquiries into their public-school systems with a view of ascertaining how the adminis¬ tration of rural schools may be improved. Washington State has created a commission to study the management of the public-school system of the State, to be composed of one man from the senate, one 92 EDUCATION REPORT^ 1915. from the attorney general’s office, one from the bureau of inspection, and the State superintendent of public instruction. Utah has created a commission known as the “Educational code commission,” con¬ sisting of the State superintendent, the attorney general, and three members appointed by the governor, to make a study of the organi¬ zation of the present public-school system, investigate the present needs of the State as to educational organization, and report with recommendations for the reconstruction and codification of the school laws of the State, particularly in regard to schools outside of the cities of the first and second class. The sum of $500 was appro¬ priated for expenses. Wyoming appropriated $1,500 to pay the expenses of a State school-code commission of five persons, including the State superintendent and four others appointed by the governor. The members appointed by the governor include the principal of the State normal school, a county superintendent of schools, a high- school principal, and a ranchman. This commission is making a study of the rural-school situation of the State and will report with recommendations concerning methods of betterment of the situation. Supervision. — The action of the legislatures in several States is evidence that the need for more expert supervision of rur al schools is becoming generally recognized, and that there is a growing appre¬ ciation that effective supervision, as a rule, can be given only by men and women with professional training and chosen for their fitness for the work rather than for other considerations. The movement to make school officers, both State superintendents and county super¬ intendents, appointive rather than elective is going forward. One of the greatest difficulties seems to be that both State superintendents of public instruction and county superintendents of schools in many States, particularly in those west of the Mississippi River, are con¬ stitutional officers and must continue to be elected with other politi¬ cal officers until constitutional amendments can be adopted in the various States. Up to the present rural-school superintendents in 20 States have been appointed by State departments of education or by the local boards of education to which they are responsible. Ala¬ bama and Utah are now added to this list. Alabama, as mentioned above, made provision for the appointment of the county superin¬ tendents by the county boards of education instead of by election by the people. Utah, by making the county-unit law mandatory for all counties, makes all county superintendents in the State appointed officers, the appointment being made by county boards. Actual bills to provide for the appointment of the county superin¬ tendents, either directly in States where the legislature has final power, or indirectly through a constitutional amendment where an amendment is necessary, were before seven other legislatures— Ne- RURAL EDUCATION. 93 braska, North Dakota, Montana, Oregon, Texas, Nevada, and Cali¬ fornia. The Texas bill passed the senate but failed in the house. In regard to the elective versus the appointive educational officers, David Snedden, State commissioner of education of Massachusetts, recently declared:1 In almost every State in the Union the question of the elective versus the ap¬ pointive system of selecting public servants is under discussion. Formerly the attempt was made to elect an official for every possible function. Gradually this has been abandoned in progressive communities, except as regards those representatives of the people, like legislators and such chief executives as Presi¬ dents, governors, and mayors, who are expected to reflect popular demands and to give voice to popular policies. It is proper that we should have the popular election of lay boards in educa¬ tion. It is doubtful if the popular election of officials responsible for adminis¬ tration and directive duties can be defended any longer. But in many States we still elect, by popular vote, the chief educational executive. It is also com¬ mon to find the chief county educational executive chosen by popular vote. It can not be denied that this system of selection from time to time brings to the front men of rare ability, and also that their services are recognized and re¬ warded by a relatively long tenure. Nevertheless, the time has come when, tnroughout the country, educators should go on record more definitely than has hitherto been the case as to the fundamental soundness of the system of popular election for educational execu¬ tives. We must seriously examine not only the effects of this system as these are manifested in the work done in States and counties, but also as to the effects of the system on the development of a thoroughly professional point of view on the part of those qualified for educational leadership. Any system that does not bring to the front, in an administrative capacity, those who by nature and training are best suited for such work, and which does not retain such persons in service as long as their accumulated experience makes them available, is bound to be faulty. It should, of course, be recognized that, up to a certain level, a system of popular election may work fairly well, and yet ut¬ terly break down beyond. Few people now would argue that an engineer or a superintendent of a water-supply system should be chosen by popular vote. It ought to be equally difficult to argue that an expert educational administrator should be chosen any more than an architect or accountant. In American cities it would seem that educational administration is now or¬ ganized along substantially right lines. The lay board, representative of the public, is the final source of authority. This lay board appoints its chief execu¬ tive, and holds itself ready to scrutinize his policies and to pass judgment upon the results of his work. Under the chief executive are found, in various stages of service down to the rank and file of teachers, other executives, nominated by the superintendent and communicating through him to the board of education. A system analogous to this must be developed if county and State supervision are to rise to the new level of responsibilities now confronting them. We must make a career for the county superintendent no less dignified and important — and enduring — than that of the city superintendent. This is one of the large problems confronting educational administration in America. It must become definitely professional. It can not become profes¬ sional as long as the methods of selecting State and county executives are what they are at present. 1 Educational administration and supervision, January, 1915. 94 EDUCATION REPORT, 1915. The action of the Wisconsin Legislature has already been men¬ tioned. Oregon, after three years’ experience with its supervision law, has amended it so that it becomes optional in each county in¬ stead of mandatory, remaining in force in each county, however, until voted out. The original act was passed in 1911. Under its provisions, in every county with 60 or more teachers the county super¬ intendent was required to appoint a county board of education which divided the county in supervisory districts of 60 teachers each and appointed a supervisor for each district so formed. Indiana, under the vocational education act of 1913, has accom¬ plished a great deal in the introduction of practical arts subjects in the schools. This was possible through the employment of 116 spe¬ cial township and county supervisors for practical arts subjects, 34 for agriculture, 59 for domestic science, and 23 for industrial arts. Of the total number, 46 were county supervisors. In several States measures were passed providing increased rural supervision. The action of Vermont in providing for increased supervision and for the appointment of all rural superintendents by the State board of education, instead of by local authorities, has already been mentioned. The school code of Pennsylvania, adopted in 1911, provided for assistant county superintendents to be paid from State funds. None, however, had been appointed until the present year, because the legislature made no appropriation for their salaries. This the 1915 legislature has done, and assistants have now been appointed in accordance with the law. The law provides that every county superintendent with more than 200 teachers under his supervision shall have one assistant ; with more than 400 teachers, two assistants ; with more than 600 teachers and less than 800, three assist¬ ants ; and for every additional 400 teachers or fraction thereof, an ad¬ ditional assistant. These assistants must be nominated by the county superintendent and confirmed by a majority vote of the five officers of the “ directors’ association ” of the county ; that is, the five officers of an association which includes all township school directors of the county. These assistants must be able to present the same qualifications as are required for county superintendents. The salaries paid are fixed by the directors’ convention. The minimum, $1,200, is paid out of the State appropriation. CON SOLID ATION . Special State aid to stimulate consolidation was granted in several additional States during the year. Nebraska was one of the States which provided such aid in 1915, and the State superintendent re¬ ports that 300 new schools of the consolidated or cooperative and rural high-school types were to be ready for opening in September, 1915. RURAL EDUCATION. 95 Missouri reports 175 consolidated schools to which 7,000 children are transported in 400 wagons, and 200 other consolidated schools without transportation. North Dakota reports 333 consolidated schools, 205 of which are in towns and 128 in open country. This is an increase of 60 during the past year. The records of the State inspector of rural schools show that the proportion of pupils enrolled in the eighth grade in the consolidated schools of the State is twice as great as in the eighth grades of the other rural schools; also that on account of these consolidated schools the higli-school enrollment of country children has increased over threefold in the past four years. Con¬ solidation in North Dakota has been stimulated by the vigorous edu¬ cational campaign conducted by the State department. Indiana reports that in 1914 there were 665 consolidated schools in 71 of the 92 counties in the State, attended by 73,404 children, or 35.9 per cent of all the pupils attending rural schools; 26,403 children were transported at an expense to the public of $491,265. This is approximately 36 per cent of the children attending the consolidated schools. A recent study of the consolidated schools in Indiana by the State department of education reveals certain evidences that better educational opportunities are presented in the consolidated schools than in other rural schools ; for instance, that better teachers are provided is indicated by the fact that the average daily wages paid in consolidated schools are $3.37, as compared with $2.76 in other rural schools. In spite of this greatly increased salary, the cost per pupil in the consolidated school is not much greater than in the other rural schools, the figures being $25.64 and $22.71, re¬ spectively. The establishment of so many consolidated schools has made high-school education possible to country children within easy reach of their homes. This is evidenced by the fact that of the total number of children enrolled in the consolidated schools 22 per cent are in the high-school departments. That Indiana, after 25 years of experience with such a large number of consolidated schools, is satisfied with the type of school even when the expense is greater than that of the old type is evidenced by the rapidity with which district schools have been abandoned for consolidated schools. In the past five years the number of schools abandoned was 916. The State Legislature of Delaware has passed an act which will probably result in considerable consolidation. At the present time the average school district of the State contains less than 6 square miles. One-half the number of schools properly located might re¬ place the present schools and still leave no children more than 2^ miles from the schoolhouse. The law, however, contemplates con¬ solidation with transportation. Upon the petition of five or more residents of any district the State board of education is required to 96 EDUCATION REPORT, 1915. investigate the advisabilty of altering the district, and at a properly advertised meeting for the districts affected must submit to the resi¬ dents and property owners a tentative plan for consolidation. If the board considers the change advisable, it is to submit the question to the school voters of the territory affected. A majority vote will be necessary to carry. The bill provides for the disposition of school property, the erection of new buildings, and the raising of funds for the support of the new school. Oklahoma has amended the State law relative to the consolidation of rural schools, providing that in the future the election to deter¬ mine whether consolidation shall be effected or not shall be at one central meeting of all the districts concerned and shall be carried by a majority vote of those present. Several other States have already such a provision, and it has been demonstrated that consolidation is more easily agreed upon than when each district concerned votes independently and must be in favor of the movement before con¬ solidation may take place. In Iowa 55 consolidated schools were established during the year, nearly all with two or four year high-school departments. These schools have all been established under the provisions of an act of the legislature of 1913, giving special State aid for departments of agri¬ culture, domestic science, and manual training in consolidated schools. Each school has a site of from 4 to 10 acres for agricul¬ tural teaching. In order to receive State aid the consolidated schools must meet the requirements of the State department of education concerning buildings, grounds, course of study, and qualification of teachers. All of these buildings have been approved by the depart¬ ment ; all have satisfactory equipment for work in agriculture, manual training, or domestic science. Several of them have teachers’ cottages on the grounds. PREPARATION OF RURAL-SCHOOL, TEACHERS. It requires a force of approximately 365,000 teachers to supply the needs of rural communities in the United States. The most careful estimates that can be made indicate that one-third of the teachers, or 122,000, have little or no professional preparation for their duties. The average teacher remains in the profession less than four years of 140 days each. This means that there is an entire change of personnel every four years, or that 92,000 new teachers must be provided annually. The supply of professionally prepared rural teachers comes from State normal schools, agricul¬ tural colleges, teacher-training high schools, and county normal schools, and a few schools of education in colleges and universities. Teachers who are in the field of service are finding increasing facili- RURAL EDUCATION. 97 ties for improvement in the summer schools which are now in opera¬ tion in every section of the country. Several States report interesting progress during the year. Indi¬ ana has passed a law providing for higher qualifications of rural teachers, equalizing this matter at the same time by enacting an improved minimum-salary law. Iowa will hereafter require at least 12 weeks of professional training of all teachers in rural schools. Oklahoma has enacted a law that after 1917 all teachers, whether in city or open country, must be high-school graduates with some normal-school preparation. Nebraska has made provision by law for the organization of special rural-school departments in all its four State normal schools. Mississippi and Georgia have begun to prepare rural teachers in the strongest of their agricultural high schools, and the former State also in a few strong consolidated schools. This is in addition to the courses for rural teachers in the State Normal School at Hattiesburg. Alabama has reorganized the courses of its class A normal schools to answer more nearly the needs of rural teachers. West Virginia, Florida, and Oklahoma have been added to the list of States making use of high schools in the preparation of rural teachers, while several of the other 17 States with high-school training courses have materially strengthened the organization of this work. Finally, several States, and among these Iowa and Connecticut, have put into effect successful systems for training teachers in active service. IN NORMAL, SCHOOLS. Special departments for training rural teachers. — In 1908 only one or two State normal schools had separate departments offering spe¬ cific courses for rural teachers. At the present time at least 43 such departments have been organized and 36 other normal schools offer excellent general courses for rural teachers. In addition, at least 50 normal schools have strong departments which offer instruction to teachers of agriculture, many of them being aided in this work by a very complete farm equipment. In Nebraska State normal schools. — The Nebraska law referred to above provides: There shall be established in the State normal schools of Nebraska a course of study for rural teachers. Said course shall contain thorough instruction in the common-school subjects, rural sociology, management and organization of rural schools, observation, consideration of how to organize a rural school and make the schoolhouse the social center, manual training, sanitary science, household economy, agriculture, and vocal music. The course shall cover two years, and mature students shall enter directly from the tenth grade, and upon completion of said course may be granted county certificates under the rules to be prescribed by the State superintendent of public instruction. 12034° — ed 1915 — vol 1— — 7 98 EDUCATION REPORT, 1915. Algebra Civics _ English History LEADING TO SPECIAL RURAL TEACHERS’ COURSE. FIRST YEAR. 5 5 5 5 Algebra _ English _ History _ Physical geography. SECOND YEAR. Geometry _ English _ _ General physical science. 5 5 5 Geometry _ I _ English _ General physical science. 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 SPECIAL RURAL TEACHERS’ COURSE. FIRST YEAR. Elements of psychology and prin¬ ciples of teaching _ 5 Biology _ 3 Composition and orthography _ 2| Drawing _ 5 Agriculture, farm account _ 5 Physiology, hygiene and sanitation 5 United States history _ 5 Geography _ 21 Music _ 5 Penmanship _ 2 Home economics _ _ _ 5 SECOND YEAR. Rural school management _ 5 Manual training _ 1 _ 5 Mental arithmetic _ 2\ Grammar _ a _ 21 Agriculture _ 5 Rural methods, observation and practice _ 5 Economics, rural and social con¬ ditions _ -i _ 5 Public speaking and dramatics _ 21 Open country recreation and play_ 21 play - 21 Children’s literature _ 5 IN SECONDARY SCHOOLS. Teacher training in secondary schools is now carried on in 20 States.1 This includes the so-called county training schools as well as teacher-training departments in connection with high schools and teacher training as a part of regular high-school courses. Wisconsin is the only one in the group with genuine county training schools in every respect separate from the public high schools. New York, Michigan, Minnesota, Nevada, and Ohio have what are called county training schools or classes or separate departments more or less closely connected with the public high schools and using public-school buildings and equipment for the work. Arkansas, Iowa, Kansas, Maryland, Missouri, Nebraska, Oregon, Vermont, Virginia, and Wis¬ consin have training courses as part of the ordinary high- school courses, leaving all except the professional work in charge of the regular high-school instructors. Maine offers teacher training in a few of its accredited academies. North Carolina has similar courses in a number of high schools, although it has no legal enactment directly authorizing their organization. During the past year West Virginia, Florida, and Oklahoma have been added to the list. West 1 See also p. 16 of this report. RURAL EDUCATION. 99 Virginia and Florida have direct legislation to this end, while Okla¬ homa. has enacted a law through which the State superintendent of public instruction has been enabled to organize such departments. Probably the chief objection to teacher training in high schools has been the fear that the emphasis on teacher training will weaken the academic courses. Schoolmen are not agreed on this point, but the general tendency is now to lengthen the course and grant no cer¬ tificate until four years of high-school work shall have been com¬ pleted. A number of States have taken steps to add a fifth year to the high-school course, or, rather, are organizing the teacher-training departments as a one-year course, to be taken upon the conclusion of the regular four-year course. The State of Ohio, which organized its first training courses of this kind one year ago, has practically aban¬ doned its short course and expects hereafter to graduate from the long course only. This requires graduation from high school before entering the training course. New York, the first State to organize this system of teacher training, has just passed a law to the effect that after 1917 no one shall be permitted to enter teacher-training courses who is not a graduate of a regular four-year high school. Many other States are contemplating similar requirements. The total number of high-school training departments and classes for the past year was 1,089, with an approximate attendance of 25,000 and 11,088 graduates. Alabama has made radical changes in its class A normal schools during the year. Classical and other subjects preparing primarily for university courses have given place to rural sociology, hygiene and sanitation, and such other subjects as have distinct value in the preparation of teachers for the rural schools. The controlling motive of the new course of study is to provide professional training for the 1,200 beginning teachers needed each year in the elementary schools of the State. Louisiana reports that the teachers prepared in the rural school department of the State normal school at Natchitoches receive better salaries than teachers prepared in other departments of the normal school. Mississippi has organized at Hattiesburg a normal school primarily for rural teachers, which in the three years of its existence has prepared 2,000 teachers, 1,000 of these being in attendance during the past year. Illinois reports that its State normal schools are recognizing more clearly than ever before that rural teaching is dif¬ ferent from grade-school teaching. Four of the five State normal schools have now made special provision for the preparation of teachers for the rural schools. Three of them have ample ground and are giving instruction in agricultural subjects which will enable teachers to link up school work with the work children are interested in at home. 100 EDUCATION REPORT, 1915. TRAINING TEACHERS IN SERVICE. Aside from the important work accomplished by the summer schools in every section of the country, many States and educational institutions have adopted plans for training their teachers while in active school service. In this connection may be mentioned also the National Rural Teachers’ Reading Circle, which has just been inau¬ gurated by the Bureau of Education in conjunction with an advisory committee appointed by the association of State superintendents of the National Education Association. The National Rural Teachers ’ Reading Circle. — The plans for organizing a national rural teachers’ reading circle were first broached at the National Educational Association meeting in St. Paul in 1914. The final plans, as worked out by the Bureau of Education in cooperation with the advisory committee mentioned above, have been put into operation, and teachers throughout the country have been invited to its membership. Thirty-four States have already joined the reading circle. Only teachers residing within States which have expressed a desire to cooperate will be permitted to join. The reading circle work is without cost to the members, except for the purchase of books. There is no restriction as to membership. The books to be read in the study course for the years 1915-1917 are classified under five heads, as nonprofessional books of cultural value, educational classics, general principles and methods of educa¬ tion, rural education, and rural life problems. The work is organ¬ ized as a two-year course, although it may be completed by the in¬ dustrious student-teacher in a shorter time. To those who give satisfactory evidence of having read not less than five books from the general culture list, and not less than three from the other four lists — 17 books in all — within two years of the time of registering, will be awarded a national rural teachers’ reading circle certificate signed by the United States Commissioner of Edu¬ cation and the chief school official in the State in which the reader lives at the time when the course is completed.1 The Iowa plan of extension service for rural teachers. — An effective plan of State-wide extension service for rural teachers has been in operation in Iowa for two years under the direction of the Iowa State Teachers’ College at Cedar Falls. The development of the work is thus described by President Homer H. Seerley : Preliminary work was undertaken in 1913-14 by the organization of several counties with teachers’ study centers as a demonstration of an effective plan for the permanent assistance of teachers at work in the rural schools. These study centers were composed of voluntary classes of teachers who Avere willing 1 Complete circulars containing all necessary information as to how teachers may become members, etc., and brief r6sum£s of all the books on the reading circle lists may be pro¬ cured by addressing the Commissioner of Education. RURAL EDUCATION. 101 to come together on Saturdays and give the entire day to recitations on topics of immediate value to their school work. The classes met as frequently as was deemed advisable and preparation by study and reading was required for all meetings after the preliminary one. By this means much benefit was received und nearly all these original study centers were continued for the year 1914-15 and enough new ones were added to organize more than half of the counties of the State, over 5.000 teachers being thus instructed without any fees for service. For 1915-16 the Iowa General Assembly has made a special appro¬ priation of $20,000 and has provided that an equal amount may be thus ex¬ pended annually thereafter, with the further understanding that if the results anticipated are reached that additional income sufficient to give the best effi¬ ciency will be added. This plan gives permanency to the work and makes the demonstration a permanent policy. The management of this extension service is placed under the supervision of an officer called “ The Director of Extension Service.” His relation to the Teachers' College is that of head of the department of education, which receives his attention in the classroom Mondays, Tuesdays, and Wednesdays of each week during term time, while Thursdays, Fridays, and Saturdays are given to the extension service through instruction in county teachers’ institutes and instruction in teachers’ study centers. The instructors in the teachers’ study centers are selected by the director of extension service. The demonstration rural schools. — Fundamental to the study center service Iowa places her system of demonstration rural schools conducted and super¬ vised by the rural education department of the Iowa State Teachers’ College. These rural demonstration schools are 20 in number and are all of them typical rural schools managed either by rural independent school districts or by rural township school districts. * * * All pupils have a course of study in the schoolroom to complete and another equally emphasized course of study in the home and on the farm to complete, and their study and effort involves every secular day the year round, the rural education department being on duty to supervise, to instruct, and to help the pupils to succeed in their voca¬ tional work to the same degree as should be expected in their regular school work. To accomplish this desirable end, the fathers and mothers have become the assistant supervisors of the home work and the farm work and they re¬ ceive the advice, the suggestions, and the instruction of the rural supervisors in so far as they may need it, while everything is done to get the best returns for the endeavors made and to establish the facts by photograph, by samples, and by financial realization of cost and returns. These undertakings are sup¬ plemented by neighborhood meetings of large variety and purpose that have had the effect of enlarging community interest, community support, and com¬ munity improvement. Out of this have come better social conditions, more harmonious relations, larger development of ideals, and better conceptions of living. The supervisors of the rural demonstration schools become acquainted with every man. woman, and child in this cooperative district ; they secure from each one some special assistance that enlarges individual usefulness to the community, while they obtain competent teachers for the schools, introduce appropriate libraries, equipment, and apparatus, hold social center meetings, and inspect constructively the training in teaching being done by the senior students of the rural-teachers’ course maintained by the college. To facilitate business and to give the best results transportation by automobile is provided for supervisors and student-teachers and rapid communication is established between the college and its most remote rural schools. 102 EDUCATION REPORT, 1915. The Connecticut plan for training teachers while in service. — Con¬ necticut makes use of a unique system for training teachers while in service. Under this plan all new teachers are classed as apprentices. In all the smaller towns (townships) having supervisors assigned to duty and paid by the State, these apprentice teachers are placed in charge of the supervisors who, under law, must devote a certain amount of their time to instruction of the teachers within their supervision districts. In order to facilitate this work of instruction, the last State legislature made provision for the establishment of model schools in the State-supervised towns to be used as adjuncts in this system of training the apprentice teachers while pursuing their regular teaching. The law is in part as follows: Section I. One school in each town having 20 teachers or less may be organ¬ ized as a model school for observation and instruction of the training class con¬ ducted by the supervisor. Sec. II. The State board of education may make application to the comptroller for an order on the treasurer for a sum not exceeding $3 a week for each teacher in such model schools. No application shall be made to the comptroller under the provisions of this act unless the town in which said model school is located shall pay to the teachers of the model school a wage of not less than $10 a week or not less than the wage which was paid for teaching in said school during the previous year. From this it will be understood that there is at least one model school for each 20 teachers in service and that, with the special State aid, the strongest teachers in the township can be placed in the model school. The requirements for approval as a model school are given by the State department as follows : The rural school should be a one-room school in a situation acceptable to all teachers of the town. The building must be in good repair, with sufficient blackboard space. There must be ample equipment of aids to teaching, including a hectograph and a complete set of wall maps. There must be a suitable selection of supplementary reading — at least 15 sets. There should be not less than 15 pupils registered and five grades repre¬ sented, to include one first grade and at least one grade above the fifth. The teacher must be able to secure results with well-defined and approved methods. She must have a good program and keep a book of lesson plans. She must prepare in some detail one model lesson outline each week for the instruction of visiting teachers. She is to consider herself as an assistant to the supervisor and be prepared at all times to consult with him relative to the needs of teachers sent to observe her work. During the past year 25 model schools of this kind have been estab¬ lished, while at least IT additional towns have asked to be placed on the list for the coming year. The schools established serve a territory with 227 teachers, all of whom, according to the State department RURAL EDUCATION. 103 of education, “have enjoyed the benefits of observation in them and conferences with their teachers.” It is readily seen that model schools of this kind in charge of strong instructors can be made of inestimable value to inexperienced teachers. Under the Connecticut plan, the apprentice teachers are allowed certain days during which they attend these model schools and gain the benefit of expert instruction. Says the State depart¬ ment of education further: . The close correlation between the semimonthly visits of the supervisor, the monthly meetings of all the teachers, the observations at the local model school, and the daily practice in her own school, rapidly develops the young teacher so that she soon acquires confidence and some real skill. Scores of Connecticut young women are now prepared in this way for successful service as teachers. This is done, too, while they are actually earning a livelihood during the apprenticeship. RELATION OF SALARIES TO PREPARATION AND LENGTH OF TENURE. The salary received by the teachers of the Nation is partly a meas¬ ure of the value in which their services are held by the country and partly a measure of their efficiency. The National Education Associ¬ ation committee on teachers’ salaries and cost of living, in cooperation with the Bureau of Education,1 discloses that the annual average wage of farm laborers in 1913 was $257, while the average for rural teachers was slightly more, although the exact figures are not avail¬ able. At the same time the average wage of rural mail carriers was $1,115. The study makes an interesting contrast of these three fig¬ ures for a certain number of States, showing throughout a very slight variation in the wage of the teachers and farm laborers, with the mail carriers receiving more than three times as much as either teacher or farm worker. It is clear that so long as the Nation con¬ tinues to place a low valuation on teachers’ services, it will have to get along with much poor teaching. Unquestionably, on the other hand, the individual teacher’s preparation and efficiency have much to do with the salary he draws. It is considered good policy now to provide by legal enactment for a liberal sliding scale salary, allowing the teacher’s salary to increase in direct ratio to his increasing effi¬ ciency and length of service in the same community. Row accomplished in Wisconsin. — The last legislature in Wiscon¬ sin made provision for rewards such as have just been mentioned for continued and efficient service in the same community. The law states in part: If any school district not composed wholly or in part of an incorporated village or city shall have retained or shall hereafter retain any teacher after the first year such teacher shall be entitled to receive State aid as follows : If such teacher shall be retained for and shall have successfully taught such school 1 Educ. BuU., 1915, No. 31. 104 EDUCATION REPORT, 1915. during a second year, $2 per month for each month of such year during which the school maintained in such district is taught by such teacher ; if for a third year, $4 for each such month ; and if for a fourth or any succeeding year, $8 for each such month. If any school district not composed wholly or in part of an incorporated village or city in which the school shall have been successfully taught for the whole or any part of any year by a teacher who is a graduate from a rural school course two years beyond high-school graduation in any normal school or country training school of the State or the equivalent thereof, such teacher shall be entitled to special aid of $10 for each month during which such school is taught by such teacher. And each succeeding year that such teacher shall be retained and shall continue to teach such school successfully he or she shall be entitled to special State aid in the sum of $15 in each month. It will be noted that the law emphasizes the expression “ success¬ fully taught.” The county superintendent and State department of education are to decide whether or not a school has, in their judg¬ ment, been successfully taught. It is also interesting to note that the amount of salary granted by the State as an award for efficiency and long tenure is in addition to any sum that the district boards pay the teacher, and there can be no bargaining with the teacher on the as¬ sumption that the district will pay a part and the State the balance of the salary due. Grading salaries in Indiana. — Indiana also has recently adopted a law providing for a carefully graded scale of salaries for teachers depending on their qualifications and length of service, although not necessarily in the same community. The law provides that — tbe daily wages of teachers for teaching in the public schools of the State shall not be less, in the case of beginning teachers, than an amount determined by multiplying 21 cents by the general average given such teachers on a highest grade of license at the time of contracting. For teachers having had a success¬ ful experience- for one school year of not less than six months the daily wages shall be not less than an amount determined by multiplying 3 cents by the gen¬ eral average given such teacher on the highest grade of license at the time of con¬ tracting. For teachers having had a successful experience for three or four school years of not less than six months each, the daily wages shall not be less than an amount multiplied by 31 cents for the general average given such teacher on his highest grade of license at the time of contracting. For teachers having had a successful experience of five or more school years of not less than six months each, the daily wage shall be not less than an amount determined by multiply¬ ing 4 cents by the general average given such teacher on his highest grade of license at the time of contracting. All teachers now exempt from examination shall be paid, as daily wages for teaching in the public schools, not less than an amount determined by multiplying 31 cents by the general average of scholarship and success given such teachers: Provided, That the grade of scholarship accounted in each case be that given at the teacher’s last examina¬ tion and that the grade of successful accounting be that of the teacher’s term last preceding the date of contracting: And provided further, That 2 cents shall be added to the. teacher’s general average of scholarship and success for attending the county institute the full number of days, and that said 2 cents shall be added to the average scholarship of beginning teachers. RURAL EDUCATION. 105 It appears from si study of this section of the law that the teacher's scholarship and success are both recognized in the grade of license held. The Indiana law further provides a penalty of an amount not to exceed $100 and liability in civil action for wages if any school officer shall pay a teacher for school services at a rate less than that fixed in this act. “ STANDARDIZING ” THE ONE-TEACIIER RURAL SCHOOL. In certain sections of the country where it is impracticable at this time to reorganize the one-teacher rural schools as centralized graded schools, a movement is under way to make the schools as effective as possible by improving their physical conditions, including grounds, buildings, and equipment, organization for teaching purposes, and efficiency of teacher. This system of school improvement is popularly known as school standardization. Illinois has probably led the country in the movement to standard¬ ize the small one-teacher schools. The State department of education, which in this State recognizes two grades of improved schools. “ standardized 55 and “ superior,'’ reports highly satisfactory results from what has been done in the State the past several years. Minne¬ sota makes the granting of State aid to schools contingent on certain high standards to be attained by the ungraded and semigraded rural schools. Texas has recently enacted a law providing State aid to weak schools in the sum of $1,000,000 for the next biennium, to be. distributed on the standardization basis under the direction of the State department of education. Wisconsin, Kansas, Georgia, West Virginia, Alabama, and Oregon are other States that have reported satisfactory results from State or county systems of rural school standardization. The Oregon plan. — In Oregon school standardization began as a local plan in Polk County five years ago. Other counties readily adopted the plan, and in 1914, at a convention held under the aus¬ pices of the State superintendent, a plan was adopted for State-wide school standardization. The standards are to be raised year by year so that there shall be no stagnation. The following is a list of require¬ ments for 1914-15 : Flag. — Must be flying, weather permitting. Schoolhouse. — Properly lighted. Equipment. — Teacher's desk and chair ; desks for pupils properly adapted and placed ; suitable blackboards ; window shades in good condition. Heating and ventilating. — Jacketed stove properly situated, minimum re¬ quirement ; window boards or some other approved method of ventilating. Rooms. — Attractive at all times. Standard picture. — One new one. unless three are already in the room, framed. 106 EDUCATION REPORT, 1915. Grounds. — To be clean, free from paper, etc. At least three features of play apparatus. Walks, if necessary. Sanitation. — Pure drinking water; either drinking fountain or covered tank and individual drinking cups; individual, family, or paper towels. Outbuildings— At least two good ones, to be sanitary at all times and free from marks. Teacher. — Must maintain good order at all times ; supervise the playground ; have her work well prepared ; follow State course of study ; take at least one educational journal; have program posted in room; keep register in good condition; be neat in attire. Library. — Good selection of books from State list. Case for the books. Books kept upright, in good condition, and recorded according to rules specified by Oregon State Library and required by law. Attendance.— Average 92 per cent for year and not to exceed 2 per cent in tardiness for year. Length of term. — Not less than eight months of school each year. The following statement made by the State superintendent of pub¬ lic instruction shows graphically the progress made in school stand¬ ardization during the year: The rural schools of Oregon have, during the past year, made great progress in the way of equipment, better buildings, and playgrounds; and the interest aroused through community meetings held for the purpose of making these improvements has developed a desire among the people to have teachers espe¬ cially trained for rural work. The standardization of rural schools has furnished a concrete work for the administrative departments and to this plan may be attributed most of the progress of the past year. * * * Thousands of dollars have been spent in enlarging and equipping the playgrounds. The State department of educa¬ tion published a very complete Recreation Manual, compiled by the National Playground Association, a copy of which is furnished every teacher. After September 1, 1915, no person is eligible to enter a teachers’ examination for certificate unless he has completed two years’ of work in an accredited high school, and has had at least a summer’s term of work in a standard normal school, or is the graduate of the teachers’ training course of an accredited four- year high school. The Oklahoma model schools . — In Oklahoma another form of standardization has been inaugurated by the State department of education. During the year the State superintendent of schools has encouraged the county superintendents to organize one model rural school in each- county to serve as an illustration for all other rural schools in the county. The majority of county superintendents organized from one to three such schools. The county superintend¬ ents are now planning to organize five or more additional model schools per county. The plan includes decoration of the schoolroom to make it as nearly ideal as possible, care of the school grounds, organization of agricultural clubs, installation of library equipment for use for the entire community, encouragement of the social center movement, provisions for a rural-life course, frequent visits by the county super- RURAL EDUCATION. 107 intendent, and encouragement of patrons’ clubs. In counties where the schools were organized during the year there was considerable competition among rural districts wishing the county superintendent to designate their schools as model schools for the ensuing year. In these districts great care was exercised in the choice of teachers for the year 1916, since only well-prepared teachers are desired for the model schools. BUBAL HIGH SCHOOLS. High-school development has been comparatively slow in rural communities. Rural children are still largely obliged to look to town for their secondary school education. Only here and there is the high school an integral part of rural education. There is still too much of the feeling abroad that the farm child should get to work as soon as the traditional eight-year elementary school course is finished. School centralization, however, is doing much to modify the old standards. People are beginning to realize more and more that the demands on intelligence and technical preparation for life are at least as exacting in the country as for the average worker in town. To meet the new demands a variety of rural high schools are being established. They are variously known as district, township, and county high schools. The former may correspond to the ordi¬ nary school district organization or may represent an entire con¬ gressional district, as in Georgia. Township and county high schools, as the name would indicate, represent respectively the civil units of the same designation. Township high schools are common in New England and in some of the Middle Atlantic and Middle Western States. Kansas, Oklahoma, and several other Middle Western States have county high schools. Other designations for rural high schools are agricultural high schools, as in Mississippi, and farm-life schools, as in North Carolina. Township high schools in Illinois. — The objection to the township and county high schools has been that they are not accessible to all the children of the township or county. In Illinois the township high-school act of 1913 has resulted in the establishment of 100 town¬ ship high schools accessible to many rural children. Another law requires all districts to pay tuition in a four-year high school for graduates from rural schools. These laws make it possible for all rural children to take advantage of high-school privileges, although unfortunately, not always within convenient distance of home. New rural school law in Kansas. — This State has a large number of county high schools organized under the so-called Barnes law. These high schools are generally located at the county seat or a rural village near the center of the county. Some of the schools have from 5 to 15 or more acres of land for experiment purposes, 108 EDUCATION REPORT, 1915. although a majority adhere rather closely to the old traditional course of study. The last legislature of the State enacted a law under which other independent rural high-school districts may be established for areas of not less than 16 square miles, with separate high-school boards, under the jurisdiction of the county and State superintendents. Under the new law rural high-school organization has received a new impetus in Kansas. North Carolina county farm-life schools. — The State of North Carolina has begun to organize what are called county farm-life schools. The general county law provides for a special county elec¬ tion by which the community may bond itself to provide the neces¬ sary funds for buying a school farm and other equipment. After this has been done bids for the location of the school are advertised. The school is then placed in that community within the county of not exceeding 1,000 population which offers the largest financial aid for maintenance and equipment. The community getting the school is generally expected to provide some, if not all, the land for grounds and experiment farm and a large part of the funds for school build¬ ings, including dormitory facilities, barns for stock, etc., at an out¬ lay of from $15,000 to $25,000, and also to provide a maintenance fund of $2,500 a year. On these conditions the State will supple¬ ment the maintenance fund of the school by $2,500 a year. The law provides further that in case a county bond election fails to carry any township or two or more contiguous townships may issue bonds for equipment and levy special tax for maintenance. Guilford County, which is an exceptionally wealthy county, organizes farm- life schools under a special act which has allowed it to establish two or more such schools in the county. A number of schools have been organized under the several acts up to the present term. The influence of the schools is already very marked on North Carolina community life. The schools provide a practical training in the problems and pursuits of everyday life. The courses of study are centered about scientific farming and home making. The faculties of the schools carry on a definite and vigor¬ ous extension work throughout the county, giving instruction to grown-up people as well. The trained experts of the faculty extend the influence of the school through demonstration work and by organizing adult clubs throughout the county. In a similar way, the teachers of the farm-life schools wield a progressive influence over the general body of rural teachers. The teachers of the small rural schools meet at the village schools for demonstrations and instructions on the school farm and in the laboratories. The head of the agricultural department of the farm-life school is often the county supervisor of vocational subjects. RURAL EDUCATION. 109 PROGRESS IN RURAL-SCHOOL EXTENSION. The primary purpose of school extension is to find a way for every man and woman in the State who otherwise would not have an op¬ portunity to gain an education. In accordance with this view of extension work, many universities, colleges, normal schools, and high schools throughout the country have taken upon themselves the great task of extending educational privileges by correspondence courses, instruction by lectures, debating, and public discussion, general information and welfare departments, and rural chautauquas, to every man and woman who desires to take advantage of these means of obtaining an education. Rural-life conferences.- — Among the States doing effective work in rural-life conferences during the school year 194U15 were Arkan¬ sas and Maryland. At Fayetteville, the seat of the University of Arkansas, there was an enrollment of over 600, and three programs were maintained each day for 10 days — one for teachers, one for ministers and social leaders, and one for farmers and their wives. Much of the success of the conference was due to the hearty cooperation of a large number of organizations. The director of the conference was able to bring together the best workers of the State board of education, the State board of health, the State horti¬ cultural society, the State bankers’ association, the farmers’ union, and the State organizations of the leading religious denominations found in the Southwest. Preliminary to this great summer meeting a number of local rural conferences had been held through the cooperation of the department of country life of the Presbyterian Church and the school of educa¬ tion of the university. The Maryland Agricultural College held country-life schools for ministers during the summers of 1914 and 1915. These country-life schools of this institution were largely the result of two desires — the desire of the college to be of the greatest possible help to the farm¬ ing communities of the State, and the desire of the ministers to get in touch with the farmers’ problems. Motion pictures in extension service. — One of the newest features in rural-school extension is the use of motion pictures. The Louisi¬ ana State University has been doing pioneer work in the rural schools of the State. The scope and purpose of this work is set forth in the University Bulletin , July, 1915, as follows: During the first seven months of 1915 the junior extension service of the Louisiana State University visited 140 schools in 17 parishes and rendered programs with the autostereopticon and moving-picture machine to an estimated attendance of 23,340 school children, school patrons, and farmers. About one week was devoted to each parish. 110 EDUCATION REPORT, 1915. In addition to several reels of educational pictures, there were shown at each school stereopticon slides depicting the various phases of corn, pig, poultry, and canning club work. These slides were accompanied by lectures explaining the meaning of the clubs and the valuable training they offer to the boys and girls on the farms. An increased interest in the club work has been manifested in each community in which these lectures have been given, and they have been very effective, also, in acquainting the people of rural districts with the efforts their State university is making to assist them, through its extension service, to solve the problems that confront them in their farming pursuits. In addition to its use in the production of moving pictures and lantern slides, the current generated by the electric motor of this machine may be utilized to provide heat for cooking demonstrations. An electric cook stove has been added to the equipment of the automobile and successful cooking demonstrations have been made. This feature is expected to prove an important part of the exten¬ sion work in home demonstration. Cooking by electricity is not to be em¬ phasized, but the apparatus will afford a convenient and ready means of pro¬ ducing heat for cooking demonstrations. Illustrative of the type of motion pictures now becoming available for extension use is the 7,000 feet of motion-picture film which the Lincoln Highway Association has recently had made. This film por¬ trays the beautiful scenery of plain, mountain, valley, and desert “ from coast to coast in an easy chair ” for the millions of men, women, and children who are unable to drive over the Lincoln Highway. This film is available for farmers’ clubs, farmers’ institutes, women’s clubs, good-roads clubs, rural-life conferences, and other similar organizations. Work of private agencies. — The efforts of the National and State Governments and educational institutions are also aided by numerous private agencies. Typical of the definitely valuable work done in this way is the extension service of the International Harvester Co. This company distributes thousands of agricultural lecture charts to teachers and others on soils, sanitation, weeds, alfalfa, live stock, gar¬ den and canning, diversified farming, etc. A typical lecture is “ The great forward movement in education.” The company also has a force of extension lecturers who, upon invitation from the proper au¬ thorities, go into various States and conduct forward-movement cam¬ paigns for better agriculture, better homes, better schools, and bet¬ ter living, holding from 25 to 50 meetings in a single county in one day, and thus continuing until the State is thoroughly covered. Ar¬ kansas, Mississippi, Alabama, Texas, and Oklahoma have been so campaigned, and Prof. P. G. Holden, who is in charge of the service, is now directing a campaign in the Big Horn Basin, Wyo., with a large force of extension workers. “ Row to organize a club of United Farm Women ” is an excellent little booklet published by the Progressive Farmer , Raleigh, N. C. Mrs. W. N. Hutt is the general organizer of this work in that State. RURAL EDUCATION. Ill In the foreword of this booklet for 1915 Mrs. Hutt says: The United Farm Women enters upon its first birthday, with 435 branches. These clubs are in every State in the South. Some are strong; some still struggling. Some have undertaken ambitious programs ; some are almost with¬ out programs, but the members enjoy the sociability of coming together. Some are interesting themselves in baby contests, county fairs, and other public mat¬ ters, while others are providing wholesome pleasures for the young people. But one and all, they are working for more efficient homes and more united communities. Chautauqua# and lecture courses. — Probably the greatest fields of school extension are the hundreds of Chautauquas and thousands of lecture courses held in the United States every year. These Chautau¬ quas and lecture courses are now established at places within reach of the rural people as never before. During the past year many vil¬ lage and rural communities in Virginia and many other States were privileged for the first time to have a rural lecture course or a rural Chautauqua, or both, during the year. While scores of these as¬ semblies have imitated only one or two features of the original Chau¬ tauqua — neglecting its fundamental principles — and while many of them are commercial enterprises managed for profit, the Chautauqua system is one of the most potent factors of modern times for pro¬ moting public education. Millions of men and women have been en¬ lightened and given a broader vision of life through its influence. The free rural delivery of mail, carrying the daily papers, the magazines, and Government bulletins to millions of rural people ; the ownership of automobiles by hundreds of thousands of farmers, thus making it possible for the rural people to attend Chautauquas and lecture courses at centers of population, and by the use of the automo¬ bile in taking lyceum talent into the country where community meet¬ ings are now held by the thousand throughout the Nation — these ex¬ tend educational privileges to millions of people who otherwise would be without many of these advantages. THE DIVISION OF RURAL EDUCATION IN THE BUREAU OF EDUCATION. Reference was made at the beginning of this chapter to the present organization of the division of rural education. The following statement will make clear the scope of the work of the division: Organization. — The division of rural education in the Bureau of Education has been reorganized during the year in order to make it better able to meet the increasing demands for expert advice and assistance in the rural field. As now organized the division com¬ prises the subdivisions of rural-school administration, rural -school practice, and rural-school extension service. The subdivision of rural-school administration has been organized to offer expert advice 112 EDUCATION REPORT, 1915. in rural-school administration to State and local boards of education ; to advise with commissions and committees on school legislation; to make school surveys and to carry on special educational studies in its particular field. The subdivision of rural-school practice is organ¬ ized to make a fundamental study of the curricula of rural elementary and secondary schools and to offer such aid to rural teachers and school officers as may be required of them ; to become a clearing house for the latest and best of subject matter and helps in other phases of school practice, including the training of rural teachers, both before going into the service and while in the field. This subdivision has charge of the propagation of the National Rural Teachers’ Reading Circle, which has recently been adopted by more than half of the States. The subdivision of rural-school extension is primarily active in such educational interests in rural communities as boys’ and girls' industrial clubs, educational rallies, illiteracy campaigns, school fairs, rural-life conferences, wider use of schoolhouses for lecture centers, work for the extension of the school term, securing better teachers’ salaries, improvement of school buildings and grounds, organization of parent-teachers’ associations, cooperation with farm demonstration agents and local and State supervisors. The specialists and assistants in the division of rural education are aided very effectively by nearly 100 special collaborators who are nominally in the service of the Government, but who, as members of various school faculties or as State or local school officials, are in position to report to the Bureau of Education every progressive movement taking place in the rural field. Several of these have undertaken valuable studies, of which a few have already been completed. Publications. — A large number of publications dealing with rural and agricultural education have been distributed by the Bureau of Education during the year. Bulletins of the bureau in this field were as follows: 1914, No. 12. No. 17. No. 20. No. 22. No. 24. No. 25. No. 27. No. 30. No. 44. No. 49. 1915, No. 5. No. 11. No. 20. Rural Schoolhouses and Grounds. Sanitary Survey of the Schools of Orange County, Va. The Rural School and the Hookworm Disease. The Danish Folk High Schools. Danish Elementary Rural Schools. Important Features in Rural School Improvement. Agricultural Teaching. Consolidation of Rural Schools and Transportation of Pupils at Public Expense. County Unit Organization for the Administration of Rural Schools. Efficiency in Preparation of Rural School Teachers. Organization of State Departments of Education. A Statistical Study of the Public School Systems of the Southern Appalachian Mountains. The Rural School System of Minnesota. CHAPTER Y. SECONDARY EDUCATION. By Thomas H. Briggs, Associate Professor of Education, Teachers College, Columbia University. Contents. — Extension of opportunities for secondary education — Reorganization of courses of study — Influence of State inspectors of high schools — Provisions for economy of time. To read both official and unofficial reports on secondary education from all parts of the country is to be profoundly impressed by the confident acceptance everywhere of the assumption that the United States shall continue and extend its undertaking of affording educa¬ tion free of charge to all the children of all the people. Despite the fact that in 10 years there has been an increase in the number of public high schools from 7,576 to 11,515 (59 per cent), in the enroll¬ ment from 679,702 to 1,218,804 (92 per cent), in the length of time pupils remain in school, and in the annual cost to an astounding total (the income of 24 per cent of all public high schools in 1913-14 was $19,117,841), there is nowhere any indication that the work is to be prosecuted less vigorously. Indeed, the reports are unanimous that the campaign to afford opportunities for free secondary educa¬ tion and also to adapt that education to the needs of all pupils is even extended. This means that the “ sifting ” function of the high schools is receiving less and less emphasis, and that as the cost of the newer subjects in the program of studies is usually higher than that of the older academic subjects, preparation must be made for a greatly increased high-school budget. EXTENSION OF OPPORTUNITIES FOR SECONDARY EDUCATION. The opportunities for secondary education are being extended in various ways. Besides the increase in urban communities, there is a notable extension, even in States of relatively small wealth, of high- school privileges in rural districts. In perhaps a majority of the States in which school legislation was enacted last year some law ap¬ plied to rural high schools.1 As instances may be cited the following 2 See also Ch. IV, Rural Education. 12034° — ed 1915 — vol 1 - 8 113 114 EDUCATION’ REPORT, 1915. items: Delaware has enacted a consolidation school law, permissive in its nature, under which 20 per cent of the cost of a new building is borne by the State (up to the amount of $2,000), and by which $1,000 is contributed by the State toward the cost of operating such school if a course in agriculture is made a part of its work. In North Carolina a beginning has been made with 18 rural high' schools con¬ taining “ farm-life ” departments; the law has recently been amended by striking out the requirement that a county shall be able to main¬ tain a six months’ school term before establishing farm-life depart¬ ments in public schools and by authorizing the county commissioners, if they should desire to do so, to make appropriations to farm-life departments out of the funds for necessary county expenses. Iowa has now 138 consolidated rural schools, to which transportation is provided, offering high-school instruction. Subsequent to the offer¬ ing by the Nebraska department of public instruction of a program which through cooperation would permit the rural districts to estab¬ lish high schools covering 9, 10, or 11 grades, depending upon the resources of the district, more than 200 such schools have been or¬ ganized. An interesting feature of several of these cooperative schools is a cottage for the teacher, who also is employed as a “ com¬ munity manager of social interests.” It is well known that a number of the States, especially those that most wisely administered their land grants, have stimulated the development of high schools by direct appropriations, usually to promote and aid the introduction of some new feature of the cur¬ riculum. West Virginia has recently increased the amount for dis¬ tribution from $40,000 to $85,000. North Carolina reduced its minimum apportionment from $250 to $200 and increased the maxi¬ mum from $500 to $600. The State appropriation for high schools will hereafter be distributed on the basis of attendance, number of full-time teachers, and grade and character of work done. A school meeting only the minimum requirements hereafter will receive, therefore, from the State only $200; and a school that measures up to good standards, maintains a good attendance, has a good building and sufficient equipment and teachers, and has the stand¬ ard term of nine months, may receive as much as $600 from the State fund. This provision encourages schools to put forth greater efforts to increase their attendance, to erect good buildings and equip them properly, to organize their work according to proper standards, and to lengthen their terms, by providing more liberal State aid for those that do these things. Nebraska gives directly to each of the new consolidated schools $100 for equipment and $150 annually for expenses. Texas appropriates from $500 to $1,500 to each school that teaches agriculture and from $500 to $1,000 (with a maximum of $2,000 for both items) for manual training. SECONDARY EDUCATION. 115 In Minnesota the direct aid is even more generous. An unfor¬ tunate item which must be reported is that in May, 1915, the Arkansas supreme court declared unconstitutional the law provid¬ ing State aid to high schools, a law under which in four years the number of high schools had increased 150 per cent and the enroll¬ ment 1*26 per cent, with a corresponding improvement in standards of teachers and equipment. The decision is based on the facts that, first, the law provided for what the court considered “ discrimina¬ tory disbursement of the funds” — that is, it forbade aid for a school in any city or town having over 3,500 inhabitants; second, the law provided for the education, in the teacher-training depart¬ ments for the aided high schools, of students of any age, thus violat¬ ing the express provision of the constitution with respect to age limits. One other change of the law regarding State aid to high schools, that in California, is of sufficient general interest to be reported. Previous to 1915 the high schools of California were maintained very largely by district taxation. Communities might organize high-school districts, but they were expected to bear practically all of the expense of maintaining their high schools. The average cost per pupil, com¬ puted on the basis of average daily attendance in the high schools of the State, in 1911 was $121. Of this amount the State raised $15 and the high-school district $106. An investigation of the problem of financing secondary education in California revealed the fact that property assessed at $400,000,000 — one-seventh of the total assessed valuation of the State — was not subject to a high-school district tax. Pupils living in territory outside of high-school districts were attend¬ ing high schools furnished and maintained by the high-school dis¬ tricts and paying only a small tax to meet tuition charges. The average rate of tax for high-school purposes levied on property in high-school districts was about 5 mills, while the average rate levied in territory outside of high-school districts for tuition of pupils attending from such territory was about seven-tenths of a mill. In other words, territory inside was paying at least seven times as heavy a rate as territory outside. The county high-school fund bill which was enacted by the legislature of 1915 provides that a general high- school tax shall be levied on all the property in each county sufficient to raise an amount computed at $60 per pupil in average daily attend¬ ance in the high schools of the county during the previous school year. The amount thus raised is apportioned among the various high schools of the county in such a manner as to equalize the burden of high-school taxation. First, $250 is apportioned to each school for each teacher actually employed, not exceeding four teachers for any school. The remainder is apportioned according to average daily attendance. The plan of apportioning a part of the fund on 116 EDUCATION REPORT, 1915. the teacher basis was introduced to give the small high school a slight advantage. However, this advantage is not so great as to encourage the organization of weak high schools. It is provided that a high school which does not employ two teachers or more, after its first • year, shall not share in county high-school funds. In providing extra apportionments for the first four teachers, the bill encourages the employment of at least that number of teachers in each high school. Of the 264 public high schools in California only 26 employ fewer than four teachers. Most of the schools employing less than four teachers have been established for less than four years and will have the normal number of teachers when the full four-year course has been established. Under the county high-school fund bill the territory not included in any high-school district pays a tax twice as great, on an average, as it paid formerly when only a high-school tuition tax was levied on such territory. Taxation for high-school purposes is equalized under the plan of county taxation. Districts having large assessed valuations per pupil contribute something to the support of high schools established in less wealthy districts. The general effect of the law was to reduce high-school tax rates in more than half of the high-school districts of the State. The State and county now bear five-eighths of the cost of maintaining the high schools, leaving only three-eighths of the cost to be met by the district. Where the high-school privileges are not carried to the children provision is, in many places, made that they may secure instruction in established schools at no cost to themselves. A number of the new school laws provide for the payment of tuition by the local dis¬ trict or by the State. Inasmuch as the amount provided is fre¬ quently less than the per capita cost of the school receiving outside pupils, there has been considerable effort, sometimes successful, to secure an equitable amendment to such laws. A recent amendment in New York permits, what was previously prohibited, that a parent may pay any tuition demanded by the receiving district in excess of the $20 provided by the State. Oregon has done away altogether with tuition for high-school pupils. A pupil living outside a dis¬ trict maintaining a standard four-year high school is permitted to select and attend a school anywhere in the State. At the end of the year the school is paid by a tax levied on all districts in the pupil’s county that do not maintain a standard high school. California provides that a pupil living in a school district without a high school may attend any high school in the county without charge, and, more¬ over, that he is entitled to have his transportation paid up to $5 a month. The law provides that no tuition charge shall be made in any high-schcol district in California. Two or three counties in Florida — and the number, it is said, will increase — have done even better, hav- SECONDARY EDUCATION. 117 ing made provision for aid other than tuition for a pupil who must go outside his own district to secure his secondary education. Alachua County, for example, has agreed to pay $10 a month for the expenses of any such pupil. REORGANIZATION OF COURSES OF STUDY. Perhaps of even greater importance than the increase in the number of public secondary schools is the reorganization going on within the courses of study. Stimulated partly by criticism from without and partly by a need felt from within, those responsible for the various subjects have been active in formulating such statements of the purposes of each subject as will direct the presentation in the classroom. The movement, as reflected in educational journals, in discussions at conventions, and in textbooks themselves, is every¬ where toward an alignment with the established principles of psychology and the more progressive social theory. It may not seem invidious to mention specifically the tremendous effect of the National Council of Teachers of English and its official organ, The English J oumal. The greatest single unifying force is undoubtedly the Com¬ mission on the Reorganization of Secondary Education. Since the pre¬ liminary report in Bulletin No. II, 1913, of the United States Bureau of Education, the committees composing the commission have had frequent meetings, each committee formulating the principles that should govern the organization and presentation of the material in the several subjects of the program of studies. The reports of these committees were carefully studied and edited by the reviewing com¬ mittee during the Thanksgiving week of 1915, and a second general report is to be presented at the meeting of the Department of Super¬ intendence in Detroit February, 1916. As an instance of the kind of reorganization attempted, that pro¬ posed for the teaching of civics may be cited. Besides being in differ¬ ent ways exemplified in outlines . printed for use in the local schools at Newark, Kansas City, and Wichita, it is fully expounded in Bul¬ letin, 1914, No. 23, of the Bureau of Education. This subject, as outlined in the bulletin, might really be called “ The element of welfare,” because the work is organized with a view to leading the pupil to an appreciation of the importance of each of these so-called elements of welfare, to realize the dependence of the individual upon social agencies, to secure the right social attitude toward the prob¬ lems involved, and then to study in detail certain of the agencies that have been set up either by the entire community or by groups of individuals for the purpose of securing these elements of welfare. In studying these agencies in detail, the aim is to secure such knowl¬ edge as will assist the citizen in meeting his responsibilities. The new 118 EDUCATION REPORT, 1915. type of civics differs from the old type in several important respects such as the following: 1. It discusses the ends for which government exists before discuss¬ ing the machinery of government. This is important for the reasons stated on page 12 of the bulletin, namely: “Many courses in civics fail because they fix attention upon the machinery of government rather than the elements of community welfare for which govern¬ ment exists; that is, they familiarize the pupil with the manipula¬ tion of social machinery without showing him the importance of the social ends for which this machinery should be used.” 2. A distinction is made between the duties of the citizen and the duties of the official, as stated at the bottom of page 16 of the bul¬ letin; and this course in civics aims primarily to prepare for the duties of citizenship rather than to discuss in detail the duties of officials. 3. The old-time civics concerned itself largely with the future responsibilities of the pupil, whereas this course in civics recognizes the importance of teaching not only the future responsibilities, but also the present responsibilities of the pupil for intelligent coopera¬ tion in community activities. The future responsibilities, however, are by no means neglected, because it is necessary to set up ideals of action that will be operative when the pupil becomes an adult. 4. The old-time civics concerned itself only with the govern¬ mental agencies for community welfare, whereas this course in civics includes also those voluntary agencies that are established by certain members of the community, either for the promotion of the interests of a group of people or for the welfare of the entire community. This inclusion is, of course, in every way desirable, because the voluntary agencies blaze the way for the establishment of govern¬ mental agencies when the community is educated up to that point. There seems to be a distinct tendency to civics of this kind in the junior high school and in the first year of the more usual organization so that it may reach the large number of pupils eliminated before the senior year, when the subject is recommended for presentation by the committee of seven. Supplementing such civics outside the school are the Americanization day advocated by the Commissioner of Education and citizenship receptions proposed by Frederic Howe.1 An effort was made in 1914 to ascertain by means of a questionnaire circulated from the Bureau of Education, the status of the social sciences in secondary schools. The data received were interpreted and tabulated by students working under Prof. Henry Johnson, of Teachers College, Columbia University, and a detailed report, which will be published in the History Teachers' Magazine , was prepared by Edward A. Jesser. Returns were received from 62.5 per cent 1 See School and Society , 1 : 880-1. SECONDARY EDUCATION. 119 (7,197 of 11,515) of all the public secondary schools in the United States. Unfortunately there was no indication in the returns as to whether or not each school reporting had a full course of four years or one that was shorter; consequently, all the conclusions are not as satisfactory as might be desired. If it is kept in mind, however, that perhaps three-fourths of the schools reporting have courses four years in length, Table 1 will give a very good idea of the distribution of required and elective history Work in American high schools. The excess in the number of replies over the number of schools re¬ porting is due to the fact that some principals of the larger schools very properly recorded the required and elective courses in history in each curriculum. The questions relative to the number of hours spent on history were so misunderstood that many of the answers had to be discarded ; however, the returns from the remaining schools are probably representative of conditions throughout the country. Thirty per cent of the schools reporting required for graduation all of the history that they offer, while 13 per cent make history entirely an elective subject. Perhaps the most interesting facts in the table relate to the increase or decrease of the amount of history offered. It will be noted that there is an increase of offerings in 43 per cent of all schools reporting, a decrease in 11.5 per cent, and no change in the remaining schools. The average increase or decrease of those reporting definitely was about a year’s work. Table 1. — Number and per cent of schools offering several amounts of history required and elective, and the number and per cent increasing or decreasing their offerings by several amounts between 1910 and 1914- Hours in history. Required. Elective. Requirements. Num¬ ber of schools. Per cent of schools. Num¬ ber of schools. Per cent of schools. Increased. Decreased. Same. Num¬ ber of schools. Per cent of schools. Num¬ ber of schools. Per cent of schools. Num- ' her of 1 schools. Per cent of schools. Nn report _ _ . 3, 281 1,312 1, 130 1,130 Hone . 312 8 2,189 41 No amount stated. . . 533 12 122 3 36-S8 hours . 234 6 185 3.5 386 9 47 1 10S-176 hours . 396 10 316 6 394 9 75 2 . j 180-264 hours . 1,042 26 639 12 436 10 178 4 2S3-52S hours . 1,679 42 805 15 139 3 61 1. 5 . 540-704 hours _ . 674 14 724 13.6 7 4 720-880 hours 136 3 391 7 9 0 More than 880 hours. | 16 0 118 2 3 0 Total.... . 7,770 . 6,679 ; . 1,907 43 487 11.5 2,037 46 Table 2 shows the number of schools offering required and elective courses in the various social sciences during each academic year. The table is so clear that no detailed interpretation of it will here be presented. The only point in which the data are not worth their apparent value concerns the number of courses in civics. There was 120 EDUCATION REPORT, 1915. evidence in some of the returns that civics was reported as a sepa¬ rate subject, when, in fact, it was combined with American history. It may be credited, however, that civics is offered either alone or with American history as a prescribed study in more than half of the schools reporting and as an elective in another third of them. The distribution of civics over the four years of the course is note¬ worthy, as is the paucity of the once popular courses in general his¬ tory. The evident, though not overwhelming, distribution of the so-called “ four blocks of history ” manifests the influence of the report of the Committee of Seven. Table 2. — Number of schools offering required and elective history of various kinds in each academic year. First year. Second year. Third year. Fourth year. Totals. Grand total. Re¬ quired. Elec¬ tive. Re¬ quired. Elec¬ tive. Re¬ quired. •Elec¬ tive. Re¬ quired. Elec¬ tive. Re¬ quired. Elec¬ tive. Ancient history . Medieval and modern 2,049 1,324 1,558 874 158 123 29 26 3,794 2 347 6,141 European history _ 195 97 1,818 1,401 1,000 1,059 70 105 3,083 2,662 5,745 English history . 337 191 332 358 1,157 1,749 133 268 1,959 2,666 4,625 American history . 121 58 114 51 730 360 3,376 1,391 4,341 1,860 6,201 Industrial history . 22 77 23 103 30 138 38 202 113 520 633 Civics . . 589 242 230 139 641 465 2,397 1,573 3,857 2,419 6,276 Economics . . 11 11 37 60 140 469 310 1,026 498 1,566 2,064 General history . 48 9 179 17 . 45 12 7 9 279 47 326 Total . 3,372 2,009 4,291 3,003 3,901 4,375 6,360 4,600 17,924 14,087 32,011 Number of schools reporting _ 7, 197 Average number of courses required _ _ _ 2. 5 Average number of courses elective _ 2+ Number of schools requiring all history offered _ _ _ 2, 172 Number of schools offering only elective history _ 963 Number of schools offering no history _ _ 10 As was implied in the paragraph concerning State aid, the develop¬ ment of secondary education involves far more than the offering of an increased number of academic courses. Not only is there a steady increase in the number of schools offering work of an immediately practical kind, but there is also a noticeable change in the character of such work. Manual training is changed in character, as in name, to industrial or vocational training, guided by such studies as the ex¬ cellent report to the Iowa State Teachers’ Association in 1914, and sup¬ plemented by ulife career study,” as in San Jose, Cal., Decatur, Ill., and elsewhere. The plan of cooperative work, half in school and half in the shop, has spread from Cincinnati, Fitchburg, and Beverly to Dayton, New York, and other cities, besides being considered by many other places that are awaiting the results of the experiment. One new phase of high-school work that is developing with great rapidity is the training of elementary school teachers.1 1 For a detailed discussion, see Chap. IV, p. 98. SECONDARY EDUCATION. 121 INFLUENCE OF STATE INSPECTORS OF IIIOII SCHOOLS. A factor responsible for much of the recent progress in secondary education, especially in the smaller schools, is the State inspector. In some instances he is sent out by the State university primarily to accredit schools, so that graduates may be admitted to the college by certificate ; in others, by the State department of education, to ascertain if schools have earned subsidies that are available.1 From the circular of “Advice and Instruction to High School Visitors,” issued by Commissioner Sisson, of Idaho, the following items are taken : The first and chief aim of the visitation is to help the schools solve their problems in meeting the needs of the communities which they serve. The second aim is the standardizing of the schools. Note carefully the emphasis laid upon the elementary school. Do not encour¬ age any policy that would sacrifice the elementary school in order to build up a high school. Definite and specific criticism in a friendly spirit will almost invariably be received with appreciaton. One should remember that an unfavorable judgment sometimes falls with serious force upon a teacher or superintendent, and that an American community is exceedingly sensitive as to its schools. It is to the general credit of these inspectors that they have inter¬ preted their duties in such a wav as to afford the largest amount of assistance to schools in their development. Besides giving advice to each school as they visit it, they have, among other things, been in¬ strumental in promoting conferences of high-school principals and teachers and State- wide contests of high-school pupils. The 1914 Illinois High School Conference issued a report of 328-pages outlining what was done in the general sessions and in the meetings of the 15 permanently organized departments, one of which has for some years published a monthly magazine, “The Bulletin of the Illinois Association of Teachers of English.” It is of general interest that an increasing number of the delegates to the Illinois conference have their expenses paid wholly or in part by their respective school boards. In 1914, 51 per cent of the school boards represented in this way manifested their appreciation of the professional spirit of the teachers. California has gone even further, having passed a law empowering the State board of education to call an annual convention of high-school principals or to divide the State into four districts and call in each of such districts a convention of the principals. The law requires attendance by each principal and the payment of his traveling expenses by the district. The State- wide contests of pupils 1 In Educational Administration and Supervision, 1 : 493—510, Prof. Joseph L. Hen¬ derson presents the purposes, the means of appointment and control, a list of the duties, and a digest of the State systems of high-school inspectors ; in School and Society, 2 : 402-8, Prof. George R. Twiss explains the high-school inspection in Ohio under the new State laws ; and in the report of the General Education Board. 1914, are detailed statements of what the inspectors in the Southern States have done. 122 EDUCATION REPORT, 1915. in athletics, debating, or mastery of academic subjects are not infre¬ quently coincident with the conference of high-school teachers. In Georgia one-third of all the high-school pupils of the State are reported to have participated in some form of the preliminary con¬ tests. The North Carolina Debating League and the Interscholastic Public- Speaking League of California have been unusually well organized and successful. The high-school inspectors have almost from the first issued sug¬ gestive curricula, which have been of material influence in determin¬ ing what the secondary schools taught. Recently the curricula have been more carefully planned and justified; a 1915 bulletin from the University of Texas, for instance, first gives the basic principles on which curricula should be erected and then offers several examples that are adapted for schools of different size and kind. In addition, the inspectors are each year issuing more and more detailed and valu¬ able courses of study for the individual subjects. A considerable number of reports for 191U15 contain specific minimum require¬ ments for high schools desiring standard classification. In Texas, where three classes of high schools are recognized, the minimum requirements for the first class are as follows: (1) Not fewer than three teachers who hold first grade or higher grade State certificates, and who give their entire time to high-school work; that is, work above the seventh grade. (2) A public school term of at least eight scholastic months. (3) A course of study which shall be the equivalent of the one outlined by the State department of education for high schools of the first class; that is, a course in which at least 18 units of work shall be required for graduation. A unit of work, as defined by this department, represents five recitations per week in a subject, each recitation being 35 to 40 minutes long, and the subject being pursued for a period of at least 36 weeks. (4) Recitation periods of from 35 to 40 minutes in length for high-school subjects. The recitation periods for the subjects of agriculture, manual train¬ ing, and domestic economy, being less frequent, may be 80 or 90 minutes in length. (5) Laboratory apparatus sufficient to offer at least three units in high-school science, one of the sciences being physics. (6) The State department of education also takes into consideration the play¬ ground, library, and building facilities, as well as the provisions that are made for instruction in the primary and intermediate grades. Usually, as in the Texas circular, there is added a detailed list of desirable laboratory apparatus and shop equipment, with the price of each article added. Missouri adds to such a list of apparatus an extended recommendation as to the best reference books, both for general use and for supplementing the textbooks in each subject. While standardizing schools, those in authority are seeing to it that the qualifications for teachers are raised. Sometimes the quali¬ fications are determined by statute, as in California and Florida; SECONDARY EDUCATION. 123 again by the State department of education or others to whom the power has been delegated, as in Nebraska and Kentucky. In Cali¬ fornia the statute has for some years required for the high-school certificate a year of postgraduate study; but as there developed a tendency for candidates to center the work of the postgraduate year about one academic subject, the new law requires, among other things, that each candidate must have completed in graduate or under¬ graduate standing, or the two combined, not less than 15 units (semester hours) of work in courses listed in the department of edu¬ cation in the institution in which the graduate work is completed, or courses in other departments of that or other institutions accepted as preparation by the department of education. Minnesota likewise has amended its law so as to require of new candidates and even of all others who have taught less than 18 months a year of special prepara¬ tion and training for teaching. Kentucky in 1914 for the first time gave the State board of education the right to fix the qualifications of teachers for public high schools ; and numerous State superintendents or inspectors have exercised their right, directly or indirectly con¬ ferred, to specify definitely qualifications that high-school teachers shall have. PROVISIONS FOR ECONOMY OF TIME. As there has come a better understanding of individual differences in children, both in abilities and in life purposes, more and better provisions are made by the schools to care for them and thus to effect an economy of time in education. Differentiated courses, the junior high school, summer schools, sex segregation in classes, and other means are all based on a recognition of such differences. No extensive data have been secured this year as to the number of junior high schools established, but it is known that a number of cities — e. g., Rochester, N. Y. ; Montclair and East Orange, N. J. ; Richmond, Ya. ; and Cleveland, Ohio — have realized their declared purpose and es¬ tablished one or more. There is a distinct tendency in Minnesota to¬ ward organizing high schools on the junior-senior plan, though Superintendent Schultz reports that no definite standards have yet been adopted; the State board of education of North Dakota has recommended that “ high schools so far as possible organize on the six-and-six plan ” ; many of the rural high schools in Nebraska are essentially junior schools; and in Pennsylvania Inspector Koch re¬ ports that at least a dozen high schools have reorganized on the basis of a six years’ course. Inspector Wheelock, of New York, writes that — the junior high-school movement is just beginning to receive marked attention in the State. It is a fact not generally appreciated that the New York State elementary course has for many years provided definitely for a differentiation 124 EDUCATION REPORT, 1915. beginning at the seventh year; that while most New York schools have not definitely organized with reference to this particular plan, the number of individual cases in which the differentiation has actually occurred is consider¬ able. During the past year definite action looking toward the establishment of organized junior schools has been taken in Rochester, Solvay, Dansville, Ellenville, Hempstead, and perhaps some other places. Of the three plans proposed by Prof. Bobbitt in the report of the survey of San Antonio for future care of the secondary school popu¬ lation, one requires the establishment of “ a half-dozen intermediate schools scattered judiciously over the city, each containing the sev¬ enth, eighth, and a portion, at least, of the ninth grades.” This plan seems to receive more approval than the others. In the Oakland survey Prof. Cubberley writes: As the elementary school buildings become more and more crowded and the high-school attendance increases, the best arrangement from an educational point of view, as well as . the most economical plan from a school building point of view, will be to build five or six or possibly more new buildings, at central locations, designed especially for junior high-school work. Although California was the first State to establish the interme¬ diate school, it has only recently given definite legal recognition to this type of school. The constitution of the State provides a fund for secondary schools distinct from the fund for elementary schools. This distinction of funds frequently stood in the way of the organi¬ zation of intermediate schools, which enroll pupils of both elementary and secondary grades. Only in cities where the elementary and high-school districts were coterminous could the intermediate school be established. The legislature of 1915 passed an act legalizing the organization of intermediate schools and removing the difficulty caused by the separation of funds. The intermediate-school grades are made a part of the secondary school, and a transfer of the money from the element ary-school fund to the secondary- school fund to pay for the tuition of pupils in the first two grades of the inter¬ mediate school is provided for. It is also provided that by a maj ority vote of electors union high-school districts, consisting of several ele¬ mentary school districts, may organize intermediate-school courses and admit thereto pupils who have completed the sixth grade. The legislature also provided that normal-school graduates who have taken one year of college work, or holders of elementary certificates granted upon examination who have taken two years of college work, under regulations prescribed by the State board of education, may be granted permits to teach in any grade of the intermediate school. In some of the intermediate schools all teachers have been required to hold high-school certificates. This requirement has re¬ sulted in the displacement of very capable teachers of the seventh and eighth grade work who held only elementary-school certificates. This law will enable ambitious teachers holding elementary-school SECONDARY EDUCATION. 125 certificates to qualify for intermediate-school work, thus removing a cause for much ill feeling among teachers. The State board of education has adopted regulations requiring that normal-school grad¬ uates who are candidates for the intermediate-school teaching permit shall take at least 20 semester hours of college work in two subjects, and holders of elementary-school certificates granted on examina¬ tion shall take at least 10 semester hours of pedagogy and 30 semester hours of college work in three subjects. The subjects in which the prescribed college work must be done are as follows: French, English, German, Spanish, Latin, history, mathematics, physical science, biological science. Vermont, too, in 1915, passed an act authorizing the establishment of junior high schools. From it the following sections are quoted: Section 1. Classification of junior and senior high schools. — The State board of education may, with the approval of the school directors in the towns con¬ cerned, divide the secondary schools of the State, now existing or hereafter to be established, into two classes: (a) Junior high schools, having a four-year course ; and ( & ) senior high schools, having a six-year course. Sec. 4. Courses. — Each junior high school shall have a four-year course, flexible in character, designed for the instruction of pupils who have completed an elementary course of not less than six years, and suitable to the number and needs of local pupils ; and the State board of education shall arrange for a course of study, including vocational opportunities appropriate to the needs of the pupils in the several communities. In any town where a junior high school is established the State board of education shall make the necessary readjust¬ ments of the course of study in the elementary schools. Sec. 8. Vocational education. — Junior high schools shall include, in accord¬ ance with such directions and regulations as to courses, teachers, and equipment as the State board of education may prescribe, within their courses of study a vocational course in one or more of the following subjects : Agriculture, manual arts, commercial subjects, or domestic science, appropriate to the needs and environment of the particular school. In his sixteenth annual report Supt. W. H. Maxwell, regretting the fact that our children “ are losing at least two years in the prepa¬ ration for life as compared with their European contemporaries,” states three causes for this loss : That “ the so-called secondary studies are commenced much earlier for those who take them in Germany and France than in America ”; that “ the German and French boy are at school more hours in the day and more weeks in the year than the American boy ” ; and that “ the American parent is unwilling to allow his children to work hard while they are in school.” Because of the condition as he sees it, Dr. Maxwell proposes “three effective ways” of saving time: An extension of the school day in grades 7 through 12 from five to six hours a day, the added time being mainly for recreation; an increase in the same grades of the school year to 220 days; opportunity for a more rapid advance for those pupils who have demonstrated in the first six grades un- 126 EDUCATION REPORT, 1915. usual ability along academic lines. Although the school day has been extended in many schools — e. g., the Los Angeles Technical High School and the Springfield (Mass.) High School of Commerce — and provision is made in many places by various devices for accelerating the progress of the more able pupils, an experiment has been under¬ taken in three schools of New York City to see what can be done for some 600 pupils who have completed the sixth grade with credit. One group of 200 is housed in the Speyer School of Teachers Col¬ lege, which will participate in the experiment. Increase in the length of the school year is opposed generally because of the cost and because of a fear that the confinement will injure the health of the children. There is rapid growth, how¬ ever, in the movement to hold summer sessions of high schools. Most of the summer sessions in public schools have been inaugu¬ rated by private or semipublic enterprise, primarily to afford op¬ portunity for industrial work, supervised play, and coaching for children backward in their books. But as the opportunity has been extended into the secondary grades, and not infrequently taken over by the city, a large element in the enrollment has been made up of ambitious pupils desirous of advancing more rapidly than is possible in regular session. Testimony to this effect is general. To an inquiry concerning summer schools sent in 1914 by Charles Otter- man to 104 cities, 71 replies were received; of these 51 stated that they offer in the summer academic work for high-school pupils. Thirty-four of these summer high schools were established in 1913. That the movement may develop most effectively a careful study should be made of what has already been done. Indicative of what may be accomplished by a longer school day and year is the work at the Hebrew Sheltering Guardian Society Or¬ phan Asylum, near Pleasantville, N. Y. There the work is so organized by the superintendent, Dr. L. B. Bernstein, that in each year there are, exclusive of holidays and examination periods, 225 school days divided into three terms. Thus the curriculum which in public schools requires 12 years is completed in 8, though a ninth is ordinarily added for “ mental digestion ” and also for voca¬ tional specialization. In the summer the children for six weeks do only half work, omitting the academic and the industrial exer¬ cises for periods of three weeks each. In secondary education, which consumes 10 terms of 75 full school days, each of the 5 school days in the week has five 45-minute periods for academic instruc¬ tion and three additional periods for industrial or vocational work. In this department are about 140 boys and girls. The curricula are modeled after the New York syllabus, and have been approved by the board of regents. The question very naturally arises as to the ability of children to endure physically such continuous work and SECONDARY EDUCATION. 127 to assimilate mentally instruction usually offered to pupils some¬ what older. Although there have been no exact measurements of the results, the very careful medical records confirm the impression of visual inspection, that the children are in excellent physical con¬ dition; and the two municipal colleges of New York — the College of the City of New York and Hunter College — give full academic credit to the graduates of the high-school department. Moreover, teachers in charge of English, French, German, and mathematics in the New York city high schools have been repeatedly called to Pleasantville to inspect and criticize the work there. According to the superintendent’s report, they have given “ gratifying assurances that on the whole the work compares favorably with the corre¬ sponding terms in our public high schools, and this in spite of the fact that the children are from two to three years younger.” In the first four terms of the secondary school, as well as in the elementary grades, the industrial work is prevocational, about one-fourth of it being repair work; after that each student specializes in some trade. Both boys and girls take home-craft courses, which they apply practically in the 17 cottages. W. H. Hand, high-school inspector for South Carolina, continues the campaign begun several years ago to decrease elimination in high schools. In his annual report issued January, 1915, he presents a table showing the persistence of boys and girls in each high school in the State during the three-year period beginning 1911-12, con¬ cluding with a brief statement of the causes of elimination : In different commnnities these wide differences in holding the pnpil in the high school are traceable to various causes, but wherever the falling off is marked the community should investigate the conditions and locate the trouble. It may be due to an inadequate teaching force or to some teacher or teachers lacking in the ability to inspire pupils, or to a course of study honeycombed with dry rot, or to the apathy of parents, or to the raids of the college drum¬ mers, or to the commercial spirit in young America. Whatever it is ought to be discovered and made known to the community. Most of these causes he discusses at length, particularly the prac¬ tice of some colleges to receive as freshmen high- school pupils who had not completed their secondary education. After printing de¬ tailed tables of high-school and college registration, which manifest “ one of the most abnormal educational situations conceivable — a total regular academic college enrollment of over 40 per cent of the total secondary school enrollment, both public and private,” Mr. Hand indicates with convincingly specific data each college that has failed to maintain its professed standard. The purpose of his cam¬ paign is revealed in his statement that “ the colleges do not seem to realize that they are yet in the high-school business and that they are retarding the growth of their own feeders.” Such a situation, 128 EDUCATION REPORT, 1915. in South Carolina or in other States, needs only to be seen clearly and continuously to insure a betterment. At the request of the Associa¬ tion of Virginia Colleges, the State Department of Education has published the names of all freshmen in the “ Standard Colleges ” of the State, with detailed facts of subjects offered for admission. Only three other tendencies may be briefly noted: Those toward a divided period for study and recitation, toward sex segregation in classes of the same subject, and toward social guidance. The first innovation has two general forms — that used by Principal Wiener, of Newark, N. J., who lengthened his periods to 60 minutes and gave his teachers the option of using either half or even all of a period, as the daily situation demanded, for supervised study; and that used by Principal Brown, of Joliet, Ill., who at first gave to such teachers as desired it and later to practically all of his staff a full period immediately following the recitation for supervising study. No complete data as to the number of schools adopting the plan has been sought, but news items are continually noted that indicate its rapid spread. Some of the schools besides Newark and Joliet re¬ ported as using one of the plans, usually the divided period, are the Wisconsin High School, at Madison ; the High School of Commerce, Springfield, Mass.; and high schools at Topeka and Kansas City, Kans., Beading and Pottstown, Pa., Kichmond, Ind., Pasadena and u several other places in California.” An extended article on “ Pres¬ ent Tendencies in Supervised Study” was recently presented by Prof. Hall-Quest, in Educational Administration and Supervision, volume 1, pages 239-256. Since the experiment by Principal Armstrong, of the Englewood High School, Chicago, several years ago, there has been a steady interest concerning the matter of sex segregation within classes of the same subjects. Complaint is frequently heard that in art sub¬ jects a readier and fuller response by girls in mixed classes tends to cause the boys first to restrain themselves and finally to lose interest; that in the sciences the larger experience of most boys in the physical world enables them to outstrip the girls in recitation, however stu¬ dious the latter may be ; and that girls naturally have little aptitude, and so are ordinarily a drag on the classes in algebra and geometry. But for administrative reasons the complaints have seldom resulted in carefully prepared and measured experiments, which should defi¬ nitely decide which policy is the more profitable. The industrial work by its very nature causes sex segregation, though occasionally even a metropolitan school is found that still gives boys and girls alike only “ exercises ” in wood, and increasingly, as is evidenced by published programs of study and the character of new textbooks, there is differentiation for sex in the allied sciences. There is urgent need for more studies like that by Mr. Minnick (School Review , SECONDAR V EDUCATION. 129 23:73-84). which goes far toward discrediting the complaint that mathematics is peculiarly unadapted to the minds of girls. Prin¬ cipal Cole, of the Broadway High School, Seattle, reports ( School Review , 23:550-554) that in 1914-15 lie segregated by sex the pupils in 244 of the 287 classes in the school, and that he kept a record par¬ ticularly of the number of pupils receiving the higher grades as compared with the preceding years when the classes were mixed. At the end of the year, as a result of experience with both segregated and mixed classes, 53 of the teachers expressed their opinion regard¬ ing the experiment — 24 were in favor of segregation, 17 were op¬ posed, and 12 saw no beneficial results from it. After considering both the data and the opinions expressed, Supt. Cooper recom¬ mended that the segregation be continued in all sciences and in mathematics, in the first year of history, and in the first two years of English; and that there be no segregation in the commercial work and in foreign languages. Hardly any problem has given conscientious and intelligent school¬ men more concern than that of the social guidance of pupils, a prob¬ lem that has been intensified by the increasing size of high schools and the tendency because of numerous electives and departmental teaching for natural personal relations between teachers and pupils to be made difficult and in many cases actually impossible. The effort to supply the need through a home-room teacher, which is most often made, is successful only as such a teacher by chance has the talent and the time for the required additional and arduous work Strangely enough, provision is more often made for the social over¬ sight of the girls than of the boys. In one State in the Rocky Moun¬ tain section the home-room teachers are supplemented by a “ matron,” whose duties almost entirely concern the physical comfort of the gilds during school hours. Recently, as a decided advance over either plan, several schools have appointed as adviser a woman especially trained and competent for a larger type of work. In Har¬ risburg, Pa., there is an adviser who gives all of her time to looking after the interests of the girls. It is her duty to visit the homes ; to investigate the cause of absences; to encourage and aid pupils in re¬ maining in school, improving their work, and making up failures ; to give vocational guidance and personal counsel when needed. In the Broadway High School, Seattle, Wash., one of the teachers, who is trained in the social sciences, has general charge of the work, which pertains especially to organizing and directing other teacher-advisers who endeavor to get personally in touch with the entering girls and to see that they actively participate in the social life of the school. In the Washington Irving High School, New York City, so far as possi¬ ble the girls are kept in the same class groups throughout their course, 12034°— ed 1915— vol 1 - 9 130 EDUCATION REPORT, 1915. in order that they may develop friendships, which otherwise would be extremely difficu]t in a school of 6,000 pupils. The social work of the La Salle-Peru (Ill.) Township High School is probably not surpassed anywhere else in the United States. Annexed to the academic high school are buildings for manual training and domestic science, for a hygienic institute, and for a social center. An extended athletic field and playground are now being constructed. All of the equipment is used for many and varied activities that extend throughout the year both for students of the high school and for citizens of the com¬ munity. THE HIGH SCHOOL IN THE SURVEYS.1 In the report of a survey of the San Antonio school system Prof. J. F. Bobbitt lays commendable emphasis on the need of supervision of instruction in the high school, declaring that the principal should during school hours make this his prime duty. And finally he pre¬ sents what he considers an “index of community valuations” in various tables2 which, at some sacrifice of clearness, are condensed below : Cost of instruction in certain courses. Cost of instruc¬ tion in per cents. Instruc¬ tion hours in per cents. Cost of instruc¬ tion per student hour (in cents). Amount of class work per teacher. Hours per week. Average size of classes. English composition and literature . . . 20.4 24.3 6.7 22.4 28 Higher mathematics . 17.0 20.0 6.9 23.4 27 The sciences . 13. 1 15.4 6. 8 22. 0 25 History and civics . 10.6 10. 2 8.3 20.8 24 Modern languages . . 10.3 7.3 11. 4 20. 7 17 Household occupations . 9.7 9.2 8.3 20. 8 15 Shop work and mechanical drawing . 6.3 4. § 10. 3 23. 0 13 18 Commercial subjects . 5.3 4. 1 10. 3 21. 8 Latin . ; . 5.2 4.0 10.3 21.5 19 Public speaking . 1.9 (?) .7 9.8 20.0 22 Music . . . .4 4.0 21.5 38 Physical training . .0 .0 Drawing and design (not mechanical) . .0 .0 Training of elementary teachers . .0 .0 1 See also Ch. XVIII, School Surveys. 2 In School Review, 23 : 505-534. Prof. Bobbitt presents an extended study of “ High School Costs,” incorporating with the material of the following table data from a number of other cities. CHAPTER VI. HIGHER EDUCATION. By Samuel Paul Capen, Specialist in Higher Education, Bureau of Education. Contents. — General tendencies, surveys, and legislative action — The reorganization of education in Vermont — Survey of the University of Wisconsin — The surrey of State- supported higher institutions in Washington — The North Dakota State board of regents — Other surveys ordered by State educational authorities — State-supported institutions of Iowa — Inspections of higher institutions by the Bureau of Education — Legislation affecting higher educational institutions — The Nebraska initiative — Entrance requirements — Classification — New associations and foundations — Academic freedom. GENERAL TENDENCIES. The academic year just closed has been in several important respects noteworthy in the field of higher education. Certain con¬ structive movements already under way have gained added mo¬ mentum. The times have been full of significant signs and por¬ tents. Statistical reports show in general a steady and normal growth in enrollment with exceptional increases only in a few areas and in the newer professional courses,1 but the efforts of college and university officials and of the governing bodies behind them haVe apparently been directed less toward expansion than toward the ordering and fortifying of territory already won. The conviction that both higher and secondary education must be made more sound and serious has been reiterated in educational gatherings through¬ out the country and has found reflection in numerous intensive studies of college and university administration and standards. On several occasions the belief has risen to expression that recent international happenings have placed an added responsibility upon American edu¬ cation and must act as a potent stimulus to American scholarship. As specific manifestations of these larger tendencies and motives the following may be mentioned : The organization and management of State-supported institutions have been critically investigated at the behest of legislatures or State educational authorities in Ore¬ gon, Washington, and Wisconsin. Other investigations have been ordered and are in progress in Iowa and Xorth Dakota. The legis- 1 In view of the earlier publication of the Annual Report this year it has been impos¬ sible to summarize these figures. 131 132 EDUCATION REPOET, 1915. latures of several other States, notably Montana, Minnesota, Idaho, and Nebraska, have made more or less searching inquiries into the administrative methods of the State higher institutions. The Legis¬ lature of Massachusetts had under consideration a plan for the estab¬ lishment of a State university. The Legislature of Vermont reor¬ ganized the educational system of the State in response to the report of its survey commission. Legislative measures relative to State institutions, passed or proposed, dealt with forms of control, financial management, and even with courses and scholastic requirements. In some quarters this legislative activity has been regarded as an un¬ warranted and dangerous intrusion into fields which should be re¬ served to expert regulation. Yet in spite of a few failures to draw the line between matters which are the legitimate concern of the appropriating body and those which are the province of the expert, and in spite of seme superficial and temporary hostility, this activity has on the whole revealed a sincere friendliness to the cause of higher education and a surprisingly unanimous desire to give it sound and generous support. Many of the smaller colleges and institutions in the educationally backward sections have raised their admission requirements to 14 units, an amount of precollegiate training which is fast coming to national recognition as the minimum standard. But along with the common acceptance of the principle that a certain definite period of preliminary schooling is an essential prerequisite to a college course there is a growing distrust of the value of purely quantitative meas¬ ures of intellectual attainment. This is evidenced not only in the recent recommendations of the National Conference Committee on Standards of Colleges and Secondary Schools but also in the action of the College Entrance Examination Board and of several institu¬ tions looking toward the establishment of more effective qualitative tests. In line with this tendency has been the recognition by certain college officials of the desirability of offering special encouragements and providing special facilities during the college course itself for highly gifted students. The sentiment of many is apparently ex¬ pressed in the bold demand of President Hyde, of Bowdoin, that colleges should run a “ few limited trains with Pullman cars only ” for the benefit of the exceptional students. The year has seen the further solidifying of higher educational interests through the formation of three important associations, one of which has already exerted nation-wide influence upon professional standards. These are the Association of Urban Universities, the Association of American Colleges, and the American Association of University Professors. The more important of the movements and happenings here sum¬ marized are accorded detailed treatment in the following paragraphs. HIGHER EDUCATION. 133 SURVEYS AND LEGISLATIVE ACTION. The outstanding events in the field of higher education during the year 191T-15 center around university surveys. Surveys, especially of public educational institutions, are becoming increasingly fre¬ quent. The bureau of education has record of more than 50 carried on within the past few years.1 Higher institutions long lay beyond the rising tide of the survey movement, but the considerable num¬ ber of university surveys completed within the past two years, or already projected for the immediate future, shows that the current has at last reached these institutions. As might be expected, the majority of universities and colleges already surveyed or shortly to be surveyed are controlled by the State. Such institutions are more directly subject to the popular will and consequently respond more quickly to the urge of popular educational movements. The survey movement as affecting colleges and universities has had several highly gratifying results. In the first place, it has called attention to those processes in college and university administration which may be accurately measured and recorded, those educational results which may be statistically demonstrated, those particular needs which, on the basis of precise records, may be definitely fore¬ cast. There is not yet, to be sure, an accepted technique for the uni¬ versity survey. No two surveys have sought exactly the same ends or used the same methods. Yet, in spite of this variation and of the uncertainties which have thus far characterized educational stand¬ ards of measurement, the university surveys are feeling their way to¬ ward objective criteria, whereby university administration may be judged, and toward a technique of educational investigation. Di¬ verse as they are, they have already established certain points of agreement. In other words, a science of university administration is slowly being worked out, and in the process the survey is proving itself a very useful agent. Still more encouraging for the future of State universities is the fact that State legislatures have in several instances either ordered or inspired surveys with the expressed intention of basing legislation relating to the institutions concerned upon the findings of survey commissions. This is another manifestation of that growing con¬ viction on the part of the people that, since the schools are their own, it is their duty to exact a strict accounting of the way in which education has been managed, to the end that the enormous sums of public money invested may bring the most profitable return. While admitting that the legislation subsequently passed in at least one important case is potentially dangerous to higher education in the 1 See particularly Ch. XXIV, vol. 1, Hep. of Commis. of Ed., 1914 ; and Ch. XVIII of this volume. 134 EDUCATION REPOST, 1915. State, and that some other post-survey educational bills have been disappointing, the principle that careful, impartial investigation should precede legislative action is beyond cavil. If the principle becomes generally recognized State institutions will be freed from the ever-present menace of the capricious and hasty determination of questions vital to their welfare and to the educational policies of a State. Because of this intimate causal relation between certain re¬ cent surveys and legislation, it is appropriate to treat these two topics in a single division of the present chapter. THE BEORGAN IZ ATION OF EDUCATION IN VEEMONT. The study of education in Vermont made by the Carnegie Founda¬ tion for the Advancement of Teaching, at the request of the commis¬ sion appointed by the Vermont legislature of 1912 to inquire into the educational system of the State, was briefly summarized in the pre¬ vious report of the Commissioner of Education (p. 170 et seq.). The commission, which reported to the 1914 legislature, adopted without substantial change the principal recommendations made by the Car¬ negie Foundation. The report dealt with the whole educational sys¬ tem of Vermont. Only those recommendations relating to general educational organization and to State aid for higher education are discussed in the present chapter.1 With regard to administration, the commission recommends — that the existing board of education be so reorganized as to provide a board of five members appointed by the governor, one member for the term of five years, one for the term of four years, one for the term of three years, one for the term of two years, and one for the term of one year, and at the expiration of a term the term of office should be five years; * * * that the board shall be given plenary administrative powers within the law over the whole educational system and organization of the State, and be charged definitely with the responsibility of providing, through a commissioner of education and at least two deputies, for the effective administration of the educational policy of the State. The following paragraph summarizes its recommendations as to higher education: All institutions of higher learning within the State are private institutions and not entitled of right to State aid. * * * The commission finds that the State in proportion to its property valuation has been making appropria¬ tions to higher education far beyond those made by any other of the New England States or by the State of New York ; * * * and that in so dis¬ continuing State aid to higher education the State is in no way laying itself open to a charge of failure of duty to its youth ; and that a continuance of such appropriations in present amount would be a gross neglect of such duty under the constitution. A comprehensive bill was introduced in the legislature embodying substantially all the commission’s recommendations, but was not 1 See Chs. I and IV. HIGHER EDUCATION. 135 passed. The measures finally carried differed in several important respects. The commission’s recommendations relating to general agencies for administration, however, were, in the main, ratified by legislation. An act was passed creating a State board of education consisting of five persons to be appointed by the governor, each mem¬ ber to hold office for five years. The board is enjoined to employ a skilled executive officer to be called the commissioner of education, to fix his salary, and through the commissioner of education and his assistants to have general charge of the entire public educational system of the State. Its control of higher education extends to the supervision of the expenditure of all State money expended under the provisions of the act creating the board, the inspection of all institutions in which or by which such money is used, and the prep¬ aration of a budget for these expenditures. The commissioner of education is to be appointed by the board for an indefinite term and to be subject to removal only upon a majority vote of the entire board. He must be a person of special training and experience in educational work, and is to act as the secretary of the board. Ver¬ mont is therefore to be added to the list of States that have now placed all public educational activities of the State under strong cen¬ tral direction. In the person of the commissioner the act provides for an official with large powers and opportunities for constructive leadership and corresponding responsibilities. The State in effect repudiated the commission’s recommendations with regard to subsidizing higher institutions. Special acts were passed making the same appropriations to Middlebury College and Norwich University as were made in the preceding biennium. The appropriation for the University of Vermont was increased by the addition of $6,500, for the use of the college of medicine. The prin¬ ciple of partial support by the State of privately endowed institu¬ tions is thus reaffirmed, contrary to the arguments presented in the report of the Carnegie Foundation for the Advancement of Teaching.1 SURVEY OF THE UNIVERSITY OF WISCONSIN. Mention was also made in the last annual report of the survey of the University of Wisconsin, which was undertaken in the spring of 1914 by the State board of public affairs. The board engaged W. H. Allen and E. C. Branson as investigators. Detailed studies of numerous phases of the university work, organization, and manage¬ ment were made and the findings reported to the beard of public affairs, which made its report to the legislature on December 29, 1914. 1 Quoted in Aji. Rep. of Commis. of Ed., 1914, pp. 171, 172. 136 EDUCATION REPORT, 1915. The published report is a volume of 957 pages (not including the table of contents), more than 800 of which are in fine print. One hundred and forty-two of these pages are devoted to the official re¬ port of the State board of public affairs. The remainder contains the reports of the investigators (called directors of the survey) to the board and the comment of the university thereon. Mr. Bran¬ son’s report relates exclusively to the college of agriculture. The section devoted to it and the university’s comment is 26 pages long. Some 680 pages are occupied by Mr. Allen’s report and the uni¬ versity comment. The Allen report begins with a 39-page summary outlining the purpose and the method of the survey, discussing the general function of the university in its relation to the State and Nation, pointing out what are, in the surveyor’s opinion, its major qualities and defects, and finally suggesting an answer to each of the 12 questions which the survey set before it at the beginning of its work.1 This summary is followed by a general comment by the uni¬ versity, 22 pages in length, on the methods of Dr. Allen and the principal points of agreement and disagreement between him and the university officers. The section closes with the following para¬ graphs : The university * * * submits the following requests: 1. It formally requests that the board of public affairs do not accept the Allen report and exhibits in whole or in part. The university is anxious that this request should not be misunderstood. It makes no categorical denial of all Dr. Allen’s criticisms. Some of the criti¬ cisms are just and the matters should be corrected ; some are half true and ought to be considered, but the good recommendations are not seldom mingled with others whose only support is evidence that is partial or even warped. The sound criticisms are so mingled with incorrect statements, half truths, improper insinuations, and unworthy innuendoes that no exhibit ought to be accepted in the lump. The board of public affairs ought not to take any account or draw any con¬ clusions from the report or exhibits without a careful, independent review of the evidence for and against the Allen recommendations. 2. The university also asks that the board of public affairs, in case it accepts any part of the Allen report or exhibits, accept also in the same manner and degree the comment or reply which the university may make to the part in question. This request does not relate to any statements or recommendations of Dr. Allen which the board may make its own. 3. The university, further asks that if any part of the Allen report or ex¬ hibits is ordered printed (though not accepted by the board) the university may have the time necessary to prepare an adequate reply, and that this reply also be printed, section by section, along with the Allen material. The compliance of the board with this last request apparently ac¬ counts in large measure for the formidable size of the printed report. Following the summary are 36 “ exhibits,” some of which are divided into several subsections. Accompanying every exhibit and nearly all 1 See Rep. of Coimnis. of Ed., 1914, vol. 1, pp. 1T3, 174. HIGHER INDI CATION. 137 subsections are specific comments by the university. rI he 30 11 ex¬ hibits ” deal with questions of varying degrees of importance from the administrative point of view. Among those of the greatest in¬ terest to other institutions, discussion of which might be of general value if the method used were less controversial, are the following: 1. Supervision of instruction. 2. Effects of research upon teaching efficiency. 3. Different bases for grading students’ work now used by faculty members. 4. University extension. 5. Effect of social diversion on students’ ability to do class work, as reported by 351 faculty members. 6. Faculty machinery for investigating and gov¬ erning. 7. Telling the Wisconsin public in 1914 “ what our univer¬ sity does for us.” 8. The university budget. 9. Per capita cost and cost of research. The last exhibit is entitled “ Next steps suggested that do not re¬ quire legislation,” and contains 339 suggestions. The university’s comment on this “ exhibit ” estimates that — The outcome of the Allen survey is an accumulation of some 1,200 to 1,500 or more “ suggestions 55 which are “ next steps ” for the university ; * * * suggestions in such number and variety * * * may serve as hints or warn¬ ings to a competent administrator, but they are not and can not constitute a program. The report of the board of public affairs itself, which opens the volume and constitutes the official statement to the legislature, while making use of the findings of the investigators and the discussion thereof by the university, wisely avoids wholesale indorsement of the views or recommendations of either party. It begins with an in¬ troductory statement relating the history of the university and sum¬ marizes the criticisms of the institution which have lately had cur¬ rency in the State. These are said to be : That extravagance and lax business methods have characterized the adminis¬ tration of the university. That the university is in politics. That the members of the faculty are sacrificing instructional work to write books, to lecture, and to do other outside work for pay. That under the cloak of research faculty members are shirking classroom work and devoting much time to other pursuits. That students are deprived of personal contact with the strong minds of the faculty and that instruction is left to men of less experience. That instruction is not adequately supervised by deans and heads of depart¬ ments. That the university is a school for rich men’s sons. That it is educating students from other States at the expense of the tax¬ payers of Wisconsin. That it dominates the high schools of the State to the detriment of education in local communities. That the university is receiving a larger portion of the moneys expended by the State for educational purposes than is justified by the number availing themselves of university instruction. 138 EDUCATION REPORT, 1915. The body of the report consists of three sections : General and edu¬ cational policies, land and buildings, business organization. The last two are chiefly descriptive, dealing with the physical and finan¬ cial resources of the university and its business methods and accom¬ panied by statistical tables, together with exhibits of blank forms, records, etc. The first section, on general and educational policies, contains what both the general public and the legislature will regard as the pith of the report. Here the board takes up the criticisms of the university which led to the investigation (finding all of them to be either exaggerated or unfounded), discusses a few questions of vital import raised by the investigators, and makes certain broad recommendations which will probably affect the attitude of the State toward the university, the treatment accorded it by the legislature, and the general policies of the institution for some time to come. In view of the wide public interest in this particular survey and the common misconception of its results, some of these findings and recommendations are worth noting. In regard to the criticism that the university . is in politics, the report points out that: In recent years while the State has been attempting to meet economic and industrial needs by new legislation, it has been a common practice to consult with those who have studied and written on these problems. In the university faculty there have been, and now are, men who by reason of a lifetime of study are familiar with the various phases of these problems as they have developed and as they have been treated in other countries and States. * * * The State having engaged the services of the men in the university faculty is entitled to such advice and counsel as these men can give regarding the sub¬ jects to which they have devoted much ard special attention. * * * While new administrative policies were being inaugurated the State in a few in¬ stances has drawn upon the university faculty for members of its commis¬ sions. The State sought the services of these men on the theory that the inauguration of a new administrative policy required the advice, counsel, and direction of those familiar with the practices under similar administrative policies in other States and countries. * * * Both the State and uni¬ versity profited rather than suffered by this arrangement. Criticism has also been made of the practice (not a common one) of the State employing members of the faculty to devote a part of their time to work connected with the State government. A common expression of this criticism has been couched in the phrase that “ a university professor should not be allowed to draw two salaries from the State.” * * * Inquiry has shown that to have secured the services of men of the same ability would have resulted in many instances' either in employing professors from other uni¬ versity faculties or in employing those experts who are in the pay of private corporations, and also would have resulted in the State paying a much greater sum for the same services. Investigation shows that in so far as students, faculty members, and regents are in politics as individuals, the University of Wisconsin is in politics. Stu¬ dents form political organizations, both partisan and factional, representing every faction and every party. Members of the faculty on occasions address these student clubs and give expression to personal convictions. In so doing, HIGHER EDUCATION. 139 students, professors, anti regents, Jn the opinion of this hoard, have exercised only their rights to independent thought and action as individuals and citi¬ zens. No information has come to this board which shows that the University of Wisconsin as an organization is, or has been, in party or factional politics. With respect to research and its supervision the report comments briefly upon the recognized value of research to the State, and ap¬ proves the continuance of such facilities for it as now exist, but adds : However, there is evidence tending to show that some few [instructors] for¬ get their responsibilities and use the sincere and earnest work done by the many as a cloak for indolence. To prevent this it is necessary that every member of the faculty be held to some degree of accountability. Each man engaged in research work must be always ready to demonstrate to his col¬ leagues the possibilities of his subject. * * * He must satisfy his col¬ leagues and superior officers as to his earnestness and faithfulness in his work. Unless some such step is taken this board is convinced of the danger that particular instances may be used to discredit research, with the result that such opportunities as now exist may be diminished. A relatively new aspect of university administration is treated under the heading of “ Supervision of instruction.” The report says : The tradition that it is not consistent with the dignity of instructors of uni¬ versity rank to be closely supervised does not justify, in the judgment of this board, what is in some instances an almost entire absence of supervision in classroom work. Certainly there are those of the instructional staff who have demonstrated distinctly the excellence of their scholarship and pedagogical methods. Even these, however, should not be permitted to pursue their work without refer¬ ence to the work of other instructors. It is necessary that the work of differ¬ ent departments and instructors be correlated, that uniform standards of schol¬ arship be maintained, and that unity of purpose and ideals be achieved. It is impossible to accomplish these ends without adequate supervision. * * * Such supervision need not be antagonistic, but should be at once critical, sympathetic, and constructive. The criticism that the university is a school for rich men’s sons is refuted by elaborate statistics of the cost of living, and the report adds : While it can not be the policy of a State university to discriminate against any class, rich or poor, this board believes that wide publicity should be given to the fact that investigation has shown that a moderate sum is sufficient to maintain a student at the University of Wisconsin in complete comfort. Valuable statistical material is also adduced to show that the uni¬ versity is not “ receiving a larger proportion of moneys expended for educational purposes than is warranted when the number avail¬ ing themselves of university education is considered.” It is shown that the University of Wisconsin in its present form is much more than an institution for the education of youth ” ; that — its laboratories, its libraries, and its faculty have constituted a source of infor¬ mation which has contributed to the well-being of the people as a whole and 140 EDUCATION REPORT, 1916. to the material welfare of individuals of every calling, employment, and occu¬ pation; that in 10 years there has been but little increase in the proportion of State moneys expended for instruction in the university at Madison to the total expenditures for instructional purposes in all branches of the State’s educa¬ tional system ; and that far better than to curtail the opportunity now pro¬ vided by reducing future appropriations of the university, the State * * * should direct its attention rather to the development of a plan which would make it possible for a larger number of the youth of the State to utilize the advantages of university training. The report points out that additional junior colleges are needed, citing in defense of the recommendation the relatively small number of high-school graduates who go to college, the tendency of any higher institution to draw from a geographically restricted area, and the large mortality in university classes before the beginning of the junior year. With respect to the foreign language requirements, which received much unfavorable comment in the Allen report, the board says : In the opinion of the board it is neither right nor wise for the State absolutely to deny persons qualified in other respects the right to enter the university and pursue regular courses leading to graduation simply because they do not possess and do not wish to acquire, or who because of their surroundings have been unable to acquire, such knowledge of foreign languages as is now required. This general section of the report closes with recommendations regarding university extension, in the course of which the board says: The growth [of the extension department] has been so rapid and its work has been so largely experimental that the organization is not yet fully de¬ veloped. There is also evidence of weakness in the case of some members of the faculty. This board realizes, that in building up an entirely new depart¬ ment, with no precedents to follow and no experience as a guide, it is difficult to secure at once for each position in the faculty men equipped and temper- mentally adapted to the particular work required. It is no criticism of the past to say that now better organization and more systematic management of the extension division are demanded and that the instructional force should be strengthened. The survey eventuated in certain very unusual legislation. It also gave rise to numerous other proposals which failed to pass. Indeed, the session of the Wisconsin Legislature just ended saw the intro¬ duction of more than 30 bills and several joint resolutions directly affecting the university. Of most far-reaching influence among these measures is the act creating a State board of education. Effort was at first made to establish a central board of education, to have control of all edu¬ cational matters in the State and to supersede the board of regents of the university and the board of regents of the normal schools. This proved to be impossible. The boards of regents were left, but their actions rendered subject to review. The act creating the State HIGHER EDUCATION. 141 board of education provides for a board to consist of five members, the governor, the secretary of state, and the State superintendent of public instruction to be ex officio members, and one member to be appointed by the board of regents of the University of Wisconsin and one by the board of regents of the normal schools. The board is charged with the management of all the financial affairs of the edu¬ cational activities of the State, including normal schools and the university. It is ordered to examine and audit the accounts of these institutions at the close of each fiscal year and to present on or before the 15th day of December next preceding the convening of the legislature its recommendations as to financial and business needs of the institutions under its jurisdiction, together with estimates for each, specifying in detail the amount of money that will be required for their support and maintenance. No new buildings shall be con¬ structed or lands purchased except by and under the direction of the board. Fifteen thousand dollars is to be appropriated annually for necessary expenses. A supplemental act provides that all money appropriated for the use of the board of regents of the university and the board of resents of the normal schools is now available for. and to be used exclusively by, the State board of education. In this connection it should be noted that although the University of Wisconsin is the beneficiary of a mill tax, the money raised by this means is not avail¬ able to the university until it has been specifically appropriated by the legislature. It is not always possible to tell how any piece of administrative machinery will rim until it is started. Occasionally the inventors are surprised. It is perfectly apparent in the present instance, how¬ ever, that the power to determine the educational policy of Wis¬ consin’s higher institutions now resides in the new board of educa¬ tion. in which three ex officio members, elected on political tickets, two of them presumably for political reasons, form a majority. The fact that the superintendent of public instruction is also a member of the boards of regents of the university and normal schools will probably tend to give added strength to the action of these bodies and to render the review of them by the board of education in general purely formal. But if it chooses, this board, through its control of finances, is able practically to nullify the action of either of the boards of regents. Wisconsin has thus contributed a novel and startling variant to the growing group of central boards of control. The financial dependence of the university upon political officers of the State acting ex officio is still further increased by other legis¬ lative action. The university appropriation bills were cut about 10 142 EDUCATION BEPORT, 1015. per cent. When it was pointed out by the university authorities that a reduction in salaries or the dismissal of part of the teaching staff must inevitably result, the legislature passed an act supple¬ mentary to the appropriation bills appropriating from unexpended moneys such additional amounts as may be necessary to conduct any State department (including the university) in the customary man¬ ner and authorizing the governor, secretary of state, and State treas¬ urer to determine what amounts are thus needed. Other important enactments which appear to be the direct out¬ come of the survey were: The raising of the tuition fee to nonresi¬ dent students from $100 to $124; the repeal of the appropriation made by the previous legislature for the construction of a men’s dormitory; a joint resolution declaring that members of the uni¬ versity faculty are to feel free at any time to appear before legisla¬ tive committees to give special information when called upon by a member of the legislature or of a committee; and a joint resolution ordering an investigation of the purchases of realty by the board of regents during the last eight years in Dane County (the seat of the university). Among the bills introduced which failed to pass and which were evidently inspired by the survey were measures (1) requiring the university to admit any graduate of a four-year free high school or other public school and ordering the suspension of high-school inspection by university officers; (2) providing that any resident graduate of an accredited high school shall be admitted to any college or department of the university; (3) establishing an English course at the university, admission to which and graduation from which shall not entail knowledge of any other language than Eng¬ lish; and (4) removing the president of the university from the board of regents and from its standing committees. THE SURVEY OF STATE- SUPPORTED HIGHER INSTITUTIONS IN WASHINGTON. Washington is another State that is seeking to secure a basis of exact knowledge and impartial opinion before passing radical legis¬ lation affecting higher education. The rapid parallel expansion of the State university and the State college in recent years has led to vigorous, but not always accurately informed, protest against dupli¬ cation. This has been aggravated, as is usually the case, by the activity before the legislature and elsewhere of the partisans of both institutions and by the dynamic loyalty of the district in which each is located. During the 1915 session of the legislature, which was pledged to economy, a crisis seemed to be imminent. Several bills were introduced which it was felt might, if passed, damage one or both of the institutions and hurt the cause of higher education in the State. In order to forestall this possibility, friends of both institu- HIGHER EDUCATION. 143 tions, together with the governor, invited the Commissioner of Education to come to Washington, study the situation, and recom¬ mend a course of action. During the closing days of the session the commissioner and the specialist in higher education made such a review of the situation on the ground as was possible in the time available. On the basis of this investigation the commissioner made a report to the joint committee on educational institutions and educa¬ tion, in which he outlined the major functions of the State university, the State college, and the State normal schools, and recommended a comprehensive survey of these institutions, with such general survey of the public-school system of the State as may be necessary before legislative action limiting the sphere of any of the institutions is taken. To have charge of the survey he recommended the creation of a legislative commission which should work through experts, and he offered the services of the Bureau of Education in the prosecution of the survey. In compliance with these recommendations the legislature passed an act creating a survey commission, and naming as its members the subcommittee of the joint committee on educational institutions and education, before which the hearings relating to the institutions in question had been held. The commission was instructed to conduct a survey as outlined by the Commissioner of Education and to report to the governor on or before April 30, 1916. Each member of the commission is to receive as compensation $5 a day while actu¬ ally engaged in the performance of his duties, and for the payment of these honorariums, the traveling expenses of the commission, and the expenses of the experts to be employed, the sum of $5,000 was appropriated. The survey commission at once called upon the Bureau of Education for the assistance promised by the commis¬ sioner, and the preliminary steps in the survey have already been taken under the commissioner’s direction. THE NOBTH DAKOTA STATE BOARD OF BEGENTS. Like Vermont, North Dakota has regarded a survey as an essential part of educational house cleaning. For several years the Legisla¬ ture of North Dakota has contemplated the possibility of a compre¬ hensive reorganization of the State educational system. Mention has already been made of the temporary educational commission created by the legislature of 1911 and its very suggestive report.1 An act passed by the 1915 legislature organizing the administration of State-supported higher educational institutions appears to be a somewhat remote and not altogether consonant echo of the work of the commission. The act provides for the appointment by the gov¬ ernor of a State board of regents consisting of five members, with 1 See Ann. Rep. of Commis. of Ed., 1912, p. 95. 144 EDUCATION REPORT, 1915. a six-year term of office, but removable by the governor for cause before the expiration of the term, one, and not more than two, to be appointed from each congressional district, and not more than one from any county, nor more than one who is an alumnus of any institution under the control of the board. The board is to elect a secretary, at a salary of $2,500. Members of the board are to receive $7 a day and their necessary traveling expenses. The board will supersede the governing boards of the State university and school of mines, the State agricultural college and experiment sta¬ tion, the school of science, the normal industrial school, and the school of forestry, and it is charged with all the duties of these boards. A novel feature of the new act is the provision that — the State board of regents first appointed shall, as soon as practicable after hav¬ ing organized, procure, to be made by a competent expert or experts from with¬ out the State, an educational survey of all institutions under its control, for the purpose of ascertaining wherein the efficiency of the State insitutions can be best served and economy in conducting the same best practiced. Upon the completion of the educational survey the board is in¬ structed to appoint as its executive officer a commissioner of educa¬ tion from without the State. The commissioner is to — perform such duties of examination, inspection, and visitation as the board may direct and; * * * [to] advise the board on all matters pertaining to the curricula, coordination, and correlating of work in the institutions under its control; * * * and [to] make a special study of the particular needs and requirements of each institution, and report thereon to the board at such time as they shall direct. The commissioner’s salary is to be fixed by the board at a sum not to exceed $5,000 a year. The board is to have the power to elect the presidents and other officers of each of the institutions and fix their salaries, to coordinate and correlate the work of the several schools so as to prevent wasteful duplication, to fix tuition fees, and to prepare a budget for the consideration of each legislative assembly setting forth the financial needs of the institutions under its con¬ trol. It is required to hold one annual meeting at the State capital and quarterly meetings at one of the institutions under its control, if practicable. Eighteen thousand dollars annually is appropriated for the expenses of the board. Although the powers of the new officers are not specified as ex¬ plicitly as in the cases of Idaho and Vermont, it is, nevertheless, apparent that the Commissioner of Education when finally appointed under this new North Dakota statute will be the responsible executive head of the higher educational system. IIICHER EDUCATION. 145 OTHER SURVEYS ORDERED BY STATE EDUCATIONAL AUTHORITIES. UNIVERSITY OB' OREGON. The president and board of regents of the University of Oregon requested the Commissioner of Education, in March, 1915, to provide for a survey of the organization and management of that institution. The survey was undertaken during the summer and early fall, under the direction of the specialist in higher education, and treated the following topics: 1. The field of the university and the attitude of the State toward the insti¬ tution. 2. Organization and administration of the university: (a) The board of regents. (&) Administrative officers and heads of departments. 3. Faculty. Training and experience. Methods of appointment. Salary scale. Teaching hours and student hours. 4. Provisions for research and results in service to the State. 5. Curricula of various schools and departments. 6. Scholastic relation of the university to its students, including the require¬ ments for admission and graduation and their enforcement. 7. General comparison of the financial status of the University of Oregon with that of other State institutions. 8. The equipment. The report was rendered on September 26 to the board of regents of the university. STATE-SUPPORTED INSTITUTIONS OF IOWA. The Iowa State board of education, created in 1909 to take charge of the affairs of the State university, the State college of agriculture and mechanic arts, the State teachers’ college, and the college for the blind, issued in October, 1912, an order looking toward the co¬ ordination of the work of these institutions. The general provisions of the order were that courses in engineering should be concentrated at the State college of agriculture and mechanic arts, and that pro¬ fessional training in education and in the liberal arts and work in home economics be centered at the university. In response to reso¬ lutions passed by both houses of the legislature, the board rescinded its ruling before it was put into operation. Since then the expenses of the three principal State institutions have been increasing. Rivalry between them and their partisans has not diminished. Gen¬ eral complaints of unnecessary duplication are becoming more and more insistent. In view of this situation, the State board of educa¬ tion requested the Commissioner of Education, in May, 1915, to undertake the direction of a survey of the higher institutions of the State and to employ such assistants as he deemed necessary. The commissioner has assembled for the purpose a survey commission consisting of seven educational experts, two members of the Bureau of Education and five outsiders. 12034°— ed 1915— vol 1 - 10 146 EDUCATION REPORT, 1915. INSPECTIONS OF HIGHER INSTITUTIONS BY THE BUREAU OF EDUCATION. NORTH CAROLINA. Less thoroughgoing investigations, which are nevertheless to be regarded as minor manifestations of the survey movement, were undertaken by the Bureau of Education in two States. Under the rules of the department of public instruction of North Carolina the State board of examiners is authorized to exempt from part of the examination for the high -school teachers’ certificate grad¬ uates of those colleges and universities in the State which satisfy the board of their ability to give the required training in the prin¬ cipal branches covered by the high-school teachers’ examination. That the board might have the benefit of the impartial advice of an outsider in selecting its group of approved institutions, the State superintendent of public instruction requested the Bureau of Edu¬ cation to inspect and report upon the colleges and universities of the State. Accordingly the specialist in high education visited, dur¬ ing the academic year 191A-15, 27 of these institutions and reported upon their work and equipment to the State board of examiners. OREGON. The State of Oregon passed a law in 1911 authorizing the issuance of teachers’ certificates to graduates of standard colleges and univer¬ sities and providing that “ a standard college, university, or normal school is one that shall be standardized by the United States Bureau of Education.” In case of the bureau’s failure to pass upon the standard of any higher institution of Oregon, the law further speci¬ fied how such standardization was to be accomplished by local agen¬ cies. The bureau accepted the invitation to assist the State of Oregon in the standardization of the higher institutions of that State. In 1911 the specialist in higher education visited ail degree-conferring institutions, examined their administration, support, equipment, and faculty, and reported to the State superintendent of public instruc¬ tion, recommending that three of them be considered as meeting the requirements of a standard college or university according to the State law.1 The conviction that certain of the others had in the meantime improved and were now entitled to recognition under the terms of the law led the State superintendent early in 1915 to request the bureau to repeat its inspection. The specialist in higher educa¬ tion was sent to Oregon for this purpose in March, 1915. He re¬ ported to the State superintendent that, judged by the criteria which had been applied in the previous inspection, the following institu¬ tions might be recognized as standard : Albany College, McMinnville College, University of Oregon, Reed College, Pacific University, and Willamette University. 1 See An. Rep. of Commis. of Ed., 1912, pp. 95, 96. HIGHER EDUCATION. 147 LEGISLATION AFFECTING HIGHER EDUCATIONAL INSTITUTIONS. In the reports of 1912 and 1914 attention was called to various efforts of the legislature, educational officials, and interested groups of citizens to bring about a closer correlation of the higher institu¬ tions of Montana and to do away with wasteful duplication and de¬ structive institutional rivalries. The 1913 legislature organized the State university at Missoula, the State college of agriculture and mechanic arts at Bozeman, the State school of mines at Butte, and the State normal school at Dillon, into the University of Montana, without consolidating them, and created the office of chancellor of the university, without appropriating money to pay his salary. Certain citizens of the State felt that the issue was not settled and proposed by initiative petition a bill providing for the consolidation of the State university, the college of agriculture and mechanic arts, and the school of mines under the name of the University of Mon¬ tana, and for the appointment of an out-of-State commission of five presidents of State universities which are already consolidated, to determine whether the institution should be located at Missoula or Bozeman. This bill was defeated at the election of 1914. The legislature of 1915 did not make an appropriation for the salary of the chancellor. Indeed, a bill was introduced, but defeated, to abolish that office. After the adjournment of the legislature the State board of education voted to divide the expense of maintaining the chancellor pro rata among the institutions under his jurisdiction. As this report goes to press announcement is made of the election of Prof. Edward C. Elliott, director of the course for the training of teachers at the University of Wisconsin, to this important and in¬ fluential office. THE NEBBASXA INITIATIVE. The Nebraska Legislature of 1913 passed an act authorizing a tax of three -fourths of 1 mill on the grand roll for six years to provide a special university building fund.1 The opertaion of the act was suspended until the electors of the State should have an opportunity under the initiative to express their choice as to the future site of the colleges of the institution. At the general election of 1914 the two following questions were submitted to the electors in response to initiative petitions: (a) Shall all colleges of the State university, excepting the college of medi¬ cine, be consolidated as soon as practicable on the farm campus? (5) Shall the colleges of the State university, excepting the college of agri¬ culture and the college of medicine, be housed in buildings located or to be located on the present city campus and on land contiguous thereto ? 1 In Nebraska the assessors divide the value of the property found by five before turn¬ ing in the same. Hence, the grand assessment roll for tax purposes is only one-fifth of the value of the property of the State as found by the assessors. 148 EDUCATION REPORT , 1915. In the event of the passage of the first provision the proceeds of the tax were to become available for the erection of buildings. If the second option was chosen by the voters, then one-third of the levy was to become available for the purpose of erecting buildings on the farm campus and two-thirds for the extension of the city campus and the erection of buildings thereon. The second option was chosen by the electors, and the program of expansion under it has already begun. ENTRANCE REQUIREMENTS. COMPEEHENSIVE EXAMINATIONS. A very significant movement relating to the quality of college prep¬ aration and the methods for testing it is now, after several years of careful fashioning, successfully and auspiciously launched. The “ comprehensive examination ” has been formally baptized by two of the most influential bodies dealing with college entrance. The term is comparatively new and until recently has probably not been fully understood by the majority of educators, although the thing itself has long been the subject of discussion. The extended consideration of comprehensive examinations by the Association of Colleges and Preparatory Schools of the Middle States and Maryland in 1912 helped to give currency to the designation and to focus the attention of educational leaders in that section upon the desirability of adopt¬ ing this kind of test in place of the prevailing type of college entrance examinations. The discussion, which resulted in the appointment of a committee by the association to study and report on comprehensive examinations, was opened by President Lowell, of Harvard Uni¬ versity. Harvard’s leadership in this new movement was thus appro¬ priately recognized. Comprehensive examinations, though under a different name, were in effect already being given in connection with the new plan of admission to Harvard put into operation in 1911. The old plan of admission required that each student be examined in each subject demanded by the university for entrance. The university accepted no secondary-school certificates in lieu of examination. The new plan combines the characteristic features of both the examination and the certificate methods of admission. A candidate for admission under the new plan presents a certificate from his secondary-school principal testifying to the quantity of the work covered; the uni¬ versity then takes a sample of the quality of this preparatory train¬ ing by examining him in four subjects. Effort has been 'made to frame examinations which should not be merely mechanical quizzes on certain books or prescribed portions of subjects, but which should test the student’s general knowledge of the several subjects and his HIGHER EDUCATION. 149 power to organize and apply it. Substantially the same plan of ad¬ mission has lately been adopted by Princeton (there designated the “ alternative method”) 5 by Yale, and by certain other institutions. This ollicial indorsement of the combined examination and certifi¬ cate method of admission, together with evidence of its success where it has been put into operation, led the National Conference Commit¬ tee on Standards of Colleges and Secondary Schools, at its meeting in March, 1915, to make a special order of business of comprehensive examinations and to adopt the following resolution : Resolved, That the national conference committee on standards of colleges and secondary schools recommends that consideration be given by colleges to the method of admission by means of a certified school record and compre¬ hensive examinations in a limited number of subjects. The College Entrance Examination Board, meeting about three weeks later, in April, 1915, gave added impetus to the movement by the adoption of the following resolutions : That there be offered by the College Entrance Examination Board in June, 1916, and thereafter, a set of comprehensive examinations adapted to the use of those colleges in the board which offer or propose to offer comprehensive examinations for admission purposes. * * * That separate committees of examiners be appointed by the board for the preparation of the two sets of examinations offered. That separate bodies of readers be appointed for the reading of the answer books of the two systems of examinations. That until otherwise arranged, each college shall determine the conditions under which its own candidates shall be admitted to the examinations of rhe new system, and that each college shall be allowed, on request, to have the answer books of its candidates for admission under this system forwarded to it without reading on the part of the board. In the annual report of the board for 1915 appears a memorandum by J. G. Hart, chairman of the Harvard committee on admissions, giving a brief description of comprehensive examinations as the committee understands them. It reads: To be most useful the new comprehensive papers must be adapted : (1) To such variety of school instruction as exists in the several subjects — i. e., they must not prescribe methods, but must recognize the general principle that the schools determine how they shall teach a subject and that the college tests results or power. (2) To different stages of training in the subjects in which they are set — i. e., they must give boys opportunities to show their power, whether they have had the minimum or the maximum training given in school ; for example, the papers in French should be so drawn up as to enable a boy who has had only two years of French to show that he has as much command over the language as can be expected from that amount of training, and they must be similarly useful for the boy who has had three or four years of French. 150 EDUCATION REPORT, 1915. OTHER ACTION RELATING TO COLLEGE ENTRANCE. National Conference Committee on Standards of Colleges and Sec¬ ondary Schools. — In the preceding annual report (pp. ITT and 1T9) appeared a brief description of the proposed changes in the unit values of mathematics and history. It was there brought out that schoolmen generally testify that Mathematics A as defined by the College Entrance Examination Board actually demands two units of time if properly covered. A careful consideration of the subject led the National Conference Committee to the conclusion that the criti¬ cisms of the present valuation of the unit in mathematics were justified. It therefore voted, at its meeting in 1915, the following resolution : Resolved: That the National Conference Committee on Standards of Colleges and Secondary Schools recommends that the valuation of the College Entrance Examination Board requirement in elementary algebra be increased to two units — mathematics A1 and mathematics A2 — each to be counted as one unit; that colleges admitting on certificate, however, give credit for one and a half or two units for mathematics A, according to the time actually devoted to the subject, no more than two units credit to be given in any case. In the case of history the objection had been raised that the pres¬ ent unit values were too liberal. The national conference committee passed the following resolutions bearing on this matter : Resolved: That the national conference committee on standards of colleges and secondary schools recommends that courses in history of less than four or five periods per week be not given in the first or second year of the secondary school course ; that the minimum admission credit in history be one unit, and that credit be not given for more than one unit in one historical field. That the College Entrance Examination Board establish two examinations in each of the historical fields, to be known as elementary and advanced, or by some other distinguishing terms, and that elementary history be given a credit of one-half unit, and advanced history of one unit. That colleges admitting on certificate grant credit for work in history of one- half unit or one unit, according to the time employed. A consultation of bodies which prepare accredited or approved lists of secondary schools, with a view to greater cooperation, was also recommended in the resolution quoted below. Such a meeting should have important results. Resolved: That, with a view to securing more uniformity in the standards of certification, it is recommended that the associations and commissions which draw up lists of approved schools for the use of colleges hold a conference in the near future, to which shall be invited also representatives of colleges in other parts of the country. College Entrance Examination Board. — The board, at its meet¬ ing in April, adopted the recommendations of the national confer¬ ence committee in regard to the unit weight of mathematics A, "but, in view of the recent appointment of a committee to define more niGIIER EDUCATION. 151 fully the requirements in history, it did not take action on the recom¬ mendations of the conference committee relating to this subject. The board authorized the printing and circulation of the pro¬ posed definition of the requirements in biology, botany, and zoology, ■with a view to their adoption at the November meeting of the board. The original purpose for which the board was founded was to substitute for “ the separate entrance examinations held every June by individual universities, colleges, and scientific schools,” the uni¬ form examinations of the board. The simultaneous action, in 1915, of the faculties of Harvard, Yale, and Princeton (which had hith¬ erto conducted each its own examinations) adopting after the pres¬ ent year the board’s examinations in place of those previously given by these institutions in June, marks the accomplishment of this original purpose. CLASSIFICATION . COMMITTEE OF THE ASSOCIATION OF AMERICAN UNIVERSITIES. The Association of American Universities, consisting of 22 pri¬ vately endowed institutions and State universities which have de¬ veloped strong graduate schools, has quite naturally long been in¬ terested in the question of classification. Its members must have fairly accurate knowledge of the standards and equipment of the majority of colleges in the country in order that the standards of their graduate departments may not be depressed by the admission of ill-prepared students. It is a matter both of self-defense and the defense of scholarship. Whatever may be said in favor of not in¬ quiring to closely into the quality of the preliminary training of boys and girls who aspire to a college education, of putting as few obstacles as possible in their way — -and there are many who advocate almost complete academic free trade at this point — the same argu¬ ments do not apply to the relationship of the graduate school to the college. The graduate school stands preeminently for the promotion of scholarship. Its double function is the training of specialists in the higher branches for the teaching profession and the facilitation of research. In weighing the measure of its fidelity to both these aims, it is its own judge. There is no ready litmus test whereby the quality of its product may be at once revealed. Only the passage of years makes clear whether or not it has kept the faith. This high obligation both to the foundational profession and to the very spirit of scholarship itself, transcends the claims of any ill-equipped col¬ legiate institution to recognition of its conscientious efforts and even outweighs the ambition for professional training of the earnest but poorly prepared individual. From various sources (though chiefly in the last four years from the unpublished tentative classification made by the Bureau of Edu- 152 EDUCATION REPORT/ 1915. cation in 1911) the members of the Association of American Uni¬ versities have each more or less independently attempted to grade institutions whose graduates apply for candidacy for advanced de¬ grees. At its meeting in 1913 the association not only took action formally recognizing the degrees of 119 American colleges,1 but appointed a committee on the classification of colleges under the chairmanship of Dean Kendric C. Babcock, of the University of Illinois. This committee made at the meeting of the association in 1914 the following striking report : 1. That there be prepared and circulated among the members of this associa¬ tion a list of universities and colleges, consisting of three groups as outlined below, based primarily upon the experience and practice of this association, such a list to be used privately by the members for one year as a provisional list, with a view to its revision and subsequent publication in the proceedings of the association. Group A. — Institutions whose graduates should ordinarily be admitted to the graduate schools of this association for work in lines for which they have had adequate undergraduate preparation, with a reasonable presumption that ad¬ vanced degreees may be taken with the minimum amount of prescribed work and in the minimum time prescribed. Students who choose work in lines for which their undergraduate courses has not prepared them adequately must expect to take more time and do additional work. Group B. — Institutions from which only those graduates of high standing in their classes who are individually recommended by the department of under¬ graduate instruction corresponding to that in which they purpose to do their graduate Work may be admitted on the same basis as graduates from the insti¬ tutions in group A. Group 0. — Other institutions whose graduates should be admitted to graduate schools, but with the presumption that more than the minimum time and mini¬ mum amount of work will be ordinarily required for an advanced degree. 2. That the dean of each graduate school of this association furnish before March to the secretary of the association, for the private information of mem¬ bers of the association, a list of all students newly admitted to his school dur¬ ing the last three years who were rated as deficient. Such a list is to show, as far as practicable, the name of the student, college, degree, date of degree, any work or study intervening between that date and admission to the graduate school, the principal subject of the undergraduate course, the principal subject chosen for graduate work, an estimate of the undergraduate course and the deficiences assessed in the estimate, or special prescriptions made to compensate for deficiencies. It is further recommended in this connection that each dean furnish a list of institutions other than members of this association from which students have been admitted during the last three years. The association accepted the report and voted to continue this com¬ mittee. RECOGNITION OF THE JUNIOR COLLEGE BY THE ASSOCIATION OF COLLEGES AND SECONDARY SCHOOLS OF THE SOUTHERN STATES. Reference has been made in the annual reports of 1912 and 1914 to the multiplication of junior colleges and the attempts of various State and university authorities to define this new type of institution. 1 See Rep. of Commis. of Ed., 1914. Vol. I, pp. 168, 169. HIGHER EDUCATION. 153 The Association of Colleges and Secondary Schools of the Southern States, at its meeting in 1913, appointed a committee to study the junior college problem. The committee reported at the meeting of the association in October, 1914, recommending that the association pass a resolution to establish a category of members, known as junior colleges, under the following conditions : 1. The college work must be the essential part of the curriculum of any insti¬ tution recognized as a junior college ; therefore, junior colleges must publish in their annual catalogues a classified list of all their students. 2. If a preparatory department is maintained, its work must be approved by the association. 3. The minimum requirements for admission to the college classes must corre¬ spond with the present requirements of the association. 4. For graduation from the junior college, the student must complete satis¬ factorily 30 year , or 60 semester, hours of work equivalent to that given in the freshman and sophomore years of colleges belonging to the association. 5. No junior college should confer a degree ; a junior college diploma may be awarded. 6. The number of teachers, their training, the amount of work assigned them, the number of college students, the resources and equipment of the junior col¬ lege, are all vital factors in fixing the standard of an institution and must be considered by the executive committee in recommending any institution for mem¬ bership. On these points, therefore, the committee shall issue recommendations from time to time for the purpose of informing institutions seeking membership in the association concerning conditons to be met. The association went on record as favoring the establishment of a new category of members, to be known as junior colleges, under the requirements proposed. A constitutional amendment providing that “ the membership of the association shall consist of four classes — (1) colleges and universities; (2) junior colleges; (3) schools; and (4) individuals ”■ — was proposed and referred for adoption or rejection to the next meeting of the association. NEW ASSOCIATIONS AND FOUNDATIONS. THE MAYO FOUNDATION. The University of Minnesota was, in February, 1915, offered the Mayo Foundation for Medical Education and Research at Rochester, Minn., endowed by the Mayo brothers to the amount of one million and a half. The foundation was to come under the control of the university only after a trial period of six years. Before the regents of the university took definite action on the offer there arose a vigor¬ ous public opposition, which culminated in the introduction of a bill before the legislature to prevent the University of Minnesota from affiliating with agencies outside of the campus. The bill was de¬ feated. This opposition was, in the opinion of the Journal of the American Medical Association, of positive benefit, since it resulted 154 EDUCATION REPORT, 1915. in a thorough investigation of the Mayo clinic and the new research foundation and in wide publicity concerning them. In June the board of regents accepted the proposed union. The Journal of the American Medical Association thus comments upon the new impetus given to medical education in Minnesota by the arrangement : Medical education in Minnesota has been unified to a remarkable extent in recent years and has been placed entirely under the control of the State uni¬ versity. * * * At the present time, it is stated, graduate courses are being offered in all laboratory and clinical departments except those of genito¬ urinary diseases and dermatology, and this work has been arranged in syste¬ matic courses leading to the graduate degree of doctor of science. * * * The acceptance of the proposal to unite the work of the Mayo foundation with that of the university is directly in line with the policy to retain the control of all medical education in Minnesota, both undergraduate and graduate, in the hands of the State university. The facilities for research and graduate instruction of the university and of the Mayo foundation in a large measure supplement each other. Such in¬ struction has been best established at the university in connection with the laboratory branches, whereas, at Rochester, more work has naturally been done in connection with the clinical departments. This being the case, the rotation of graduate students between the university and Rochester will result in a more thorough and all-around training in both the laboratory and clinical aspects of any chosen specialty. Under the plan proposed the research work at the two places will be unified and harmonized under the control of the Uni¬ versity of Minnesota.1 THE ASSOCIATION OF URBAN UNIVERSITIES. In recognition of the peculiar problems and obligations of the city college or university and with the conviction that these can most effectively be met by combined action and the interchange of experience and opinion, representatives of a number of these insti¬ tutions in attendance upon the meeting of the National Association of State Universities at Washington, in November, 1914, formed an Association of Urban Universities. The call for the meeting which led to the formation of this association thus set forth the tasks and purposes of these urban institutions: The municipal colleges are aiming to do for their cities some of the things the State universities are doing so admirably for their States. Private insti¬ tutions in cities, realizing the obligations resulting from freedom of taxation, are endeavoring to serve their local communities. The general public, on the one side, is awakening to the value and necessity of expert knowledge, and the universities, on the other, are realizing as never before their duty to train men and women for municipal, State, and national positions. Since much of this is new and experimental, it is thought that a conference on the relations of civic universities to their local institutions and communities will prove helpful. The following institutions were represented at the meeting: Uni¬ versity of Akron, College of the City of New York, Johns Hopkins 1 See also Ch. VIII, Medical Education. HIGHER EDUCATION. 155 University, University of Cincinnati, James Milliken University, University of Louisville, Reed College, Washington University, Northwestern University, New York University, University of Pitts¬ burgh, Boston University, University of Buffalo, and Toledo Uni¬ versity. The report of the committee on organization, besides providing for the formation of the association and suggesting its name, recom¬ mended as officers for the ensuing year: President, President Dab¬ ney, of the University of Cincinnati; vice president, Dean Lord, of Boston University ; secretary and treasurer, Prof. Clark, of the Col¬ lege of the City of New York. It also recommended that membership be by institutions for the present and that each institution pay an annual fee of $10 to cover the expenses of organization and publication of the minutes. It recommended that those municipal universities and urban universi¬ ties and colleges interested in cooperation with municipal institutions and in training for public service be eligible for membership. The gathering then resolved itself into an experience meeting, each institution reporting upon the methods of cooperation with city activities which it had already adopted. This material has since been summarized and printed as a bulletin of the Bureau of Education under the title of “ The Municipality and the University.” (1915, No. 38.) THE ASSOCIATION OP AMEBICAN COLLEGES. The Association of American Colleges was formally organized in Chicago on January 15. As stated in the preamble to the constitu¬ tion of the new association, its duties are to be “ the consideration of questions relating to the promotion of higher education in all its forms in the independent and denominational colleges in the United States, and the discussion and prosecution of such plans as may tend to make more efficient the institutions included- in the membership of the association.” The first session of the association was held jointly with the council of church boards of education on January 14, and was devoted to a discussion of the moral and religious phases of education. This session preceded formal organization. The first independent session of the new association, on the morn¬ ing of January 15, was devoted to a general discussion of the place and function of such an organization. The fact was brought out that the interests of the independent colleges, as distinct from the public and private universities, are nowhere the particular care ox any organization or group of people. The great graduate schools of the country have for a number of years maintained an association (the Association of American Universities), which is charged with defining the ideals and maintaining the standards of these institu- 156 EDUCATION REPORT, 1915. lions. The State universities have profited much by the formation of the National Association of State Universities. Although the universities which comprise these two associations have collegiate departments, nevertheless the problems of college education, as such, seemed to the promoters of the new association to lack serious and organized attention. From these older associations also and from the National Education Association have emanated certain proposi¬ tions relating to the organization of the American system of higher education which, it was said, if generally adopted, would render the college vdiolly or in part superfluous. The college should be in a position to discuss its own situation and to present forcibly its own claims before a policy looking to its elimination from the scheme of American education was adopted. Moreover, colleges, especially the independent colleges, are largely without information of their own operations and needs. In the reports and bulletins of the Bureau of Education and elsewhere much information relating particularly to State universities is available. If the independent colleges were sup¬ plied with the same record of facts concerning themselves it would be reasonable to expect a great improvement in college education. Much of the false emphasis known to characterize catalogue state¬ ments is due to ignorance on the part of catalogue editors of the offerings of sister institutions. The opinion was reiterated also that what is known as the “ Christian college ” (by some called the “ de¬ nominational college,” although the term “ Christian ” is commonly used to include institutions not under denominational control but merely on terms of friendly cooperation with some denomination) has a particular mission to perform which the strictly nonsectarian public institutions can not attempt — namely, the higher education of youth under strongly positive religious influences. For all these reasons and many others it was felt that there is a distinct place for such an association. The essential clauses of the constitution adopted were those on membership, representation, and officers, the gist of these clauses be¬ ing as follows: All colleges conforming to the definition of a minimum college given in the by-laws are eligible to membership. Each institution is entitled to one vote in each meeting. The officers of the association are a president, vice president, and a secretary and treasurer, who are to hold office for one year and to be ineligible for reelection. The association adopted one by-law at the same business session. The by-law defined eligibility. To be eligible for membership a col¬ lege must require 14 units for admission and 120 semester hours for graduation, except that by a two-thirds vote of the association a col¬ lege not meeting these requirements may be admitted to membership. Immediately upon the passage of the by-law the association voted HIGHER EDUCATION. 157 unanimously to admit Clark College, Worcester, Mass., which, being a three-year institution, requires but 108 semester hours for gradua¬ tion, to membership. The report of the committee on classification, which was adopted, recommended that the Bureau of Education and other classifying bodies .be urged to use the following terminology in listing insti¬ tutions: (1) Tax supported — (a) State, (b) municipal; (2) nontax supported — (a) Denominational, (b) with denominational affiliations, (c). independent. The following officers were elected for the ensuing year : President, Robert L. Kelly, Earlham College; vice president, George E. Fel¬ lows, James Millikin University; secretary-treasurer, Richard W. Cooper. Upper Iowa University. A COLLEGE FOR TEACHERS AT THE JOHNS HOPKINS UNIVERSITY. Another step toward the creation of a teachers’ college in Balti¬ more was taken in the recent creation of the degree of bachelor of science in education, by the Johns Hopkins University. This marks a partial fulfillment of the hopes of the university which have been entertained for a number of years. As early as 1910 the university announced its desire of establishing a department for the higher training of teachers as an organic part of the university. The curriculum leading to the new degree will be based on the col¬ lege courses for teachers and the summer courses. The former, which were established in 1909, are conducted during the regular session in the afternoons and on Saturdays. The latter have been conducted since 1911. The new degree will be open to men and women on equal terms. The regulations concerning matriculation and the curriculum will be determined by a special advisory committee of the faculty. The title of director of these courses has been assigned to Prof. Ed¬ ward F. Buchner, who organized and has conducted both of these branches of the university’s activities. ACADEMIC FREEDOM. From time to time the suspicion arises that governing boards are trying to check free speech, that the utterances of American univer¬ sity and college professors, particularly on the tender themes of re¬ ligion and politics, are subject to review by the trustees who appoint them, and that loss of position is the penalty for a lapse from strict orthodoxy. That there is always some pressure- exerted in academic communi¬ ties, as elsewhere, to keep radical propagandists quiet and to dis¬ courage destructive criticism of the existing order none will deny. Its extent varies with the institution. As a rule, it is exerted subtly, 158 EDUCATION REPORT, 1915. often unconsciously, in large universities which are supposedly free. Generally it vanishes as soon as the right of free speech is publicly broached. Within the past two or three years, however, there have been so many recurrences of disciplinary action directed by trustees and presidents of prominent institutions against professors reputed to hold unorthodox political, economic, or religious views that the question of academic freedom has become temporarily one of the foremost issues in university administration. Upon its correct set¬ tlement depends not only the integrity of the universities, but, more remotely, the whole welfare of American education. Another phase of the issue concerns the limitations of trustee rule. This is particularly acute in private foundations. Are the trustees the employers of all persons connected with the university, the owners of the business, as it were, whose will is law and not subject to ques¬ tion ? Are professors “ hired men ” merely, to be engaged and dis¬ charged without assigned cause at the trustees’ good pleasure? Has the faculty a moral, if not a legal, right to be heard in matters relat¬ ing to appointments and dismissals? In State universities the trus¬ tees are less likely to resort to star-chamber tactics because the public has the power to force an accounting. Still, instances are not un¬ known where the governing boards of State institutions have behaved as if the institutions under their control belonged to them and neither the educational officers nor the public had the right to demand reasons for their acts. Are any boards of trustees, whether of public or pri¬ vate institutions, exempt from responsibility to the public? Is any university, even if partly or wholly supported by private endowment, a 'private institution? Does the measure of its accountability to the public differ from that of the State university? These are some of the more insistent questions that have been raised by the alleged breaches of academic freedom during the present year. Boards of control, whether of public or private institutions, can no longer hope to have their action involving a decision on one of these points go unchallenged by outside bodies. As test cases have arisen within the past few years, various associations of scholars whose members have suffered from alleged arbitrary treatment have in¬ vestigated them and given wide publicity to the findings. In the course of the year under review, as well as in the six months pre¬ ceding, the limits of free speech and the powers of trustees have been illuminatingly set forth in various documents published in part by the associations and in part by other agencies. THE LAFAYETTE CASE. The first of these chronologically is the report of the committee of the American Philosophical Association and the American Psy¬ chological Association, appointed to inquire into the circumstances HIGHER EDUCATION. 159 connected with the resignation of Dr. John M. Mecklin from the professorship of philosophy and psychology at Lafayette College. The committee considered itself commissioned to find out the reason for action which might “have the effect of injuring the professional standing and opportunities ” of a member of these associations, and also to discover what “ doctrinal restrictions are imposed upon teach¬ ers and investigators in philosophy and psychology” at Lafayette College. The administration of the college “ courteously declined ” to furnish the committee information on these points. From other sources, however, the committee secured evidence which enabled it to form conclusions. With regard to the limits of freedom in philosophical and psy¬ chological teaching at Lafayette College the report says : American colleges and universities fall into two classes: Those in which freedom of inquiry, of belief, and of teaching is, if not absolutely unrestricted, at least subject to limitations so few and so remote as to give practically no occasion for difference of opinion ; and those which are frankly instruments of denominational or political propaganda. The associations, the committe believes, should intervene — only for three ends: (1) To ascertain which institutions do, and which do not, officially profess the principle of freedom of teaching; (2) to ascertain with a fair degree of definiteness in the case of those institutions which do not, what the doctrinal limitations imposed upon their teachers of philosophy and psychol¬ ogy are ; and (3) to call attention publicly to all instances in which in institu¬ tions of the former sort freedom of teaching appears to have been interfered with, or in which in the latter sort restrictions other than those antecedently laid down appear to have been imposed. The committee found much disagreement among the trustees, graduates, and faculty of Lafayette College as to whether the insti¬ tution was of the first or the second type. It came at length to the conclusion that, to quote a trustee, it had been “ commonly under¬ stood that the teachings in such departments (i. e., those of phil¬ osophy and psychology) are generally to be in harmony with the doctrines of philosophy usually taught and held in the Presbyterian Church.” There had been apparently no definite agreement upon this matter between the administration and the new appointees, and the opinion of the trustee just quoted was in contradiction with a clause in the college charter. Moreover, the points in Prof. Mechlin’s teaching which were objected to as in conflict with Presbyterian prin¬ ciples had not been specified. All of which led the committee to record its belief that “ in no institution, of whatever type, should a professor be compelled to relinquish his position for doctrinal rea¬ sons, except upon definite charges communicated to him in writing and laid with the supporting evidence before the entire board of trustees and the faculty ; ” and that “ it is unfortunate in any case of this kind that even by agreement between the persons concerned 160 EDUCATION REPORT, 1915. the matter should fail to be brought to an explicit issue before the responsible governing body of the institution.” Taking up the general question of the accountability of the college administration to the public the committee remarks, apropos of President Warfield’s intimation that it was improper for persons not connected with the college to ask or for him to answer “ques¬ tions concerning the college or its members ” : The attitude thus assumed does not seem to this committee one which can with propriety be maintained by the officers of any college or university toward the inquiries of a representative national organization of college and university teachers and other scholars. We believe it to be the right of the general body of professors of philosophy and psychology to know definitely the conditions of the tenure of any professorship in their subject; and also their right and that of the public, to which colleges look for support, to understand un¬ equivocally what measure of freedom of teaching is granted in any college; and to be informed as to the essential details of any case in which creedal re¬ strictions other than those to which the college officially stands committed are publicly declared by responsible persons to have been imposed. REPORT OF JOINT COMMITTEE OF AMERICAN ECONOMIC AND OTHER ASSOCIATIONS. A more extended discussion of the general principles involved appeared in the preliminary report rendered in December, 1914, by the joint committee on academic freedom and academic tenure ap¬ pointed by the American Economic Association, the American Sociological Society, and the American Political Science Association. The committee found the subject more complex than has hitherto been assumed. Like the committee of the American Philosophical Association and the American Psychological Association this com¬ mittee also recognized that the problem does not exist in institutions “ under obligations to teach denominationalism ” or “ designed to spread specific doctrines of any kind.” In other types of institu¬ tions there is a very real problem which is likely to lead to contro¬ versy in the case of any instructor whose utterances run counter to accepted standards. Instructors in the field of economics and po¬ litical science are at the present time especially in danger. The committee examines the difficulties which prevent a dogmatic solu¬ tion and finds the “nature of employment and tenure of a college or university teacher ” to be the most fundamental point in the problem. Here there are two views : One that “ academic teaching is a purely private employment resting on a contract between the em¬ ploying authority and the teachers ” ; the other that “ academic teaching must be regarded as a quasi public official employment in which the original appointment is made by the authorities, who are bound to act not as private employers, or from private motives, but as public trustees.” The report then formulates certain queries HIGHER EDUCATION. 161 which the committee believes must he answered before a definite agreement on the question is reached : 1. Ought an academic teacher ever to be dismissed at all ; or ought he to be virtually irremovable, as in the continental universities? 2. Ought a distinction to be drawn in this respect between a college and a university teacher, between an officer of high grade and one of low grade, be¬ tween an officer of long standing and one of recent tenure? 3. If such a distinction is permissible, ought an academic teacher of long standing ever to be dismissed without the payment of a pension? 4. Ought an academic teacher of any grade ever to be summarily dismissed by the authorities without hearing or trial? 5. If there is to be a hearing or trial, ought this to be before the university authorities or before some tribunal representing the real interests of scholar¬ ship? 6. Ought an academic teacher to be dismissed without public declaration of the reasons therefor; and, if not, ought the reasons alleged ever to be a mere pretext, even if suppression of the real reason is in the supposed interest of the individual himself? The committee records its conclusions that in previous cases of con¬ troversy on the question of academic freedom and tenure mistakes have been made on both sides, and that “the chief difficulty arises from a failure of academic teachers as well as of academic authorities to observe the duties no less than the rights of their position." The committee asked to be continued and was reappointed for further study of the subject. THE UTAH CASE. The impersonal and judicial study of the general issue of academic freedom which the committee contemplated was, by an untoward event, suddenly transformed into the investigation of a concrete case of the violation of that freedom. The committee was also practically merged into a new committee representing a new asso¬ ciation. In the early part of 1915 the American Association of University Professors was constituted, with Prof. John Dewey, of Columbia, as president, and Prof. A. O. Lovejoy, of Johns Hopkins, as secretary. In view of the widely representative character of the association, in¬ cluding as it does specialists in all lines and standing for the promo¬ tion of the ideals and the defense of the interests of the profession as a whole, it was felt that the investigation of the problem of aca¬ demic tenure and academic freedom was an especially appropriate task for the association to undertake. The president, therefore, appointed a committee of 15, which was to include the joint committee of 9 of the other associations. Prof. Seligman, of Columbia, who was chairman of the joint committee of 9, was made chairman of the new 12034° — ed 1915 — vol l - 11 162 EDUCATION REPORT, 1915. committee. It later developed that two members of the joint com¬ mittee were ineligible to membership in the new committee of 15. “ It was, therefore, resolved to continue both committees for the present ; the old j oint committee of 9 to act with the new committee of 15 on all questions which might seem to be common to both com¬ mittees, and, on the other hand, to act separately whenever it might seem wise.” Then occurred the event which precipitated the action of the new committee. The board of regents of the University of Utah, on March IT, 1915, on the president's recommendation, dismissed four members of the faculty of that institution, and demoted one. On March 18 and within 5 weeks thereafter IT other members of the faculty resigned from positions in protest against this action. President Dewey con¬ sidered the situation so significant that he appointed a special sub¬ committee of seven, consisting of the following persons: Prof. E. R. A. Seligman, of Columbia University, chairman; Prof. John Dewey, of Columbia University; Prof. Frank A. Fetter, of Princeton Uni¬ versity; Prof. J. P. Lichtenberger, of the University of Pennsyl¬ vania; Prof. A. O. Lovejoy, of Johns Hopkins University; Prof. Roesco Pound, of Harvard University, and Prof. Howard C. Warren, of Princeton University, to investigate and report on it. A preliminary report of the findings of this committee appeared in The Nation June 8, 1915, and in School wild Society June 12, 1915. The full report was published as a separate pamphlet in July. While the ramifications of this affair as set down in the report are so numer¬ ous and complicated that a summary of it is impossible within the limits of the present chapter, certain documents in the case and the findings of the committee relative to the general questions of tenure and academic freedom are worth noting. It appears that appointments at the University of Utah are, under the laws of the State, for a period of one year and terminable at the will of the board of regents even before the expiration of that term. The power conferred upon the board by this statute has, however, never been exercised. Indeed, there has always been, in the case of persons of professorial rank, “ a definite presumption of continuous reappointment after a certain number of years of satisfactory service.” But there are no statutes or permanent regula¬ tions of the governing board defining the grounds for dismissal. The committee comments : “ In this sense, the government of this university, like that of many others in America, is a government of men and not of laws.” The kind of action with reference to dis¬ missals which is possible under this sort of government was illus¬ trated when the president recommended that “ two instructors, Messrs. Snow and Bing be not reappointed; and also recommended HIGHER EDUCATION. 1G3 the dismissal of two associate professors, Messrs. Knowlton and Wise, and stated the charges against these professors as follows: First. Dr. A. A. Knowlton. The following are the reasons why I (lo not nominate Dr. A. A. Knowlton for reemployment : I am convinced that Dr. Knowl¬ ton has worked against the administration of the university. Dr. Knowlton has also spoken very disrespectfully of the chairman of the board of regents. My opinion is that respect is due the regents, especially their presiding officer, from the faculty ; and that therefore the author of such remarks should not be retained in the employment of the university. Second. Associate Prof. George C. Wise. I can not recommend Prof. George C. Wise for reemployment in the university for reasons as follows: I am con¬ vinced that Prof. Wise has spoken in a depreciatory way about the university before his classes and that he has also spoken in a very uncomplimentary way about the administration. The committee summarizes the grounds regarded by President Kingsbury as proper for public charges followed by dismissal, thus : (a) Speaking in a very uncomplimentary way about the administration; (&) speaking very disrespectfully of the chairman of the board of regents; (c) speaking in a depreciatory way of the university before classes; ( d ) working against the administration. The committee, after a careful sifting of the evidence bearing upon the truth of these charges, the fairness and wisdom of the president’s action, and the board’s attitude toward the demands of the dismissed professors for an investigation and toward dismissals in general, thus summarizes its findings : (a) Of the four charges which were given by the president of the university as his reasons for recommending the dismissal of professors, three specified no proper grounds for such action and the fourth is without basis in fact. ( 5 ) The president of the University and the chairman of the board of regents, by their recent action, virtually gave notice that the expression by a professor in private conversation of an unfavorable opinion of their qualifications for office would be a ground for dismissal. This action, unjustified in general, the committee regards as peculiarly unsuitable in officials of a State university. (c) The governing body of the university has publicly declared that in cases of serious friction between officers and teachers of the university, it is not con¬ cerned to know “ who is right and who is wrong in the disagreement,” but only to secure harmony, by eliminating from the university those whose services it believes to be relatively less valuable. This, in the light thrown upon its prac¬ tical meaning by recent action of the board, appears to the committee equivalent to a formal announcement that considerations of equity have not been, and will not be, taken account of by the board in cases involving the relations of the president of the university to the faculty. ( d ) The board has, however, given two irreconcilable versions of its atti- ture on March 17 toward the request for a judicial investigation of the charges. The first version is that, in view of the board’s adoption of the last-mentioned principle, no investigation could alter the essential consideration upon which the board based its action, and that, in fact, the board “ refused to be forced into a public, or any, investigation.” The other version is that an opportunity for an investigation was actually afforded the professors accused and was 164 EDUCATION BEPOBT, 1915. rejected. The committee finds that, though the professors accused were in¬ vited to appear at a meeting of the board, no proper investigation into the truth of the charges has ever been made either by the president or by the board of regents. (e) The board now appears to regard either two or three of the charges as “not constituting proper grounds for terminating a professor’s connection with the university.” It has also received, through this committee, the sworn statement of the professor against whom the fourth charge was made, cate¬ gorically denying the truth of the charge. The board nevertheless refuses to withdraw this charge, to present evidence in support of it, or to reopen the cases of the professors against whom these four charges were brought. if) The evidence shows that under the present administration, unverified gossip, coming from persons unwilling to assume public responsibility for their statements, has played an unfortunate part in the affairs of the Univer¬ sity of Utah, and that Prof. Knowlton was dismissed without ever being per¬ mitted to know who were his accusers in the case of the principal charge against him. (g) In its published statement, issued on March 17, in explanation of the dis¬ missals, the board denied the limits of freedom of speech in the university in such a way as to justify any member of the faculty in resigning forthwith. With regard to the last-mentioned point, the committee in another place quotes at- length the board’s “novel conception of the meaning of freedom of speech ” : It is argued to the board that professors and instructors should have the right of free thought, free speech, and free action. This can not be, and is not, questioned. The board, however, has the same rights. These privileges are reciprocal. When the rights of the two clash, then it is for the board to determine which is right and which course serves, or is inimical to, the best interests of the university. Some one must have the right and the responsi¬ bility to decide such matters, and the law has vested it in the board. Prof. Wise, for instance, has seen fit to belittle the university and to speak in an uncomplimentary way about the administration. That is his privilege. It is also the right and privilege of the board to say that his course is wrong and refuse longer to employ him. Prof. Wise may then go to another institution and State where his views and those of the governing board may coincide, if there is any place where the employee is permitted to belittle the institution that employs him and to criticize its management unjustly. What has just been said applies also to Dr. Knowlton, who has seen fit to speak very disrespectfully, if not insultingly, of the chairman of the board of regents. From his standpoint, this doubtless means that he has exercised his inalienable rights of free thought, free speech, and free action; but the presi¬ dent and the board have also an equal right to free thought, free speech, and free action, with the result that the president and the board do not agree with Dr. Knowlton’s sentiments. He may hereafter find an institution and State where similar sentiments against the presiding officer of the governing board may be approved. If so, that is where he belongs. As bearing upon the obligations of boards of regents or trustees to faculty members and to the general public, two passages in the com¬ mittee’s preliminary report are especially interesting. The first is : One of the causes of the resignation of members of the university faculty was the existence of conditions before March 17, such that the faculty had no HIGHER EDUCATION. 165 proper means of bringing its views on university mutters — when its views differed from those of the president — to the notice of the governing body. It was, in the opinion of the resigning professors, partly in consequence of those conditions that the board on March 17 took action which those professors re¬ garded as unjust to individuals and injurious to the interests of the university. Since the resignations the board has adopted radical and excellently conceived alterations in the plan of administration of the university. These changes should give the University of Utah an exceptionally advanced position among American colleges in respect to provision for consultation between faculty and trustees. * * * The committee deems itself bound in simple justice to note that the credit for whatever benefits may accrue to the university from the reforms mentioned must be given primarily to the professors who by their resignations made effective protest against the antecedent conditions, certain of which these reforms are designed to correct. The second passage reads : One of the gravest and most regrettable features of the crisis at this uni¬ versity, in the committee’s opinion, is the attitude still maintained by the board of regents toward numerous petitions asking for a thorough public investigation of the recent incidents and of general university conditions. These petitions * * * the board has in all cases rejected, declaring that it alone is respon¬ sible for the management of the university ; that it has no doubts as to the cor¬ rectness of its past action and the rectitude of its own motives and those of the president; and that it therefore can not permit its action to be influenced by protests coming from others. This position seems to the committee to show that the board fails to understand, or at least to act upon, three fundamental facts, namely : That every institution of public education, and especially a State uni¬ versity, requires for its success the confidence and respect of the public; that there can be no sure hold upon public confidence without an unflinching readi¬ ness to face publicity in regard to all official acts and policies ; and that the only effective way in which any public body can meet serious charges brought by responsible persons is by not merely permitting, but demanding, a searching and open inquiry into its methods. THE NEARING CASE. Another case of the dismissal1 of a professor without assigned cause, which has aroused, if possible, even greater public interest than the Utah situation, has recently occurred at the University of Pennsylvania. On June 14, 1915, the board of trustees voted not to reappoint Dr. Scott Nearing, assistant professor of economics, for the academic year 1915-16. No official explanation of the action of the board had been made by the end of the year covered by this review. Professors at the University of Pennsylvania are appointed for an indefinite term. Assistant professors and other officers of in¬ struction, unless a term of two or three years is specified, are ap¬ pointed for a single year. Dr. Nearing was promoted from an instructorship to an assistant professorship in June, 1914. He was unanimously recommended by the dean and faculty of the Wharton 1 TechnicaUy Prof. Nearing was not dismissed, but failed of reappointment at the end of a one-year term of service. Actually, in view of the past practice of the trustees of the University of Pennsylvania, the failure to reappoint was tantamount to a dismissal. 166 EDUCATION REPORT, 1915. School, on the staff of which he served, for reappointment. The board has, as a rule, accepted the recommendations of these officers in the matter of appointments. In the present instance, also, it ap¬ pears to have made no criticism of Dr. hearing’s ability as a teacher. His dismissal, therefore, is generally assumed to have been voted on other grounds. Because of Dr. hearing’s public advocacy of child-labor laws and his indictment of various other forms of industrial injustice — activi¬ ties which have been sharply criticized in the past by certain of the more conservative elements among the constituency of the univer¬ sity — the press of the East and various groups of alumni, faculty, and students have assumed that these activities constitute the grounds for his dismissal. The issue has been interpreted as one of free speech. The case has seemed to the friends of academic freedom to be of sufficient importance to justify its investigation by a committee of the American Association of University Professors. Pending the report of such a committee no attempt is made here to estimate the justice of the conflicting claims. Certain statements of members of the board and of officials of the general alumni association con¬ cerning the limits of freedom of speech and the authority and re¬ sponsibility of boards of trustees of endowed universities are, how¬ ever, not without interest. George Wharton Pepper, a member of the board — in answer to an appeal by Harrison S. Morris, one of the trustees of the estate of Joseph Wharton who endowed the Wharton School, that Mr. Pepper place himself at the head of a movement to restore and assure free speech at the university — thus interprets “ free speech ” : If by free speech is meant the unrestricted right of the teacher to adopt any method he pleases for the propagation of any view he happens to hold, then I could not bring myself to advocate such license, either at the university or anywhere else. Conceivably, a man might feel himself justified in advocating a disregard of moral principles regarded by the rest of us as fundamental. If, on the other hand, free speech means the right to proclaim views not dis¬ cordant with the ethical sense of the community and so proclaimed as to evi¬ dence due consideration for the sensibilities of those holding different views, I shall be happy to enlist in a campaign for free speech at the university or anywhere else where the right appears to be in jeopardy. J. Levering Jones, a member of the board, is thus quoted by the Philadelphia Public Ledger of June 19, 1915, on the accountability of the trustees: The University of Pennsylvania is not a public institution. It is only quasi¬ public. We are answerable only to our own sense of duty and responsibility. No one has the right to question us. HIGHER EDUCATION. 107 In February, 1914, the Alumni Register, the organ of the general alumni association, says editorially, under the title “ The Professors’ Union ” : There has been much in the public press recently of their [college professors] forming a “ union,” to force the right of free speech and to maintain the security of their positions under all circumstances. There is talk of their cowardice in surrendering to the views of trustees and rich benefactors in their teachings. * * * It is a curious development for those of high educa¬ tion. rare culture, and sound minds to catch the popular desire for the employed to manage the employers and to attribute to distinguished gentlemen of char¬ acter and ability qualities which are the creation of the ordinary popular hys¬ teria. It seems simple and elementary to believe that a man should do the things he is employed to do and for which he accepts remuneration. * * * The mania for making laws to reform the universe has been unbridled, with¬ out regard to the economic fallacies involved in the proposed statutes. * * * We should look to our seats of higher learning to educate men to meet these problems with balance and a wisdom just to all. Their solving is not easy or superficial or quick, and it is a courageous thing for the trustees of a uni¬ versity to stand firm for sound thought and a guarded education in these crises, as against the whim of popular fancy. Another and contrasting view of the limits of academic freedom has recently emanated from a neighboring institution. In answer to Prof. Ivuno Meyer, of the University of Berlin, who had raised a question in connection with matter appearing in a university publica¬ tion, President Lowell, of Harvard, thus defines Harvard’s attitude on freedom of speech: As you are aware, the freedom of speech of neither the professors nor the students in any American university is limited, nor are they themselves sub¬ ject in their utterances to the direction of the authorities. On the contrary, we have endeavored to maintain the right of all members of the university to express themselves freely without censorship or supervision by the authori¬ ties of the university. * * * This policy of freedom of speech we shall continue to pursue, for we believe it to be the only one which accords with the principle of academic freedom. CHAPTER YIT. THE TRAINING OF TEACHERS. By Samuel, Chester Parker, Heart of the College of Education of the University of Chicago. Contents. — I. Notable local events: Opening of Peabody College for Teachers — Radical progress in Ohio — Opening of University of Wisconsin high school — Normal-school surveys in Wisconsin and Missouri — Contract renewed between Teachers’ College and Columbia University. II. General progress : Increased professional requirements for teachers’ certificates — Increased facilities for practice teaching — Teacher-training courses in high schools — Differentiated courses for primary and upper-grade teach¬ ers — Advancing entrance requirements professionalize the normal schools— Extension courses for teachers in service —Generous appropriations for buildings— Courses for improving college teachers. In this brief chapter it is proposed, first, to describe certain notable local events or developments in the training of teachers, and then to discuss certain more general types of development. I. NOTABLE LOCAL EVENTS. The local events which will be described are the following: 1. The opening of the Peabody Teachers College at Nashville. Tenn. 2. The adoption of very advanced professional requirements for teachers’ certificates in Ohio, and the influence of these require¬ ments on the educational institutions of the State, especially in the training of secondary teachers. 3. The opening of the practice and model high school of the University of Wisconsin. 4. The organization of surveys of two large systems of State nor¬ mal schools, namely, those of Wisconsin and Missouri. 5. The renewal of the contract between Teachers College of New York City and Columbia University in such a form as to define more specifically the financial autonomy of Teachers College and to assure to Columbia University that its academic standards shall be properly conserved. OFENING OF PEABODY COLLEGE FOR TEACHERS. The opening of the Peabody Teachers College at Nashville, Tenn., will contribute greatly to the progress in general education which has prevailed in recent years in the South. Through its specific 169 170 EDUCATION REPORT, 1915. training of teachers of all grades and its general stimulating effect upon the teachers in the field, the new institution will no doubt become the center for this educational progress. President Bruce R. Payne has furnished, upon request, the following statement con¬ cerning the opening of the new Teachers College : 1. The new George Peabody College for Teachers was opened on its present campus June 25, 1914. 2. The college has the following assets : Approximately $500,000 invested in land, approximately $900,000 invested in buildings and equipment, and a $2,000,000 endowment fund. 3. Peabody College cooperates with Vanderbilt University, whose campus adjoins that of the college, in providing all of the academic subjects usually needed by teachers. Students registered in Peabody may avail themselves for the same fee of all the courses in Vanderbilt, and those registering in Vanderbilt may likewise profit by the work in Peabody. It is left, then, to Peabody to supply the technical work in education and such special subjects as teachers need which are not given in the academic courses at Vanderbilt University. 4. In addition to the work ordinarily found in teachers’ colleges, Peabody makes a special feature of the study of country life, which is provided in the Seaman A. Knapp School of Country Life. 5. During the first college year, just closed, under this method of organization the following courses and subjects were available for Peabody students, either at Peabody or in Vanderbilt: Subject : Number of courses. Agriculture.- _ • _ 80 Applied biology _ _ _ 22 Chemistry _ 1 _ : _ _ _ 14 Classical languages. _ .* _ _ : _ _ _ _ _ 28 Economics _ _ _ 16 Education — Elementary education _ Health education _ History and principles of education. Rural education _ School administration _ Secondary education _ _ English _ _ _ _ _ Geography _ _ _ .... _ History _ _ Home economics _ _ _ Industrial arts — Manual training _ Mechanical drawing _ _ Drawing and design _ Mathematics and astronomy _ Modern languages — French _ . _ German _ , _ Italian _ _ Spanish _ Music. _ ; _ Philosophy _ . _ _ _ 31 13 11 6 15 10 30 18 19 36 39 17 19 12 13 1 9 5 12 THE TRAINING OF TEACHERS. 171 Subject— Continued. Number of courses. Physical education - 23 Physics - H Physiology and psychology of education - 10 Public speaking and debate - 3 Social science _ : - 3 Sociology _ 9 Story-telling _ 1 500 6. Most of the students are mature persons with experience in teaching. Many of them have been professors in colleges and normal schools, superin¬ tendents, principals, and supervisors of schools. RADICAL PROGRESS IN OHIO. The recent legislation in Ohio contemplates a complete system for the training of teachers, including prospective elementary teachers in rural and city schools, prospective high-school teachers, and untrained teachers in the field. The advanced standards prescribed in the law created feverish activity in the organization of profes¬ sional courses by the public educational institutions and by the large number of private colleges of the State. Among the most striking features of the law are: (1) The large amount of professional and semiprofessional work required of a prospective high-school teacher (namely, one-fourth of his college course for the Bachelor’s degree) ; and (2) the fact that this professional work must include a definite amount of actual practice teaching, namely, at least 27 hours. OPENING OF UNIVERSITY OF WISCONSIN HIGH SCHOOL. The new high school for educational experimentation and for observation and practice teaching recently opened at the University of Wisconsin is a notable investment by a State university in an effort to provide practice teaching upon a large scale. About two- thirds of the whole building has been completed at a cost of approxi¬ mately $140,000. The following quotations from official bulletins describe the work of the school: Tbe Wisconsin High School is maintained by the university as an integral part of the course for the training of teachers. The school has been in operation since September, 1914, in a building especially equipped for its purposes. The Wisconsin High School is a secondary school based essentially upon a six-year elementary school. There are six classes or grades constituting a unified six- year high-school program of studies. Pupils in the lower years do not have typical seventh and eighth grade work, but the beginnings of high-school work under departmental teaching. They are under the same general regulations and discipline as older pupils. 172 EDUCATION DEPORT, 1915. Novel form of directed teaching. — In order to provide for the large number of prospective teachers that graduate annually from the University of Wisconsin, a scheme was devised which is intended to provide the maximum amount of practical contact with and train¬ ing in teaching, and at the same time a minimum amount of actual teaching by the student-teachers. This scheme requires the college student to participate continuously as a member of a high-school class. He must be prepared to recite or teach at any moment. Cer¬ tain features of this scheme are described as follows : The first requirement of students is a proved familiarity with the subject matter of instruction. Such daily preparation is required as will enable them to deal rapidly and effectively with the facts and skills of the subject. The test of such ability lies in practical demonstration. The student is called upon to participate in the performances of the class as a regular member of the group, and to respond in terms of knowledge, skill, and appreciation of the subject matter. Attention is directed to the elements of instruction, methods of learning, and factors in class management. The various phases of teaching are studied with reference to the concrete conditions of the classroom. For example, daily preparation is made with the expectation of occupying the position of the teacher in the group, as well as the position of the pupil. The student is given a rigid and protracted discipline in these two essential aspects of the classroom. More specifically, students are called upon, with or without previous notice, to meet all sorts of real situations in the class — e. g., to answer questions; present topics in the lesson ; quiz the class ; develop types of work ; summarize a review; illustrate by means of objective material; check results; analyze per¬ formances of pupils, locating difficulties and suggesting ways of meeting them ; in short, to take the next step in developing either a lesson or any other phase of the teaching process. The effectiveness with which these various typical situations are met constitutes the principal basis of estimating teacher qualities and teacher possibilities. In frequent conferences with demonstration teacher, principal, and special supervisor, students are assisted in the analysis and interpretation of principles and methods of teaching. These conferences are based upon the circumstances of actual teaching. Intending teachers are given the benefits of the judgment and experience of those charged with the immediate responsibilities for the direction and control of the laboratory facilities provided in the school. NORMAL-SCHOOL SURVEYS IN WISCONSIN AND MISSOURI. Surveys of the two large systems of State normal schools in Wis¬ consin and Missouri mark the beginning of systematic efforts to determine precisely the character of the work of such institutions and their effectiveness in achieving economically the purposes for which they are organized. The Wisconsin survey.— The report of the Wisconsin survey1 com¬ prises 12 chapters, an appendix of 15 exhibits and 10 statistical tables, and numerous other tables. The State map is frequently used to 1 Conditions and Needs of Wisconsin’s Normal Schools. Report of Cooperative Survey. By A. N. Farmer. Issued by the State Board of Public Affairs. Madison, State printer, Wisconsin. THE TRAINING OF TEACHERS. 17 Q O show the distribution of several types of data concerning the survey. The topics of the chapters are: Normal school survey ; development of a system ; summary of survey findings ; Wisconsin’s debt to normal schools; administration of normal-school system; the student body ; faculty members ; questionnaire replies by normal department instructors ; the training school ; courses of study ; supervision of classroom instruction; character of classroom instruction. The exhibits present : Courses of study ; results of examinations given to students who entered Wisconsin normal school in September, 1913; replies in psychology test; steno¬ graphic report of a recitation in psychology (three exhibits) ; replies of students in pedagogy test; replies of students in psychology test; replies of students in history tests ; stenographic report of recitation in civics ; lists of books in children’s literature; schedules prepared by the accountant of the board of regents for the annual proceedings and biennial report ; classroom instruction card ; extracts from students’ physiology notebooks ; cost of instruction per student recitation hour. The statistical tables present : Data on length of teaching service of graduates and nongraduates ; residence of students enrolled in normal schools, by counties; residence of students en¬ rolled in normal schools, by cities and towns; academic and professional train¬ ing of public-school teachers employed during school year 1913-14; relation of teachers’ training to salary ; relation of salary to length of teaching service ; academic and professional training of teachers in one-room rural schools; teaching experience and tenure in present positions of teachers in one-room rural schools ; ages of students entering normal schools, September, 1913 ; positions held by normal-school graduates and nongraduates in public schools during school year 1913-14. The report presents a summary of its findings and details the suggestions making up the constructive program for directing the next steps taken toward the improvement of the work of the normal schools. These are grouped under four headings: Service rendered by the normal schools; forward steps taken by the board of normal regents; conditions needing attention; and constructive suggestions. An indication of the amount of service rendered by the normal schools in supplying trained teachers for the Wisconsin public schools is indicated by the fact that 48 per cent of the teachers outside of one-room rural schools, supplying information to the survey, are graduates of the normal schools, occupying administrative positions, teaching in high schools, or in grades of elementary schools ; and approximately one-fourth of the 6,639 teachers in one-room rural schools are either graduates or have received partial training in the normal schools. During the past two years the board of regents of the normal schools has adopted a new and more scientific system of accounting; a new plan for legis¬ lative appropriations for normal-school purposes; appointed a business agent; appointed three inspectors for the purpose of inspecting and reporting conditions to the board as to the character and quality of the work done within the normal schools ; changed the entire policy of teacher training by creating pri¬ mary, grammar, and high-school departments so as to separate students into 174 EDUCATION REPORT, 1915. groups who are preparing to teach in different grades of public school work; abolished (February, 1914) the courses known as the Latin, the German, and the English courses, which had continued for 21 years, and also the two-year college course in three of the normal schools ; prohibited the organization of classes which enroll fewer than 10 students, except by special arrangement of the committee on courses of study; raised the entrance requirements of the rural-school course, to take effect September, 1915. The constructive suggestions of the report center around one principal recommendation : “ The most urgent need of the normal- school system is that the regents definitely ascertain the State’s need for teachers, and, in cooperation with other State institutions whose business it is to train teachers, formulate a comprehensive program for meeting these needs.” The definite suggestions developing from this may be summarized as follows: Present needs should be ascertained and future needs anticipated, including the need for teachers in special schools. This study should be based on definite budget appropriations. Further study should be made of the quality of service rendered by the normal-school graduates. Extension work should be carried on by each normal school in its own territory. Courses of study should be changed on the basis of the point that mastery of the subject matter to be taught is of the first importance in the training of teachers. The attempt to meet university requirements in the Courses for training teachers should cease. Work in observation courses needs to be organized. Presidents should be re¬ lieved of clerical work. Demonstrated skill in teaching and a knowledge of the problems of elementary schools should become a prime requisite in the selection of normal-school teachers. Salaries should be increased and the working programs of instructors made lighter. The basis for judging the efficiency of individual schools should be changed. The poor janitor service should be improved. Some provision for the retirement and pensioning of teachers, instructors, and administrative officers of the normal-school system should be made.1 In discussing the Wisconsin normal schools survey Prof. C. H. Judd says: The most extensive study which has ever been made of a State system of normal schools is reported in a thick volume of 653 pages issued by the State Board of Public Affairs of the State of Wisconsin. This report contains a great deal of material which was collected from all of the normal schools of the State. The material is of various types. Much of it is the personal views of presidents or other officers on matters which were covered by series of ques¬ tions. There are maps showing the sections of the State from which students come and maps showing the distribution of graduates. There are reports of recitations heard in the various normal schools, in some cases stenographic re¬ ports. The courses of study, the training of teachers and distribution of their wTork, the organization of the normal school and of the practice school are among the important topics discussed. The report describes the survey as a cooperative undertaking. The director of the survey was Mr. A. N. Farmer, who almost immediately after the com¬ pletion of the report was employed by the State normal school board as a kind of general overpresident of the whole system of the State. UTrom analysis prepared by E. F. Buchner. For other surveys see Ch. XVIII. THE TRAINING OF TEACHERS. 175 The report contains a great mass of material. Scarcely anyone but the technical student of educational administration will read it through. The tables in the appendix and the maps and earlier chapters will be consulted by anyone who wishes to get at details. The impression grows on one, however, as he tries to use the material, that there is very little organization and generali¬ zation. The very richness of the material is baffling. * * * It is appropriate to comment on the great need of intelligent general discus¬ sion of the problems of normal schools. These institutions have long been iso¬ lated from other higher institutions of learning, and there has not been such insistent demand made upon them that they organize themselves uniformly as there has been in the case of colleges and high schools. It is to be hoped that the Wisconsin survey marks the opening of a period of vigorous study of normal-school problems. The Missouri survey by the Carnegie F oundation. — The investiga¬ tion of the training of teachers in Missouri grew out of the efforts of former State Superintendent Evans and a committee which he had appointed to consider this matter. About the time the committee began its work Mr. Evans learned that the Carnegie Foundation for the Advancement of Teaching contemplated a survey of certain Western States and asked its consideration of Missouri as a favorable field for study. Upon invitation of the governor the foundation agreed to undertake the investigation. At a large meeting of repre¬ sentatives of various educational interests of the State the hearty cooperation of all concerned was pledged to the movement. In speaking of the situation Supt. Evans said in his last report : The resources of the foundation, the standing of its officers, and the personal interest of its president because of early associations prompt the forecast that conclusions of moment to the cause of public education here and elsewhere will result from the survey. Just how any work that has been prosecuted in good faith can suffer is not apparent. We may well look for the discovery of some things overlooked that one from the outside will readily find. It is recog¬ nized that we are all working for the improvement of conditions for the rising generation, and anything that we should know for their good should be welcome. We all know this is true and want the knowledge, whether it ministers to our self-esteem or not. The foundation has had a large staff of expert investigators at work upon the Missouri survey for some time. It is planned to make a similar study of the training of teachers in Indiana and compare the two situations. The excellent body of statistical material that will be secured from these two States should contribute an excellent basis for comparative studies in other States. CONTRACT RENEWED BETWEEN TEACHERS COLLEGE AND COLUMBIA UNIVERSITY. The renewal of the contract between Teachers College of New York City and Columbia University is of interest because of the prominence of the institutions concerned and because the type of affiliation they represent is peculiar and has not been imitated to 176 EDUCATION REPORT, 1915. any considerable extent in the organization of other colleges for teachers connected with great universities. During the early part of the year 1915 a prolonged debate occurred between representatives of the two institutions concerning the renewal of the contract. The Teachers College authorities desired to retain their financial inde¬ pendence, but at the same time enjoy the benefits of the educational affiliation with the great university. The university authorities were much concerned to assure the maintenance of its educational stand¬ ards if the affiliation were to continue. The new contract provides for both of these items, the most conspicuous evidence of the main¬ tenance of the educational standards being the provision concerning the degree of doctor of philosophy. According to the new plan — there is to be established in the faculty of philosophy a department of educa¬ tional research, under the direction of a relatively small number of professors chosen by the president from the faculty of education, this new department to have charge of candidates for the degree of doctor of philosophy, with educa¬ tion as their major interest. Different type of affiliation in most institutions. — As contrasted with Teachers College of Columbia University, in most of the great universities of the country the organization for the training of teachers is financially and academically as much an integral part of the university as are the colleges of arts, literature, and science. In the great universities of the West and Middle West, this intimate relationship is accepted as a matter of course and the heartiest co¬ operation with the colleges of arts, literature, and science is main¬ tained. The cause of this becomes evident when one considers the following facts: (a) That the greatest teacher-training activity of these institutions is in training high-school teachers; (b) that thou¬ sands of such prospective teachers graduate from the colleges of arts, literature, and science each year; and (c) even in the most extreme cases (Ohio, for example), only one-fourth of the studies of these students will be professional, the remaining three-fourths being academic. II. GENERAL PROGRESS. Striking developments in training of secondary and rural teach¬ ers. — While each of the local developments described above is of sufficient importance to justify the separate treatment accorded it, several of these developments are typical of certain general move¬ ments in the training of teachers which will be discussed below. The most striking general developments in recent progress in the train¬ ing of teachers are found in the training of high-school teachers and of rural-school teachers, the former affecting the work of col¬ leges and universities, while the training of rural teachers has re¬ ceived wide-spread recognition through the recent organization of THE TRAINING OF TEACI1ERS. 177 pedagogical courses in the high schools of many States. As con¬ trasted with these very striking changes, the developments in normal schools and city training schools appear to be only the usual gradual modifications of certain well-established practices. INCREASED PROFESSIONAL REQUIREMENTS FOR TEACHERS’ CERTIFICATES. Increase in the professional requirements for teachers’ certificates deserves first consideration in connection with progress in teacher training, because, without increased requirements, there will be little increased training, even when the facilities for such training are provided. This relation appears in many of the reports concern¬ ing recent changes. The report on Ohio, described above, is the most striking example of large increase in training as the result of increase in requirements. Other examples are found in the following quotations from responses to a questionaire : From the University of Alabama. — As a result of the recognition by the State department of education of the work done in the school of education in the University of Alabama, the number pursuing professional courses has been increased more than threefold. Concerning conditions in Maine. — One interesting result of this law [provid¬ ing increased recognition for professional training] was the establishment last year of about 10 different centers scattered throughout the State where over 150 high-school teachers met for a 12-week course in educational psychology taught by professors in education from the four colleges. Changes at the Iowa State Agricultural College. — The enrollment in courses in education in this institution has increased as follows: Fall semester, 1911, 15 ; faff, 1912, 34 ; fall, 1913, 128 ; fall, 1914, 190 ; fall, 1915, 257. Schools belonging to the North Central Association now require 15 hours in education. This, together with the fact that many of the other schools require a first-grade certificate, is leading more of our students to take the required 20 hours in psychology and education in order to secure the first-grade State certificate upon graduation. Minnesota normal school crowded as a result of inci'eased requirements. — The increase in the amount of professional training demanded for State teachers’ certificates has increased the attendance in the normal school at St. Cloud by a very appreciable per cent. Our school at present is crowded. The recognition given to the advanced diploma from the normal school has also sent back into the normal school a large number of our elementary graduates. It has also prevented our students from attempting to take any course but the full course. Illinois. — The change in the Illinois law caused increase in attendance in some classes and withdrawals in others in the Macomb Normal School, as indi¬ cated in the following quotation : “ The new State certificating law for teachers in this State provides several ways in which professional training is recognized. * * * The result of this law seems to have done two things. It has caused an increased attendance of those interested in securing county certificates. One thing has operated, however, in the opposite direction. The fact that students of junior standing in the normal school may receive certificates to teach with¬ out examination has caused a good many juniors who would be in the senior class this year otherwise to teach instead of coming to school.” 12034°— ed 1915— von 1 - 12 178 EDUCATION REPORT, 1915. Summary of certification laws. — A general summary of the laws governing the granting of teachers’ certificates to professionally trained college graduates is found in a report prepared in December, 1914, by Prof. Harlan Updegraff for the Society of College Teachers of Education.1 North Central Association requirements. — An unofficial influence of considerable importance in increasing the professional training of high-school teachers is the recent action of the North Central Asso¬ ciation of Colleges and Secondary Schools in prescribing a minimum amount of professional training for the teachers in the high schools of the association. The following statement concerning this action was prepared by Prof. Charles H. Judd, secretary of the commission of the North Central Association : Two years ago the North Central Association of Colleges and Secondary Schools incorporated into its requirements for teachers in approved high schools a definite statement to the effect that the candidate must be trained in courses in education. The wording of the standard is as follows: The minimum attainment of teachers of academic subjects shall be equivalent to graduation from a college belonging to the North Central Association of Colleges and Secondary Schools requiring the completion of a four-year course of study, or 120 semester hours in advance of a standard four-year high-school course, and including at least 11 semester hours in education. This shall in¬ clude special study of the subject matter and pedagogy of the subject to be taught. Such requirements shall not be construed as retroactive. (For the succeeding year the board will interpret courses in education as the same courses are "interpreted by the colleges and universities offering them, not more than six hours’ credit being given for a successful teaching experience.)2 There are two points to be noted with regard to this rule. The explicit state¬ ment about the length of the course is intended to prevent the appointment in North Central schools of candidates who received their bachelor’s degrees from institutions not requiring a full collegiate course or from institutions which are not adequately equipped to administer such courses. There are a number of teachers’ colleges and normal schools in the territory that grant the bachelor’s degree, especially the degree of bachelor of education or bachelor of pedagogy without requiring for admission a full high-school course. Many of these institutions are applying for admission to the association. A number of the standard normal schools were admitted to the association last year. Such schools probably conform to the full requirement, but their admission to the association raises in very acute form the whole question whether the training of secondary teachers ought to go on in these normal schools or colleges. In the second place, it is perfectly clear that the intent of this regulation is to compel the colleges which prepare teachers to devote some attention to the special considerations of pedagogy. It may be said that in the enforcement of this rule regarding requirements in education a good deal of opposition has been encountered. The rule was put into force this year for the first time, and a great many candidates are not eligible under the rule. Inspectors have been asked, therefore, throughout the year with regard to prospective appointments, and many schools say that they are quite unable to fill up their corps of teachers from the available candidates \ See School Review Monograph No. VI, University of Chicago Press, January, 1915. 2 Proceedings of the Twentieth Annual Meeting, pp. 61-62. THE TRAINING OF TEAC1IER3. 179 and yet adhere to these requirements. Undoubtedly further consideration of the standard will be asked for at the coining meeting of the association. The present form of the rule was passed on the suggestion of members of the asso¬ ciation who belong to secondary schools. They desire very earnestly that can¬ didates for teaching positions shall be trained by the colleges, so that they have some acquaintance with general educational problems. At the present time the objection to the rule comes from other officers of secondary schools who are unable to fill vacancies and who do not regard the educational courses as neces¬ sary for the equipment of a secondary-school teacher. The whole problem of professional training of teachers is therefore likely to be a subject of vigorous discussion at the meeting in March, 1916. INCREASED FACILITIES FOR PRACTICE TEACHING. A necessity even for high-school teachers. — The development of adequate facilities for practice teaching has been a particularly crucial issue during recent years in the organization of training for high-school teachers. In many States such practice-teaching facili¬ ties are still merely something to be desired, but in a few, such as California, Ohio, and Minnesota, the practice teaching has become an absolute necessity since the law requires it of prospective high-school teachers. The efforts of Ohio to meet this situation has already been described. C ooperatian with public schools necessary. — It is obvious that the only method by which adequate facilities can be obtained for the practice work of the large numbers of normal-school students who graduate annually is by some such cooperative arrangement with local schools. One of the most successful of such arrangements is that enjoyed by the State normal school at Keene, N. H. It is described as follows : Our school has added to its practice facilities for next year the remaining elementary schools of the city of Keene, so that our practice system now consists of the entire elementary-school system of our city, numbering about 1,300 pupils in some 40 rooms. The schools are absolutely under our own control. The city provides build¬ ings and furniture and makes necessary repairs, and also pays the water bills. The normal-school authorities have entire charge of the educational part of the work — hiring the teachers, fixing the salaries, arranging courses of studies — and the city pays the State the tuition for the educating of the city children. This tuition is based on the average costs of school facilities of the 11 cities of the State. In addition to these schools we have one rural schoolhouse in a neighboring town, which, with the three rural schools of the city system, gives us four rural schools for practice purposes. The teachers of these schools meet together for conference each Saturday. Every girl is required to practice in one of these rural schools before graduating. From a few other sources come similar reports of the development of cooperative arrangements for practice teaching in the local public 180 EDUCATION REPORT, 1915. schools. Thus the president of the St. Cloud (Minn;) Normal School writes as follows: The cooperative relation between the local schools and the normal school in St. Cloud has been for years a marked asset for the normal school. ‘ The present year shows a request that such practice teaching in city schools should take place in all the normal schools of the State, and it is hoped that such cooper¬ ative relations may be established. Similarly, the president of the Oshkosh (Wis.) Normal School writes : We worked out a plan which has now been in operation for a year and starting on its second year — a plan of cooperation with the city. We put two critic teachers into the grades of the city schools, one in the third grade and one in the fifth grade. These teachers have four normal-school students in the morning and four in the afternoon for practice teaching. This is the beginning, but by it we are able to train 32 teachers for grade positions. We shall be ready to extend this plan in the city schools and will have to extend it very soon. In several instances State universities have made satisfactory arrangements for practice teaching in the local public high schools. The University of Indiana was one of the first to do this. Other examples are the State agricultural college at Ames, Iowa, and the State universities at Vermillion, S. Dak., Moscow, Idaho, Lincoln, Nebr., and Iowa City, loAva. It is quite probable that some such type of cooperative arrangement with the local high schools will be effected by many State universities in the near future. It seems desirable in view of the following conditions: (a) The large number of high-school teachers to be trained; (b) the relatively small num¬ ber of high-school pupils available in many college and university towns; and ( c ) the cost of equipping and maintaining a good high school. Large investments in special training-school buildings. — In most normal schools at the present time the practice teaching is carried on in special training-school buildings, and large sums are invested in these. Several normal schools report recent additions of this type. At Normal, Ill., the State recently completed a training-school build¬ ing costing $140,000 and accommodating a kindergarten of 60 pupils, an elementary school of 8 grades with 336 pupils, and a high school of 230 pupils, all of which are used for training purposes. The Uni¬ versity of Wisconsin High School, described above, is an example of a similar investment by a State university. The following quotations give examples of universities which seem to have both facilities for practice teaching in their own training schools and happy cooperative arrangements with the local public schools : University of Nebraska. — The high school maintained by the university for the purpose of providing facilities for practice teaching for candidates who desire to enter the field of secondary instruction has been enlarged until it now accommo- THE TRAINING OF TEACHERS. 181 dates a hundred ami fifty students yearly, giving a full semester’s practice to each. Relations have been established with the superintendent of the Lincoln public schools wliereby 75 to 100 students in the teachers’ college who are preparing to teach in the elementary schools are accorded the privilege of a full year’s service as apprentices in the Lincoln school system. University of Iowa. — The plan of cooperation between the university and the Iowa City High School, which has been in operation for two years, has been extended. At the present time the university is paying a part of the salaries of 17 of the teachers of the Iowa City High School. Ten of these teachers receive an extra stipend of $10 a month. These teachers throw their classes open for observation to the students in the course in general methods in the university. Each student in this course is required to make 36 observations in the Iowa City High School. These observations are closely supervised by the professor in charge of this work. The teachers in the high school who receive the extra compensation cooperate in making the observation effective. The heads of seven of the departments in the high school are employed by the university to teach the courses in special methods in the various subjects. For example, the head of the department of English in the local high school teaches classes in the teaching of English in the university. The same is true for mathematics, manual training, German, music, history, and general science. The university pays half the salaries of these heads of departments, and we are thus enabled to pay better salaries than are paid in any other high schools in the State. By the action of the State board of education, an elementary school has been established to be used in connection with the experimental work and observa¬ tion in connection with the training of school superintendents. The three teachers in charge are developing the work in the first six grades. About 30 superintendents who are in training in the university at the present time will be able to utilize this school in gaining first-hand knowledge of standards, practices, etc., in the first six grades of the elementary school. Ohio. — The county normal training school has the right to use the local school for practice work, and the two new State normal schools were located in towns in which a permanent agreement to that effect was entered into with the local school. Elsewhere the practice work is still hampered by lack of cooperation of local schools. Each of the State normals was in 1914 authorized to open four one-room model rural schools. IV esi Virginia. — The following table indicates the number of pupils in the model schools of the different normals: Model or practice schools. Name of normal school. Kind. Atten¬ dance. Concord . Voluntary — The local public school does not offer work in upper 110 Fairmont . grades /the children of these grades and many from the lovrer grades coming to the normal model school. Cooperative — Regular ward school of citv is used . 271 Glemdlle . Voluntary — Model school is made up of tuition pupils from the town; 70 Marshall College . cooperation is being planned. Voluntary — Tuition pupils from citv filling all grades. 239 Shepherd College . West Liberty . Special students below secondary grade have been used; plans to use the local public schooL cooperatively are being completed. Cooperative — The local public school is used . . : 40 182 EDUCATION REPORT, 1915. TEACHER-TRAINING COURSES IN HIGH SCHOOLS. Prof. Burnham, of the Kalamazoo (Mich.) State Normal School, has prepared the following statement on teacher training in high schools and in county training schools : 1 The course includes one year of attendance and work, which is made up of academic reviews of the elementary school subjects, courses in psychology, method and management, illuminated by observation and practice; and special instruction, including method in the content subjects recently introduced in the rural-school curriculum. The high-scliool training class is well illustrated in Minnesota, which this year has 134 classes at work. Minnesota began this plan in 1905 with 13 classes. The classes enroll about 10 students and are taught by carefully selected teachers, usually State normal-school graduates. The State supervision is by a woman, who is a specialist in rural education. Teachers of these classes are paid up to $1,000 and the supervisor is paid $2,000. Minnesota’s commission on education a year ago recommended increas¬ ing the annual State subsidy of these classes from $1,000 to $3,000 and salary increases up to $1,200. This commission said that these classes were in the way of developing to a point where it will not be necessary for any rural school in the State to do without a trained teacher. A good illustration of the county normal training class is found in Michigan. In 1905 eight of these classes graduated 84 students, and in 1915 there were 667 graduates from 47 classes. The work is, in general, the same as that of the high-school training classes. An observation and practice room, with pupils of varying ages and several grades under the immediate charge of a competent critic teacher, is a feature of the Michigan normal training classes. aSlaries, preparation, and supervi¬ sion of the teachers are comparable with conditions in Minnesota. Principals of the classes are in many cases college or university graduates. The average academic advancement of students in these secondary school types of normal work is about equivalent to that of the last high-school year. However, many students are enrolled in their third high-school year, and there are also a con¬ siderable number who have finished the fourth year. Several States have already safeguarded progress from the future retardation which the rapid influx of teachers of only secondary-school preparation might involve by statutes requiring a graduated increase in preparation. Excellent Missouri syllabus for teacher-training courses. — One of the most important elements in the success of such pedagogical courses is the existence of suitable instructional materials in the form of textbooks and syllabii. One of the most notable efforts to provide such material is the publication by the State department of education in Missouri of a Syllabus for Teacher-Training Courses in High Schools, which was prepared by Mr. S. E. Davis, the State inspector in charge of this work. DIFFERENTIATED COURSES FOR PRIMARY AND UPPER-GRADE TEACHERS. Specific vocational courses replacing general courses. — In the larger normal schools which prepare teachers for city schools one of the most important phases of recent progress is the differentiation JFor a detailed discussion of this subject see Ch. I (Rural Education), p. 98 of this report. THE TRAINING OF TEACHERS. 183 of the curricula and departmental courses so as to prepare the stu¬ dents specifically for the tasks of primary teachers or grammar- grade teachers. All of the Wisconsin normal schools have been reorganized on this basis. One of the most enthusiastic believers in the movement is President Keith, of the Oshkosh (Wis.) Normal School, who writes as follows : We take all of the students in the normal school who are preparing to teach in primary grades and segregate them in classes, and in this way we work out the subject matter to be taught and the methods of teaching it in a certain group of grades. The thing we were suffering under was the inability of the teacher to adapt the work in geography, say, to those who were expecting to teach in primary grades, in grammar grades, in high school, simultaneously and effectively. As a result of this difficulty, the geography became general¬ ized. It dealt with essentials, it hit the high spots, it was not as vocational as it ought to have been, and the constant tendency in normal schools for the past 20 or 25 years has been a tendency in the direction of generalization of subject matter that would, of course, include the essentials and the funda¬ mentals, but which left not infrequently the group high and dry so far as practical ability and insight were concerned. * * *- In our own school we shall have, after a while, a head of the grammar department with a force of teachers associated with him, working primarily for the perfecting of a course of study for the adequate training of grammar-grade teachers. ADVANCING ENTRANCE REQUIREMENTS PROFESSIONALIZE THE NORMAL SCHOOLS. The rapid development of high schools has made it possible for many normal schools to advance their entrance requirements and to get rid of the academic high-school courses which they have been offering. This process has taken place rapidly in some States and, as a consequence, has enabled the normal schools to devote more of their energy to purely professional training. An example is Minne¬ sota. The president of a public normal school in that State says: A change is in process which will make high-school graduation the condition of admission probably after this year. But few students are left in the school below this standard. Similarly, the president of the Oshkosh (Wis.) Normal School writes as follows: Our entrance requirements have not exactly changed, but they have become effective. Four years ago we abolished the long course at Oshkosh; that is, the four-year course for those who were not high-school graduates. We have been dealing with a diminishing number in the four-year courses, and at the close of summer school graduated the last of these people. The State superintendent of Michigan writes as follows: Practically every person who enters the State normal schools is a high-school graduate, and about 70 per cent of the people who enter the county normal schools are high-school graduates. We admit none to the county normal schools who have not had at least 11 grades’ preparation. Large progress resulting from combination of above factors. — In many of the States there are found various combinations of the five 184 EDUCATION REPORT, 1915. general lines of progress that have been discussed, namely, (1) ad¬ vancing professional requirements for teachers’ certificates, (2) increased practice-teaching facilities, (3) teacher-training courses in high schools, (4) differentiated courses for primary and grammar- grade teachers in normal schools, and (5) advancing entrance re¬ quirements for normal schools. EXTENSION COURSES FOR TEACHERS IN SERVICE. Systematic continuous instruction in the form of extension courses is provided by a number of State normal schools for teachers in service. The normal schools of Illinois, Michigan, and Ohio furnish notable examples. The instruction provided is the same as in the courses given in the normal-school buildings ; but it is given in differ¬ ent centers throughout the State. Thus, the normal school at Bowling Green, Ohio, employs a professor of education who spends all his time except Sunday in the field. On Monday he meets classes in a certain town, on Tuesday in another town, and so on through the week, returning to the first town on the next Monday. GENEROUS APPROPRIATIONS FOR BUILDINGS. The policy of liberal support for the professional training of teachers is shown by the appropriations for buildings in several States. The president of the State normal school at Kalamazoo, Mich., writes as follows: We liave just completed a new science building which has cost, with equip¬ ment, $110,000. We also have an additional sum of $480,000 available for build¬ ing and other special purposes at the rate of $80,000 a year for the next six years. Other Michigan State normal schools enjoy similar grants. The State department of New York reports: A new building was occupied last year by the Oswego State Normal School, and the Buffalo State Normal School also moved into its new building during the past year. We also obtained an appropriation to rebuild the old Potsdam buildings. From Maryland comes the following: The Maryland State Normal School, of Baltimore, which was established in- 1866, has removed during this month to a new plant located in the suburbs of Baltimore on a tract of about 80 acres. The new buildings have just been completed at a cost of $800,000. Pennsylvania continues buying private normal schools. — Several years ago Pennsylvania possessed 13 normal schools that were really private institutions enjoying State funds. The State undertook to reform this situation and one of the most important phases of the reform is described in the following sentence by the State superin¬ tendent of public instruction : “ The State has purchased four of our normal schools and is about to purchase four more.” CHAPTER VIII. MEDICAL EDUCATION. By N. P. Colwell, M. D., Secretary of the Council on Medical Education of the American Medical Association, Chicago, III. Contents. — Reductions in 10 years — Fewer but better physicians — Forces which prompted improvement — The establishment of cellular pathology — Germ origin of many dis¬ eases established — Antiseptic surgery — A new era in medicine — Medicine now on a scientific basis — Essentials of a medical training — The educational standard — Prog¬ ress of the past year — Effect of higher standard on student enrollments — Medical graduates in 1915 — Fewer but no dearth of medical colleges — Further mergers an advantage — Nonrecognition of inedical colleges — State requirements of preliminary education — Conferences on medical education — Higher degrees in medicine — Graduate medical instruction — Rules for the classification of graduate medical schools — The joint conference — Minimum expenses for maintenance of the first two years of an acceptable medical college — Minimum expenses for maintaining the clinical depart¬ ments — Revised requirements for admission to medical schools — Endowments for medical schools — Other gifts of the year to medical education — The Mayo foundation and the University of Minnesota. The reports on medical education for the two previous years 1 have set forth the remarkable reorganization that medical education has undergone during the last 10 years. It was shown that from 1865, following the Civil War, the medical colleges in the country rapidly multiplied, until in 1906 there were 162 separate institu¬ tions — about half of the world’s supply. Although some of these were well-conducted and fairly equipped institutions, a large pro¬ portion were owned by individuals or joint-stock corporations and conducted for profit. Entrance standards were ignored in many or made a mere matter of pretense; “ liberal ” rules governed the pro¬ motion and graduation of students; and any student who could pay the required fees was acceptable. Free use was made of glowing ad¬ vertisements: follow-up letters were sent to large lists of possible matriculants; and agents were sent to offices, workshops, and farms to solicit students, for which the colleges paid generous commissions. It- is not surprising, therefore, that in 1901 the total enrollment in all medical colleges had reached the amazing number of 28.112, and that in that year there were 5,717 graduates. 1 See Rep. of Commr. of Ed., 1913, vol. 1, p. 31 ; 1914, vol. 1, p. 191. 185 186 EDUCATION REPORT, 1915. REDUCTIONS IN TEN YEARS. It was also shown in the previous reports that during recent years there has been a marked reduction in these annual totals. There are now nearly 50 per cent fewer medical colleges and nearly 40 per cent fewer medical students and graduates each year than in 1904. As can readily be appreciated, these marked reductions represent an equally marked improvement in medical education. In 10 years’ time a vast oversupply of medical colleges, many of them sans teachers, sans laboratories, sans entrance standards, and sans ideals, has given way to a more normal supply of well-equipped medical colleges hav¬ ing skilled teachers, fair admission requirements, larger endowments, modern laboratories, and an abundance of hospital and dispensary material. Instead of a great army of students, many without even a grammar-school education, enticed from more fitting occupations by glowing promises of princely incomes, there is now about half the number; but practically all these have had a preliminary education which enables them to understand the more complex problems of medicine.1 FEWER BUT BETTER PHYSICIANS. As to the reduction in the number of graduates, it is surely better for the public welfare to have a hundred well-trained graduates from modern high-grade medical schools than a thousand from low-grade institutions. There is no danger of a dearth of physicians, since the number of graduates annually is nearly double the loss of physicians by death. But even if the number of graduates were less than the annual loss, it would be many years before a dearth would result, because of the overcrowded condition of the profession. Statistics show that there is now one physician to every 600 to 650 people in this country, as compared with one to every 1,500 to 2,000 people in the leading countries of Europe. Even with this marked contrast the figures for this country do not include the thousands of osteo¬ paths, chiropractors, naprapaths, and other practitioners. 1 The reader will hardly be able to appreciate how marvelous the improvement in the entrance requirements to medical schools has been during the last 11 years unless he is first made aware of the fact that in 1904 a very small proportion (not more than 15 or 20 per cent) of all medical colleges required even a high-school education for admission and that only 4 medical colleges (less than 3 per cent of the total number) required for admis¬ sion one or more years of collegiate work, in addition to a high-school education. Now 90 medical colleges (94.7 per cent of all colleges) are on that standard, and of these 40 (see chart 1) are requiring two or more years of collegiate work. In 1904 very little was known about the practice of colleges, and such standards as were advocated were largely on paper. At that time no systematic check was kept on the methods used by the medical schools in administering entrance requirements. Now, through the students’ register, kept by the Council on Medical Education of the American Medical Association, with the ready cooperation of at least 90 per cent of all colleges, the standards actually enforced by each college are known, faulty methods or “ paper standards ” are discovered and corrected or exposed. Instead of being an unknown quantity, therefore, preliminary requirements are now known with fair accuracy. There is, of course, still room for im¬ provement in methods of administration and in the securing of still better standards, but these matters are being rapidly corrected. No. of 1900 1901 1902 1903 1904 1905 1906 1907 1908 1909 1910 1911 1912 1913 1914 1915 No. of MEDICAL EDUCATION. 187 Ciiart 1.— Recent Progress in Medical Education. Although tho total number of medical colleges has been reduced sinco 1907, the number with increased entrance standards (and otherwise greatly improved) has been materially increased. Total colleges are shown by diagonal shading; colleges requiring 1 year of preliminary collegiate preparation are shown by vertical shading; colleges requiring 2 or more years of preliminary collego preparation are shown by heavy shading. ! Total medical colleges . Requiring 1 year of college work . . Requiring 2 years of college work. 188 EDUCATION REPORT, 1915. FORCES WHICH PROMPTED IMPROVEMENT. During the 30 years (1870-1900) when the number of medical colleges of inferior type and conducted for profit had so rapidly multiplied, the very factors were developing which would eventu¬ ally demand an entirely different type of. medical teaching institu¬ tion. Prior to that period, medical knowledge was largely a col¬ lection of clinical observations and theories founded on them. Since that time, however, there has been an increase of medical knowledge unprecedented in the history of medicine. In fact, dur¬ ing the last three decades of the nineteenth century more progress was made as a result of experimental research than in all ages preceding. THE ESTABLISHMENT OF CELLULAR PATHOLOGY. It was at the beginning of this period that Virchow established the system of cellular pathology which was based on the study, un¬ der the microscope, of the minute structures of both normal and dis¬ eased tissues of the human body. He demonstrated conclusively that the origin of disease was in the primary cell. This established a correlation between gross and microscopic effects of disease proc¬ esses and also removed the conflict previously existing between physiology and pathology. Normal and abnormal tissues are now known to have certain common characteristics, in that both are a product of growth and have their beginning in the individual cell. They differ in that in normal growth simple structures become more specialized and complex, while in abnormal growths there is a retro¬ gressive process — complicated or highly specialized structures break down or give way to more simple structures — scar-tissue, for example. Certain chemical processes are doubtless involved in these changes, and a vast field is here still open for investigation. Little by little, however, as investigation proceeds, the knowledge of these processes is continually widened. GERM ORIGIN OF MANY DISEASES ESTABLISHED. Bacteria were first discovered in 1683 by Leeuwnnhoek, a Dutch microscopist, and the knowledge regarding them was added to by O. F. Muller in 1786, by Ehrenberg in 1838, and by Henle in 1840. It remained for Louis Pasteur, during the seventh decade of the nineteenth century, however, to demonstrate positively the role played by these microorganisms in such familiar natural processes as fermentation, decay, and putrefaction. Formerly these processes were believed to be due to spontaneous generation ’ of life. The results of Pasteur’s researches were so profound as to be properly termed sensational. His work marked the beginning of bacteri- MEDICAL EDUCATION. 189 ology, and this, in turn, has had a revolutionary influence in the field of medicine, as well as in man’s conception of the world around him. Pasteur’s work attracted the attention of research workers to the importance of the study of microorganisms. This interest was accelerated in 1876, when Robert Koch demonstrated conclu¬ sively that a disease in cattle (anthrax, or splenic fever) was caused by a specific organism, the bacillus anthracis. It was in 1882, how¬ ever, that experimental research received its second great stimulus by Koch’s invention of solid culture media and his origination of methods by which single species of bacteria could be isolated. From this time on, reports of discoveries of the germ origin of numerous diseases, any one of which was epoch-making in its importance, were made in rapid succession. Within a few years’ time it had been clearly demonstrated that many of the common diseases were caused by certain specific forms of bacteria, or kindred microorganisms. One need only to mention, as examples, such common diseases as diphtheria, typhoid fever, cerebrospinal meningitis, lockjaw, and consumption to show how profoundly important were the discoveries regarding their causes, not only in showing how to prevent the spread of those diseases to others but also in the positive methods made available for their diagnosis and treatment. For example, the discovery that the primary cause of diphtheria was the bacillus diphtheria has been followed by a careful study of the habits of that germ. This has resulted net only in preventing the spread of that disease through isolation of diphtheria patients, and subsequent disinfection of the rooms occupied by them, but also in the knowledge — a fact now gen¬ erally well known — that an opposing substance, called antitoxin, is formed in the body to antagonize the germ and its toxins. For patients who recover, it is the presence of this antitoxin in the blood which prevents the recurrence of the disease — which gives immunity to subsequent attacks. It also has been learned that this antitoxin can be formed in the blood serum of healthy animals, such as the sheep or the horse, and that, without serious discomfort to those ani¬ mals, large quantities can thereby be prepared in advance for emer¬ gency use. Injections of this antitoxin are used not only as a cure for patients who have contracted the disease, but also to immunize others who have been exposed to the infection. So highly beneficial has been the use of this antitoxin as to make it one of the great triumphs of modern medicine. Table 1. — Bacterial origin of certain diseases , showing when specific bacterial origin of certain diseases was established} 190 EDUCATION REPORT, 1915. This table is presented to show tho comparatively recon t date when the microorganisms causing these well-known diseasos were discovered and their relationship to the dis- i established. The authority is Jordan’s Textbook on Bacteriology, fourth edition. ! Classification among microorganisms is still uncertain. MEDICAL EDUCATION. 191 In typhoid fever, as now is also well known, finding the specific microorganism causing the disease led, in turn, to the discovery that it was usually transmitted through drinking water which had been contaminated by sewage containing the germs. The prevalence of typhoid fever has been greatly diminished through the purification of our water supply and the warfare on flies. Although no serum or antitoxin has been developed having curative powers equal to the diphtheria antitoxin, a vaccine has been prepared which has a high protective value. The widest application of this vaccine has been in the protection of soldiers in the field. During the Spanish-xlmerican War, before the days of antityphoid vaccine, in the United States Army of 107,973 men there were 20,738 cases of typhoid fever, in¬ cluding 1,580 deaths, or nearly 1 case to every 5 men. During the summer maneuvers of 1911 an Army division of 12,800 men occupied a camp at San Antonio for about four months. All of the men were inoculated with the vaccine, and only one mild case developed, and this was before the inoculation had been completed. During the same period there were 19 deaths from typhoid fever in San Antonio, which shows that typhoid fever was prevalent in the neighborhood. In the whole United States Army in 1912 (88,178 men) there were only 8 cases of typhoid, and no deaths. An immunizing antitoxin is now used with decided benefit in tetanus (lockjaw) ; a curative serum is employed in cerebrospinal meningitis; a protective virus, the so-called Pasteur treatment, in hydrophobia, and within the past few years a chemical preparation has been produced which, if injected under proper safeguards into the subcutaneous tissues, produces rapid and remarkable improve¬ ment in cases of syphilis. The discovery of the microorganism causing bubonic plague, the bacillus pestis , has resulted in finding that the germ is transmitted from sick to well persons through the bites of such insects as the louse or the flea, and that it is carried from one country to another not only by human hosts, but by rats and other vermin which get into ships. History shows that in the great epidemic in Europe dur¬ ing 1348-49 nearly twenty-five million people — about one-fourth of Europe’s population — died of this disease, then commonly known as the “black death.” From the present knowledge of the disease, epi¬ demics are quickly stamped out and its spread is prevented. It is now known that malaria, which was formerly attributed to a “miasma” arising from swampy tracts, is due to a microorganism, the plasmodium malarim , and that the disease is generally trans¬ mitted by mosquitoes ( anopheles ), which, of course, originate in swampy places. The spread of the disease is now prevented by screen¬ ing off patients sick of malaria, thereby preventing mosquitoes from 192 EDUCATION REPORT, 1915. obtaining and transferring the microorganism. Efforts have also been made to exterminate the mosquitoes. The transmission of bubonic plague and malaria by the bites of insects led to the discovery that yellow fever, Rocky Mountain fever, and typhus fever were transmitted by the bites, respectively, of the mosquito ( stegomyia calopus ), the woodtick, and the louse. The dis¬ covery of these facts in regard to malaria and to yellow fever alone has saved thousands of lives, has changed Habana and other tropical cities from plague-infested spots to places of safe human habitation, and has made possible the completion of the Panama Canal. It must be remembered that the part played by the mosquito in the transmis¬ sion of yellow fever was proved by the immortal work of three phy¬ sicians — Reed, Carroll, and Lazear. To prove Maj. Reed’s theory. Carroll and Lazear deliberately allowed mosquitoes which had previ¬ ously bitten yellow-fever patients to settle on their hands and infect them with the disease. Both contracted yellowT fever, and Lazear died a martyr to his zeal. The same is true regarding Ricketts and McClintic, who died in their effort to discover the cause and cure of Rocky Mountain fever. ANTISEPTIC SURGERY. Another* great field of improvement that has been opened as a re¬ sult of Pasteur’s researches is that of antiseptic surgery. Through this department of medicine alone, the number of lives that have been saved is incalculable. Operations which formerly were almost in¬ variably fatal, and which were undertaken only in emergencies or as a last resort, are now regularly performed with comparative safety tc» the patient. Wound infection, which was formerly a matter of course, is now the exceptional occurrence. All this had its beginning in the work of Lord Lister only a few decades ago, following the re¬ searches of Pasteur and the proof that so many infections and putre¬ factive processes were caused by bacteria. A NEW ERA IN MEDICINE. The researches of Pasteur and the discoveries since his time have practically revolutionized the conception of disease. As the old idea of etiology of diseases gave way to the absolute knowledge that many of them were due to certain recognized germs, so also the old empirical methods of treatment were replaced by more scientific methods, methods based on an actual study of the germ causing each disease. Chemical preparations or drugs are now put to the test, and only those of service are retained. More important still, as already shown, great results have been obtained from the investigations in regard to antitoxins, immunizing serums, protective vaccines, and the like. Only a bare beginning has been made in this great field and herein lies the possibility of still further important discoveries. MEDICAL EDUCATION. 193 MEDICINE NOW ON A SCIENTIFIC BASIS. In all these great advances during the last few decades it can be seen how much depended not only on the premedical sciences — physics, chemistry, and biology — but also on the fundamental medi¬ cal sciences, anatomy, physiology, physiologic chemistry, pharma¬ cology, bacteriology, and pathology. It can be seen how essential is a knowledge of these sciences for the modern practitioner of the healing art, no matter in what particular branch or method he may wish to specialize. No longer does a grade-school education con¬ stitute an adequate preliminary training for those who are to study medicine. No longer is a medical college in position to furnish its students with a satisfactory training unless it possesses thoroughly equipped laboratories in the fundamental medical sciences. No longer can these sciences be taught — as they formerly were — by busy practitioners, who can give only their spare time to teaching. So extensive now is the work in each of these sciences that they must be taught by experts who are paid salaries sufficient to enable them to devote their entire time to teaching and to research. It goes with¬ out saying that every student of the healing art, after obtaining his training in the fundamental sciences, should also have the oppor¬ tunity of observing and further studying the various diseases of patients in hospitals and dispensaries, that he may become proficient in the latest improved methods of diagnosis and treatment. ESSENTIALS OF A MEDICAL TRAINING. The victories of medical research, by which untold, thousands of human lives have been saved since the days of Pasteur, emphasize the great importance of an adequate training for those who are here¬ after to have in charge the care of the sick. The student of medicine needs a knowledge of physics, of chemistry, and of biology, since a knowledge of these sciences enables him better to master the more complex medical sciences. He needs a thorough knowledge of human anatomy and physiology, since he must know the normal conditions and functions of the body and its various organs; otherwise he will not be able to differentiate between normal and abnormal, conditions, between health and disease. He must have studied bacteriology and pathology, since he must know about the various diseases and their bacterial causes. He must have studied physiologic chemistry, since he must know the composition and the functions of the various secre¬ tions and substances of the body. He must study pharmacology in order that he may know the physiologic action of various chemicals and medicinal substances, so that, if medicinal treatment is needed, he may apply the preparation which will do the most good. While 12034°— ed 1915— vol 1 - 13 194 EDUCATION REPORT, 1915. still under instruction, he should have the opportunity to study the various types of disease in dispensaries and at the bedside in hos¬ pitals. While he is still under supervision he should further develop skill and reliability and round out his course of medical training by at least a year’s experience as an intern, or resident physician, in a good hospital. A student who has followed this routine course will usually become a safe, efficient, and successful practitioner of medicine. If he desires to specialize in any particular class of dis¬ ease or in any particular method of treatment, the course thus out¬ lined should be followed by one or two years of study devoted to the desired specialty. In brief, anyone who is to undertake the repair of delicate life processes of human beings, which are rendered doubly sensitive in times of sickness, should have had such a training as will enable him (a) to differentiate between normal and abnormal conditions, (b) to determine what particular disorder is present, and ( c ) to be ac¬ quainted with all the approved methods of treatment, so as ( d ) to apply the particular form of treatment which will best meet the needs of the patient. To safeguard the interests of the public a no less educational training should be countenanced. No other department of education needs to be more strictly supervised than medicine, since in no other calling does the practitioner assume to such a degree the responsibility for the lives of human beings and in no other profes¬ sion can bungling or ignorance work such havoc. This responsi¬ bility has been emphasized since the marvelous discoveries following Pasteur’s work have added so much to the positive knowledge re¬ garding the cause, cure, and prevention of diseases — a knowledge which is now obtainable in any of the better medical colleges. THE EDUCATIONAL STANDARD. The educational standard now adopted in all leading nations as the reasonable minimum for practitioners of the healing art (medicine) includes — (a) A secondary school education equal to that obtained in the accredited four-year high schools of the United States and in addi¬ tion one or two years of work in a college of liberal arts, including courses in physics, chemistry, and biology ; (b) A medical training provided by a four-year course in a well- equipped medical college, including two years of laboratory work in anatomy, physiology, physiologic chemistry, pharmacology, bacteri¬ ology, and pathology, and two years of clinical instruction in dis¬ pensaries and hospitals; and ( c ) The practical experience obtained in a fifth year as an interne (resident physician) in a good hospital. MEDICAL EDUCATION. 195 PROGRESS OF THE PAST YEAR. The beginning of the college session of 1914 — 1 5 marks an important epoch in the history of medical education in the United States, in that it witnessed the general adoption by the medical colleges of the country of the standard of preliminary and medical education just outlined. Last fall 39 medical colleges began the enforcement of the higher entrance standard, which, added to the 43 which had previously done so, and 8 which began the requirement since that time, make 90 medical colleges which now require for admission one or two years of collegiate work in addition to four years of secondary school training. Forty of these require two years of such college work as the minimum, which makes their entrance requirements equal to those of leading medical schools abroad. (See chart on p. 187.) EFFECT OF HIGHER STANDARDS ON STUDENT ENROLLMENTS. As was expected, the general adoption of higher entrance require¬ ments caused a marked decrease (nearly 10 per cent) in the student enrollment — 14,891 in 1914-15, as compared with 16,502 in 1913-14. Statistics indicate, however (see Table 2), that after a period of a year or two has been allowed for readjustment under the higher standards the enrollment in each college will return more nearly to normal. Of the 39 medical colleges beginning the higher require¬ ment in 1914, all but 1 had lower enrollments than during the previous session; while of the 43 which began the higher admission requirement in 1913 of previous years, all but 5 reported either increased enrollments or larger freshman classes. Table 2. — Variations in medical college enrollments. [Figures showing numbers of colleges having enrollments in the session of 1914-15, respectively, larger, equal, or smaller than in the session of 1913-14. Figures in parentheses show number of colleges which although the total enrollment was diminished, had larger freshman classes than a year ago.] Medical colleges requiring for admission— Total registration this year. Two years of college work, effective in— One year of college work, effective in — High- school course. Total colleges. 1913 or pre¬ viously. In 1914. 1913 or pre¬ viously. In 1914. Increased . 24 8 1 4 37 Equal . (1)2 (3)5 2 4 Decreased . 3 (2)4 35 12 59 • Total . j 31 3 12 36 18 100 196 EDUCATION REPORT, 1915. MEDICAL GRADUATES IN 1915. There was a slight decrease in the number of medical graduates in 1915 below that of the previous year, 3,536 as compared with 3,594 in 1914. This is a decrease of 2,211, or 38.8 per cent, below the total for 1904, when 5,747, the largest number, were graduated. Although the total number has been diminished, as already shown, the quality has been much improved. Whereas in 1910 only 15.3 per cent (see Table 3) of all graduates had also secured degrees from colleges of arts and sciences, 24.3 per cent of all graduates in 1915 had secured these evidences of higher preliminary education. Table 3. — Medical graduates with liberal arts degrees } Nonsectarian. Homeopathic. Eclectic. Total. Years. Gradu¬ A. B., Per Grad¬ A.B., Per Grad¬ A.B., Per Gradu¬ A.B., Per ates. B.S. cent. uates. B.S. cent. uates. B.S. cent. ates. B.S. cent. 1910 . 4,113 664 16.1 183 13 7.1 114 g 2.6 4,440 680 15.3 1911 . 4.006 683 17.0 152 18 11.8 110 4 3.6 4,273 705 16.5 1912 . 4,206 744 17.7 185 15 8.1 92 4 4.3 4,483 763 17.0 1913 . 3,679 732 19.9 209 20 9.6 93 1 1.1 3,981 753 18.9 1914 . 3,370 794 23.5 154 7 4.5 70 6 8.6 3,594 807 22.5 1915 . 3,286 839 25. 5 195 16 8.2 55 3 5.5 3,536 858 24.3 FEWER BUT NO DEARTH OF MEDICAL COLLEGES. During 1914-15 there were 102 medical colleges which had students enrolled, the average in each college being 146, or 36 in each of the four classes. As can be readily seen, 50 medical colleges with 75 students in each class, or 300 students in each college, could have taken care of the students enrolled in all colleges last session. It is clear, therefore, that the number of medical colleges could still be considerably reduced, should that be necessary, without diminish¬ ing the students’ opportunities to study medicine. Some of the medical colleges with their present enrollments are spending each year for maintenance several times the amount obtained from students’ fees. It costs practically as much to furnish a complete and well-rounded medical education for 25 or 30 students in a class as it would for two or three times that number. As a matter of economy, therefore, it would appear better if the number of insti¬ tutions were still further reduced by one-fourth, or one-third. Mean¬ while, with the close of the last college session 7 medical colleges ceased to exist, including 2 which merged with other medical col¬ leges. These colleges are: Birmingham Medical College, Birmingham, Ala. Discontinued undergradu¬ ate teaching. California Eclectic Medical College, Los Angeles. 1 Statistics from Jour. Am. Med. Assoc., 1915. Voy. LXV, p. 691. MEDICAL EDUCATION. 197 Hahnemann Medical College of the Pacific, San Francisco. Transferred its property to the medical school of the University of California, where elective courses in homeopathic materia medica and homeopathic therapeutics will be offered. College of Physicians and Surgeons of Baltimore. Merged with the Uni¬ versity of Maryland, School of Medicine. Kansas City Hahnemann Medical College, Kansas City, Mo. St. Louis College of Physicians and Surgeons. Merged with the medical de¬ partment of the National University of Arts and Sciences, St. Louis. Southern Methodist University, Medical Department, Dallas, Tex. Of the 95 medical colleges now remaining, there are 83 non¬ sectarian, 8 homeopathic, and 4 eclectic colleges. Altogether 92 medical colleges have been closed since 1904, of which 52 were merged with other medical colleges and 40 became extinct. It is noteworthy that this rapid diminution in the number of medical colleges began in 1905, when the Council on Medical Education began the campaign for better medical colleges. It is also interesting to note (see Table 4) that, of these 92 colleges, 48 had been rated in classes A and B by the council and 44 in class C; that all but 5 of the colleges in classes A and B closed by merger with other colleges, and that all but 5 of the colleges which became extinct had been rated in class C. Table 4. — Colleges closed since further mergers an advantage. There are still 17 cities in each of which two or more medical colleges exist and in tAvo of these (Memphis and Nashville) mergers are scarcely possible, since the institutions are for different races, leaving 15 cities where mergers might be brought about. These cities and the number of colleges in each are: Chicago, 8; New York, 7; Philadelphia, 6; Boston, 4; San Francisco, 3; St. Louis, 3; Washington, 3; and there are two colleges each in Ann Arbor, At¬ lanta, Baltimore, Cincinnati, Columbus, Iowa City, Los Angeles, and Omaha. In 1904 there were 30 cities having from 2 to 15 medi- 198 EDUCATION REPORT, 1915. cal colleges each, a total of 119. The highest development of medi¬ cal education in each city is prevented so long as there are two or more competing medical colleges. For the further improvement of medical education there should be other mergers in the 15 cities named. Table 5. — Cities having two or more medical colleges. Cities. Number of colleges. Cities. Number of colleges. 1904 1915 1904 1915 Ann Arbor . 2 2 Los Angeles . 2 2 Atlanta . 2 2 Memphis . 1 1 2 Baltimore . 8 2 Milwaukee . 2 1 Boston . 4 4 Minneapolis . 3 1 Chattanooga . 2 Nashville . 4 2 Chicago . 15 8 New Orleans . 2 1 Cincinnati . 4 2 New York . 8 7 Cleveland . 3 1 Omaha . 2 2 Columbus . 2 2 Philadelphia . 6 6 Dallas . 5 1 Richmond . 2 1 Denver . 2 1 San Francisco . 5 3 Detroit. . 3 1 St. Joseph . 2 Indianapolis . 4 1 St. Louis . 6 3 Iowa City . 2 2 Washington . 3 3 Kansas City 5 Knoxville . 2 Total . 120 64 Louisville . 7 1 NONRECOGNITION OF MEDICAL COLLEGES. Of the 95 medical colleges still existing, there are about 20 which do not have unqualified recognition by the licensing boards in from 15 to 34 States, the reason usually given being that those colleges are not considered as properly equipped with teachers, or with labora¬ tories, or that suitable entrance requirements are not enforced. For students contemplating the study of medicine it is highly important that they should know before selecting a medical college whether the diploma it grants will be an acceptable qualification for the license to practice.1 The 34 States in which, as a rule, the licensing boards are thus refusing to license graduates of low standard medical col¬ leges are : Alabama. Maryland. Pennsylvania. Arkansas. Michigan. Porto Rico. Colorado. Minnesota. Rhode Island. Connecticut. Mississippi. South Carolina. Delaware. New Hampshire. South Dakota. Florida. New Jersey. Texas. Georgia. New Mexico. Vermont. Indiana. New York. Virginia. Iowa. North Carolina. West Virginia. Kentucky. North Dakota. Wisconsin. Louisiana. Ohio. Maine. Oklahoma. iA reprint pamphlet containing this and other information regarding medical colleges is published by the American Medical Association, Chicago, a copy of which will be sent to any address on request. MEDICAL EDUCATION. 199 STATE REQUIREMENTS OF PRELIMINARY EDUCATION. Another important fact to be noted by prospective medical stu¬ dents is the minimum standards of preliminary education now re¬ quired by the various State licensing boards. There are now 10 States in which the boards require, in addition to a four-year course in an accredited high school, two years of collegiate work, including courses in physics, chemistry, and biology. Some also require a reading knowledge of French or German. There are also 18 States which, in addition to the high-school course, require one year of college work, including the sciences named. These 28 States, the number of years required, and the dates when the standard is effec¬ tive are: States requiring preliminary college courses. State examining boards. Number of years required. Affects students matricu¬ lating — Affects all ap¬ plicants. Requiring two years: Alabama . 2 1915-16 1919 Colorado . 2 1910-11 1914 Indiana . . . 2 1911-12 1915 Iowa . 2 1911-12 1915 Minnesota . 2 1908-09 1912 New Hampshire . 2 1915-16 1919 New Jersey . 2 1917-18 1921 North Dakota . 2 1908-09 1912 South Dakota . . 2 1911-12 1915 Wisconsin . 2 1915-16 1919 Requiring one year: Arkansas . 1 1915-16 1919 California . ; . 1 1915-16 1919 Connecticut . 1 1910-11 1914 Illinois . 1 1915-16 1919 Kansas . 1 1910-11 1914 Kentucky... . ; . 1 1914-15 1918 Louisiana . 1 1915-16 1919 Maryland . 1 1914-15 1918 Michigan . 1 1914-15 1918 Mississippi . 1 1915-16 1919 Oklahoma . 1 1914-15 1918 Pennsylvania . 1 1914-15 1918 Rhode Island . 1 1914-15 1918 Texas . 1 1914-15 1918 Utah . 1 1913-14 1917 Vermont . . 1 1913-14 1917 Virginia . 1 1914-15 1918 Washington . 1 1914-15 1918 CONFERENCES ON MEDICAL EDUCATION. Important conferences on medical education and licensure during the year included that of the Council on Medical Education of the American Medical Association, which was held in Chicago, Febru¬ ary 16, 1915, and the joint conference of the Federation of State Medical Boards of the United States and the Association of Ameri¬ can Medical Colleges, held February IT, 1915. 200 EDUCATION REPORT, 1915. Chart 2. _ State Requirements of Preliminary Education for Physicians.1 1 In each of four States— Arkansas, Florida, Louisiana, and Maryland— there are two or three separate boards controlling the licensing of physicians. The standard indicated in the chart is that upheld by the so-called “ regular ” board. MEDICAL EDUCATION. 201 CONFERENCE OF THE COUNCIL ON MEDICAL EDUCATION. The most important topic on the program of this conference was the report of a special committee 1 on the “ Reorganization of clinical teaching,” a report which is sure to have a profound influence on the further development of medical education. In the introduction to the report it was stated that any standards suggested at present should be sufficiently moderate to permit their being adopted by all medical schools of the country having sound reason for existence. More advanced standards might be suggested, however, to be adopted at certain fixed periods in the future. In advising a standard of clinical organization the essentials which were considered and a brief summary of the conclusions in regard to each are as follows : Reorganization of Clinical Teaching.2 I. ADEQUATE HOSPITAL AND DISPEN SARY FACILITIES. A properly equipped hospital, under the absolute control of the medical school, is a first essential. For a class of 100 senior students or less there should be a hospital of at least 200 beds, which wuuld afford 75 beds for general medicine, 75 beds for general surgery, and 50 beds for obstetrics and gynecology. Such a hospital should possess a clinical laboratory, a Rontgen-ray department, a bacteriologic labora¬ tory, a laboratory for metabolic investigation (physiologic chemistry), and space for the installment of apparatus for investigating cardiovascular diseases and the organs of special sense. There should also be an outpatient department of at least 10,000 patients, or 50,000 visits annually, which should be in intimate and harmonious connection with the hospital. * II. THE NECESSITY OF ADEQUATE FINANCIAL INCOME. Adequate finances for each clinical department of a medical school is another essential, in order to secure the needed teachers, technicians, and janitors, sup¬ plies, new apparatus, and books. The head of each department should have a 1 The committee appointed was as follows : Dr. Victor C. Vaughan, chairman, president of the American Medical Association, Ann Arbor, Mich. Dr. George E. Armstrong, professor of surgery and clinical surgery, McGill University, faculty of medicine, Montreal. Dr. Frank Billings, professor of medicine. Rush Medical College, Chicago. Dr. John G. Clark, professor of gynecology. University of Pennsylvania, School of Medi¬ cine, Philadelphia. » Dr. Harvey Cushing, professor of surgery, Harvard University, Medical School, Boston. Dr. George Dock, professor of medicine, Washington University Medical School, ' St. Louis. Dr. John M. T. Finney, professor of clinical surgery, Johns Hopkins University, medical department, Baltimore. Dr. Samuel W. Lambert, dean and professor of clinical medicine, Columbia University, College of Physicians and Surgeons, New York. Dr. William J. Mayo, Rochester, Minn. Dr. George E. de Schweintz, professor of ophthalmology, University of Pennsylvania School of Medicine, Philadelphia. 2 The complete report appears in the American Medical Association Bulletin of Mar. 15, 1915, p. 244. 202 EDUCATION REPORT, 1915. salary, but more important is the need of adequate salaries for those next in rank. Even small schools should have at least one man in each department so salaried ; larger schools would need two or three. Next to these men there is need of from two to six well-trained men to carry on teaching, clinical work, and research. Below these would come residents and assistant residents, getting still lower salaries, and their keep. There should be enough technicians to care for the laboratories and to do other routine work. The budget should provide for a stenographic force and for new equipment. In developing satisfactory clinical staffs it may be necessary to take young men and train them, beginning with small salaries, since men of desired experience are difficult to obtain. With one exception there is to-day no medical school so financially situated as to institute the plan for full-time professorships, however ideal that plan might be, and a budget to provide for it would be prohibitive. The minimum clinical annual budget for a medical college having a clinical class of 100 juniors and 100 seniors should be from $75,000 to $100,000, not in¬ cluding the cost of maintaining the hospital and dispensary. This would pro¬ vide from $30,000 to $40,000 for medicine, $30,000 to $40,000 for surgery, and $15,000 to $20,000 for obstetrics and gynecology; and this budget could be doubled without extravagant expenditure. The total budget will vary with the locality and other conditions. The same amount of money, for example, would go much further in Ann Arbor than it would in New York City. A suggestive budget to provide for the clinical faculty for the school and hospital unit in the department of internal medicine is as follows : Salary. 1 chief or head of department _ $2, 500-$5, 000 1 associate or assistant clinician in hospital _ 1, 250- 2, 500 1 associate or assistant chief of clinical laboratory _ 1, 250- 2, 500 1 associate or assistant chief of outdoor department _ 1, 250- 2, 500 1 resident _ 600- 1, 200 4 internes. 1 associate or assistant in charge of research laboratory _ 1, 250- 2, 500 1 biochemist _ 2, 000- 2, 800 33 senior clinical clerks. Stenographers, artists, etc _ 3, 000- 3, 000 Dermatology, head and assistants _ 2, 500- 5, 000 Pediatrics, head and assistants _ 2, 500- 5, 000 Neurology, head and assistants _ 2, 500- 5, 000 The organization and disposition of the budget of the surgical and obstetric departments would be practically the same, differing only in details. HI. THE PLACE TO BEGIN PRESCRIBED CLINICAL INSTRUCTION. Two years appear insufficient for the work of the clinical branches, which has become increasingly complex. The same is true regarding the laboratory sub¬ jects. Some relief may be had by a careful reorganization of the clinical de¬ partments. With the increased entrance requirements, courses in physical diagnosis and in the principles of surgery may well be offered in the latter part of the second year. This change seems advisable also because it serves to con¬ nect more closely the preclinical and clinical courses. The student should begin in his second year the study of physical signs, on normal subjects or with patients from the outpatient service. Textbook work in the long-established facts of medicine and surgery, under an instructor, would follow in his third year, coincidentally with further practical work in the dispensary and in bedside clinics, and with lectures dealing with the most recent ideas on medicine and surgery. Instruction in obstetrics and gynecology, as well as in ophthalmology, otology, and rhinolaryngology, should begin and be MEDICAL EDUCATION. 203 finished in the third year, with the exception of certain practical courses usually best given early in the fourth year. In his fourth year the student should follow the ward service of a teaching hospital. If clinical instruction is begun in the sophomore year, students coming from medical schools giving only the first two years of the medical course will not be enabled to secure the physical diagnosis and the preparatory course in surgery, unless a certain amount of dispensary and hospital material may become avail¬ able at those schools. IV. USE OF THE DISPENSARY. The outpatient clinical material is one of the most valuable teaching assets of the medical college, and should be used for the instruction of undergraduates and for the clinical and other researches of the attending staff. It is best used for students in the second year for teaching physical diagnosis, and in the third and fourth years in internal medicine and in the medical specialties. Its greatest and perhaps most neglected use is in the instruction of third-year students in history taking and fourth-year students in the therapeutics of the lesser medical and surgical ailments. The dispensary service should be inti¬ mately connected with the hospital ward service. The obstetric material should be used in the third year for diagnostic purposes only, the practical care of the lying-in patients being reserved for the fourth-year students. The gynecology dispensary material also is best used in the fourth year. For the specialties, such as opthalmology, otology, and rhinolaryngology, outpatient clinical material is highly essential, and should be utilized for sections from six to ten students, each section in charge of an instructor. V. THE ORGANIZATION OF THE HOSPITAL UNIT. In the construction of a hospital, the number of beds in each ward should be considered. This depends on. the number of the beds assigned to each attending nurse. For acute cases, 4 beds, and, for chronic cases, 6 beds may be assigned to a nurse. This makes 24 beds a convenient ward unit for either chronic or acute cases. As many such units may be added as needed, varying with the size of the hospital. A minimum-sized teaching hospital can, therefore, be divided into eight units of 24 beds each, four units each for the medical and surgical service. More satisfactory, however, would be a hospital providing six units (144 beds) each for the medical and surgical services. Each service could then be divided into three subdivisions of 48 beds each. Taking the medical service as an example, the personnel would consist of the professor in charge (the director of the service), 3 first assistants, and 6 second assistants. Under this nonresident staff there should be a resident staff, to consist of at least 3 resident physicians, who should be the direct overseers and instructors of the clinical clerk service and of the intern staff. There should be 6 interns, serving for one year, in two grades of six months each — junior and senior — and 24 clinical clerks, all fourth-year students. Voluntary assistants, serving without pay, might be doing research work in the wards and laboratories. There should also be a number of extern assistants. The addition of one or more units to the foregoing estimate would necessi¬ tate an entire duplication of a department staff in medicine and surgery, since a single director should not be asked to take charge of more than 150 beds. The laboratories, research rooms, history rooms, working library, residents’ rooms, auditorium and, indeed, every part of a clinical unit should be housed under one roof. Cooperation between departments should be encouraged, but a hospital unit should constitute a complete workshop, self-sufficient for all clinical purposes, and independent of all other departments. 204 EDUCATION REPORT, 1915. VI. THE UTILIZATION OF STUDENTS AS CLINICAL CLERKS. The clinical clerk system provides the best training in the clinical branches if the work is properly supervised. Experience shows that students may begin as clinical clerks in the last trimester of the third year in the divisions of medicine, surgery, and obstetrics and complete a trimester in each. In this way the student learns by applying the scientific and technical knowledge acquired in the first two years and by further instruction in wards, laboratories, operating rooms, clinics, and library. The utilization of clinical clerks in the obstetric wards is most important. The examinations of secretions, the testing of blood pressure, the observation and care of the infant, the estimation of the value of the mother’s milk are so important that clerks should be in constant attendance, if not in actual resi¬ dence. In the wards devoted to the specialties, on the contrary, such as ophthalmology, otology, and rhinolaryngology, students as clinical clerks are of very little service. Most of the material in these departments is better usedr in ward class instruction. Before serving as a clerk, even in the wards devoted to medicine and surgery, the student should have a sufficient knowledge of the specialties to determine the most conspicuous departures from the normal. The period of service in each division (medicine, surgery, obstetrics, etc.) should be from two to four months. The teaching personnel in each depart¬ ment should consist of a directing officer and instructors. The hospital must be large enough so that at least 5, 6, or 8 beds could be assigned to each student for at least one-third of the college year. VII. UTILIZATION OF SPECIAL AND EXTRAMURAL HOSPITALS. A medical school with a 200-bed hospital, an outpatient department, and a minimum budget for 200 students in the third and fourth year classes, could amplify the clinical instruction, without additional cost, by affiliation with other hospitals, and increase their teaching force by volunteer clinical teachers on the staffs of those hospitals. When such hospitals are near by, and when efficient teachers are connected with them, they may be utilized to good effect. Almost every community is served by a large number of general and special hospitals. The medical school can often secure in this way an opportunity for its students to study the types of diseases which are not usually seen in the active general-hospital service. It is possible also to use extramural and spe¬ cial hospitals for ward classes and for clinical clerks, but the school should control the appointment of the instructors in charge of that work. As many extramural hospitals as possible should be brought into affiliation with the medical school to provide for the development of graduate work, which now deserves careful consideration. VTTT. DEPARTMENTAL COORDINATION OF TEACHING. There is need of a greater coordination between the various clinical depart¬ ments as well as between the clinical and laboratory departments. Too often a student feels that he has finished certain branches of his instruction (chemis¬ try, for example), and literally puts them away until he must hurriedly resur¬ rect them prior to a State board examination. This could be voided if there was a closer coordination of the laboratory courses with the instruction in the clinical departments. Combination courses, like those inaugurated at McGill and Harvard, in which the professor of medicine and pathology unite to demonstrate antemortem diag¬ nosis and postmortem findings, are recommended. Similar combinations are MEDICAL EDUCATION. 205 possible between the departments of surgery and anatomy in the study of fractures and dislocations, between the departments of physiology and medicine in the study of the heart and circulation, and between the departments of general medicine and surgery and those of specialties. IX. LIMITING THE PRACTICE OF CLINICAL TEACHERS. The committee was unanimous in expressing a sympathetic interest in the educational experiment of providing full-time clinical professors in medicine, surgery, and pediatrics now being tried out at the Johns Hopkins Medical School, an institution having such admirable facilities for it. In fact, the principle that the practice of clinical teachers should be restricted has general acceptance. In determining to what extent that practice should be limited, there are two extremes somewhere between which it is possible to construct a rational scheme. On the one side is the whole-time requirement, as adopted at Johns Hopkins, and on the other side is the condition in some medical schools where clinical teachers are so busy with their private practice that their teaching is badly neglected. Opinion is by no means unanimous that the whole-time requirement is ideal, but even if it were ideal, such requirement could not be advised at the present time, owing to the fact that few of the medical schools are adequately financed for it. On the other hand, it is imperative that we get away from the other extreme. An extensive, time-consuming private practice, with the minimum of teaching responsibility, must give place to the teacher whose chief business is to in¬ struct medical students, who chooses the work because he loves it, and who is qualified by education and by personal experience in experimental work to be a productive teacher. Given such teachers, the limitation of their practice will take care of itself. A matter of the highest importance is to build up a sys¬ tem that will develop for the future the best clinical teachers. Some believe that the practice of the clinical teacher should be restricted to hospital consulta¬ tions. Others feel that 'a certain amount of private practice is essential to develop the best clinical teachers. It is believed that some private practice, either by the head of the department or by other prominent clinical teachers in the department, is essential to keep medical education in sympathetic touch with the human side of medical practice. There is a serious danger that the placing of all clinical teachers on a full-time basis would result in a gradual separation of medical teachers from some of the most vital problems of active medical practice. HIGHER DEGREES IN MEDICINE. At this conference also a symposium was given on the general topic of “ Higher Degrees in Medicine.” The recent progress in medical education makes it essential that physicians concentrate their atten¬ tion to some narrow specialty, thereby developing a higher degree of skill in that special line of medical practice. Before being recognized as a specialist, however, he should show evidence of special training, and medical schools are now providing advanced courses to meet these needs. Such courses require at least one year, and usually two or three years of special study for which a higher degree is given. To avoid a confusion of having too many such degrees was the pur¬ pose of this symposium. Of graduate degrees in medicine we already have the doctor of public health (Dr. P. H.), granted after one or 206 EDUCATION REPORT, 1915. two years of special study by eight medical schools.1 The univer¬ sities of Minnesota and New York now offer also courses of three years in each of the medical specialties, for which a special degree of doctor of science (D. S., followed in parentheses by the name of the particular subject — surgery, pediatrics, ophthalmology, etc. — is granted. This is clearly less confusing than to give a special degree for each of the multiplicity of medical specialties. The value of this doctorate will, of course, depend on the excellence of the higher courses on which the degree is based. GRADUATE MEDICAL INSTRUCTION. The third main topic of the conference was a report of a sub¬ committee of the council on w Graduate Medical Instruction.” The committee had just completed an inspection of the various post¬ graduate medical schools of the country and a study of the problems of such instruction. The following is a brief abstract of the report : A distinction should be made between the advanced courses, which may properly be called “ graduate courses,” and the more elementary courses, con¬ stituting the bulk of the work especially designed for practitioners, which may well be designated as “practitioners’ courses.” The following definitions for use in connection with the instruction of grad¬ uates in medicine are recommended for general acceptance: 1. An undergraduate school is understood to mean a regular medical school, since the instruction it gives leads to graduation in medicine. 2. An undergraduate course is one required for the degree of M. D. 3. A graduate course is one more advanced than an undergraduate course. 4. A practitioner's course is one of undergraduate grade but intended for practitioners. 5. A graduate department, or a graduate school, is one organized to give graduate courses. Such a school may also give practitioners’ courses. 6. A practitioners’ department, or a practitioners’ school, is one organized to give courses for practitioners. Only in exceptional instances should such a school attempt to give graduate courses. 7. A certificate means a document which resembles a diploma in form, is suitable for display, and may impress the public. The instruction of graduates in medicine is essential in order to furnish better doctors to the public. By raising the standards of medical schools the proper training of medical students is practically settled. Much remains to be done, however, to improve the training of physicians who are already in practice and enable them to keep pace with progress in medical knowledge. No medical school should attempt to provide graduate teaching unless its undergraduate course is satisfactorily developed. Consequently schools in classes B and C should not attempt to teach graduates. Even class A schools should not attempt to teach graduates unless the instruction for their under¬ graduates is in a complete state of development. The standards for the 1 Such courses are given by : Medical School of Harvard University ; Tulane University of Louisiana, School of Medicine ; University and Bellevue Hospital Medical College ; University of Colorado, School of Medicine ; University of Michigan Medical School ; University of Minnesota Medical School ; University of Pennsylvania, School of Medicine ; and the University of Wisconsin Medical School. MEDICAL EDUCATION. 207 instruction of graduates should be just as high as those for the instruction of undergraduates, no matter whether the courses are advanced or elementary. During the past year the committee inspected the more important post¬ graduate schools of the country — independent schools organized for the pur¬ pose of teaching medical graduates. As a class the independent postgrad¬ uate schools are inferior and unsatisfactory. Few of them can stand com¬ parison with even fairly good medical schools. Not only is the instruction poor and the equipment inadequate in many of these schools, but some are clearly commercial in type. They can not be depended on for adequate instruction for graduates. Good medical schools, therefore, which have adequate facilities, should undertake this form of instruction. Good medical schools can readily secure the services of competent teachers if the regular force is unable to under¬ take the teaching of graduates. They already have the necessary equipment, or they are in position to secure such equipment, if more is needed. It would mean a needless waste of money for the postgraduate schools as a body to attempt to secure the means which would enable them to secure an equipment adequate to meet the demands of the many graduates who wish instruction. Herein lies one of the strongest arguments why medical schools should under¬ take this work. There are five classes of graduates who need opportunity for further study, depending on their desire (1) to undertake research, (2) to enter some spe¬ cialty, (3) to take other advanced instruction, (4) to take the later improved studies in the medical school, and (5) to make up deficiencies in previous medical training. 1. Research. — Abundant opportunities for research, sufficient to meet the needs of those who wish such work, are already available in the medical schools of this country. 2. Training for specialists. — There is an urgent necessity of establishing standards for specialists. Nothing brings greater discredit to the profession than the blunders of self-styled specialists who have had an inadequate train¬ ing. The training of specialists should involve a systematic course of instruc¬ tion of at least one year, followed by a year or more of supervised clinical experience. This involves the possession of exceptionally good clinical facili¬ ties. It is clear that only the better university medical schools which have exceptionally good opportunities should attempt the training of specialists. Such a course is worthy of some degree in medicine higher than M. D., and such degrees should be granted only by universities. 3. Advanced instruction other than ( 1 ) or (2). — Several of the best medical schools are beginning to give serious consideration to the needs of graduates who seek opportunities for keeping abreast of the advances in medical knowl¬ edge and practice. Instruction of this type can be given only with the teachers and equipment of the best schools ; therefore, it is a duty these schools owe to the community to seriously consider how far they can meet the demand for such courses. They should not hesitate to take up graduate teaching because they could not do so on an extensive scale. It is the quality of the work that is important, not the quantity. It is creditable for a school to offer but a single course if it is a good one and is useful to the profession. On the other hand, it is discreditable for a good school to try to cover more ground than it can do well for the sake of making a showing. Only when this form of instruction is undertaken on an extensive scale is it desirable to establish a separate department or school. Many schools could offer at least a few graduate courses at some time in the year which would be attractive to physicians who wish advanced instruction. There is -an advantage in having centers for teach- 208 EDUCATION REPORT, 1915. ing graduates distributed over the country for the greater convenience of those physicians who are limited as to time or money. 4. Admission of graduates to undergraduate courses. — Graduates in classes 4 and 5, those who have become “ rusty ” and wish to “ brush up,” and the gradu¬ ates of poor schools who have had an inadequate training, constitute the bulk of those who seek further instruction. They do not need advanced courses, and, as a rule, are not qualified to take them. The admission of these graduates to undergraduate exercises is permissible, provided it does not interfere with the regular teaching. As a rule, undergraduate courses require more time than physicians can spare from their professional work. Specially organized prac¬ titioners’ courses are, therefore, desirable. Hitherto such courses have been left for the postgraduate schools, which vary from good to very bad, and as a class are inferior and unsatisfactory. They could be made satisfactory only through extensive improvements, and the funds required for such improvements would be expended to better advantage in strengthening the regular medical schools. Therefore it is unwise to leave the giving of practitioners’ courses to these independent schools. The better medical schools, as far as they can, should provide practitioners’ courses as a public service. The better the school the greater the advantage for the public. Postgraduate schools do not merit universal condemnation, even if as a class they are unsatisfactory. They deserve credit because they have attempted to meet the demand of graduates for further instruction. Hitherto they have been successful because they have had to compete only with poorer schools of the same class. If the good medical schools enter this field of teaching, the postgraduate schools will face a crisis, which is accentuated by the question of standards for such teaching. Either they must come up to the standards of good medical schools or they will lose their best teachers, many of whom have become associated with postgraduate schools because these were the only ones where such teaching could be done. Now that the question of standards is raised, these men will be in demand for the good medical schools which under¬ take this work. The problem of the independent postgraduate schools will take care of itself if the good medical schools undertake this kind of teaching. The better postgraduate schools will be forced to join the regular schools and the poorer ones will find it unprofitable to continue. The number of physicians who will patronize poor schools of this type when better instruction is offered is very limited. Medical schools should understand, however, that courses for practitioners must often be different from the regular undergraduate courses. Practitioners, as a rule, can leave their practice for only a limited time. Courses should be arranged that may be completed in a month or six weeks. This means a greater subdivision and a greater variety of subjects than in undergraduate studies; it means also that the work should be concentrated and practical. Courses should be so arranged that the graduate can occupy himself with studies along certain narrow lines throughout the day. If courses can not be offered throughout the year, they should be concentrated, so that there will be definite periods when the practitioner can have a wide range of choice. Admission requirements. — There can be no uniform admission requirements of an educational character. Medical graduates need courses which range from the elementary to the most advanced. For the benefit of the public, even the most poorly trained practitioner, if he is legally entitled to practice medicine, should have an opportunity to improve his medical knowledge. He should, of course, be admitted only to such courses as he is qualified to take. It is desir¬ able that graduates from poor schools who are not registered should not be MEDICAL EDUCATION. 209 able to coach up in these courses and learn just enough to pass the State licensing boards. Certificates. — To offset the evils attendant on the loose regulations about granting certificates it is recommended that the minimum time requirement for the granting of a certificate be four months of all-day work, taken consecu¬ tively ; that it should be granted only for a systematic course, approved by the school, in which attendance and work have been satisfactory ; and that the student must pass an examination based on this course of study. A school may issue for shorter courses an official statement as to the student’s attendance or the character of his work, but the form must be such that it does not resemble a diploma. RULES FOR THE CLASSIFICATION OF GRADUATE MEDICAL SCHOOLS. The following rules regarding the classification and indorsement of graduate medical schools were recommended by the committee and adopted by the council: (a) No graduate medical school will be approved by the council which accepts as students physicians who are not licensed practitioners, unless they are graduates of medical colleges rated in Class A.1 ( & ) Certificates, diplomalike in character, should not be granted for less than four months of all-day work, taken consecutively ; they should be granted only for a systematic course, approved by the school, in which attendance and work have been satisfactory, and to secure this certificate the student should pass an examination based on the course of study. Only such graduate medi¬ cal schools will be approved which exact these requirements. (c) The council, in its discretion, will give its approval to research courses, to systematic courses for the training of specialists, and to other graduate courses where given in Class A medical colleges. (This does not mean that all such courses in Class A medical colleges will be approved, but that no such courses will be approved if given in medical colleges graded lower than Class A. ) ( d ) In determining the standard of graduate departments of medical col¬ leges, or independent schools giving instruction to graduates, the council will be guided by the following outline, grading the various institutions on a civil- service basis, on a scale of 1,000 points : 1. Any evidence obtainable showing the character of the training furnished by the graduate medical school. 2. The observance by the graduate medical school of the rules herein set forth regarding the admission of students. 3. Supervision of the students’ work ; character of the records ; observance of the rules herein set forth regarding the granting of certificates. 4. Graduate school buildings or quarters : Light, heat, ventilation, cleanliness. 5. Laboratory facilities and instruction. 6. Dispensary facilities and instruction. 7. Hospital facilities and instruction, maternity work, necropsies, specialties. 8. Faculty: Number and qualification of trained teachers, full-time instruc¬ tors and assistants, organization, research work, etc. 9. Extent to which the school is conducted for teaching rather than for the profit of the faculty directly or indirectly. 10. Possession and use made of libraries, museums, charts, stereopticons, etc. 1 In statements regarding classes of medical colleges reference is made to the classifica¬ tion prepared by the Council on Medical Education of the American Medical Association, whic divides them, according to their excellence of teachers, equipment, etc., into Classes A, B, and C. 12034°— ed 1915— vol 1 - 14 210 EDUCATION REPORT, 1915. Although the council has not attempted as yet to classify graduate medical schools, reports indicate that it is collecting data on which such a classification can be based. Any graduate school may apply for approval, and this is to be granted if the school meets the requirements as above set forth, and if, in all departments in which instruction is given, it comes up to the standard of a Class A school. THE JOINT CONFERENCE.1 The joint conference of the Association of American Medical Col¬ leges and the Federation of State Medical Boards of the United States was held on Wednesday, February IT. Of particular interest was a paper presented by Dr. Henry S. Pritchett, president of the Carnegie Foundation for the Advancement of Teaching, on “The Classification of Medical Colleges,” in which he discussed the work of the Council on Medical Education. He showed that the effective¬ ness of the council’s work came from the fact that it was supported by the great mass of the organized medical profession of America. In speaking of the rule of the council that all medical colleges to be rated in Class A should require for admission a year of college work, including courses in physics, chemistry, and biology, in addition to a four-year high-school education, Dr. Pritchett said: I look upon the enforcement of this provision over the whole United States as premature. In the South the medical schools were barely upon the high- school basis and I fear the effect of this action both upon medical school and high school. It will, I fear, work to continue for some years a series of insin¬ cere adjustments, and the progress made in the raising of standards, while attractive on paper, is likely to be in part illusory. The reply of the council to this was as follows : The council has been especially interested in the development of the high schools of the South, since it has been and is one of the most important prob¬ lems confronting the medical schools of that section of the country. The rea¬ sons why the council believes the enforcement of the one year of college re¬ quirement in the South should not be delayed are as follows: In the first place the council has fixed a standard for the entire country and has tried to obliterate any lines between the North and South, or the East and West. A second point is that the South, according to statements made year after year at these conferences, no longer desires to have special concessions made for it. The colleges of that section desire to be judged on the same basis as those of other parts of the country. Third, if the high schools of the South are imperfect, is it not all the more reason why those who are going to study medicine should be required to take the one year of extra work even though it may not be at first as perfect a college year as is desired? As to the requirement itself, many educators throughout the South, college presidents, professors of secondary education, and others have stated that the effect of the requirement one way or the other depends on the manner in which it is administered. In response to the question : “ Would not the requirement of a year of college work, with the strict understanding that it be preceded by a 1 Assoc. Amer. Med. Col., Proc. 25th An. Meeting, Feb. 17, 1915, p. 1 1. MEDICAL EDUCATION. 211 four-year high-school education, or its actual equivalent, help the high schools in the South?” the answers, with only one exception, were decidedly in the affirmative. The chief difficulty found in the inspection of some of the universi¬ ties in the South, as well as of the medical schools, has been the lack of efficient methods of administering their entrance requirements. Such faulty methods are a positive hindrance to progress both of the high schools and of the colleges. If the medical schools verify every credential, and make sure that students ad¬ mitted have the four-year high-school education, before any college work taken may be counted as such, it would be a positive aid in the development of the high schools. Such requirement will induce the small colleges in the South to increase their entrance requirements to at least 14 units of secondary school work, or not be recognized by the medical schools. President Pritchett also suggested several criteria which he be¬ lieves should be applied in deciding the classification of medical col¬ leges. These were : 1. The entrance qualifications demanded of the students admitted. 2. The quality of the teaching, the ability and devotion of the faculty. 3. Completeness and availability of the scientific laboratories in chemistry, anatomy, physiology, pathology, and associated sciences. 4. Character of the clinical facilities, including both hospital and dispensary, and the use made of them. 5. Financial income as shown by a detailed statement of receipts and expendi¬ tures. MINIMUM EXPENSES FOR MAINTENANCE OF THE FIRST TWO YEARS OF AN ACCEPTABLE MEDICAL COLLEGE. A paper on this subject was presented by Dr. F. C. Waite, secre¬ tary of the Western Reserve University School of Medicine, Cleve¬ land, Ohio. The following is an abstract of the paper : The cost of each of the laboratory departments falls under three general heads: Salaries, maintenance, and additions to equipment. Aside from the building and fixed furniture, the movable apparatus for each laboratory suffi¬ cient to care for the teaching of 50 students in a class is not far from an average of $5,000 per laboratory. The figure of $25,000 for five laboratories is conserva¬ tive. To this should be added at least $10,000 for a working library, and teach¬ ing collections, especially in anatomy and pathology. Such collections represent a value of at least $5,000. They can not be purchased ; they must be accumu¬ lated. There is, therefore, represented in the equipment of five laboratory de¬ partments at least $40,000. The salaries for each department will amount to at least $7,000 ; library ap¬ propriation, $200 ; breakage and repairs, $500 ; material for students, $750. allow¬ ing $15 per student, as an average, for the five laboratories. The sum-total for the annual maintenance of the five laboratories would amount to $41,750. The minimum salary would be $3,000 ; the dieners and technicians, of course, receive considerably less. An acceptable school must have at the head of its laboratory departments men who are not only capable of directing the teaching, but also of doing and directing some research. Some men when they start may be willing to accept less than $3,000, but as they continue in the work they deserve and must receive sorpe increment, so that the average of the five professorial salaries is certainly $3,000. The professorial salary scale in many schools is 212 EDUCATION' REPORT, 1915. now $4,000 or above. To teach a class of 50 students there should be at least three teachers to each department. In laboratory exercises an instructor can not care for over 15 to 20 men and get good results. Of course, all of these men should be full-time teachers. Three men to a department, five of these being heads of the departments, and eleven subordinates, constitute the full-time teaching staff in the laboratory department. The subordinates should not re¬ ceive less than $1,500 a year. Technical assistants are absolutely necessary, and may be pair at least $900 a year, in order to make the place attractive as a career. To attract and hold capable teachers, library facilities must be provided. The initial investment will be about $10,000. The cost of maintenance for a year is about $200 per department. This takes no account of overhead charges in connection with maintaining the buildings and ground, nor is any taken of gen¬ eral administrative expense. Allowing $6,000 per year for such expense gives a minimum total of $50,000 for maintaining the two laboratory years. Income from fees is about $150 per student. The difference between the tuition fees and the maintenance expense must come from some other source. MININUM EXPENSES FOR MAINTAINING THE CLINICAL DEPARTMENTS. This was the subject of a paper presented by Dr. John L. Heffron, dean of the College of Medicine of Syracuse University, Syracuse, N. Y. The following is an abstract of that paper: Data were collected from 23 Class A schools. At Johns Hopkins the total expense of the clinical department is $141,742. If interest on money invested in buildings and permanent equipment is included, the clinical teaching in Johns Hopkins Medical School costs $375,000 a year. Some schools report an annual expenditure for this work of considerably more than $150,000. At Syracuse University College of Medicine, which does not own a hospital, the clinical teaching expense in hospitals is nil, and yet we think it is efficient. There is a college dispensary which, with equipment, cost $95,000. The laboratories in the dispensary are equipped and supplied by the university. The laboratories in the affiliated hospitals are largely supported by the hospitals, the university expending not to exceed $200 for this purpose. Each student is required to own his own microscope. For the laboratories of clinical diagnosis, clinical pa¬ thology, and clinical bacteriology about $5,000 is expended annually for salaries and supplies. If the university should charge interest on $95,000 and the cost of upkeep, the total annual expense for clinical teaching would be approximately $10,000. The cost of clinical teaching varies, depending on whether the college owns its own hospital, dispensary, and clinical laboratories, and whether the clinical teachers are paid on a part-time or full-time basis. Good clinical teaching can be done with a volunteer clinical faculty in affiliated hospitals, but it is not the best way or the right way. A medical school should own or use or control and use a general hospital and a dispensary, and both should be fully equipped with clinical laboratories for students’ use. Clinical teaching can be done efficiently by men who are paid enough to permit them to devote sufficient time to the study and teaching of their subject and who are permitted to engage in con¬ sulting practice which does not interfere with their duties as teachers and in¬ vestigators. Each major department would require in salaries about $7,500 a year, or a total expenditure for medicine, surgery, pediatrics, and obstetrics of $30,000 a year in salaries. In Syracuse the cost per patient per day in the hospital we use is $1.75. The city or some responsible party pays $1.50 of this MEDICAL EDUCATION. 213 sum. leaving a daily deficit of 25 cents per patient which must be made up from the treasury of the university or by subscription. Take as a standard hospital one with four units of 24 beds each, and suppose that all the beds were occupied for 75 per cent of the time. That would give an annual deficit representing the cost to the university or to the public over what had been re¬ ceived of $13,324. Added to the salaries, the total expense would be about $45,000. This is so nearly the $50,000 which it had been estimated is necessary for the conduct of the clinical department of a first-class medical school that it is quite significant. REVISED REQUIREMENTS FOR ADMISSION TO MEDICAL SCHOOLS. During the February conference on medical education a joint com¬ mittee of the Association of American Medical Colleges and of the Council on Medical Education assisted by Dr. Kendric C. Babcock, dean of the college of liberal arts and sciences of the University of Illinois, formerly specialist in higher education in the United States Bureau of Education, was appointed to prepare a statement in greater detail in regard to the requirements of admission to medi¬ cal colleges to be enforced during the next few years, including a statement of such conditions as were to be allowed for the two follow¬ ing years. A preliminary statement was submitted to 50 or more leading authorities on preliminary education for their suggestions and criticisms, and on receipt of the replies the following statement was adopted: I. HIGH-SCHOOL REQUIREMENTS. (a) For admission to the preliminary college year, students must have com¬ pleted a 4-year course of at least 14 units in a standard accredited high school or other institution of standard secondary school grade, or have its equivalent as demonstrated by an examination conducted by a duly authorized examiner of the college entrance examination board, or by the authorized examiner of a standard college or university which has been approved by the Council on Medical Education, or by an examiner whose certificates are accepted by such approved standard colleges or universities. A detailed statement of attend¬ ance at the secondary school, and a transcript of the student’s work should be kept on file by the medical school authorities. This evidence of actual attend¬ ance at the secondary school or schools should be obtained for every student no matter whether he is admitted to the freshman or to advanced classes. This information regarding high-school education should be kept separate from the transcript of college work described below. 214 EDUCATION REPORT, 1915. (&) The subject for which credits for admission to the preliminary college year may be accepted are shown in the accompanying schedule: Schedule of subjects offered in academic and secondary schools, credits in which are acceptable for entrance to the preliminary ^college year leading to the medi¬ cal courses. Subjects. Units. Re¬ quired. Elective. ENGLISH: Reading and Practice . 2 2 Study and Practice . . 1 1 MATHEMATICS: Axgebea to Quadratics . 1 1 Algebra (Quadratic Equations, Binominal Theorem, and Progres- X h Plane" Geometry . 2 1 . 1 Solid Geometry . X 1 2 X 1 . 2 * LATIN: 2 Grammar and Composition . 1 (i) 1 Caesar . 1 0) l Cicero . l l Virgil . 1 l Cornelius Nepos . 1 l Greek: Grammar and Composition . 1 G) 1 Xenophon . 1 0) 1 Homer . 1 1 German (or French): Elementary . 2 i 2 Intermediate . 1 l Other Foreign Language: Elementary . 2 2 HISTORY: American History and Civil Government . 1 1 Greek and Roman History . 1 1 Medieval and Modem History . 1 1 English History . 1 1 Science: 2 Botany and Zoology, each . 1 1 or Biology . 1 1 Chemistry . 1 1 Physics . 1 1 Physiography . i Physiology . | \ Agriculture . l2 1 Drawing . 1 1 Manual Training . 1 1 Domestic Science . 1 1 Music: Appreciation or Harmony . 1 1 Total . 33| 7 26J 1 Two units of Greek or Latin may be substituted for the two required units of French or German. 2 Credentials of each science course must include evidence of laboratory work. A unit is the credit value of at least 36 weeks’ work of 4 or 5 recitation periods per week, each recitation period to be of not less than 40 minutes. In other words, a unit represents a year’s study in any subject in a secondary school constituting approximately a quarter of a full year’s work. A satisfac¬ tory year’s work in any subject can not be accomplished under ordinary circum¬ stances in less than 120 sixty -minute hours or their equivalent. Required branches. — Of the 14 units of high-school work it is suggested that the subjects in capitals aggregating 7 units be required. Other work to the amount of at least 7 units may be made up from any of the other subjects of the above schedule. H. WOEK OF THE PRELIMINARY COLLEGE YEAB. (c) The preliminary college year, which is the present minimum requirement for admission to medical schools, shall extend through one college session of at least 32 weeks of actual instruction, including final examinations. Its purpose MEDICAL EDUCATION. 215 is to provide the student with a training that will enable him to enter more intelligently on the study of the fundamental medical sciences. (rf) In excellence of teaching and in content the work of this preliminary college year shall be at least equal to the work done in the freshman year in standard colleges and universities which enforce for admission at least 14 units of accredited high-school work and exact for graduation at least 120 semester hours 1 of collegiate work. ( e ) This preliminary college year shall consist of at least 30 semester hours,1 fully completed before the student enters the medical school. This is entirely in addition to the 14 units of secondary school work. Each student before being admitted to the medical school must have fully completed 14 units of high-school work and 30 semester hours of college work. If the college -work did not include the specified subjects, as shown in (/), the students must be required to remove such conditions as are permitted in those subjects by additional college work. Additional college credits are necessary also to make up any deficiencies there may be in high-school credits. For example, if a student completed only three years of high-school work before entering “ college,” then two years of collegiate work (60 semester hours) must be required before he is admitted to the medical school. Schedule. Subjects. Lectures or recitations per week. Laboratory periods 1 per week. Total hours per semester. Total semester hours per year. Physics, 1 . 2 or 3 2 or 1 4 8 Chemistry, 1 . 2 2 4 8 Biology, i . 2 or 3 2 or 1 4 8 (or Zoology, l)2 . (1) 4 or 3 (2) (3) 4 or 3 (6) 8 or 6 Elective, preferably French or German, 22 _ _ Total . 9 or 11 6 or 5 16 or 15 32 or 30 1 Each, laboratory period must extend over at least two hours. 2 See paragraph (/). (/) This preliminary college year shall include courses in physics, chemistry, and biology, each course to embrace at least 8 semester hours of didactic and laboratory work as shown in the accompanying schedule, provided that the requirement in biology may be satisfied b ypresenting 6 semester hours of college zoology, or by presenting one unit of high school biology, including laboratory work, and completing 4 semester hours of college zoology ; and provided that requirement in biology may be satisfied by presenting 6 semester hours of college school physics, including laboratory work, and completing 4 semester hours of college physics which continues and does not duplicate the work done in high school. Under no arrangement, however, should there be a total of less than 30 semester hours of college work. It is strongly urged that these include 6 semester hours of a modern language other than English, preferably French or German.2 (ff) Credits for two or more years of collegiate work can not be considered fully acceptable unless courses in physics, chemistry, and biology, as described above, have been completed. It is urged that a reading knowledge of French or German also be required. 1 A semester hour is the measurement of work represented by one class period per week for half of the college year. Each laboratory period to be so valuated must extend over at least two hours. 2 The inclusion of French or German is required for entrance to institutions which are members of the Association of American Medical Colleges. 216 EDUCATION REPORT, 1915. ( li ) Medical schools which aim to give a premedical year, including these science courses, should admit only those students who have completed at least 14 units of unconditional high-school work,1 should provide expert full-time teachers in the various subjects in addition to the regular staff of the medical school ; provide standard laboratory equipment ; and should provide a training in the subjects of the premedical year no less thorough than that given in standard colleges of liberal arts and the total work of this premedical year should amount to at least 30 semester hours of nonmedical subjects. (i) Postgraduate courses given in high schools can not be considered equal to college courses given by college teachers, unless such postgraduate courses are definitely organized on a junior college basis, and credits for work done in them regularly recognized and accepted by a State university or other university of similar rank, approved by the council. O') A year of work in a college of medicine, dentistry, pharmacy, or other professional college is not considered as an equivalent to the required premedical college year. HI. ENTRANCE CONDITIONS UNTIL JAN. 1, 19 17. 2 ( k ) A student may be admitted with certain subject conditions provided he has completed at least one year [30 semester hours, see paragraph (e)] of work in an approved college of liberal arts or science, provided no conditions may be permitted in the prescribed 8 semester hours of college chemistry. These conditions may be either in (1) or (2), but not in both: (1) in one-half (4 semester hours) of the required course in physics, or (2) in one-half of the required course in biology (4 semester hours), or in zoology (3 semester hours). These conditions must be removed before the beginning of the work of the second medical year, and the credits for these conditions must be in addition to the required 30 semester hours. ( l ) A candidate who has completed two or more years of work in an ap¬ proved college of liberal arts, or science, may be admitted conditioned in all of the required work in physics, or one-half of the work required in biology, to a total not to exceed 8 semester hours. These conditions must be removed before the beginning of the second medical year. No condition may be permitted in the prescribed 8 semester hours of college chemistry. ( m ) A candidate who holds a baccalaureat degree from a standard four year college or university approved by the Council on Medical Education may be admitted, in the fall of 1915 only, conditioned in all the physics or all the biology or in one-half of the physics and one-half of the biology, the total condi¬ tion not to exceed 8 semester hours. After 1915 only one-half of the biology (4 semester hours) and one-half of the physics, or all of the physics, the total not to exceed 8 semester hours, may be carried as a condition. These conditions must be removed before the beginning of the second medical year. No condition may be permitted in the prescribed 8 semester hours of college chemistry. ( n ) Since the medical course demands the full energy of the student, espe¬ cially in the freshman year, all deficiencies should be removed, so far as possible, during the summers preceding and following the freshman medical year. (o) A medical school having students who were conditioned on entrance in 1914-15, under the former regulations, are entitled to have the conditions of such students brought into conformity with the rulings here announced without prejudice to its standing. 1 Part courses or uncompleetd courses are not to be accepted. 2 Deficiencies in preparation should be made up in large part in attendance at a summer session of the university, either before or following the freshman medical year. MEDICAL EDUCATION. 217 ENDOWMENTS FOR MEDICAL SCHOOLS. Prior to 1900 the great majority of medical colleges depended entirely on the income from tuition fees. This situation has been reversed. Instead of paying dividends, the faculty members of some independent medical colleges at the present time are being regularly assessed each year to pay deficits. It is now well known that the cost of teaching each medical student in the better-equipped medical college is two, three, or even several times the sum which he pays for tuition. The reason for this change is evident. A great field of medical research has been opened by the work of Virchow and Pasteur. The establishing of the germ origin of many diseases, the development of immunization by vaccines, antitoxins, and serums, and the advent of antiseptic surgery have practically revolutionized the teaching of medicine and demanded schools having expert, sal¬ aried teachers, extensively equipped laboratories, generous provision for medical research, and an abundance of hospital and dispensary material. It was soon clearly demonstrated that even the most ex¬ orbitant tuition fees would not meet the expense for maintaining one of these modern medical schools, and that either State aid or private endowment was essential. Philanthropists did not care to give money to profit-bearing institutions, but responded nobly to the needs of high-grade medical schools. As President Eliot once said : 1 “ The way to get endowment for medicine is to improve medical education.” As medical colleges have adopted better stand¬ ards of admission and shown that they deserved to exist, the needed financial aid has been obtained. Generous appropriations have been granted to State university medical schools, and endowments of hundreds of thousands, or millions, from private sources, have been so frequent in recent years as to become almost commonplace. These gifts have been so generous for some institutions as to make them equal, if not superior, in resources to the leading medical schools abroad. Since 1906, when Harvard Medical School obtained its beautiful new buildings, the Peter Bent Brigham Hospital, the Huntington Cancer Plospital, the State Psychopathic Hospital, and other institutions have been built in the immediate vicinity and brought into close affiliation, resulting in the development of a great medical center. Johns Hopkins Medical School, with its modest start in 1896, has since been developed by large additions to its endowment, by the increased provision for medical research, and the expansion of its hospital, until it, likewise, ranks among the world’s great medical schools. There have been marked developments at Pennsylvania and Michigan and, more recently, at Minnesota, Co¬ lumbia, and Tulane. Xew medical buildings at less expense, but pro- 1 Fourth An. Conf. of the Council on Med. Ed., Chicago, Apr. 13, 1908. Am. Med. Assoc. Bui., May 15, 1908, p. 263. 218 EDUCATION REPORT, 1915. portionally of equal importance, in recent years have been erected for the medical schools of the State universities of Georgia, Nebraska, and North Carolina and for the Medical College of South Carolina. A beautiful new medical library building has been secured for Leland Stanford Junior University, and greatly increased hospital connec¬ tions, leading to the development of more compact medical teaching plants, have been obtained by Western Reserve University and the University of Cincinnati. The medical department of Vanderbilt University at Nashville and the Atlanta Medical College, after long struggles against competition and adversity, have received liberal endowments and are now undergoing a rapid development. Within the past year, however, another achievement of great importance has been brought about at St. Louis. The Barnes Hospital, the St. Louis Children’s Hospital, and the Washington University Medical School have built splendid new buildings in immediate proximity, at an expense of over $2,500,000. The three institutions, furthermore, have endowments amounting to approximately $3,000,000. Of greater significance, however, is the fact that these institutions have formed a close affiliation by which they can work together to fulfill in the best manner possible a threefold function: (a) To furnish the best and most enlightened care of the sick in accordance with modern medical knowledge; (b) to add to the positive knowledge regarding the cause, cure, and prevention of disease through scientific research ; and ( c ) to furnish courses of instruction by which the public will be provided with thoroughly trained physicians and nurses. The dedication of these new buildings marks the completion of another great medical teaching institution in the United States, and places the Washington University Medical School on a par with other leading medical schools. In the light of all these marked achievements in medical educa¬ tion, it is not surprising that as great, or perhaps greater, things are being planned in other parts of the country. These recent accom¬ plishments, therefore, give confident expectation that the plans for a ten-million dollar medical center at Columbia University will be successfully worked out. Surely, no development is more worthy of generous support; no investment could bring greater returns in the saving of lives, in the prevention of sickness and distress, and in promoting the welfare of the public. OTHER GIFTS OF THE YEAR TO MEDICAL EDUCATION. Arkansas. — The University of Arkansas, Medical Department, received $65,000 from the Arkansas Legislature for maintenance during the next biennium. California. — The University of California Medical School received in per¬ petuity an endowment which yields an annual income of $1,200 for the main¬ tenance of a position of research associate in pathology. During the year, also, subscriptions of $615,700 were received for a new hospital. MEDICAL EDUCATION. 219 Connecticut . — The Yale University School of Medicine received $25,000 for the further endowment of the university clinic and $5,100 for the establishment of the Ramsey memorial scholarship. Georgia. — The Atlanta Medical College has been taken over by Emory Uni¬ versity as its medical department. Through the generosity of Asa G. Candler an endowment of $250,000 has been provided, and a teaching hospital to cost from $200,000 to $300,000 is to be erected on or near the college property. The University of Georgia Medical Department received $25,000, to be known as the William J. Young library fund, the income to be used in the im¬ provement of the library and the purchase of new books. Illinois. — A gift of $1,000,000 was given by James Deering to the Wesley Memorial Hospital, Chicago, on condition that it become the teaching hospital of the Northwestern University Medical School. The University of Illinois received a total appropriation of $5,000,000, about $100,000 of which is to be utilized for a new medical college building in Chicago. Indiana. — Indiana University received a gift of $100,000 from Dr. Luther D. Waterman, to be used for scientific research; an additional $10,000 was re¬ ceived from Dr. and Mrs. Robert W. Long for the teaching hospital of the school of medicine. Kansas. — The University of Kansas School of Medicine received an appro¬ priation of $25,000 for a new laboratory building. Massachusetts. — The Boston University School of Medicine received $100,000 for a maternity hospital to be erected on a site near its campus. The Medical School of Harvard University received a bequest of $50,000 by the will of Dr. William H. Baker, to be used for the endowment of the chair of gynecology. The will of Mrs. Endicott provides $25,000, the income to be used for cancer investigation work. A gift of $10,000 for the endowment of a scholarship was received by the will of Fannie Bartlett. Nebraska. — The University of Nebraska received an appropriation of $150,000 for a State hospital to be erected on the campus of the College of Medicine. Neiv York. — Columbia University received $113,750 from William K. Vander¬ bilt, to purchase a site for the new medical school ; $100,000 was received by the will of Emil C. Bondy for research in cancer. Two gifts, one amounting to $4,000 the other to $2,500, were received for surgical research; $2,000 was re¬ ceived for the department of physiology, and $2,000 for the Frank Hartley scholarship fund. The New York Medical College and Hospital for Women received $10,000 by the will of William Washington Cole. Ohio. — The University of Cincinnati College of Medicine was offered $250,000 for a new building by Mrs. Mary M. Emery, on condition that a like amount be raised before July 1. On that date $255,000 had been secured, making a total of $505,000. Oregon. — The University of Oregon, Department of Medicine, raised $25,000, on the securing of which the $50,000 appropriated by the State for a new building becomes available. Pennsylvania. — The University of Pennsylvania received $50,000 by the will of Miss Anna M. Blanchard. Another sum of $50,000, the income from which is to be used for the maintenance of the William Pepper clinical laboratories, was provided by the will of Samuel Dickson. The Corinna Borden Keen research fellowship, the annual income from which amounts to $1,000, has been established in the Jefferson Medical College, Philadelphia, by Prof. William W. Keen, with the provision that each recipient shall spend at least one year in research work. The Woman’s Medical College of Pennsylvania received $10,000 from the Shipper estate ; $5,000 was received by the will of Mrs. Anna Yarnall ; $5,000 was received for the Edith E. Keisher scholarship fund; and $225 for another scholarship fund. 220 EDUCATION REPORT, 1915. South Carolina. — The Medical College of the State of South Carolina received $1,000 under the will of Mrs. Salina Huger, the income to be used in the pur¬ chase of books for the college library. Tennessee. — The building formerly occupied by the Medical Department of the University of Nashville, valued at $50,000, was purchased by William Litterer and donated to the Vanderbilt University, to be used for teaching and research in bacteriology. Texas. — A Woman’s Hospital and a new nurses’ home costing, respectively, $125,000 and $90,000, have been erected on the grounds of the John Sealy Hospital, which is the teaching hospital of the medical department of the University of Texas. The money for the former was provided by Mrs. It. Waverly Smith and her brother, John Sealy. West Virginia. — A new building, to cost $57,000, is being erected for the School of Medicine of West Virginia University, Morgantown. Wisconsin. — Subscriptions to the endowment fund of Marquette University, School of Medicine, have been received to the amount of $150,000. THE MATO FOUNDATION AND THE UNIVERSITY OF MINNESOTA.1 Another special incident of the year was the establishing of the “ Mayo F oundation for Medical Education and Research ” by the Mayo brothers, of Rochester, Minn. This was endowed for $1,- 500,000 and has been placed in affiliation with the University of Min¬ nesota for a trial period of six years. From a small beginning many years ago the Mayo clinic developed until it is now recognized the world over. It possesses a large amount of material and equipment useful in diagnosis and research, and the clinical records of patients have been carefully kept and cross indexed, making them of special value for statistical study. The taking over by the University of Minnesota of the Mayo foundation has greatly aided the development in that State of a high type of graduate medical instruction and re¬ search. MEDICAL EDUCATION IN CHINA. The Rockefeller Foundation has outlined the plan of its proposed endowment of medical education in the Republic of China under the management of an American resident director, Dr. Roger S. Greene. It is the intention of the foundation to establish a system of medical colleges and hospitals throughout China by appropria¬ tions to certain existing schools and the establishment of additional institutions. Modern surgical and medical methods will be intro¬ duced in all the centers controlled by the foundation. 1 See also p. 154. CHAPTER IX. VOCATIONAL EDUCATION. By William T. Bawden, Specialist in Industrial Education, Bureau of Education. Contents. — Present tendencies — National aid for vocational education — State systems of vocational education — New work in State universities — Training teachers for voca¬ tional education — Organizations interested in vocational education — Investigations and surveys — Vocational -guidance — Vocational education in the small city — Achieve¬ ments in typical centers — Items of special interest. One year is perhaps a brief period within which to expect to note progress in some fields, but not so in vocational education at the present time. The intensity of popular interest, the increasing num¬ bers of those who seek definite suggestions for specific purposes, the eagerness with which information is sought, and the magnitude of the physical proportions of the movement, as manifested in legisla¬ tion and in the creation and extension of schools to meet newly con¬ ceived needs — all of these grow steadily and rapidly more impressive. A review of the year’s developments within the limits of a few pages must of necessity be cursory and fragmentary. It is believed, how¬ ever, that further consideration of the topics dealt with in the fol¬ lowing pages would give the student a grasp of the significant phases of the movement. In the preparation of this chapter many of the recognized leaders in all parts of the country have materially assisted by reports and suggestions. This assistance is here cordially ac¬ knowledged. i. PRESENT TENDENCIES. (1) Cooperation. — It is always more difficult to interpret contem¬ poraneous events than it is to gauge their importance when seen in retrospect. Nevertheless, it seems reasonably clear that there has been during the past year no force or principle of action more in¬ fluential than the spirit of cooperation. The idea that the factory, the labor union, the commercial estab¬ lishment, the woman’s club, the parent- teacher association, and other representative groups, with the public school as an aggressive inter¬ mediary and leader, may and should unite in the study, and the ultimate solution, of the problems of vocational education, is causing almost a revolution in educational thinking. If this revolution can be carried over into educational practice, as now seems probable, 221 222 EDUCATION REPORT, 1915. many other departments of school activity besides vocational edu¬ cation may reap the fruits of cooperative effort. (#) Trade agreements. — One of the immediate practical and tan¬ gible benefits resulting from cooperation has been the development of agreements relative to vocational and continuation school pro¬ grams and apprenticeships. The pioneer work in this field dates back four or five years at least, but the developments of the past year have been especially noteworthy. Examples and precedents and texts of agreements to meet a variety of typical situations are now becoming available, and their extension to a large number of cities and to new conditions may be expected to be -a feature of the new year’s work. ( 3 ) Specific programs. — The belief seems to be growing that there is no such thing as general vocational education beyond the ele¬ mentary stages, but that programs and courses of study must have specific ends in view. Yocational education has been declared within the past year to be a “local and not a general question,” and much emphasis has been placed on the necessity of an understanding of local conditions in determining methods of procedure. (Ji) Basis of aims and purposes . — Because of this evolution of opinion with reference to the importance of local conditions there has been a disposition to reexamine seriously the basis of supposed facts upon which vocational schools and courses have been built. A new note has been struck in the recognition of the “ futility of training a boy or girl for a place that does not await him.” The new point of view is characterized by keen interest in questions of supply and demand in the labor market and by intensive study and analysis of occupations and a more careful inventory and analysis of existing educational facilities. (5) The prevocaiioncd school. — One of the significant phases of the year’s progress is in the further development of a type of school or department designed to assist boys and girls of approxi¬ mately the 12 to 16 years old period to a better understanding of their own abilities and of the best possible use to be made of such abilities from the point of view of the life career. When work with this object in view has been undertaken as a form of classroom study without special equipment, with or without visits to industrial and commercial establishments and individual studies and researches, it has been referred to as “ vocational guidance.” When, however, special equipment has been provided, so that the pupil may participate in practical shop and laboratory activities on real projects selected from a number of fundamental vocations, with a sufficient amount of time assigned to practical work, it has been believed that the pupil may be able to form for himself an intelligent relative estimate of his fitness for the various types of VOCATIONAL EDUCATION. 223 vocation in which he thus engages as the basis for the choice of a life career. To such special school or department has been given the title of “ prevocational school” or “ prevocational class.” There lias been some criticism as to the propriety of the term “ prevoca¬ tional ” in connection with such work, and it does not yet appear that the term will be permanently adopted. (6) Raising the age of entrance into industry. — The tendency toward raising the age at which young people may enter profitable employment in the industrial and commercial world is unmistakable. The term “blind-alley job” persists in educational discussion, just as the thing itself persists in real life, and probably will persist for an indefinite period to come. Many kinds of work must be done ; all kinds of work are not equally interesting or edifying or of equal promise for the future. It is coming to be recognized that even the “blind-alley job” is not an unmitigated evil, especially if its char¬ acter is clearly understood by the worker and by society. Many boys and girls are persuaded to reject opportunities for merely casual employment when its true nature and probable effects are made clear to them, and necessary sacrifices are willingly made in order that more adequate preparation may be made for something more worth while. For many others, who must, or who think they must, go to work at whatever offers, the “ way out ” may be provided through continuation and part-time schools. The enactment of legislation in the States relating to employer’s liability and workmen’s compensation, industrial accident insurance, minimum wage, and compulsory education, together with the chang¬ ing public sentiment which has inspired or resulted from this legis¬ lation, are potent causes of the gradual but certain rise in the age at which boys and girls permanently discontinue their schooling to go to work. In an investigation, recently made in Iowa, information was se¬ cured from a group of employers with a total aggregate roll of 401,130 workers, representing 65 of the leading industries of the State, In this total number of employees there were reported only 249 boys and 76 girls under 16 years of age. The statements from the employers indicate a growing conviction that an employee under 16 years of age is not an industrial asset. Such facts, and the actual changing of the status of the young worker, must be regarded as an important phase of the movement for vocational education. (7) Democracy in education. — Vocational education is an integral part of a great national attempt to achieve real democracy in edu¬ cation. It is preeminently an attempt to work through the schools and through the industries to minister to the educational needs of children who have not been served completely or efficiently by 224 EDUCATION KEPOET, 1915. existing schools. It is an attempt to supplement existing educa¬ tional opportunities, to the end that “ all the children of all the people ” may be adequately prepared for them life work. (8) A social as well as educalional problem. — Of great signifi¬ cance, finally, is the evident tendency to see in vocational education something more than a mere special problem of the schools — the tendency, that is, to regard it, with all of its ramifications, as a great social problem. As such, according to the new point of view, it will never be satisfactorily solved until all those forces and agencies that are interested in social amelioration and human- prog¬ ress can be brought together for a cooperative and concentrated attack upon those fundamental evils that are beneath the surface of illiteracy, inefficiency, and poverty. 2. NATIONAL AID FOR VOCATIONAL EDUCATION. The bill proposing Federal aid for vocational education, drafted in accordance with the recommendations of the Commission on National Aid to Vocational Education (House bill No. 16952, known as the Smith-Hughes Bill), which was introduced in the second ses¬ sion of the Sixty-third Congress, was not acted upon finally before adjournment. It is expected that the bill will be brought up for further consideration at the next session of Congress. A summary of the provisions of the bill was given in the 1914 report.1 3. STATE SYSTEMS OF VOCATIONAL EDUCATION. No change has taken place since the last report in the number of States having systems for organizing and supervising vocational schools and for assisting local communities in the maintenance of such schools through grants of State aid. These States are Massachu¬ setts, New York, New Jersey, Pennsylvania, Wisconsin, and Indiana. In each of these States administration is effected through the office of a special deputy or expert assistant attached to the staff of the State superintendent of public instruction or commissioner of educa¬ tion. In Connecticut the law provides for industrial schools under two optional plans: (1) Supported and controlled by the State board of education; (2) controlled by the local community, with State aid under specified conditions. In Maryland annual grants are made for the partial support of colored industrial schools. In Vermont, Maine, Minnesota, Montana, North Dakota, Ehode Island, and Tennessee provision is made for State appropriations to communities or schools 1 See Educ. Kept., 1914, vol. 1, p. 239. VOCATIONAL EDUCATION. 225 offering approved courses in industrial, manual, or household arts subjects. Earnest attempts to secure legislation for a State system of voca¬ tional education in Illinois again failed. Three separate bills were introduced into the State legislature: (1) The Cooley bill, drafted according to the suggestions of Dr. E. G. Cooley, of the Chicago Commercial Club, providing for a modified form of dual adminis¬ trative control, involving special industrial edification boards ap¬ pointed by the regular boards of school trustees; (2) the so-called teachers’ bill, placing the organization and administration of vo¬ cational education in the hands of the regular boards of school trustees, otherwise embodying certain of the approved features of the Cooley bill; (3) the Hatch bill, providing for unified control, providing that State aid may be given only to vocational education programs based on preliminary community investigation of needs and conditions, definitely recognizing three factors in vocational ad¬ justment, namely, choice of, preparation for, and employment in some suitable occupation. The committee on education of the assembly held several public hearings, but failed to report any one of the bills. Lack of agree¬ ment among the advocates of the new legislation is commonly under¬ stood to be the explanation for the committee’s refusal to recom¬ mend action at this session. The following summary, based upon reports received from the offices of the State departments of public instruction, constitutes a brief review of activities during the past year in the States men¬ tioned. In general, it may be said that this has been a year of quiet, consistent growth and progress, of strengthening in the details of organization, with little of the spectacular or of the kind of display that appeals to the press agent. The year has been marked by numerous conferences of selected groups of workers, who have come together for the purpose of serious study of common problems and for mutual helpfulness. The cordial and reciprocal relations sub¬ sisting between groups of workers in the various States, representing different points of view and diverse administrative conceptions, must be regarded as one of the very encouraging features in the movement for vocational education. A list of the members of the staffs of the divisions of vocational education in the State departments of public instruction is presented herewith. 12034° — ed 1915 — vol 1 - 15 State officials in charge of vocational education. 226 05 05 05 05 05 05 05 05 05 05 05. ^ — < ^+5 4 h o OddoDIdO'dooS H © ^A ( d a3 3 © 3 l-»C0l-5 a a © ® m m go s-o t>o o ® i|§| >tVA s S-, M d O =2-5 2^ ©•S'© 3 m* \S Ij Jlgslllll- If8'!§il3|? -S'd 2 s-5 £r3-5'd 3 -da ■s 3 £ O H a -3 IllSfl >>■ m3.S c 3 g 2-5 a a-ajs 0^.2^ sh ■? - r’3 " 2^ o o k Si'S 5 fc.t_ o"g fl'd d.5 > J-S "S -d J= M d 3 3 S 3>u , a! w to to mdS 33 33 33 3 o - d <3 d d J » w fe^-2 •d *d ’d *51 Ol ® ® © © OT sj.sj.iii tr ;.g srs a, ©’ g 3 3.2 — ® ® M w © ixD tJD co p, p p ( p | p t n , co p p r-t ri co Q-<-<-| s /Mpfi ^ -Sc a §§ 5 ¥S a ws § . II d-3 ■§ | 3< ~ O 3 ° a ■2 ^ ■d’S If j-t-d SCO 11. Eg 3.2 O d II M o £*s 3|.g 2§ 22^ ■dw -5,2.3 |S ?a.l I- 111 I I gfll 3 ,0.2 s-g go ® d2 -1 m> SJ 1L ^d^ ■§ | a 'g o O 1 a 1 I ■S I 1 5 ® s 9 a 'Sol JAB d -ji !m.S V . ®.3.Jh A A si| M o ®3 > Ii=s3 . Ooojlti ’m S’ot 3 ”ot •d^-d d 3 3 .5^.5023 J50 A A m : d ; ■s g : o’ o Th 2 > -S O d ’S o CJ1^ fi © w o 0) d | ersonal observations and recommendations. The time given to the study was two months, with four weeks additional for the preparation of the report. The class enjoyed the cooperation of the board of edu¬ cation and the superintendent of schools. The report indicates that the schools of San Francisco were suffer¬ ing from evils due to three funda mental sources : (1) Defects which are inherent in the charter governing the organization and finances of the school system; (2) inadequate and unscientific financial 436 EDUCATION REPOKT, 1915. and education records and reports; (3) a lack, year after year, of a sufficient appropriation for educational purposes. Among the significant facts about San Francisco discovered by the class were these : It is the richest city per capita — based upon actual valuation of property — among the 11 principal cities of the United States; with the exception of Los Angeles and Washington, it has the lowest tax rate of any city over 300,000 population ; it is also one of the great cosmopolitan cities of the nation, having only 27.7 per cent born of native parents ; the foreign-born elements of its popula¬ tion come from nearly every nation upon the earth; like other coast cities, it is peculiarly “ a single man’s city,” with comparatively few children in the popu¬ lation ; San Francisco’s percentage of children under 15 years of age is only 18.9 as compared with the percentage of 27.3 for all the cities in the United States. Portland, Greg., is the only city in the country which has a smaller percentage of children, namely, 18.8. In such a community the maintenance of school should be very easy. In spite of the wealth and population conditions, however, San Francisco stands fifth from the bottom among the 18 cities over 300,000 in the per capita cost for schools. It is also found that in the past six years since the rehabilitation of the city there has been an unbalanced growth in school expenditures as compared with the increase in city population and other expenses of government. In the matter of expenditure for schools in 1912 San Francisco was one of the six cities spending the smallest amount, its expenditures being 19 per cent of the total city expenditure, whereas the average among 195 cities of over 30,000 population was 28.9 per cent. The relative position of San F rancisco among 18 California school systems is no less striking. For example, it ranks fourteenth in order of cost per pupil for elementary school education, namely, $43.18; eighteenth in the order of cost per pupil for high-school education, namely, $71.92 ; seventeenth in the order of tax rates for elementary schools, namely, $0.177 ; and eighteenth in the order of tax rates for high schools, namely, $0,047. Outside of paying good salaries to elementary teachers, San Francisco has simply no conception of what it means to spend money upon education. Twenty of the eighty-four elementary schools were visited and ex¬ tended attention is given to the serious oversight of improving the school plan. Owing to the seriously defective organization of the department of education, San Francisco — has no idea, and can not easily discover, how many children there are in the city, how many children are not attending any school, how many children begin school each year, how many children drop out by the way, how many children repeat a grade, or how long it takes children to finish the school course. Detailed recommendations are given specifying the school facts which should be recorded and reported to the public, so that there may be an end to the practice of keeping — currently only such records and making only such reports as are necessary to obtain money from the State, fill out State blanks, and to comply with the law that an annual report be made. SCHOOL SURVEYS. 437 While pointing out educational opportunities not yet afforded to children of San Francisco, the report specifies some good things about the schools. Limitations of the study are indicated by a list of the total of 31 items, divided into 7 groups, of problems that have not been touched upon. The specific recommendations are as follows: 1. An increased appropriation which shall provide : Enough teachers to reduce all classes to 40 pupils ; enough money to restore the 18 ungraded classes and add at least 15 others; enough money to extend manual training into the sixth grade and to children of sixth-grade age; enough money to maintain the three intermediate schools; enough money to furnish adequate supplies — at least $10,000; enough money to make a beginning of social use of the school- house ; enough money to restore the evening lecture system ; enough money to make present temporary shacks livable and to relieve the present serious crowding of buildings. 2. Immediate consideration of the constitutionality of taxing San Francisco as a school district. 3. Educational campaign in behalf of removing the schools from the dollar limit and of removing the present charter limitations upon school expenditure. 4. The present study of the financial methods of the board of education should result in : Installation of an up-to-date system of bookkeeping ; installation of a standard system of financial record keeping and reports, such as is recom¬ mended by the Bureau of Education in Washington. 5. Introduction of time sheets and service records throughout the department. 6. Employment of a commission of experts to pass upon all future school sites, school buildings, and ventilating and plumbing systems. 7. Adoption of a standard of equipment which shall insure an adequate supply of necessary teaching material. 8. Adoption of sanitary cleaning rules for buildings and abolishment of feather dusters. Janitors to be appointed on civil-service basis. 9. Installation of scales in all schools for the weighing of coal upon delivery. 10. Establishment of an efficiency and publicity bureau in the school depart¬ ment whose duty it shall be to collect scientific and adequate school data for the guidance of school authorities and the proper information of the public. 11. Wider publicity in the daily press — if possible, a school page in one of the leading papers, such as is run in two New York papers, the Globe and the Brooklyn Eagle. RURAL AND VILLAGE SCHOOLS, COLORADO. A novel attempt to utilize the data contained in official school records as the basis of a State-wide survey was developed in Colorado. In 1909 a survey of the rural schools of Mesa County was under¬ taken in order to secure a statement of the true condition of the schools. This effort included a personal visitation as well as the utilization of all other available sources of information. Incident to this first¬ hand inquiry was an examination of the records of these schools “ to see what light they might throw on the subject by giving the past history of these schools.” This form of investigation was carried back until the preceding eight years were studied and all the items 438 EDUCATION REPORT, 1915. of record included. The application of these data in the explanation of the unsatisfactory condition of the schools in this county created something of a situation in the matter of attempted reorganization and consolidation of schools. At this stage of progress an in¬ vestigation of “eight representative counties” was undertaken by the State agricultural college, which yielded results indicating that “ conditions were fully as bad, or even worse, than in Mesa County.” With the added interest of the college teachers’ association in the movement for rural school improvement, the college undertook the task of completing an eight-year survey for the whole State. The scope of the survey included 62 counties and more than 1,800 school districts of the first, second, and third class. The study was conducted by Prof. C. G. Sargent, specialist in rural education and the rural school visitor of the Colorado Agricultural College. The present report is published under the title “ The Rural and Vil¬ lage Schools of Colorado ; an Eight-year Survey of Each School Dis¬ trict, 1906_1913, inclusive,” Bulletin No. 5, Series XIV, Fort Collins, Colo., 1914. The report (106 pp.) includes the following topics: Introductory statement, the survey, the school census, the enroll¬ ment, the average daily attendance, eighth-grade graduates, length of term, special school taxes and revenues, teachers and salaries, sites and buildings, the district system, consolidation of districts, sum¬ mary, and suggestions for improvement. Three maps, 13 figures, and 16 pictures of school buildings aid in a clear presentation of the varied material of the study. While the survey for the eight-year period is completed for the entire State, this report gives “ in a greatly condensed and summarized form the most important facts discussed by the survey ” of what is known in Colorado as the third-class dis¬ tricts — that is, those districts which have a school census of less than 350 children between the ages of 6 and 21 years. A second-class district is one which enumerates from 350 to 1,000, and a first-class district enumerates 1,000 or more children between the ages of 6 and 21 years. The scope of this report accordingly includes 1,725 different districts. The real basis of the study is to be found in the material contained in the annual report of the Colorado superintendent of schools, which must be made on or before the 1st day of August of each year, under oath and a penalty of $100. The school board (three members) of each district must make a report to the county superintendent, and the county superintendent must report to the State superintendent. The survey assumes the complete reliability of the official reports which have been placed on file during this period. It is from the county superintendent’s report to the State superintendent that this survey was made. This report includes all items of record, such as the personal statistics of the school proper; the kind of building; its condition, SCHOOL SURVEYS. 439 value, and equipment; and a complete financial statement. It is a fairly com¬ plete quantitative report of the educational activities of the district, and the completeness and correctness with which these reports have been made is, with but few exceptions, highly complimentary to the county superintendents of the State. Certain forms were used tabulating the data, thus rendering the material comparable between the counties and the State. These forms included the items of census, enrollment, average daily attend¬ ance, eighth-grade graduates, male and female teachers, length of school term in days, salaries of men and women, assessed valuation of the district, special tax in mills, number of buildings, value of sites and buildings, and total cost of school. “ The writer has ex¬ amined every item of the 1,725 districts, and to further corroborate the facts found in the records has visited 100 of the districts in dif¬ ferent parts of the State.” The sole purpose of the study was “ to show conditions as they are,” although “ absolute accuracy is not and can not be claimed ” for the facts presented. The first four topics consider the school children in their various relations to the school. The first for consideration is the average school census for each of the eight years for the 60 counties contain¬ ing the third-class districts. There were found to be 82,174 chil¬ dren, 289 districts having less than 15 children each, and 194 districts having more than 100 children each. The average enrollment was 78 per cent of the census. “ Seventeen thousand seven hundred and eighty-nine boys and girls constitute 4 Exhibit A’ in this investi¬ gation, and indicate the first loss recorded against the district system of rural schools in Colorado.” The compulsory school- attendance law, which has been on the statute books during the period, has apparently not been well enforced. Its recent revision may succeed in placing practically all the children of school age in school. De¬ tailed study was made of individual counties in the matter of census and enrollment. It was found that between an agricultural (Weld) and a mining county (Las Animas), the extremes are nearly the same, u there being only 6 per cent difference in the county averages.” This may be taken as fairly typical of the rest of the State. A worse showing is made in the study of the average- daily attendance of the enrollment, the extremes of this average varying from the highest, 77 per cent, to the lowest, 51 per cent, for the eight-year period. The total average daily attendance was but 61 per cent of the enrollment. Twenty-five thousand one hundred and seventy-one, “ the number who were out of school all the time on account of irregular attend¬ ance ... is here marked 1 Exhibit B,’ and represents the second great loss recorded against the rural school system of Colorado." The school course is arranged on the basis of an eight-grade, one year to the grade, plan. “ We have a right to assume that approxi- 440 EDUCATION REPORT, 1915. mately one-eighth of the enrollment should be in the eighth grade each year, and if they are not it is perfectly proper to inquire why they are not there.” Proceeding on this assumption, a detailed study was made of the situation as evidenced by the number of pupils reported as completing the eighth grade. In Mesa County this detail is studied from 1905 to 1912, inclusive; in all other counties, from 1906 to 1913. The data for several counties are presented in detail. For all the rural schools of the State it was found that only 22 per cent of the average enrollment and 37 per cent of the average daily attendance were graduated from the eighth grade. Twenty-four thousand six hundred and sixty children who were in average daily attendance during these eight years are presented as “ ‘ Exhibit C 5 and constitute the third great loss to be recorded against our system of rural schools.” Other aspects of the school system are examined “to see if any¬ thing can be discovered to help account for the low enrollment, poor attendance, and unmistakable evidence of general inefficiency clearly proven by the facts and figures already given.” In the absence of a minimum-term law during the eight-year period it was found that 5 counties had school terms of 160 days or more, 30 had between 140 and 160, 21 had between 120 and 140, and 5 had less than 120 days each year. The average for the 1,725 districts was 140 days. A very great variation was found in the special school taxes and reve¬ nues. On the basis of an eight-year average, the special tax levy for schools in the counties averages 8.08 mills, with a range of 13.21 mills to 3.56 mills. Under the legal limits fixed for local taxation it was found that at no time during this period did any county in the State “ make use of more than 80 per cent of its resources allowed by the special district tax.” The average use by the 60 counties was but 50 per cent of their available resources. The study shows in detail how the additional revenue available, by means of using the entire tax limit, would greatly improve the teaching situation in the schools by the addition of six county supervisors of school work. In contrast with the town and cities in the first and second class school districts, the third-class districts are “ getting an inferior article,” or the other districts are “ paying an enormous price ” for the edu¬ cation they are trying to buy for their children. The study also included the data respecting the number of teachers employed, their sex, number of months taught during the current year, and the salary of each. No information was available on the education, pro¬ fessional training, and experience of these teachers. The total number of teachers engaged in all the districts is 19,563, of whom 16 per cent were men and 84 per cent women. The eight- year average salary for men is $64, and for women $53 per month. “ One county paid an average of $81 per month, 6 paid between $70 SCHOOL SURVEYS. 441 and $80, 20 paid between $0>0 and $70, 23 paid between $50 and $00, 9 paid between $40 and $50, while one paid less than $40 per month for the eight years.” The range of salaries in any one-teacher school was $20 per month to $133 per month. In the examination of the data relating to sites and buildings it was found in light of the bonding ability on the basis of the assessed valuation of all third-class districts that only 50.4 per cent of the available resources for building purposes was used. The general outcome of the study is an indictment against the dis¬ trict system, and a special plea for the consolidation of districts in order to secure rural school improvement. “ It would seem from the facts given that there is something fundamentally Avrong with the district system, and that a more complete reorganization is more necessary than the expenditure of more money, much as that is needed.” There is every degree of variation between these 1,725 districts. They vary in area from a little more than 1 section of land to many townships ; in assess¬ able property on which taxes may be levied to build and support school, from $250 to more than $1,000,000. They vary in number of children from an aver¬ age of 1 in a district to 340 ; in number of teachers, from 1 to 18 ; in the value of buildings, from nothing to $25,000, while there is but little uniformity in length of term, taxes, or results. Other things being equal, the smaller the number of districts in a county the greater is the efficiency of the system, and the greater the uniformity throughout the county in all things that make for better schools. Illustrations of progress in rural school improvement are given in the detailed accounts of five consolidated schools. The study con¬ cludes with a special recommendation that the plan for a system of public schools, presented at the joint meeting of the Southern Edu¬ cation Association and the Conference for Education in the South in Louisville, Ky., April, 1914, be adopted as the basis for the reorgani¬ zation of the rural and field schools of the State. NEW ORLEANS, LA. The constructive poAver of a selected type of educational survey may come to haA-e its directive value fully estimated when the cen¬ tral trades school, founded by a bequest of Isaac Delgado and to bear his name, is established and in full operation in New Orleans, La. A similar judgment of worth may then also be available concern¬ ing the material assistance to a public-school system derivable from a diAdsion of educational research. In July, 1913, the city, by ordi¬ nance, organized this division and committed to it the tasks of edu¬ cational measurement and a vocational survey as a first preliminary step in the establishment of the Delgado school. On June .25, 1914, Dr. DaA'id S. Hill, director of the division of educational research, 442 EDUCATION REPORT, 1915. presented to the commission council of the city his first report: “ Facts about the Public Schools of New Orleans in Relation to Vo¬ cation; Part I, Vocational Survey” (pp. 58). Its contents center about these topics: General facts about public schools in New Or¬ leans; elimination of pupils from the schools; a study of our 13-year- old boys (1,387) ; attitude of employers of New Orleans toward evening, part-time, preparatory, and practical trade schools; and night-school students in relation to trade education in that city. Twenty-one tables and charts are used to exhibit the statistical ma¬ terial. The first annual report of the new division to the superintendent of schools was presented in September, 1914. It contains principally a record of the primary activities of the division in its “ clinical ” studies of the school children of the city. The principal topics are : Studies of the progress (age grade) of 36,284 school children (white and colored) ; the special investigations in the educational laboratory (established as a psychological clinic in 1912) of 63 delinquent and dependent boys ; and an outline of the data collected by the division concerning industrial education. COVINGTON, MACON, AND MORGAN COUNTIES, ALABAMA. One of the interesting contributions to the utilization of the sur¬ vey for State-wide purposes is to be found in the study of educa¬ tional conditions in Alabama. One of the first official acts of the present superintendent of education, William F. Feagin, was to in¬ augurate a close study of educational conditions in the State, by means of the rural-school agents of the State department. The re¬ sult of the investigation was published under the title “An Educa¬ tional Survey of Three Counties in Alabama, Bulletin No. 43, Issued by the Department of Education, July 1, 1914.” Instead of surveying the entire State, as in the case of Ohio and Vermont, this investigation proceeded to find three counties in the most divergent geographical sections of the State that would typify conditions both fairly and generally. Anything like a close study of the findings will show how the wisdom of the choice of Morgan, Macon, and Covington Counties has been abundantly confirmed. Morgan County, in the Tennessee Valley in the north, represents conditions where the white population largely predominates; Macon County, on the eastern border of the Black Belt, represents condi¬ tions where the colored population predominates; and Covington County, on the southern border, represents one of the newly devel¬ oped counties in the Pine Belt. The field work of the survey was* done by rural-school agents of the State department, N. R. Baker and J. L. Sibley. In the prepa- SCHOOL SURVEYS. 443 ration of the blanks, forms, and questionnaires, the assistance of Dr. F. B. Dresslar, specialist of the Bureau of Education and of the George Peabody College for Teachers, was secured. The agents visited, in company with the county superintendents, a total of 263 white and colored schools in three counties. Five months’ time was spent in collecting information, compiling figures, and preparing the manuscript of the report. Accuracy in learning and stating the conditions, rather than completeness or perfection in I the survey, was the chief aim. The object of the investigation was to lead the way for a decided improvement in the State educational system in such matters as local taxation, better supervision and con¬ solidation of schools, and compulsory education. The report (179 pp.) is admirably prepared. It comprises 13 I ! chapters, as follows: Three type counties; population, literacy, and farming; economic conditions; public health; general administra¬ tion; teachers; school buildings; school grounds; material equip¬ ment; values of public-school property; vitalizing agencies; games played by the children at school ; miscellaneous unclassified observa¬ tions. In the three appendices are found the field forms used in the survey, the form of medical inspection report in use in Macon County, various charts and diagrams, and a very useful summary of the statistical information in comparative tables for the three counties. Maps, diagrams, charts, and photographs are freely used to exhibit the facts gathered. The value of the presentation of the data is enhanced by carrying forward the material pertaining to each of the three counties together. The historical, economic, social, and educational facts and conditions are made the basis of the interpre¬ tation of the data as they are presented from topic to topic in the progress of the various chapters. The constructive purpose of the survey appears in the special attention given to the agencies already at work in the counties for the improvement of economic and social conditions, such as farm demon¬ stration work, merchants’ and farmers’ league, live-stock association, county fairs, farmers’ unions, boys’ and girls’ clubs, farm-life confer¬ ences, Chautauquas, and Sunday school associations, as presented in chapters 3 and 11. Attention is likewise called to the educational value of railroads, highways, the relation of roads to schools, parcel post and rural delivery, and rural telephones. Take Macon County as an example: Here we have the farm demonstration agent, the farmers’ union, the live-stock association, the country fair associa¬ tion, the boys’ and girls’ clubs, and the merchants’ and farmers’ league, all more or less affiliated. A country-life committee, composed of one representative from each of the above, with the county superintendent of education, the county health officer, some one to represent the women’s clubs, and another the re¬ ligious life of the county, would form a splendid framework about which to 444 EDUCATION REPORT, 1915. build a more prosperous community life. Covington County has already taken preliminary steps for such an organization. The study of public-health conditions leads to the constructive suggestion that each county should be given the benefit of three officers: A full-time health officer, a full-time superintendent of education, and a full-time farm-demonstration agent.- The study of the various agencies and activities in the general administration of State, county, and district administration, involving the duties of various officials, a tendency toward the grading of schools, the great school mortality, elimination and retardation, and salaries, leads to the following recommendations: 1. County boards of education should be alert to pass such regulations as will favor the organization and vitalization of the work of the school. 2. Either appropriations for janitor work should be available for rural schools or more systematic housekeeping should be done by pupils. 3. The terms in rural districts should be lengthened. 4. Think of 5,423 pupils entering school in the first grade and but 60 completing the work of the fourth-year high school. Why not make a more intensive local survey in an effort to account for this numerical decrease in the grades? Or is the entire theory of grading wrong? 5. Pay the teacher more and demand a higher class of service. 50 far as the study of the teachers was concerned, the surveyors directed their attention to “ the preparation, experience, and activi¬ ties of the teachers rather than their methods of classroom instruc¬ tion.” The surveyors visited 171 white teachers in rural schools, 77 white teachers in city schools, 80 colored teachers in rural schools, and 14 colored teachers in city schools — a total of 343. The facts gathered are strikingly set forth in the report, as follows : The instructor should keep constantly in mind when he faces an average institute of 100 teachers in a rural county that — 22 have never taught before ; 30 have never been in high school, have never studied beyond where they are expected to teach; 34 possess no professional books ; 43 subscribe to no professional magazines ; 45 are strangers in the county where they expect to teach, and hence are, to a certain extent, without county spirit and do not know county conditions ; 51 hold third-grade certificates ; 63 have never attended a summer school ; 70 do not belong to the State Teachers’ Reading Circle ; 76 are strangers to the community where they will teach ; 80 do not belong to the State educational association ; and 80 have never attended a normal school even for a day. To follow these teachers a little further, when they arrive at the schoolhouse where they are to teach 41 pupils each— 19 will have schools without desks of any kind ; 41 others will have only home-made desks, while often three pupils will face the teacher from a desk intended for but two ; 60 will find unpainted houses ; SCHOOL SURVEYS. 445 65 will teach schools without toilet facilities; 66 will find schools with no idea of sanitary drinking arrangements ; 70 will find pictureless walls; 78 will teach without wall maps ; 79 will find schools without libraries ; 84 will teach in houses with defective lighting. The study of the teaching force leads to these constructive sug¬ gestions : 1. The higher the grade of certificate the higher the grade of the school. Would it not be a good investment for the State to encourage some form of teacher training in a high school in each county? A considerable number of teachers have some high-school training. If pedagogical training were offered in the last years, many would stay to complete a course. “A half loaf is better than no loaf.” 2. When the school grounds shall have been enlarged and made to include a teacher’s home, and when local taxation has provided a better building and a better salary, he will then cease to be a sort of tramp teacher moving from place to place year after year. As to school buildings, it is recommended : 1. State aid for school buildings should be reapportioned to the counties at the end of each year, just as the library fund now is. 2. Public funds should be used for equipment up to, say, one-half mill. 3. The number of schools should be reduced rather than increased. 4. There should be greater space for seating pupils, so as to safeguard their health. 5. A closer adherence to State plans in the construction of State buildings is imperative in the absence of county regulation. 6. Better care of the school plant. 7. More care in sweeping arrangements. Floors should be oiled. Use cot¬ tonseed oil or regular floor oil obtained at a hardware store. Apply by means of a common string mop after the floor has been scrubbed thoroughly and is perfectly clean. With regard to school grounds, the findings are : 1. The grounds should be larger, so as to give ample space for recreation; should contain a school garden and farm and a home for the principal. 2. The school well should be sanitary, supplying the school, the principal’s home, and afford water for irrigation and for filling a trough at the road for passers-by. The well should be closed and provided with a force pump and either a tank above ground or a pressure tank below the surface. 8. The grounds should be graded and beautified. 4. Jacketed stoves should be more generally used. 5. Houses should be provided with means for keeping the fuel dry. 6. Every school should have two sanitary toilets. The needs of school equipment are thus indicated : 1. More furniture and equipment of suitable proportions are needed. This should be procured at public expense. 2. Blackboards of wood are wasteful, inelegant, and otherwise unsatisfactory and should be replaced by slate or other prepared boards. 3. More pictures of proper selection are needed. 446 EDUCATION REPORT, 1915. 4. Drinking fountains, not individual cups, are the only safeguards for drinking water. The cups are dangerous because they are not used as it is designed they should be. They are frequently lost, exposed to dust, loaned, etc. 5. Half of the available light should not become unavailable by the use of opaque window shades. 6. Libraries are a most excellent investment. No county should neglect to secure all possible libraries allowed under the law. In the study of the value of public-school property there were found variations from the amounts reported to the State superin¬ tendent, which led to the suggestion that the county superintendent should make all inventories in person in order to arrive at the real facts. It was found that the average value of the entire school plant and equipment, based on the whole number publicly surveyed, is $600 for white rural schools and $491 for colored rural schools. In the study of national conditions of education made by Dr. Leonard P. Ayres, who used the figures of 1910, it was found that the average value of school property per child of school age in Alabama was $13. In the three counties of this survey this average in 1914 came to $15, but for the entire State, based on enumeration, it still remained $13. Can a school building and equipment worth less than $600 serve effectively as the school center, social center, and economic center of a community? Can it be consolidated? Can it serve a large community? Can it be beautiful, artistic, attractive, and at the same time large enough to contain an auditorium, workrooms, cloakrooms, libraries, and the necessary classrooms to accommodate nine grades and sustain the vocational as well as cultural subjects of the course of study? One building and its entire equipment was valued at $65. A separate chapter is devoted to the study of the vitalizing agencies noted at the beginning of the report. Leading to the following con¬ clusions and constructive suggestions : 1. In Macon County the board of education should employ an additional Negro supervisor to work out from the superintendent’s office in connection with the present supervisor and give this highly deserving form of instruction a systematic basis. It would be advisable for Covington County to employ a supervisor similar to the one in the other two counties. 2. More time should be allowed for agricultural instruction. 3. Home industries are still almost a negative quantity in rural schools. 4. The Negroes seem to outdistance the whites in the matter of using the school as a community center. 5. Better roads would make more and better teachers’ meetings possible. 6. Literary work drags when and where vocational work is not emphasized. 7. School improvement associations should be free to work for better social, spiritual, and cultural conditions, along with material betterment. An exceedingly interesting but very brief chapter reports a list of 100 games played by the children at school. About 40 per cent of the teachers attempted to direct or supervise the play of their pupils. SCHOOL SURVEYS. 447 SPRINGFIELD, ILL. A new and interesting point of view from which a school survey can be made is that which characterized the study of the public schools of Springfield, Ill. It was conducted as a part of a general social survey of the city undertaken by the Russell Sage Foundation. The authorization for the study was given by the board of education on January 19, 1914, when Dr. Leonard P. Ayres was invited to direct the work. The survey staff comprised four persons from the regular staff of the division of education of the foundation: Dr. Leonard P. Ayres, R. R. Lutz, Edna C. Bryner, and A. H. Richard¬ son. The material used in one chapter was secured in the recrea¬ tional survey by Lee F. Hanmer and Clarence A. Perry. The entire time consumed was that of 4 persons for 10 weeks, and 2 persons for 5 weeks, including the preparatory work, 3 weeks in the schools in Springfield, a tabulation of data, the interpretation of results, clerical work, and publication. The total cost of the survey was $3,261, of which the board of education appropriated the sum of $1,000, the remainder being defrayed by the Russell Sage Foundation. The report (152 pp.) may, in many respects, be considered a model. It comprises 14 chapters, the 5 forms used in the collection of data, 37 tables, 13 diagrams, and 23 illustrations. Each chapter forms a complete unit and includes a summary of findings and recommenda¬ tions. The topics of the chapters are : The school survey ; Spring- field and its schools; the board of education; the school plant; the children; the teaching force; the quality of classroom instruction; the course of study; financial administration; medical inspection; the high school; the organization of intermediate schools or junior high schools; vocational education; educational extension. SPRINGFIELD AND ITS SCHOOLS. 1. Springfield is a prosperous, growing city having an unusually large pro¬ portion of native-born white American citizens, a high per capita wealth, an average tax rate, and a high expenditure for municipal government. Its busi¬ ness interests are largely commercial, although there is considerable manufac¬ turing. 2. The daily school attendance is about 10,500. Of every 100 of these young people 67 are in public schools, 26 in parochial and private schools, and 7 in business colleges. 3. There are 21 public-school buildings, 8 parochial schools, 2 private schools, and 2 business colleges, making a total of 33 buildings. 4. The school district is a State organization and includes more than twice as much territory as does the municipality, but over nine-tenths of the inhabitants of the district live within the city. 5. The board of education consists of seven mem¬ bers elected at large and has independent taxing powers within the limits im¬ posed by law. 6. The public schools are 20 in number and are administered by the superintendent, 18 principals, and 4 general supervisors. Nine employees besides the superintendent are attached to the central office. There are 224 teachers, and the average attendance in all public day schools is 7,082. 448 EDUCATION REPORT, 1915. THE BOARD OF EDUCATION. 1. The board transacts a great amount of detail administrative work that could better be delegated to its employed executives. 2. The board’s offices are exceptionally satisfactory, and its office employees are efficient. 3. Economies could be effected by dispensing with the services of the attorney and the book¬ keeper and the filing and record systems rendered more efficient -by simplifying them. 4. It is recommended that a bureau for the purchase and distribution of supplies be organized. 5. It is recommended that the administration of com¬ pulsory attendance and the issuance of age and school certificates be reorganized by employing two competent attendance officers and reforming the school census so as to make it tell the names and addresses of the children who ought to be in school. THE SCHOOL PLANT. 1. Build no more buildings according to the plans now in use; profit by the experience of other cities and secure plans embodying the most modern practice. 2. Build future classrooms smaller ; make ceilings lower ; plan coat rooms somewhat narrower. 3. Reduce width of corridors from 25 feet to about half that width. 4. Insist on lighting of classrooms from the left only. 5. Have the window area in classrooms equal to one-fourth of the floor area. 6. Secure a better type of window shades and insist on constant care in their adjustment. 7. Establish standards for the cleaning of windows and insist on their observ¬ ance. 8. Reduce classroom temperatures to a maximum of 68 degrees and equip all rooms with reliable thermometers. 9. Equip new buildings with the best type of mechanical ventilation and repair defects in existing systems. 10. Place some seats and desks of varying sizes in each room ; equip some rooms in each building with the new movable combined seats and desks. 11. Install drinking fountains elsewhere than in the toilet rooms. 12. Arrange blackboards in class¬ rooms, hooks in coat rooms, and seats in toilet rooms with reference to the size of the children who are to use them. 13. Build new schools fireproof or fire resisting; straighten winding stairways in old buildings or, better still, re¬ place one stairway in each old building by fireproof stairs. 14. Immediately re¬ place all bolts on outer doors by panic bolts, and forbid the fastening of any outer doors by any other means. 15. Reorganize fire drills, forbidding all run¬ ning and confusion. 16. Plan all auditoriums built as annexes of old buildings so that they will be integral parts of the new buildings to be erected in the future ; where this is impossible, do not build them. 17. Secure new sets of specifications and reorganize the system of inspection so that specifications will be followed in new buildings. 18. Organize a school for janitors under the direction of the superintendent of buildings, in which they may learn the best and most efficient methods of carrying on their very important part of the school work. THE CHILDREN. 1. The school census should be reformed so as to tell how many children there are of school age in the city, who they are, where they live, and where they attend school. 2. As compared with other cities, Springfield makes a good showing in having a relatively small proportion of children who are overage for their grades or are making slow progress. 3. There are 1,000 children in the elementary schools who are both overage for their grades and are making slow progress. The proportion of such children varies from 5 per cent to 27 per cent in the different schools. These children need indi¬ vidual teaching and provision fof giving it should be made. 4. There are some 101 cases of extreme retardation. These children should be in special SCHOOL SURVEYS. 449 classes. Some of them should not he In the public schools at all but In Insti¬ tutions. 5. The course of study, teaching methods, and administration of the schools are better adapted to the needs and abilities of the girls than they are to those of the boys. The boys make slower progress, fall more often, and drop out of school earlier than the girls. This condition Is always found where the school work is artificial, formal, and abstract. It has been remedied in other cities and can be remedied here. 6. Promotion rates are high, but not too high. 7. Classes range in size from 17 to 53, with an average of 30. Wherever possible, the children should be redistributed so as to have fewer overcrowded classes. The welfare of the children is vastly more important than the strict maintenance of school-district boundaries. THE TEACHING FORCE. 1. The teaching force consists of 238 teachers and principals. Of these, 199 are in elementary and 39 in high school. 2. They range in age from 19 to 71 years and the average age is about 30 years. 3. The teaching force is rela¬ tively stable, the average length of service in the schools of Springfield being seven years. 4. Salaries are relatively high, Springfield being fourth from the top in a comparison of average salaries of elementary teachers in 16 cities. 5. Of each ten teachers in the elementary schools, seven are graduates of the Springfield High School and six are graduates of the Teachers’ Training School. Too large a proportion of them have been trained in the local schools. 6. The efficiency of the system can be greatly enhanced by suspending the training school and attracting to the service of the city the best teachers from other localities. 7. An assistant superintendent of high professional education and successful experience should be employed to assist in classroom supervision. This survey is one of the few that have made use of the new standard scales of measurement for teaching purposes. Tests were made in spelling, handwriting, and arithmetic. Some of the results are summarized as follows: 1. The members of the survey staff made 684 classroom visits, of which 273 were for the purpose of observing teaching methods and the remainder for noting details as to physical equipment or making humidity, ventilation, and illumination tests. 2. The strongest feature of the work is the free relation¬ ship between pupils and teachers. The weakest feature is that throughout the system there is too little real teaching and too much hearing of recitations. 3. In too large a proportion of the classrooms the work suffers from the inadequate professional, educational, and cultural preparation of the teachers. 4. Throughout the elementary schools the discipline is good. 5. Standard spelling tests in all grades from the second through the eighth indicate that in general the children spell as well as average children in other city school systems. 6. Measurement of the quality of handwriting of pupils in the 'four upper grades shows that it is in general as good as that of children in the same grades in other cities. 7. Standard tests in arithmetic show that in Spring- field children do work in fundamentals more rapidly but less accurately than average children in other cities. In reasoning their work is less rapid and less accurate than the average work in other cities. In a study of some of the values obtaining in the course of study a novel exercise was introduced u to test the practical value of the subject matter taught to children in the elementary grades.” Eleven 12034°— ED 1915— VOL 1 - 29 450 EDUCATION REPORT, 1915. of the leading successful citizens, all men, were brought together one evening and asked to take short examinations, including material “ prescribed by the course of study and actually being taught in the upper grades in spelling, arithmetic, history, and geography.” The special group included a State senator, a former lieutenant governor, the president of a manufacturing concern, the former superintendent of parks, a banker, a physician, a merchant, a lawyer, a newspaper editor, an efficiency engineer, and a clergyman. Of course “ the most difficult material was purposely selected” for these tests. The re¬ sult of these examinations in spelling, geography, arithmetic, and history of the fifth, sixth, and seventh grades was that no one of the men examined made a passing mark in any subject. THE COUBSE OF STUDY. 1. The course of study in its present form is the product of a number of partial revisions of a course in use many years ago. In parts it is rigid and behind the times, while in other parts it is modern and progressive. It is not closely followed in the schools. 2. The time devoted to each subject varies so widely in the different schools that no general study of the time allotment is possible. 3. A new course of study and time allotment should be developed, and in this work the best experience of the most progressive school systems should be utilized. 4. Tests of the existing course show that it includes much material that is so artificial and unrelated to the needs of real life that it should be abandoned and more useful matter substituted. 5. The city should adopt the policy of supplying textbooks free. This promotes educational efficiency, facilitates uniformity, and reduces expense to the community. EXPENDITURES. 1. Springfield spends on its schools about one-third of a million dollars each year, more than 90 per cent of which comes from local taxes. 2. The board of education fixes the tax rate for schools within limits imposed by the law. 3. As compared with other cities of similar size, Springfield is somewhat wealthier than the average, spends less than the average amount on city government, and ranks a little above the average in its expenditures for education. 4. This city spends as much as the average city of similar size for each high-school pupil and more than the average amount for each elementary pupil. 5. The per capita cost in this city is more than in the average city for salaries of prin¬ cipals, maintenance of buildings, purchase of stationery and supplies, salaries of supervisors, and the purchase of water and light. It is less than in the average city ,for the salaries of janitors and the purchase of fuel. 6. The system of collection and disbursement of funds is accurate and safe. It is deficient in that there is undue delay between the collection of tax money and its delivery to the board of education by the county treasurer. 7. It is strongly recom¬ mended that Springfield will abandon the unnecessary practice of issuing bonds for the erection of school buildings. 8. The board would do well to submit to a vote of the people a moderate advance in the tax rate for educational pur¬ poses. SCHOOL SURVEYS. 451 HEALTH SUPERVISION. 1. Medical inspection is carried on by one nurse. The work accomplished is well done, but it is impossible for one person to do thoroughly the amount of work that she is attempting. 2. Two nurses should be employed and the half¬ time services of a physician secured. This could be best arranged by having the board of education cooperate with the board of health in employing a municipal physician, half of whose time could be devoted to work in the schools. 3. Nearly three-fourths of the children are not vaccinated. Vaccina¬ tion should be required as prerequisite to entrance into the public schools. 4. A most successful school dental clinic is maintained. 5. Arrangements for the establishment of an eye clinic are under way. 6. Special ungraded classes should be organized for exceptional children. A beginning should be made by establishing open-air classes, classes for the mentally slow, and classes for those having speech defects. HIGH SCHOOL. 1. The high school has nearly 900 pupils in average attendance, of whom about 50 come from outside the city. It is growing at the rate of about 50 pupils per year. About 400 pupils are boys and nearly 500 girls. 2. Nearly half of the pupils entering leave within two years. 3. The building is seriously overcrowded and many of the rooms are entirely unfit for classroom use. 4. The teaching force consists of 39 men and women, of whom nearly one-third are graduates of the school. The salaries run from $800 to $1,400. 5. Of the pupils entering the school only about 1 in 16 goes to college, which indicates that the college entrance requirements should wield less influence than they now do in shaping the courses of study. 6. The school needs better administration, more cooperation between students, teachers, and principal, and a higher quality of teaching. REORGANIZATION . 1. It is recommended that the school system be reorganized so as to include intermediate schools or junior high schools, which shall comprise the seventh, eighth, and ninth grades. This will leave the first six grades in the elementary schools and the three highest grades in the senior high school. 2. Such a reor¬ ganization will provide temporary relief from the overcrowding in the present high school until a new building can be erected. It also provides for the eco¬ nomic utilization of the present high-school building. 3. The proposed plan is educationally superior to the present one because it provides a special type of schooling for the boys and girls during the period of adolescence, when they most urgently need it. Schools organized as recommended are in successful operation in other countries and in many cities of this country. 4. Schools organized on the proposed plan hold their pupils better than do schools organ¬ ized as they are in this city at present. 5. The adoption of the new plan would help to solve the problems of vocational education. 6. If the schools are reor¬ ganized as is recommended, some opposition from teachers, principals, and parents must be expected. This is true of every innovation, but in this case it would not be either serious or of long duration. In the study of vocational education a new attack was made upon the problem in order to secure the data which would be really sig¬ nificant. This included particularly the nativity, the migration of parents, and the family relations of those engaged in each class of industry studied, and the proportion of schoolboys who wished to enter the same industrial groups. The occupational choices of boys 452 EDUCATION REPORT, 1915. as compared with the occupations of fathers and older brothers and the occupational choices of girls as compared with the occupations of older sisters brought to light interesting data on the aspirations of youth. 1. At present the boys and girls, npon reaching the limit of the cumpulsory attendance period, are scattered throughout the grades of the elementary and high schools. Nearly half of them are in the sixth grade or below. The prob¬ lem of securing a reasonably complete elementary schooling for all these chil¬ dren is part of the problem of instituting vocational education. 2. Among the fathers of these children only one in six was born in this city and of the chil¬ dren only one-half were born here. This indicates that narrowly specialized preparation for specific industries will not solve the problem of vocational education. 3. The children in school aspire to types of life work far in advance of those to which their brothers, sisters, and fathers have succeeded in attaining. They also hope to secure far more schooling than it is probable that they will be able to secure. 4. The statements of the boys as to life work which they hope to enter appear to be reliable in general and unreliable in detail as guides for the formulation of courses of vocational education. The choices of the girls are of less value, both in general and in detail. 5. An analy¬ sis of the available data indicates that most of the girls and substantially half of the boys desire to enter occupations for which the schools already offer some¬ what adequate preparatory training. 6. About one-half of the boys desire to enter industrial work for which general industrial preparation can be given. 7. It is recommended that the city establish courses of preparatory industrial training in its junior and senior high schools through utilizing for educational purposes the work that is incidental to the maintenance of the public schools. 8. This work can be instituted at slight expense, and the major part of its cost can be defrayed from the building fund. BLAINE, WASH. How an educational survey may be useful in helping the new and rapidly changing communities in the far West to eliminate the evils that make their early appearance in the public schools can in future be illustrated by the permanent results derivable from the study of the schools in Blaine, Wash. At the request of the board of educa¬ tion the public schools of this Northwesternmost town in the United States were studied under the supervision of the department of edu¬ cation and the extension division of the University of Washington. The investigators were Prof. H. G. Lull, assisted by F. E. Millay and P. J. Kruse, graduate assistants in the department of education. Attention was directed to the educational needs of the town; grounds, buildings, and hygiene; age-grade distribution of pupils; the course of study; and instruction. The object was to present the most pressing needs of the schools for the immediate consideration of the local authorities. Some conditions were compared with those prevailing in 15 other small towns in the State. The survey “ con¬ tains so much that is applicable elsewhere” that it was decided to publish it in the issue of the University [of Washington] Extension Journal , volume 1, No. 3, July, 1914 (pp. 89-165). SCHOOL SURVEYS. 453 CHICAGO, ILL. A new method of conducting a survey of schools was inaugurated in Chicago by Mrs. Ella Flagg Young, superintendent of schools, in the effort to anticipate the appearance of this new educational movement in that city. After listening to the presentations by the members of the committee on standards and tests of efficiency [at the Department of Superintendence, Rich¬ mond, Va., February, 1914] I concluded that great benefit would be derived in a system if the teachers, those who are directly associated with the children and youth, could first make such a study, if of only one line of instruction or effort. I then called together the superintendents to consider conducting a survey of our system by ourselves, before outside experts or lay investigators should take up the work. With 7,000 teachers and principals, it was impossible that all should have the benefit of activity in visiting schools and discussing the work observed. A few governing conditions were laid down : Every school should have a representative on some one of the survey committees, hence no school should have more than one representative ; the chairmen of the committees should be taken from the superintendent’s staff, because each ‘could have greater freedom in planning the trips and the meetings of the committee in charge than a principal or teacher could ; no member of a committee should be a specialist teaching the subject assigned that committee. Having gone thus far the fol¬ lowing points were decided upon: First, each committee should hand in a written report on or before May 15 ; second, the reports should indicate defects in the work as well as excellencies ; third, suggestions for improving the schools should be made freely ; fourth, the committee reports should be presented to the board of education in the annual report of the superintendent of schools in place of the customary individual reports of regular day schools and districts by members of the superintendent’s staff. The schools were grouped by the chairmen so that every school in the city should be visited by at least one committee. Upon the urgent request of some committees one exception was made to the ruling that no school should have more than one representative on the committees ; the exception was in case of three specialists in the normal college faculty. Some aspects of this method of having teachers conduct a survey of their own activities may be found in the following communication sent out when it was learned that “ teachers were becoming uneasy as to the object of the visits: ” The survey which we are making of our schools at present is not in any way intended to bring schools into comparison with one another. No teachers will be marked ; no schools will be marked. In the report the schools will be spoken of as schools A, B, C. Even the good schools will not be mentioned by name. There is no need for any anxiety or excitement. Without doubt, we shall be more conscious of our excellencies or failures because of visitors coming to the school, but there is nothing which will in any way disturb any teacher in his or her position as a result of this survey. Should there come later a survey conducted by inspectors from the outside, we shall have our own survey with which to judge their results. We also shall have gone through the first palpitations and excitement caused by a cooperative investigation. 454 EDUCATION REPORT, 1915. Another angle from which to estimate the value of a teacher-made survey may be found in an observation in the report of the committee on geography and nature study: To our mind, one of the best and most unusual features of this unique survey has been the fact that teachers, not overawed by the presence of some great expert, have communicated their difficulties and perplexities freely and have often asked for help that was fully accorded them whenever possible. The fact that the elementary teachers themselves participated in the survey has made it easy for the teacher of the class to ask her visitor in entire good faith, “ Now, as one teacher to another, tell me candidly what you think of this lesson? What are its weak points, and how can I make it better ? ” This survey presents the findings of the various committees more from the viewpoint of the principal and the teacher than do the reports of the college experts. College experts who are making a specialty of testing and standard¬ izing public schools earnestly desire to march on to the schools of Chicago. We are ready for a fair test, but we suggest that the situation would be most delicate if a survey committee should include any one immediately concerned with the organization or instruction in an elementary or high school charging tuition fees within the corporate limits of Chicago. The work was conducted by 320 superintendents, supervisors, prin¬ cipals, and teachers arranged in committees, each of which was as¬ signed particular topics. The length of time involved in the inquiry is not stated. The reports were ordered printed by the board of education on May 13, 1914, and appeared in the sixtieth annual report of the board of education for the year ending June 30, 1914. The survey occupies pages 31-287. The 25 topics, with the extent of the reports and the size of committees, respectively, are as follows : Committee of — The school plant, 13 pages _ ■ _ 7 Administration, 11 pages _ 9 Child study, 9 pages _ 13 Physical education, 10 pages - 1 - - - 19 Humane and moral education, 3 pages _ : — - : - 11 Social efficiency, 8 pages - 10 Music, 8 pages _ 11 Training of teachers, 18 pages _ 21 Kindergartens, 5 pages - 11 Reading in the elementary schools, 10 pages - 15 Spelling, 10 pages - 19 Penmanship, 10 pages - 20 Arithmetic in grades, and mathematics in high schools, 13 pages - 20 Geography and nature study, 7 pages - 11 History, 10 pages - 26 German in elementary schools and in high schools, 8 pages - 5 Art construction in elementary schools and in high schools, 13 pages. Industrial and prevocational education, 14 pages - Commercial education in high schools, 8 pages - Vocational work in technical high schools, 8 pages - Vocational guidance, 10 pages - Plan for organization of a bureau of vocational guidance, 4 pages - Special schools, 17 pages - — Penny lunches, 2 pages - Corrective institutions, 12 pages - - SCHOOL SURVEYS. 455 The report of each committee is made independently of the others. There is no summary of the findings and of the recommendations. Among the numerous details in the statements, discussions, and recommendations the following may be grouped as most interesting : A complete elementary-school plant is thus described : For teaching purposes : Classrooms, with varying equipment to meet the re¬ quirements of the various subjects ; kindergarten, manual-training, cooking, and sewing rooms, and other special rooms as needed, properly equipped ; and space on the grounds for school gardens. For administration : A principal’s office, with a private office for consulta¬ tions ; storerooms for supplies and movable equipment ; a room for meetings of the faculty. For health and sanitation: A gymnasium, properly equipped, and separate from the assembly hall ; playrooms or shelter rooms into which children may go while waiting for the doors to open in inclement weather and for play space for pupils of the primary grades in bad weather ; a bathroom ; a room for the use of the visiting nurse and physician ; sanitary toilet rooms on each floor of the building; drinking water supplied on each floor; playground space on the grounds sufficient to give an average of 30 square feet per pupil. For teachers : A rest room ; a room properly equipped in which they may eat their luncheon ; toilet rooms on each floor. Supplemental : An assembly hall on the ground floor, not combined with gym¬ nasium, so constructed that it may be used for evening meetings without requir¬ ing the use of other portions of the building; a library room for pupils’ use; an adaptation of the ground-floor rooms for community center uses in the evening. With this plan in mind the committee endeavored to estimate the fitness of the equipment of the nearly 300 school buildings in the city. Taking 30 square feet of open playground per pupil as the minimum in school grounds, it was found that 50 per cent of the schools had from 5 to 29 square feet per pupil and 50 per cent from 30 to 100 square feet per pupil. The problem of the semifireproofing old buildings received special attention. A regulation of the board of education called for window-glass area equal to 20 per cent of the floor area of the room. It was found that in all elementary and kindergarten classrooms only 33 per cent of all the classrooms had 20 per cent or more of glass area, 27 per cent of the rooms having less than 15 per cent of glass area. The committee on administration endeavored to widen the door of opportunity to let trained and experienced teachers from elsewhere enter the Chicago system. A number of changes were proposed in the matter of certificates, oral examinations, and the adoption of a strictly merit system for the eligible list. The present promotion system should be abolished. It was suggested that the Chicago Nor¬ mal College be made a public school, and, accordingly, an integral part of the school system. The tendency of the teachers to adopt commercial in the place of professional standards was definitely 456 EDUCATION REPORT/ 1915. deplored. The amount of equipment and the distribution of supplies received special consideration. The department of child study and pedagogic investigation, estab¬ lished in 1899, was one of the earliest in the country to make appli¬ cation of the scientific method in dealing with individual children. Some aspects of the restricted development of this work may be gained from the following recommendations: It is the opinion of this committee that owing to the growth of the city’s demands, and owing to increased calls by schools for instructions in handling difficult and peculiar children, the child-study department has been crowded beyond its capacity ; that it lacks organization both within itself and in its relation to other agencies looking to the welfare of children in the city; and that it therefore does not reach all cases needing attention, and its records and recommendations are now insufficient to serve the demands made upon it. We recommend, therefore — (а) That its scope be enlarged. (б) That it be given more help and more facilities. (c) That it be put in closer relation with other departments which care for children. (d) That it be given greater power to call upon agencies concerned in carry¬ ing out its recommendations. (e) That there be more definite internal organization, and that it be made more accessible as a bureau of educational research for the welfare of all classes of children in the city. (/) That every school have one or more ungraded rooms, with a maximum attendance of 25 pupils, providing a specially equipped teacher and facilities for treating these pupils as to their individual needs. (p) That since malnutrition is responsible for much of the retardation and subnormality, and since marked improvement is noted where proper food is provided for such children, steps be taken to insure suitable food, at least one meal a day, to all pupils needing such attention. ( h ) That a more comprehensive “adult probation law” be passed, giving school authorities power to compel parents to pfovide for the proper examina¬ tion of their children, where such is deemed necessary, and for the carrying out of the suggestions made after such examinations. In the matter of physical education the recommendations were: 1. Our schools should move in the direction of required courses in physical training that produce noticeable results. 2. Strengthen instruction in the elementary schools. In the light gymnastics or calisthenics, work more toward simplicity, accuracy, and vigor. 3. Encourage school athletics by appointing field directors to relieve over¬ worked gymnasium teachers. 4. Establish a department in the normal school for a thorough training of special teachers and supervisors, and in that way supply the greatest need of our work in physical education at the present time. In the study of the situation of the training of teachers the report directs attention to the Chicago Normal College, the practice schools, and a period of four months’ cadetship in the elementary schools. The following suggestions, looking toward an increase in the number SCHOOL SURVEYS. 457 of admissions to the normal school and the improvement of the quality of its product, were made: 1. That the normal school should be made a more integral part of the public- school system by admitting graduates of the public high schools without exami¬ nation. 2. That some plan should be devised for securing a pro rata apportionment for each public high school and for each accredited high school, thus giving the schools an opportunity to offer their best product to train for the profession of teaching. 3. The cadet period should be made financially productive to the graduates of the normal school without requiring them to perform the work of substi¬ tuting. 4. The vocation of teaching, and this means of entering it, should be kept prominently before the students of the high schools by addresses by members of the faculty of the normal school, formal and informal meetings, such as a “ high-school day ” at the normal school, acquaintance with their best teachers of the staff, and the like. In the stud}7 of spelling, three separate lists of 50 words each were prepared for the fifth and sixth grades, the seventh grade, and the eighth grade. Testing 1,881 fifth-grade pupils yielded an average of 74.3. The same list given to 1,948 sixth-grade pupils yielded an average of 82.7 ; to 1,803 seventh-grade pupils, resulted in an average of 75.5; to 1,783 eighth-grade children, resulted in an average of 76.3. Attention is given by means of the questionnaire to the problems of the spelling recitation and the study period in this subject. An attempt was made to study the spelling needs of business firms, but the replies were not very satisfactory or instructive. It is the opinion of your committee that this experience should discount very considerably the complaints said to emanate from the business houses concern¬ ing the inability of pupils, fresh from the schools, to spell in terms of their employer’s business. The recommendations are : 1. That a spelling book, or fixed list of words, should be provided and adopted for general use in the schools without excluding the privilege of using textbook lists for special study. 2. That more attention should be given in the school system to the method of study in preparing lessons. Your committee is persuaded that if the same attention were given to the study of words that is given to the study of prob¬ lems, spelling results would be much better. 3. That it would be wise for the board of education to authorize as optional the use of as large a list as might be approved from the “ Simplified spelling board’s” recommendations. The committee on arithmetic and mathematics — found the teaching of arithmetic in the elementary schools good ; far better than they had anticipated. They were struck by the great amount of careful indi¬ vidual work done and by the responsibility assumed by the individual child despite the large classes where much work is necessarily formal. They wish to commend many new and effective methods seen. If the pupils do not get a -I » 458 EDUCATION REPORT, 1915. reasonable knowledge of arithmetic in our elementary schools the cause must be sought elsewhere than in the teaching in the schools visited. In some cases the committee saw much formal review and would suggest more careful planning of the work from grade to grade. The committee saw too much abstract and not enough concrete work in many cases. The present demands of “ business ” that the schools turn out expert manipulators of figures is liable to result in irre¬ parable loss to pupils. It is also suggested that if mathematical forms and language were more care¬ fully exact throughout, time would be saved and power gained. There should be more real problems. The value of so much oral and mental abstract work divorced from the written and concrete work is seriously questioned. The gen¬ eral overlapping of the work in the elementary schools and the high school busi¬ ness arithmetic is inexplicable. The committee on geography and nature study recommended, in part, as follows: 1. That a more helpful supervision of geography and nature study, empha¬ sizing fundamental educational principles, rather than details of method, be given. 2. That, as far as is possible, the work in geography and nature study be de¬ partmental. 3. That an exchange of visits between teachers be provided for and encour¬ aged. 4. That excursions by classes, accompanied by experienced teachers, to places of interest connected with these subjects be a regularly planned part of the work. 5. That some systematic plan of collecting, distributing, and using illustrative material be followed in the schools. 6. That, as far as possible, the special training in geography and nature study now given in our Teachers Colleges be utilized by placing the incoming young teachers where they shall have opportunities to use this training. 7. That attention to home geography be continued in the fifth and sixth grades. 8. That the closer correlation of geography with history, civics, literature, and other subjects should be made wherever possible. 9. Finally, that a permanent nature study and geographical committee be appointed, whose duty it shall be to plat the city and its surroundings ; show what material can be found ; tell where and how to reach it and consult with all transportation lines, with the view of getting reduced rates and special accom¬ modations for classes wishing to visit the various sections. A comprehensive excursion plan would be worked out which would open up a new field of investi¬ gation for nature study and geography. The scope of the study made by the committee on history, as well as some of the findings, can best be illustrated by the outlines which were used by the committee on elementary schools and the commit¬ tee on high schools, respectively (where figures occur in the first out¬ line they indicate the summary of reports from 72 schools) : Is there an organization of the celebrations in connection with the patriotic holidays which results in a knowledge of history? Yes, 53; no, 19. Which holi¬ day is singled out for emphasis? Are the patriotic songs a means of cultivat¬ ing a love of country ? Are the patriotic poems memorized by classes or by indi¬ viduals? Has the school a collection of historical pictures? Are any of the SCHOOL SURVEYS. 459 decorative pictures historical in character? Has anything in the way of pageant been organized? If so, note its character. Is there a well-selected supply of supplementary reading material? Yes, 50; no, 22. Has the school a supply of library books bearing on history? Yes, 29; no, 43. Does the school make use of the facilities offered by the public library? Yes, 43; no, 29. By the historical society? Is the principle of the three-textbook plan recognized? Yes, Cl ; no, 11. A list of patriotic poems suitable for different grades. Some of the best supplementary readers bearing on history. Some of the most suit¬ able library books presenting historical material. Is training for civic responsi¬ bility manifest? Yes, 60; no, 12. Did the registration of the mothers bring out the necessity and advantage of naturalization for foreign-born people? Yes, 43; no, 29. Several of these 29 schools are American. The recitation in history: 1. Was it inclined to be formal or memoriter? Yes, 19; no, 48. 2. Did the teacher depend upon volunteers? 3. Did the recita¬ tion develop “initiative”? 4. Were formal written tests in evidence? 5. Did the lesson lead into questions of the day? 6. Did it start with a question of the day? 7. Was there evidence of organization on the part of the teacher? On the part of the children? Yes, 58, no. 14. Do the high-school pupils approach the study of history with the advance in power wThich should reasonably be expected? To what extent is the study one of isolated facts? To what extent does it trace the development of the free¬ dom of mankind? To what extent does it make for good citizenship? Are questions concerning such subjects as these connected with the discussion of the history : Industrial development, child labor, naturalization, suffrage for women, State rights, laws regarding the holding of land by aliens? To what extent do the pupils make use of histories other than the required text? Is collateral reading evident? Are pictures and other illustrative material used? Is the public library used for history material ? Are the pupils familiar with the work of the historical society? Is the English of the recitation clear, dig¬ nified, connected? The report of this committee called particular attention to the importance of the use of three textbooks in the upper grades and the topical recitation in the high schools. The report of the committee on industrial and prevocational edu¬ cation is one of the most comprehensive in the survey. The follow¬ ing statement of principle was enunciated: 1. The committee holds that the primary or fundamental purpose in elemen¬ tary education is the development in the child of those attitudes and reactions essential to social well-being in a democratic society. 2. The different handworks are hence in the elementary schools, as, in fact, all content, primarily to further the end of good citizenship or social culture, and only secondarily for vocational purposes. It is granted that all elementary school content has a vocational aspect. In this sense all work in the elementary school is prevocational. Criticism: The committee looks, therefore, with disfavor on overemphasizing the vocational aspect of handwwk in the elementary schools for pupils under 14 years of age and the subordination to this aspect of the academic content taught. The report undertakes to make a contribution to this new move¬ ment in education in its discussion of aims, terminology, differentia- 460 EDUCATION REPORT/ 1915. tion of schools, courses and pupils, types of handwork, and the prep¬ aration of teachers. Two committees agree in the recommendation of the organization of the vocational guidance bureau as an integral part of the public- school system. The plan detailed for this bureau is as follows : The vocational guidance bureau should consist of the director and such pro¬ fessional and clerical assistants as the director and superintendent shall from time to time deem to be necessary. The work of the director should include the following : 1. To advise, instruct, and confer with the school advisers. 2. To plan and direct a system whereby each child who leaves school to go to work may be followed up, and such assist¬ ance and advice given him as he may need from time to time. Also to keep on file in his office such data gathered from the various schools as shall be of value for reference and consultation. It is understood that the work undertaken by this bureau shall not in any way conflict with or take the place of the work of the compulsory education bureau. 8. To organize and maintain a placement bureau, which shall be conducted under his direction, and to cooperate with industrial, social, and philanthropic organizations outside the schools in their efforts to place children in suitable vocations. 4. To give advice and help to such children as the school advisers may. refer to him. 5. As rapidly as pos¬ sible, to make surveys of the more important industries, especially of those which employ young people between 14 and 16, and to have the results printed in suitable form for reference and distribution. 6. To perform any other duties appertaining to his office which may from time to time seem necessary. The committee recommends that the principal of each school, or some teacher appointed by him, shall act as vocational adviser. The work of the vocational advisers should include the following: 1. To advise pupils who in¬ tend to go to work. To furnish information to pupils and parents as to op¬ portunities in occupations open to children. 2. To confer with the parent always before a school certificate is given. 3. To make out the school certifi¬ cate after conference with the parent and pupil and mail it to the central bureau. 4. To fill out in duplicate an informational card, one of which shall be mailed to the central bureau with the school certificate and one kept on file at the school. This card shall contain such data as are necessary in advis¬ ing and placing the child intelligently. 4. Acting in cooperation with the com¬ pulsory education bureau to keep track of all children to whom work certifi¬ cates have been given, to ascertain whether they are actually at work, where such work is, and, as far as possible, the conditions under which they are laboring. This information shall be entered on the pupil’s card and kept at the school for reference. 6. As far as possible, to keep in touch with the employers of children in the neighborhood, and to advise the central bureau of needs and conditions in local establishments. 7. To attend meetings called by the director and to perform such other work as may be necessitated by the vocational demands of the schools. The central bureau will always act in harmony with the bureau of compul¬ sory education, both in reference to the “ follow-up work ” and the issuance of work certificates. In all cases where necessity arises the powers of both depart¬ ments should be concentrated to accomplish the observance of the law, and consequently the highest interests of the child. SCHOOL SURVEYS. 461 SOUTH BEND, IND. A distinct contribution to the study of school systems is made in the survey of the public schools in South Bend, Ind., conducted by the department of education of the University of Chicago. During the “ last six weeks of the school year,” 1912-13, the field work was conducted by Prof. Charles H. Judd and Dr. J. F. Bobbitt, the latter being the director of the survey. A personal investigation of the school conditions in the city included the visitation of 17 buildings, a half day usually being devoted to each building. Each expert was in the field not more than two or three days each week, aggregating “ 15 days actually on the grounds.” The data were secured with “ the friendly cooperation and assistance of superintendent, assistant superintendent, principals, teachers, and clerk of the board.” It appears that the question of having a study made of school conditions was first introduced by the superintendent in a meeting of the principals a year earlier. “ The money to defray the expenses of the actual survey was raised entirely through efforts of the teach¬ ing force, and later the board appropriated $250 to be used if neces¬ sary for the publication of the same.” The situation leading to the inquiry was accordingly not one of dissatisfaction; on the contrary, it was desired by the school staff “ with the thought that some outside aid and outside guidance would be able to render service valuable to the entire school city.” The report is published in connection with the biennial report of Superintendent of Schools L. J. Montgomery, for the biennium ending August 1, 1914 (pp. 117-216). The report was submitted by the director of the survey on August 27, 1914, the section on reading (pp. 125-131) being contributed by Prof. Judd. Among the large number of findings and recommendations the following may be stated here: In their possession of the tools of knowledge or training for literacy it was found there was great diversity of practice in the several elementary schools of the city, due to the freedom allowed principals to adjust time allotments, methods, and materials to meet the specific needs of their buildings, respectively. Attention is called to the necessity of differentiating the method of teaching reading in the upper grades from that which obtains in the lower grades* The material was not always well selected, either being too difficult or not well adapted to the children, as in the case of those of foreign parentage. Freedom from the limits of the adopted textbook and the selection of reading matter is especially recommended. The system of phonic analysis which teach¬ ers have developed is commended. Attention is called to the over emphasis upon the extraction of the meaning of particular passages in the upper grades, and to the practical neglect of methods of in¬ struction in silent reading. 462 EDUCATION REPORT, 1915. The study of the education situation in South Bend is dominated by a careful and exhaustive analysis of the various functions which a system of public schools should discharge. Briefly stated, these are as follows: (1) The overcoming of illiteracy in the whole popu¬ lation; (2) the giving of college preparatory training to those looking forward to professional and managerial labors; (3) training for vocational skill and understanding because of the highly complex industrial processes and the great wealth of technical information needed for guidance; (4) training for wise and efficient citizenship because of the status of the individual and the democracy; (5) train¬ ing of the population for physical efficiency due to the congestion of population in civic centers and the increasing sedentariness of the work of men and women; (6) training for leisure occupations as the best antidote for the modern competitive nervous strain. The practical test to which the school data were brought was in each instance an approximate measurement of the extent to which each of these functions was converted to organizing the administra¬ tive and teaching purposes. In general, it is found that the first and second functions have been well performed in South Bend; the third has received some partial but wholly inadequate recognition. As to the fourth function, “ much is being done, but purposes have not been defined, consequently work is wavering and fragmentary.” The fifth has received some partial but very inadequate recognition, while the development of a recognition of the last function is only in its incipiency. The final offering of “ a short list of things done and a long list of things yet to be done ” is not to be construed as “ faultfinding ” but rather an indication of the growth which always characterizes a school system. “ Educational growth in South Bend has been rapid and healthy, but the school system is not full grown.” Were I asked to point out the greatest single weakness of educational work in South Bend, or in most other cities for that matter, I should point to the haziness of ideas as to what the schools are after. I should not only point to this as the greatest weakness but as the taproot out of which almost all other weaknesses grow. As one visits classrooms one often finds perfunctoriness, forcelessness, incoherency in the organization of materials, abstractness of materials, passivity of pupils, unthinking use of textbooks, etc. All these things can be traced to the central root of purposelessness in the work. There is no need of our discussing these derived faulty conditions. Our business is to get at the root of things — the definition of the purposes and the fitting of means to these purposes. This has been our central aim in all the preceding chapters. * * * Faulty conditions are not to be got at in any direct and easy manner. They all spring from a common root. We felt £hat in giving so much time in the earlier sections to definition of proper ends and purposes we were making the recommendations that would go furthest in remedying imperfect teaching methods. SCHOOL SURVEYS. 463 The report includes 12 chapters and 25 tables. The chapter topics in order are as follows : The general situation, education for literacy, education for vocation, education for citizenship, education for physical efficiency, education for leisure occupations, definition of purposes, the student population, elementary teachers, the high- school situation, the general administrative situation, the financial situation. The report stands out in strong contrast with all other surveys made by reason of the method of interpretation given to the data which were collected. Instead of the usual procedure of inquiry into the so-called “ fact basis,” this study is an application of the princi¬ ples of education which are kept constantly in the foreground. The fact features of the situation are then brought forward for proper distribution and further recommendation. The first seven chapters, or nearly seven-ninths, of the report are devoted to the consideration of the purposes which are obtaining in “the school city.” This feature is clearly set forth in the prefatory statement : What is needed in a first survey is an examination of the fundamental aspects of the work. One must see whether the schools are trying to meet the needs of the community ; whether they are emphasizing the various aspects of the work in proportion to relative social values ; whether all the children are being reached, and for a long enough period ; whether the teaching and supervising corps are well trained and clearly conscious of the specific ways in which their labors are designed to serve the general community; whether the material bases of good work are being supplied by the community; whether the general public is performing its share in actively promoting the labors of its schools. The teaching of spelling exhibited many merits as well as short¬ comings. The work is too abstract. Special commendation is given to the development of the English work called “Free expression.” It is recommended that the time now given to the classes called lan¬ guage, composition, and grammar should be greatly curtailed, but without an exclusion of language drill. In penmanship South Bend ranks 16 per cent above the average speed in writing letters by pupils in all grades, from the second to the eighth, in 138 American cities. Speed is overemphasized and quality is apparently sacri¬ ficed; on the Ayres scale, South Bend is the lowest of 38 cities. A redistribution of special drill to those pupils in need of it is recom¬ mended. The data of the 1910 census report on the vocational distribution of both the male and female wage-earning population were utilized as a foundation for considering the next steps that should be taken in making provision for giving training for entrance into all of the major vocations in which the city is directly interested. The report of the survey makes the interesting suggestion that this training should be “ upon three levels ” — the general vocational training, the 464 EDUCATION REPORT, 1915. semispecialized, and the specialized. In addition to the wide range of practical activities that are listed in detail, the need of additional Graining is emphasized — technical vocational information of many sorts and general socializing vocational information for purpose of social vision. It is found that some beginnings have been made in each of these seven aspects of vocational training. That these “ prac¬ tical activities must be intellectualized through and through” is a special note in the report. In addition to the consideration of the teaching of the vocational subjects, special attention is given to geography and history as academic instruments directly concerned with the development of vocational purposes. It is recommended : (1) Teachers and supervisors should clearly define their purposes in teach¬ ing geography in terms of twentieth century social needs, keeping in mind that, among these various social needs, wide industrial vision is the major one. (2) Each building should be supplied with all necessary books and visual mate¬ rials. (8) The development of geography work of the right sort for the eighth grade and the high school is urged. Practically the same recommendations are made with reference to history. History and geography deal with the same social groups, with the same institu¬ tions, and with the same vocational labors. One, however, looks at them spatially, the other temporally. The geographical and historical treatments of any topic should not be divorced. It is recommended that training for citizenship be recognized by the school at South Bend as one of the legitimate functions of public education and that the curriculum of grammar grades and high schools be modified accordingly. In order properly to perform his portion in carrying on the very many civic functions demanded of the citizen to-day, it is necessary that he be given much the same in general outline as that for vocational training: (1) Practical par¬ ticipation; (2) technical information for guidance; (3) general social, economic, and political information for perspective. That education for physical efficiency is a legitimate province of public educa¬ tion has been recognized partially, but imperfectly, in South Bend. The ele¬ ments in training necessary for this purpose are recognized as of the three kinds necessary in other fields — practical training, technical information, and a wide social point of view. The important place of play and games is strongly em¬ phasized in this connection. The attention given to the educational purpose of training for leisure occu¬ pations shows that the past emphasis upon reading and music as preparation for the enjoyment of leisure during maturity does not sufficiently supply the needs of a community. Folk dancing, sports, and games, as well as a general vocational training which lays the foundation for healthy avocations, are brought forward as demanding immediate attention. The probable future val¬ ues of the modern foreign languages, such as French and German, in this con¬ nection are not probably commensurate with the effort and expense which are expended upoli them. Finally, it is definitely recommended that courses of study be stated in terms of purposes rather than in terms of topics and materials to be covered. Along with such courses there should be a wealth of suggestions as to material that may be employed which will assist in reaching the ends in view. Each teacher should be permitted to continue to enjoy large freedom from arbitrary authority in the selection of the material that is used. SCHOOL SURVEYS. 465 The school census of South Bend shows a population of somewhat over 10,000 between the ages of 6 and 21. The number of children of each age is unknown. The number in school, including public, private, and parochial, of each age is unknown. The number of each age who are not in any school is unknown. The annual school census seems not really designed as a means of supervising attendance. Principals and teachers should cooperate with the community of their district and know it so intimately that a family could not move in under ordinary cir¬ cumstances without their becoming aware of it. The welcoming into their district of all newly arriving families in which there are children of school age should be one of the primary functions of teachers and principals. A novel attempt was made at a new problem in the treatment of the position and progress of every pupil in every school. The 16 elementary schools were also compared as to their relative standing in the progress of pupils through the grades. By this scheme it was found that in 10 schools satisfactory progress was being made, whereas in 6 schools the progress was clearly unsatis¬ factory. A retardation chart shows the comparative position occu¬ pied by each school. In view of the serious situation created by the well-known phenomenon of elimination, it was recommended that special classes be formed for the purpose of giving rapid treatment of the essentials of history, geography, hygiene, elementary science, and vocational studies, so that no student of normal intelligence may go forth from the school in total ignorance of these vital fields of training. The study of the elementary teachers revealed that the amount of academic and professional training received by them averages 4.8 years beyond the eighth grade, or eight-tenths of a year beyond a full high-school course. They had had an average experience in teaching of 6.7 years, and an average tenure of four years in South Bend schools. In these three respects South Bend occupies a very low rank in a group of 26 cities and villages in the Middle West. The median salary of the elementary teacher is $540. In this re¬ spect South Bend is next to the lowest in a list of 34 northern cities east of the Rockies. Immediate attention should be given to the raising of the salary schedule in order to hold teachers. Study of special topics relating to the high schools developed some interesting results. In terms of the conception of the several education purposes, some of the facts are not easy in explanation. It was found that the portion of each $1,000 expended for instruction in each of the high-school subjects was as follows : English composition and literature, $157 ; the sciences, $130 ; higher mathematics, $117; commercial subjects, $106; manual training, $81; history, $77 ; modem languages, $71 ; public speaking, $58 ; physical training, $58 ; Latin, $54 ; domestic science, $35 ; domestic arts, $29 ; drawing, $22 ; music, $5. 1 Vol. XV, p. 41. 12034° — ed 1915 — vol 1 - 30 466 EDUCATION" REPORT, 1915. The distribution of the time of the high-school students was taken as another means for judging the community valuation of the ma¬ terial in the course of study. The distribution of each 1,000 student hours over the different subject is as follows: Commercial subjects, 151 ; English, 149 ; science, 129 ; mathematics, 112 ; physical training, 88; history, 78; modern languages, 69; manual training 45; Latin, 39 ; public speaking, 35 ; domestic science, 31 ; drawing, 27 ; domestic arts, 24; music, 23. An effort was made to determine the cost per student-hour of the different subjects, with the following results: Manual training, $0,111; public speaking, $0,104; Latin, $0,085; domestic arts, $0,074; domestic science, $0,070; English, $0,066; modern languages, $0.063 ; mathematics, $0.062 ; history, $0.062 ; science, $0.062 ; drawing, $0.051 ; commercial subjects, $0.043 ; physical training, $0.041 ; music, $0,016. It appears that the burden of teaching the different subjects is inequitably distributed among the teachers of the different depart¬ ments as shown by the relative amount of classwork done per teacher per week. 1 Number I of hours I per week. Average size of of class. Student- hours per week. Manual training . 20.0 15.5 310 Latin . i 20.0 15.6 312 Public speaking . | 18.7 17.2 322 English . j 14.6 23.5 343 Domestic arts . . . | 25.5 14.5 370 History . 17.3 22.6 391 Mathematics . ! 18.6 22.0 409 Modem languages . 18.9 22.6 427 Domestic science . 24.5 18.5 453 Science . 22.0 21.7 477 Drawing . ! 29.3 16.8 492 Commercial subjects . ! 21.3 25.6 545 Physical training . | 21.3 37.9 807 Music . i 26.7 52.0 1,388 The medium high-school teacher’s salary is $940. Three-fourths of the cities in its class pay a higher average salary than South Bend. The financial problem receives final consideration. It is shown that the city is in a very fortunate financial situation, being able to under¬ take without strain any of the things recommended in connection with the survey. Comparatively speaking, it is a very wealthy city, as shown by the practice of 46 Northern cities east of the Rockies. The property tax for all purposes is also far below the average, and the tax rate as based upon the estimated true valuation of property is nearly at the bottom of the list. The very slight burden of the city debt per capita of population shows that its material resources in the direction of education need to be more completely utilized. SCHOOL SURVEYS. 407 UPPER PENINSULA, MICII. The bureau of research of the Upper Peninsula (Mich.) Educa¬ tional Association, which gives instance of a cooperative school sur¬ vey in its first report in 1913, modified the work, the results of which were presented in its report of September 1, 1914. This year the bureau has attempted to discover the points of strength and weakness in the schools, as judged by parents and others interested in them. The duty of the school is to produce the type of citizen demanded by the times, and it must frequently inquire into its own success or failure in accom¬ plishing this task. The basis of this report is the individual judgments of 317 representative citizens of the Upper Peninsula. The judgments of teachers were not consid¬ ered, consequently the report gives only the viewpoint of the layman. The following occupations were represented by the persons who responded to the committee’s inquiry : Attorney, banker, bank cashier, bookkeeper, broker, chemist, city clerk, clergyman, contractor and builder, construction superin¬ tendent, county Young Men’s Christian Association superintendent, draftsman, druggist, electrician, farmer, health officer, housewife, justice of peace, laborer, mayor, manager of mine, manager of business house, merchant, mining engineer, mine inspector, mine superintendent, mine clerk, mill superintendent, mining captain, mill owner, newspaper man, observer at weather bureau, photographer, physician, postmaster, president of railroad, railroad agent, real estate and insur¬ ance, register of deeds, railroad manager, salesman, sheriff, secretary of Young Men's Christian Association, secretary of commercial club, stenographer, super¬ intendent of stone quarry, soprano soloist. The inquiry was made by means of a questionnaire sent to laymen, dealing with problems connected with moral education, physical education, industrial education, and general. On moral education the questions were as follows: 1. In your opinion, are the public schools doing all they should in training for conduct and character? (a) If not, in what particular are they deficient? (&) If not, what remedy would you suggest? 2. Should the schools do more to train boys and girls socially ; that is, in the amenities of society? 3. In your opinion, do parents sufficiently exercise their responsibility in training children for conduct and character? 4. Should the conduct of boys and girls outside of school hours be more carefullsT supervised by parents? 5. Do you believe sex hygiene should be taught in the schools? Why? How? On physical training and care of the health, the questions were: 1. What more can the schools do than they are doing to conserve the health of the pupil? 2. What more can the schools do than they are doing to develop the physical well-being of the child? 3. What more can parents do to further the physical welfare of the child? 4. Should dental inspection be compulsory in the schools? 5. Should medical inspection be compulsory in the schools? 6. Should thoroughly sanitary conditions in and around school buildings be required by law? 468 EDUCATION REPORT, 1915. 7. What should be done in case a child has physical defects which need treatment, and the parents refuse to have them treated? 8. What should be done in case a child has physical defects which need treatment, and the parents are unable financially to have them treated? 9. Should there be more playground space in connection with the school building? 10. It is recognized that playgrounds should be supervised. Who should supervise them — the school or the city? On industrial education, the questions were : 1. What portion of the time should be devoted to industrial education? (a) In elementary schools? (&) in high schools? 2. What portion of the time should be devoted to cultural education? (a) In elementary schools? (6) In high schools? 3. How can the schools secure the cooperation of industries, business, and home, in teaching special phases of industrial education? 4. In your opinion, are the schools at present successful in teaching educa¬ tion? (a) If not, in what particular are they defective? (&) If not, what remedy for these particular defects would you recommend? 5. How can arrangements be made with industrial establishments so that the pupils may work part time and attend school the other part of the time? 6. Should pupils be taught specific trades? (a) If so, -what trades? 7. Should city schools teach agriculture? If not, where should it be taught? 8. At what age should training begin? (a) For boys? (6) For girls? 9. Should cooking, sewing, and household economy be taught to all girls? On general phases of education, the questions were : 1. What, in your opinion, should be the qualifications for members of school boards? 2. Should school officers be paid? Why? 3. How can we keep pupils in school until they are older? 4. How can the cooperation of home and school be secured to aid the boy in fixing a life purpose? 5. Should the school year be lengthened so that pupils who wish to and are able may make up time? If not, why? 6. Should school buildings be used as social centers? If not, why? If so, who should have personal charge of the building while put to such use? 7. In your opinion, are school-teachers somewhat out of touch with the business world and its methods? The report presented to the association includes a tabulation of the “ yes ” and “ no ” answers to the specific questions and summaries of the variations of opinion. This summary is submitted by comment and discussion to each of the four general topics by the committee. The survey thus begins, as it were, a sort of educational referendum, but without power to enforce its majority conclusions. It is, never¬ theless, an interesting exhibit of the state of the public mind on these educational issues in that particular locality. The report concludes with the following recommendations: 1. There is need of greater interest in training for character. 2. Both the home and the school should do more to inculcate refined manners and respect for serious and good things. SCHOOL SURVEYS. 4()9 3. The child’s health should be studied in a calm and sane way. 4. The teaching of sex hygiene in the school is not favored with the present means at our disposal. 5. There is need of careful dental and medical inspection of school children. 0. Physical exercise should be primarily for health. 7. The duties of school boards and superintendents should be differentiated. 8. Members of school boards should be intelligent, honest, broad-minded citizens and the best of business managers. 9. Finally, the committee recommends that the committee on research be continued another year and that a special and detailed study of industrial education be made. BELL, COLLIN, FISHER, HARRIS, AND NACOGDOCHES COUNTIES, TEX. The department of extension of the University of Texas com¬ prises an organization of seven divisions, as follows : Correspondence instruction, public welfare, public discussion, home welfare, public- school improvement, public lectures and publicity, and child welfare. Each of these divisions is organized so as to assist in the effort to take the university to the people — to bring its benefits within the reach of as many individuals as possible. A part of the work of the division of public-school improvement has been that of making “ a study or a survey ” of the educational conditions and needs of the rural public schools, particularly as found in the five counties, Bell, Collin, Fisher, Harris, and Nacogdoches. The investigation was conducted by E. V. White, head of the division, and Edward E. Davis, a lecturer in the division. Their method of investigation led them— to original sources for information and observation — to the county school superintendents, to the boards of school trustees, to the teachers, to the schools, to the homes of representative citizens, to the records of the commissioners’ courts, to the officers and some of the leading members of the social, industrial, and religious organizations of the counties. As in the Alabama survey the counties selected were regarded as typical of conditions in different parts of the State: Bell, located in the south-central part of the State ; Collin, in the northern part of the State; Fisher, in the west-central part of the State; Harris, in the southeastern part of the State; and Nacogdoches, in the eastern part of the State. Particular attention is given to the location, history, economic resources, and development of these different representative parts of the State. The report of the survey, “A Study of Rural Schools in Texas,” was issued by the University of Texas as Bulletin No. 864, October 10, 1914 (167 pp). It includes 11 chapters, several charts and diagrams, and many photographs. In addition to the single chapter given to the presentation of the material concerning the rural schools of each of the five counties the following topics are presented: Educational rank of Texas; necessity for compulsory school attendance in Texas; consolidation and transportation: rural 470 EDUCATION REPORT, 1915. school administration ; the rural church. The eleventh chapter is not a part of the survey but an article contributed as an illustration of the betterment of rural life in connection with the Tuleta Rural High School, Bee County. The report is characterized by a persistent plea for the consolida¬ tion of rural schools as the chief means for a radical improvement of the backward condition of rural education in Texas. This plea, with its various recommendations, was addressed to the thirty-fourth legislature as well as to the people in the particular counties and the State at large. The starting point of the authors is found in the educational rank which the State occupied as shown by the results of Dr. Leonard P. Ayres’s “A Comparative Study of the Public- School Systems in the 48 States ” in 1910, and published in 1912. In this measurement it was ascertained that Texas ranked eighteenth in the amount expended for schools per $100 of wealth; thirtieth in the average annual salary of teachers; thirty-second in the per cent of pupils in high school; thirty-third in the per cent of average daily attendance per child; thirty-fifth in the per cent of illiteracy among persons 10 years of age or over; thirty-sixth in the value of school property per child; thirty-ninth in the annual expenditure per child in the length of public-school term and in the daily cost per child in school attendance; forty-second in the average days of attendance per child ; and forty-sixth in the per cent of children en¬ rolled in school. On the basis of these data special plea is made to the legislature for enacting a compulsory education law. The progress of consolidation of schools and transportation of pupils in seven counties effectively illustrates the contention that small schools mean high cost, short terms, and low attendance, while large schools mean moderate cost, long terms, and high attendance. Particular attention is given to the problem of proper and adequate county school supervision. The past system of assigning the super¬ vision of county schools to the county court or commissioners’ court and the method of political election of county superintendent are severely condemned. It is recommended that every county having a school population of 2,000 should be required to have a county super¬ intendent, while those counties having fewer than 2,000 should be grouped, so that two or three counties would be required jointly to employ such an officer. This officer should have professional train¬ ing, be paid an adequate salary, be assured of a longer tenure, and have sufficient clerical help to discharge the duty of supervision. The exceptional position occupied by the rural schools of Harris County is described and explained in the following language : There are 35 mothers’ club organizations. Every school district in the county has voted a local maintenance tax. The amount of $125,000 is raised annually by local taxation for the purpose of school maintenance. The school- SCHOOL SURVEYS. 471 building bonds issued during the past two and one-half years amount to $325,000. There are 26 brick school buildings in the common-school districts. There are 200 odorless, fly-proof, sanitary closets in use. The schools have in all 115 pianos. Six wagons are being operated at public expense to carry children to and from school. There are 50 school districts in the county, with an average area of 32.5 square miles each. There is a total of 173 white teachers employed. Three of the largest school districts employ district superin¬ tendents. The largest district in the county has 1,641 pupils, 7 schools, 33 teachers, and 2 public transportation wagons. The present county superin¬ tendent has been in the office for the past 10 years. The county superintendent uses an automobile to make his school visitations. The commissioners’ court furnishes a stenographer to the county superintendent. The summary of the causes that have contributed to educational develop¬ ment of Harris County includes : Good county roads ; 74 per cent of the farmers own their homes; the rural population has increased 73 per cent during the past 10 years, and the ingress of new people with new ideas has been a won¬ derful stimulus; the county superintendent has progressive educational ideas and has the courage to put them into effect ; with the assistance of good roads, an automobile, and adequate office help, the services of the county superin¬ tendent have been multiplied many fold. The present county superintendent has been in office 10 years, and thoroughly understands the people, the local conditions, and the needs of every district in the county. Mothers’ clubs and local improvement associations have contributed all that could be expected. The city of Houston, with its advanced governmental ideas and excellent sys¬ tems of schools, has had an unconscious constructive influence far out into the country. Interscholastic athletic contests among the schools have done much to develop the latent possibilities of many school communities. The superin¬ tendent’s annual report of more than 100 pages each year has had a good effect. It has given the people of each district a chance to see what those of other districts are doing, and the spirit of friendly rivalry and the desire to excel have thus been created. Bell County. — The Texas Experiment Station would be an ideal place for the maintenance of a model rural high school at comparatively little cost. Not to mention the possibilities of better country schools and improved social inter¬ course among neighbors, the commercial value of permanent roads amply justi¬ fied their construction. In almost every community there is ample evidence of the good that could be accomplished by the teacher in directing social life. The procuring of competent pastors is the biggest problem of the country church in Bell County. Living salaries are not at present paid to ministers. Church buildings should be made more attractive. The maintenance of efficient country schools in Bell County will require the expenditure of more money for better teachers. The consolidation of districts is the only guaranty of the possibility of good schools for the country children of Bell County. For this purpose the county needs redistricting. An official map defining district boundary lines should be prepared. Outhouses should be screened and provided with septic tanks. Local school-tax sentiment has shown a marvelous growth during the past few years. The office of county superintendent should be removed from factional politics. The county superintendent is overloaded with clerical work that should be done by an assistant. A larger number of local institutes would prove beneficial. Very little industrial work is done in the schools. Such in¬ struction is not possible to any great extent until larger districts are obtained by means of consolidation. Collin County. — After having looked over the field carefully, the writer be¬ lieves that an area of 12 to 20 square miles would be the most practical unit to 472 EDUCATION REPORT, 1915. adopt for rural-school purposes in this county at present. Collin County has a number of village and town schools that are well equipped and well taught, but the country schools are very inferior and below the average for the State. Bad roads and farm tenancy are the two greatest hindrances in the way of good country schools. The smallest common-school districts found in the entire course of this survey are in Collin County. The poorest attended and most ex¬ pensive schools are among the smaller rural districts. Some clerical help should be provided for the office of the county superintendent. He needs to spend his entire time in the field among the schools, but as it is, more than half of his time is consumed in the office. There is no economy in having a $1,500 man do the work of a $40 office clerk. There should be a map of the entire county, showing the exact boundaries of each school district. As it is, there is much irregularity in the rendition of property for school taxes. Nacogdoches County. — Supt. R. F. Davis, of the Nacogdoches High School, is president of the county board of education. His influence as an educator is felt throughout the county. Every county board in the State should have at least one professionally trained school man on it. A majority of the rural teachers are ladies. In some of the one-teacher schools they are walking as far as miles to procure board and accommodations. No teacher can do the best work under such conditions. Trustees should give such matters their atten¬ tion, and provide a remedy where possible. North Church School was annexed to Nacogdoches in 1913. Formerly it had three teachers. At present it is a ward school of Nacogdoches and employs two teachers. One teacher at $50 per month has been eliminated by a transportation wagon for $30 per month that conveys all the children above the seventh grade, 11 in number, to Nacog¬ doches, where they get nine months of school instead of seven. School boards should keep posted as to the success of this public transportation wagon, and adopt the plan wherever efficiency and economy among the schools can be gained by it. There are 29 negro schools in the county. The greatest waste of the public-school funds is on these negro schools. They are poorly housed, poorly taught, and poorly attended ; and, withal, are made to conform to an educational system planned entirely for the whites. Fisher County. — The employment of a county farm demonstrator to initiate industrial organizations through the schools would be a profitable investment. There needs to be a broader social utilization of the school plant under the leadership of the teachers. The teachers are commended for the personal interest which they are taking in athletics, and for the friendly contests de¬ veloped among the different schools. The churches need more resident pastors whose time should be available for community betterment during the entire week. Salaries should be at least large enough to enable the pastors to be¬ come business men to the extent of meeting tromptly their living expenses. This can be best accomplished by strengthening present organizations and by discouraging the establishment of too many new churches. It is also evident that the church should assume a larger work in directing the activities of the young people. The fundamental weakness of the country schools is that they do not offer industrial courses. Salaries are entirely too small to employ and retain efficient teachers. The fact is plainly evident beyond contradiction that the lack of thorough high-school opportunities is a most serious defect and that the conditions now imposed upon these schools make good high-school instruction impracticable and impossible. The people of Fisher County are commended for the unparalleled progress which has been made in the voting of local taxes and in the erection of hygienic schoolhouses. The holding of local institutes throughout the county would doubtless bring the people and SCHOOL SURVEYS. 473 the local trustees into closer relation with the county superintendent, thereby assisting in the solution of many school problems. If the country schools are to perform the character of service which prepares the pupils for life, there must be country high schools, industrial courses, higher salaries for teachers, longer school terms, better libraries, and adequate laboratory facilities. RABUN, CLAYTON, TALIAFERRO, AND BULLOCII COUNTIES, GA. The utilization of an educational survey for the improvement of conditions in rural school work has been specially applied in Georgia. Through the cooperation of the General Education Board in 1914, which provided funds for the salary and expenses of a trained expert, M. L. Brittain, State superintendent of schools, appointed M. L. Duggan rural school agent. His duty is to make, as rapidly as possible, educational surveys of the various counties. Mr. Duggan has issued the following reports: 1. Educational Survey of Rabun County, Bulletin No. 1, under the direction of the department of education, November 2, 1914 (48 pp.). 2. Educational Survey of Clayton and Taliaferro Counties, Bulletins Nos. 2 and 3, under the direction of the department of education, January 19. 1915 (23 pp.), and appendix of two statistical tables. 3. Educational Survey of Bulloch County, Bulletin No. 4, under the direction of the department of education, 1915 (78 pp.). RABUN COUNTY. The first county selected in which to make “ a true inventory of the educational interests, activities, resources, and deficiencies” was Rabun, “ the brave little county ” in the extreme northeastern corner of the State. While it is not a typical county of the whole State, it is a typical mountain county. It was thus selected because it was the first mountain county in Georgia to add to the State fund for schools by local taxation. It is a county in which there are “ no rich citizens ” and “ no paupers.” The greater part of six weeks was con¬ sumed in making the survey. Every school was personally visited and inspected as carefully as the time allowed. It included 27 white and 2 colored schools, 1 high school, and 3 additional schools not a part of the public school system, namely, the Rabun Gap Industrial School ; the Logan E. Bleckley Memorial Institute, under the auspices of the State Baptist mission board; and the Tallulah Falls Industrial School, which is owned and maintained by the State Federation of Women’s Clubs. The survey of the last-mentioned school was made by special request, and received some assistance from Miss C. S. Par¬ rish, the State supervisor. The method of the inquiry was based on the adoption of the mini¬ mum standard of efficiency for rural schools, issued by the State superintendent of schools. More than 100 county schools have re- 474 EDUCATION REPORT, 1915. ceived diplomas, stating that they measure up to the standard in the following particulars : I. THE TEACHER. IV. EQUIPMENT. 1. Good teaching. 2. Good order and management. 3. First-grade certificate. 4. Full, neat, and accurate school reg¬ ister. 5. Daily program posted in room. 6. Teacher’s manual on desk. II. GROUNDS. 1. Good condition. 2. Playgrounds. 3. School garden. 4. Two separate sanitary closets. III. BUILDINGS. 1. Painted outside. 2. Plastered, or ceiled and painted. 3. No leaks. 4. Windows without broken panes. 5. Cloakrooms. 6. Good doors with locks and keys. 7. Clean and well kept. The presentation of the study of the schools in detail is simple and direct. In nearly every case one page is given to a school. The report includes a photograph showing equipment and surroundings, and in many cases the children and teacher, with the data arranged under the following 11 items: Teacher, location, grounds, building, community uses, equipment, statistics, water, school organization, organized community help, maintenance. The recommendations are submitted to three groups of persons as follows : To the county school officials: First. Whole-time supervision by the county superintendent; and as soon as practicable provide during the school term a trained lady supervisor as his assistant. Second. In so far as possible employ only trained teachers. This will require somewhat better pay. It is of even more importance than a longer term. Third. Consider the advisability of further consolidation. Fourth. Encourage in every legitimate way school fairs, educa¬ tional rallies, etc. Fifth. Make teachers’ contracts binding for not less than a full school year. To the teachers: First. Clean up your schoolhouse and grounds, and keep them so every day in the year. Second. Teach and demonstrate hygiene and sanitation, and look for the result of your teaching in the better health habits of your pupils. Third. Free yourselves from the slavery to textbooks ; teach some lessons “ not in book.” Fourth. Devote regular and systematic attention to at least one of the homemaking industries. (See Industrial Bulletin from 1. Patent modern desks. 2. At least 20 linear feet of black¬ board per room. 3. Building comfortably heated and ventilated. 4. Framed pictures on the wall. 5. Dictionary, maps, and library. 6. Sanitary water supply. V. ASSOCIATED ACTIVITIES. Manual arts, corn, canning, poultry, or cooking club. VI. SALARY OF TEACHER. At least $40 per month. vn. TERM. At least seven months. SCHOOL SURVEYS. 475 Department of Education.) Fifth. Organize school clubs, and supervise but do not “ boss ” them. To the patrons: First. Demand trained teachers for your children ; they deserve as much. Second. Organize for the purpose of helping along the work of education in your county and at your local school in every proper way. Third. Visit your school occasionally, and always take notice of the manner in which the house and grounds are kept. (Your children are being influenced by these every day.) Fourth. See that suitable closets are built and kept in sani¬ tary condition. (The prevalence of hookworm disease in your county, as shown by the survey of the State board of health, ought to be sufficient argument for this. There are other reasons.) Fifth. Give the teacher freedom in her work and uphold her in it. See that your children attend school regularly. CLAYTON AND TALIAFERRO COUNTIES. Two of the older counties, Clayton and Taliaferro, were next se¬ lected for study. The State superintendent of schools gives the reasons for this selection : Both are small ; the county seat of each is well situated in many respects to serve as a central high school ; both have as superintendents elderly gentlemen, veterans of the sixties, and both have failed to keep pace with some of the more vigorous new counties, particularly with regard to modern education. These are small counties, located in the central section of the State. The field work was done during November and December of 1914. The method followed was similar to that reported above. The data collected are conveniently tabulated separately for each county, respectively, under the main items of grounds, buildings, equipment, organization, maintenance. Pictures of all the schools and of the model plans for rural schoolhouses are included in the report. The similarities and the contrasts of the two counties are noted. The prime need in both counties is found to be constructive direc¬ tion and expert supervision. Naturally enough we found practically the same methods of “ teaching ” prevailing in the two counties. Many of the “ beginners ” were set to the antiquated tasks of “ learning their letters,” and “ could not yet begin to learn to read.” Much drilling on the symbols of reading and numbers and the hur¬ ried hearing of lessons seemed to be the order of the day at many of these schools. In many schools it was difficult to make the children “be quiet” on the stiff, uncomfortable seats, often poorly adjusted to their physical demands, while their minds were unconsciously protesting against the emptiness of the tasks assigned and their muscles aching for natural activity. The two counties are also contrasted. In Taliaferro the sur¬ veyor was unable “ to discover a perfectly good title to any. school lot in the county.” No efforts of any sort are made to increase the resources for education through local taxation. In Clayton, on the contrary, 14 out of a total of 19 districts now levy a local school tax. This has been accomplished through the district system as the unit 476 EDUCATION REPORT, 1915. and not through the county. In Taliaferro it was found that the schoolhouses for Negroes “ will average about as good as those for the white children of the county, but are without equipment of any value whatever.” After a review of the financial resources, from the standpoint of taxation, a special plea is made to the business men of Taliaferro County to examine carefully the proposition that in¬ creased revenues should be secured through “ a county-wide plan ” of assessment and taxation. The recommendations submitted related principally to the addi¬ tion of a professionally trained assistant to the county superin¬ tendent, who shall be employed as a supervising teacher. The work for this assistant should include : (a) Planning constructive educational policies; (b) constantly advising, supervising, and assisting the teachers at their several schools; (c) seeking to vitalize the academic work of the schools by relating it to the life activities of the pupils through the organized agencies of the corn clubs, pig clubs, canning clubs, etc.; (d) promoting educational interests and creating stronger public sentiment and securing a better school attendance by constant and close contact with the patrons in their homes; (e) organizing and directing the teachers of the county in their professional interests and the patrons and citizens in social, agricultural, and educational interests. This assistant should be either a competent woman or man. To Taliaferro County it is recommended “ that no more public-school buildings be erected without first having the plans approved by the State department of education.” BULLOCH COUNTY. Bulloch is “ one of the largest, richest, most progressive, and most resourceful of the southeast Georgia counties.” A period of seven full weeks was required to inspect the 93 public schools of this county. In the report brief attention is given to the subjects of schoolhouses and grounds, equipment, sanitation, consolidation, course of study, scholarship, and finances. A lack of thoroughness in the fundamentals of scholarship is probably the most noticeable characteristic of the rural schools in this and other counties surveyed. In the majority of schools we have found that the majority of the children of the fifth and sixth grades do not readily enumerate numbers of six figures, can not add accurately and with reasonable rapidity ; can not read their history lessons understanding^ or well, are very slow in finding a word in the dictionary, generally unable to determine its meaning clearly when found, and can rarely determine its pronunciation at all. These serious defects seem to be mainly the results of a lack of training on the part of primary teachers, but partly, perhaps, from irregular attendance. Satisfactory work can not be done in the intermediate grades because good work has not been done in the primary grades. The method of study and the manner of presenting the results are those which characterized Rabun County. SCHOOL SURVEYS. 477 It is interesting to note that the effect of the study of the school conditions in this county were noticeable during its progress. “ Many of our reports of conditions had to be modified before leaving the countv on account of having been immediately improved, and before this report can be put into print it will do injustice to others on account of still further improved conditions.” “ The most pressing needs ” of the schools of this county are sum¬ marized as follows: 1. County-wide “ local taxation ” for the businesslike support and direction of the schools. 2. A supervisor to assist the superintendent in a closer supervision of the schools : also, more office room for a permanent display of school work. 3. A better planning of schoolhouses for school purposes ; also, better equipments. 4. Better sanitation, particularly with reference to the drinking water and the school toilets. 5. Consolidation at some points. One-teacher schools can never reach the highest efficiency. The children deserve the best. RICHMOND, VA. In partial preparation for the eighth annual convention of the National Society for the Promotion of Industrial Education, held at Richmond, Va., in December, 1914, a “ type ” survey of the schools and of the industries of that city was completed on November 1 preceding. The society and the city succeeded in arranging for unusual cooperation in the undertaking, ' which was shaped by sev¬ eral correlated aims. The director of the school survey was Dr. Leonard P. Ayres, of the Russell Sage Foundation and of the industrial survey, Mr. Charles H. Winslow, of the United States Bureau of Labor Statis¬ tics. The agencies cooperating were the United States Bureaus of Labor Statistics and of Education, the Russell Sage Foundation, the school people and the citizens of Richmond, a local and a general survey committee. The latter, of seven members, had direct charge of the investigations. It was enlarged to 14 members for making the recommendations. A preliminary report of this double survey has been published under the titles “ Synopsis of the Findings of the Vocational Educa tion Survey of the City of Richmond” (pp. 62), with an appendix of four charts presenting the findings about occupations, and find¬ ings about education for occupations in the building, metal, and printing trades, and the tobacco industry of Richmond ; and “ Synop¬ sis of Recommendations” (pp. 29). The recommendations, 53 in number, relate to Richmond’s problem of financing vocational education ; compulsory attendance as a factor in a program of industrial education; the types of schools and 478 EDUCATION REPORT, 1915. courses of study for boys and men and for girls and women, as deter¬ mined by the findings of the industrial survey; prevocational train¬ ing; and the place of private institutions receiving city moneys in the general plan. The complete report will be issued as Bulletin No. 162 of the United States Bureau of Labor Statistics.1 SEATTLE, WASH. A suggestive study and interpretation of “ the vocational problems involved in education and the educational problems involved in in¬ dustry ” was carried on by Dr. Anna Y. Deed during a full year beginning September, 1913. The basis of the study includes 402 pupils of the grammar schools and 822 pupils of the high schools who left school during 1913-14, personal visits to 919 homes in fol¬ lowing up these cases, and 202 girls and 223 boys up to the age of 21 years who had been out of the Seattle public schools more than one year. The report (103 pp.), made November 24, 1914, and presented to the board of directors January 15, 1915, includes 8 sections and 37 tables. The topics presented are: Facts about Seattle; sources of information and methods of investigation ; children who left school, 1913-14; school leaving and labor permits; educational and occupa¬ tional experience of boys and girls up to 21 years who have been out of school from one to five years ; minimum wage and vocational effi¬ ciency; State school and child-labor laws and the making of unem¬ ployables ; conclusions and recommendations. In his letter of trans¬ mittal Supt. Frank P. Cooper emphasizes a new aspect of the work of the school: Gradually it is dawning upon the observant portion of the public that the most critical time in the child’s school life is the day on which he leaves it. Then, for the first time, he is entirely released from discipline ; then, for the first time, with little help and no experience, he attempts to adjust himself to new conditions and surroundings, and, immature of mind and will and un¬ developed in judgment, he is forced to grapple with the great and varied prob¬ lems which puzzle the mind of the nation. Moreover, the theory that the public schools exist for children who are in attendance, whether attendance ceases at 14 or 18 years, whether in the grammar grades or in the high schools, is gradually giving place to the belief that there are educational problems within the shop as well as within the school, and that the protection and supervision of the educator should follow the working child into his new surroundings and help in the solution of the problems involved in his daily life. ^-Additional material on the vocational analysis of educational facts in other centers may be found in : “Work, Wages, and Schooling of S00 Iowa Boys” (Des Moines and Sioux City), by E. E. Lewis, Univ. of Iowa Extension Bull. No. 9. Annual Report of the Supt. of Schools, Pasadena, Cal., vocational survey of 623 girls and 735 boys. Seee also Chap IX of this report. SCHOOL SURVEYS. 479 MANUAL, DOMESTIC, AND VOCATIONAL TRAINING IN THE UNITED STATES. A somewhat different form of “ survey ” from that which has usually characterized the study of school systems may be found in the report of the “ inquiry into the progress of manual, domestic, and vocational training in the cities of the United States,” which was authorized by the board of school directors at Reading, Pa., and for the most part was conducted by Wallace E. Hackett, director of the department of practical arts in the Reading schools. The survey was begun in February, 1914, the report (156 pp.) being presented to the board February 16, 1915. The object of the survey was — to tind out what subjects were being taught in other school systems, the amount of time given these subjects, the number of shops in use and the number of in¬ structors employed ; to know how many vocational and prevocational schools each city had and how many of them conducted bureaus of vocational guidance ; and then, the above information having been received, to compare Reading with the cities studied, to discover where she stood in line and to what extent her system could be improved. The material of the report comprises the replies received from 147 cities out of 150 which were requested to supply data. The report presents detailed information concerning the teaching of the fol¬ lowing practical arts subject: Paper tearing, paper cutting, thin woodwork, paper folding, cardboard con¬ struction, weaving, raffia work, basketry, embroidery, bricklaying, gas-engine mechanics, blacksmithing, mural decoration, book illustration, furniture finish¬ ing, tailoring, sign painting, tile setting, terra-cotta drawing, house framing, lamp-shade making, novelty work, sample mounting, clay modeling, whittling, elementary bench work in wood, Venetian ironwork, bookbinding, chair caning, joinery, art metal work, sheet-metal work, printing, mechanical drawing, applied design, furniture making, wood turning, pattern making, forge-shop practice, foundry practice, machine-shop practice, bookkeeping, typewriting, stenography, sewing, cooking, dressmaking, millinery, home economics, nursing, engineering, cement work, color work, knitting, industrial arts, block printing, free-hand drawing, reed work, kite making, coping-saw work, house practice, wood carving, wood knotting, lettering, building trades, concrete construction, automobile repairing, tool making, architecture, household decoration, toll- leather work, laundrying, telegraphy, house carpentry, building model houses, theory of woodwork, thin-metal work, cabinetmaking, painting, costume de¬ signing, serving, pottery, molding, dietetics, automobile construction, brush making, clothing-machine operating, straw-machine operating, applied mechan¬ ics, soldering, pipe work, and commercial advertising. The arrangement of the material includes the data on these sub¬ jects as taught by elementary grade and other schools, instructors, shop and drawing rooms, vocational and prevocational schools, bureaus of vocational guidance, the ranking position of Reading in comparison with other cities, and details the survey by cities. 480 EDUCATION REPORT, 1915. MINNEAPOLIS, MINN., BUSINESS MANAGEMENT. The widening use of the “ survey ” in the field of education is illus¬ trated by the special study, extending over 16 weeks, of the conduct of the business side of the school system of Minneapolis. At the request of the board of education, F. S. Staley, director of the bureau of municipal research of the civics and commerce association of Minneapolis, inquired particularly into the manner of the conduct of the business side of the school system. The study, which was com¬ pleted in February, 1915, has not been published, but a summary ap¬ peared in the American School Board Journal , May, 1915. The purpose of the inquiry was to ascertain the actual conditions and to suggest in a spirit of cooperation means for the correction of any business defects in the conduct of the system. It was found in the business management of the schools that there was an absence of definite planning; no clear definition of the au¬ thority of the business executive and his relation to other depart¬ ments; no coordination of all the branches of work; no adequate system for the determination of repairs to be made; excessive cleri¬ cal, petty, detail work in the offices of principals of schools and the business executive ; too much duplication of work by the repair force and a consequent waste of time by workmen; inadequate organiza¬ tion of the heating and ventilating plants; a failure to organize properly the engineers and janitors; decentralization in the purchas¬ ing and storing of supplies ; an absence of the modern budget system and displacement of the auditing function of the auditor’s office by excessive accounting. In suggesting plans for reorganization, the survey considered five chief divisions of the business affairs of the schools: The organiza¬ tion of the business administration, the operation and maintenance of buildings, the construction of new buildings, the purchase, stor¬ age, and distribution of stores, and accounting. In order to improve the conditions discovered, it is recommended — that there should be a business executive, subordinate to the superintendent of schools, under whose charge would be placed the construction, operation, and maintenance of buildings and equipment, maintenance of grounds, accounting and auditing, purchase, storage, and distribution of stores, insuring school property, supervision of all buildings by contracting, safe-keeping of docu¬ ments and records. He should have under his direction (1) an architect, (2) an overseer of buildings, (3) an accountant, (4) and chief clerk in charge of purchasing. The architect should design all additions to buildings and prepare plans for all buildings which are to be similar to those already built. The board should call outside architects to design new buildings whenever it is desirable. The overseer of buildings should be responsible for keeping the buildings in proper condition for use and report the necessity for repairs or replacements. Under his direction there should be a chief engineer and a repair foreman, the former of whom should have immediate charge of the mechanical SCHOOL SURVEYS. 481 equipment of the schools, including supervision of engineers and janitors; the latter should have charge of the repair force and the activities of the repair shop. All records of accounts and business orders, collections, and claims should be in charge of the accountant. The report offers detail suggestions for handling repairs, including the adoption of the budget system, emergency re¬ pairs, and various suggestions for increasing the efficiency of the business opera¬ tion of the school system. OGDEN, UTAH. In April, 1915, there was published by the Utah State Department of Education the report of the Ogden public-school survey com¬ mission. Because certain suggestions of the superintendent, J. M. Mills, regarding the realization of the schools by reorganizing them on an industrial plan had aroused considerable opposition in the com¬ munity, a commission for the survey of the schools was proposed. The commission was appointed by the United States Commissioner of Education, P. P. Claxton; President J. T. Kingsbury, of the Univer¬ sity of Utah; and Prof. Milton Beimion, of the Utah State Normal School. The survey commission included W. S. Deffenbaugh, special¬ ist in school administration of the United States Bureau of Educa¬ tion; Prof. Edward J. Ward, of the University of Wisconsin; Supt. Charles S. Meek, of the Boise (Idaho) schools; Prof. W. G. Roy- lance, of the University of Utah ; and George A. Eaton, principal of the Salt Lake City schools. The division of labor between the members of the survey commis¬ sion is interesting because of the differentiation in the allotment of the special tasks. Three members, Messrs. Deffenbaugh, Meek, and Eaton, studied the public-school system in “ the aspect in which the school system is considered specifically as the actual machinery for the instruction of children.” Messrs. Roylance and Ward studied “ the aspect in which the school system is considered as the potential machinery for the whole community's cooperation in an educational process that includes also the systematic organization of the political, economic, and recreational life of adults and older youth.” The members of the commission were in Ogden one week. The report (42 pp.) was submitted May 11, 1914. The report on school organization, curriculum, and instruction comprises pages 6-23. The report on a plan for municipal and edu¬ cational unity of administration comprises pages 23-42. In view of the extended discussion aroused among the citizens by the policy of the administration in organizing subhigh schools and reorganizing them on the half-day plan, the treatment of the topics allotted to the first committee partook more of the nature of an inves¬ tigation than of a survey. Special approval is given to the position 12034°— ed 1915— vol 1 - 31 482 EDUCATION REPORT, 1915. of the school board of Ogden whereby the superintendent is definitely permitted to be the head of the school system. The school plant is not up to the standard, in adequate buildings and equipment, of cities of the same size in other parts of the country. Touching some of the issues relating to the subhigh schools into which grades seven and eight have been organized — The commission does not believe that the subhigh-school teachers should have more pupils per teacher and be paid less, but that the elementary schools should immediately be given more teachers, and salaries so increased that teachers of extended training and long experience may be attracted to this department. In the matter of retardation and elimination of pupils the schools of Ogden were found, as measured by the Ayres scale, based on 386 cities, to make a favorable showing, particularly for the first eight grades. The high school does not show as favorably, but is still above the scale. In Ogden schools 19 per cent of the children were found to be over age, and in one-half of 318 cities 36 per cent were over age for the grade in which they were found. Ogden is consid¬ erably below the average in per capita cost of education in both ele¬ mentary and high schools when compared with cities whose popula¬ tion ranges from 25,000 to 100,000. The average cost per capita per year for elementary schools is $30.37 ; for secondary schools, $60.83. So far as the course of study is concerned, it was found in the elementary schools to be comprehensive and rich in educational sub¬ jects, the fundamental topics having been retained and modern material introduced in place of the useless topics. The subhigh schools which are organized on a departmental plan are specially commended in the report. There is no evidence of overwork of the pupils; the teachers show an excellent spirit of cooperation. The class-room work throughout the system was on the whole found to be good — in fact, much better than could have been expected under the meager supervision. The use of the standard tests in writing, Eng¬ lish, arithmetic, etc., is strongly recommended. The plan of super¬ vision is not approved. The proposal to reorganize the school on the plan of the half-day session with two different sets of students doing work of accredited study on one half day, and of music, art, study, sewing, cooking, manual training, bookbinding, and physical culture on the other half, is not approved by the commission. The plan is regarded “ as being unpedagogical, unnecessary, and well- nigh impossible of realization.” The other section of the survey, which is directed to the attention of the public aspects of the school system for the development of community life, outlines a plan of organization and extension for future developments rather than states the immediate condition. This city, with a population of mixed and diversified character, has had difficulty in becoming conscious of its fundamental problem of SCHOOL SURVEYS. 483 unifying its economic, civic, educational, and recreational resources into a veritable community system. The lack of unity of the past must give way to a new type of unification. Because of the financial saving and the business efficiency that would result from unification of administration; because the public-school system can not succeed even in its prime functions of effectively training children for citizen¬ ship and promoting their morality unless the adults and older youth of the community make use of the schoolhouses as centers of organized civic expres¬ sion and wholesome recreation ; and* because this full use of the public-school system as the machinery of the city’s comprehensive self-organization depends absolutely upon the unification of its municipal and public-school administra¬ tion ; therefore, we find, after careful study of all the elements of the situation and after consulting officials and other responsible and well-informed citizens, that the key to the solution of Ogden’s problem, civic, moral, and economic, is the consolidation and identification of its municipal commission and its board of education. The chief constructive suggestion, which is offered and defended at some length, is the establishment of a civic secretaryship. The responsibility of this office would not conflict with that of the superin¬ tendent of schools, but would begin where the responsibility of the superin¬ tendent now ends and extend throughout the community. HAMMOND, IND. A survey, with an especially constructive aim, of the industrial and vocational aspects of the public-school system of a manufactur¬ ing city is reported by Prof. Robert J. Leonard, of Indiana Uni¬ versity, in “ Some F acts Concerning the People, Industries, and Schools of Hammond, and a Suggested Program for Elementary Industrial, Prevocational, and Vocational Education” (pp. 165), and published by the board of education April 15, 1915. The work was carried on by the department of industrial education of Indiana University, in cooperation with the vocational division of the State department of public instruction. The report includes 8 chapters, 42 tables, 10 charts, and an ap¬ pendix giving the sources and methods of deriving data and the forms used. The topics are: Facts concerning the people of Ham¬ mond ; the city’s industries ; work of young people under IT years of age; part-time education; the children enrolled in the schools; present provisions for industrial, household, and art instruction ; and suggested provisions for elementary industrial, prevocational, and vocational education. Two-thirds of the material relates to the last three topics, and one-fourth of the space is needed for the presenta¬ tion of the recommendations. These detail the special courses neces¬ sary in the elementary grades, the vocational high school, and even¬ ing school, and the equipment of teachers for the instruction out¬ lined. These provisions are suggested to the school system, which is 484 EDUCATION REPORT, 1915. to be reorganized on a basis of seven elementary grades and a four or five year high-school course, and particularly for the new industrial high school, which, after litigation, the city is now free to build. The care taken in the preparation of the program offered as a result of the study is evident from the following statement : The recommendations for future courses, departments, and equipment, though in the main specifically proposed by the writer, are really conference measures, as all parts of the sections bearing upon future work were first submitted to the superintendent of schools, principals, supervisors, and special teachers, after which many conferences were held, and nothing has been included as a specific recommendation that has not been agreed upon in conference. SAN ANTONIO, TEX. The period under review for this report may be regarded as espe¬ cially fortunate in having a second instance of the application of the educational principles so strikingly utilized in the investigation of the public schools in South Bend, Ind., reported above. On March 27, 1915, Dr. J. F. Bobbitt, of the University of Chicago, submitted the report on the survey of the San Antonio public-school system con¬ ducted in January, as authorized by resolution of the school board December 16, 1914. When he began his field work, the surveyor was informed by the chairman of the survey committee that he was “ to study the situation in his own way and to make any recommendations that, in his judgment, would promote the efficiency of the schools. Beyond this no instructions were given nor suggestions made.” Four weeks were given to the personal observations, conferences, and the examination of documents. Three high schools and 19 of the 29 elementary schools were visited. The report (257 pp.) was published May, 1915. It comprises 14 chapters, 31 tables, and 10 charts. The topics of the chapters are: Prefatory statement; the work of the schools; education for vocation; education for citizenship; educa¬ tion for physical efficiency; education for leisure occupations; Eng¬ lish language training; the teaching of certain subjects; general or¬ ganization and administration; the student population; elementary teachers; the high school; buildings and equipment; finance. The tables and charts presented data concerning pupils, teachers, high school, finances ; general organization and administration ; and the community. The most helpful kind of a school survey is described as one — ( 1 ) That sympathetically looks to the good that exists in the school system ; (2) that sees this good not as the end of progress, but -as gains made that are steps toward further gains; (3) that suggests constructive plans for further progress; and (4) that shows the reasons for the plans recommended so as to permit verification of their validity. The functional point of view which characterized the South Bend investigation is characteristically maintained in the valuation of the SCHOOL SURVEYS. 485 factors in the situation presenting education in San Antonio. The values of the distinctively educational activities in the schools, as they are held to function in the future adult’s interests and activities in the community, are kept constantly in the foreground. All other features of the school system are interpreted in terms of their rela¬ tions to this prime aspect. A fully rounded educational program should therefore be designed : 1. To fit the children and youth for effective performance of the labors of their life’s calling. 2. To lay a broad and secure foundation for sound judg¬ ment as to the various social, economic, and industrial problems with which one is concerned as a citizen in a democracy. 3. To lay a secure foundation in knowledge and in habits for lifelong health and physical vitality. 4. To develop habits of healthy and socially desirable leisure occupations. 5. To give effective training in the means needed for social intercommunication, namely, the language or the languages that one actually needs. G. To train individuals for the activities concerned in the rearing and education of children ; or, in other words, the functions of parenthood. 7. To train one for his religious activities. The seventh item, for well-known reasons, is omitted. The first six items are made to serve as the basis for justifying the retention and development or exclusion of any of the work found in, or that ought to be found in, the San Antonio schools. The survey is also made on the basis of a distinction between fundamental and supple¬ mentary or preliminary and' functional education. The supplementary relation of school work to community life in San Antonio is not greatly taken into account in drawing up the courses of study. As a result there is a considerable quantity of useless and wasteful work. * * * Except for the teaching wc*rk of shop, sewing room, kitchen, and commercial department, practically all the work of both elementary and high schools is of the preliminary prefunctional type. Under the guidance of these conceptions the study in fact became a double survey of the material of the curriculum and the work of teaching it, namely: First, an interpretation of the six functional values, as illustrated by the presence or absence of appropriate mate¬ rial in the school work, and secondly, an estimation of the useful and the wasteful in the teaching of certain subjects and the distribution of the varied activities of school officers, teachers, and pupils. In¬ stead of summarizing briefly its recommendations, the report dis¬ tributes them pertinently throughout the treatment of the different phases of the various topics. The educational problems of San Antonio are peculiarly deter¬ mined by the fact that it is a southern city, comprising American, European, Mexicans, and Eegroes. Its total school population is probably above 25,000; its public schools are costing half a million dollars. Its financial outlay at present and resources for meeting the future needs in the further growth of the system, from the stand- 486 EDUCATION REPORT, 1915. point of its material equipment, are indicated by some of the follow¬ ing comparisons: The annual cost of janitors per school room in 19 southern cities ranges from $21 to $105, the average being $53, San Antonio expending $71. The cost of supplies for instruction per pupil in the practice of 19 cities of the same population ranges from 23 cents to $2.92, the average being 75 cents, San Antonio spending 31 cents. In the cost of elementary education per pupil San An¬ tonio, in spending $31, is fairly generous as compared with 18 other cities, in which this expense ranges from $16 to $35, the average being $28. It is not so generous when compared with cities of the same population, grouped through the country in general, where the expenditure ranges from $24 to $44, San Antonio standing fourth from the bottom of the list. In the cost of high-school education per pupil in comparison with other southern cities with a range from $31 to $108, the average being $61, San Antonio is not doing as well in its expenditure of $53 by its secondary pupils as it is by its ele¬ mentary pupils. In comparison with other southern cities its total property tax per capita for all purposes, $13.34, is slightly above the average for the group, which is $12.56. When compared with the cities of the United States belonging to its population class, it occu¬ pies the medium point. In the total net city debt, which amounts to $50.17 per capita, San Antonio stands in a middle position among the 19 southern cities. The survey found in general that “ much progress has been made : the schools are in a healthy, growing condition; in many respects they are fully abreast with the best work going on in any portion of our country. The city will have to be numbered among cities of the educationally progressive type.” In considering the problems of general organization and adminis¬ tration the survey offers the following explanation of the weaknesses found in the schools : Such weaknesses as exist in the schools of San Antonio seem to be due in large measure to the state of tutelage in which practically everybody from superintendent down has been held. The State has decreed the studies that shall be taught in elementary schools and the textbooks that shall be used. The colleges have decreed the subjects and the units which shall be given in the high schools. The board has held most powers of initiative except as to the routine classroom teaching. Teachers and supervisors have had too much to go like children and get permission to do almost anything that they do. They have largely been forbidden the exercise of individual responsibility and initiative. Visible responsibility is not a thing that will grow in such an atmos¬ phere. Things will not be corrected until responsibility can be so distributed that everybody can bear his due share. The recommendations distributed throughout the report are not intended to be taken as specific things which must be done imme¬ diately, but rather as constructive suggestions which shall lead to SCHOOL SURVEYS. 487 more detailed inquiry by those who are doing the work in the sys¬ tem itself. For example, in calling attention to the large sum of money which the city is investing in high-school algebra and geom¬ etry, which could be better expended “ upon the study of the prac¬ tical, civic, social, industrial, recreational, and other matters which are greatly needed by this rising generation of young people.” It is admitted that the recommendation will appear “ absurd.” It is then recommended that the school city should — Get the opinion on this topic of intelligent leaders of thought in this county, educational leaders as well as leaders among public-spirited, social-minded lay¬ men. Also, consult any group of laymen of San Antonio who are graduates of the high school as to the degree in which they have ever used their algebra or the demonstrational aspects of their geometry. Among the numerous findings of the inquiry respecting the cur¬ riculum are the following: In education for vocation the following principle is laid down for the organization of the instruction : “ The department which is responsible for the practical labors employed in vocational training should be responsible for the teaching of that mathematics, science, drawing, and design that is concerned in the guidance of those labors.” By eliminating the waste in teaching certain portions of mathematics, science, and social studies, English, foreign languages, history, and literature, sufficient time will be found for the introduction of the technical and social material which is specified as essential to the further development of -this form of education. The work that is done in reading is found to be “ strug¬ gling in the quagmire of pedagogic methodology.” This is due to the State-adopted textbooks imposed upon the teachers, and the order of method of instruction which is issued to them in this work. There is a wrong emphasis in method and a wrong selection of material for the work in spelling, the doctrine of habit and use being applied in the recommendations that are made. An excess average amount of time is devoted to handwriting. The results of this instruction, as tested, shows that in quality determined by the Ayres scale, the school occupies an exactly average standing among 33 pities; and in speed San Antonio stands high. The tests were used also so as to show the relative rank of the work in the same grade in the different buildings. The work in grammar, which is too abstract and not purposeful, could probably best be reduced to one lesson a week for the pre¬ liminary education. The work in geography should substitute “ the method of geographic experience” in the place of mere textbook learning, and become characterized by the selection of topical mate¬ rial based on social needs. The introduction of a functional study of history would eliminate most of the “ wasteful overdoing ” which is found to characterize the work. The test in arithmetic indicated that San Antonio, with a seven years’ course, “ is getting about aver- 488 EDUCATION REPORT, 1915. age results ” in comparison with other cities having an eight-grade course. Special attention is given to the local significance of the teaching of Spanish and German. The elementary teachers are undertrained, having had an average of only 4.6 years beyond the elementary schools. On this point the different schools in the city were compared, showing a range of courses of training from 3.7 to 6.7 years. The total teaching experience of the teachers average 7.5 years. Their tenure in the city schools is very short, showing an overage of only 3.5 years. The average elementary teacher’s salary is $720, which is slightly above the medium for the cities of its class. Immediate attention should be given to the acute problem of train¬ ing new teachers. The following features in the high-school data may be compared with those discovered in the South Bend investigation : The portion of each $1,000 expended for instruction in each of the high-school subjects was as follows: English composition and literature, $204; higher mathematics, $170; the sciences, $131; history and civics, $106; modern lan¬ guages, $103 ; household occupations, $97 ; shopwork and mechanical drawing, $63 ; commercial subjects, $53 ; Latin, $52 ; public speaking, $19 ; music, $4 ; physical training, $00; drawing and design (not mechanical), $00. The distribution of each 1,000 student-hours over the various subjects was as follows : English literature and composition, 243 ; algebra and geometry, 200 ; the sciences, 154 ; history and civics, 102 ; household occupations, 92 ; mod¬ ern languages, 73 ; shopwork and mechanical drawing, 48 ; Latin, 40 ; commercial subjects, 41; music, 7 ; drawing and design (not mechanical), 0; physical train¬ ing, 0 ; training of elementary teachers, 0. The cost per 1,000 student-hours of instruction in the various high-school subjects was as follows : Modern languages, $114 ; Latin, $103 ; shopwork and mechanical drawing, $103 ; commercial subjects, $103 ; public speaking, $98 ; history and civics, $83; household occupation, $83; mathematics, $69; sciences, $68 ; English literature and composition, $67 ; music, $40. THE DANSVILLE HIGH SCHOOL NEW YORK. An interesting example of an effort of a small public school system to “survey” itself is found in “A Study: The Dansville High School,” by J. Murray F oster, supervising principal. This investiga¬ tion consumed about 16 months of the surveyor’s spare time, and grew out of his feeling that the high school was not doing its proper work in comparison with the high schools in neighboring villages about the size of Dansville. When the work, which was aided to some extent in statistical compilation by the teachers in the school, was finished it was presented to the board of education, by whose order it was published (1915, Dansville, N. Y., 109 pp.). The material of the study is presented in 19 chapters, 13 illustra¬ tions, 8 graphs, and 21 tables. The study led to 11 conclusions which were offered not as “ a program for immediate action,” but as “ a sort of guide for the future.” These conclusions pointed out the SCHOOL SURVEYS. 489 need of increasing the salary scale of teachers; a good library in or near the school building to supplement the work in the grades, and particularly that in the junior and senior high schools; the addition of a teacher trained in giving tests for mental deficiency; the addition of a department of agriculture and horticulture, and in home-mak¬ ing; readjustment of the curriculum; the appointment of super¬ visors of play of boys and girls; more active concern about medical inspection; frequent parents’ meetings; the organization of a group of the mothers of children in the lower grades; a wider use of the school plant by broadening the work of the night school; and enlarg¬ ing the district so as to increase the school revenues. OAKLAND, CAL. On June 12, 1915, Dr. E. P. Cubberley, of the Leland Stanford Junior University, presented to the board of education his report (48 pp.) on a special study of the school system which he had been requested to make by resolution of the board of education on June 1, 1915. The motive of the study is to be found in the fact that “ the per capita cost of maintenance, based on .the average daily attendance of the Oakland school department, has increased 22 per cent during the last five years.” The surveyor was “to investigate the reasons for the increased expense and to determine if it were possible to conduct the schools more economically without loss of efficiency.” “ The report of a survey of the organization, scope, and finances of the public-school system of Oakland, Cal.,” presents the answers to the three main questions which received consideration. Thirteen tables and two figures illuminate the details of the answers: The form of organization of the administrative departments and the over¬ head expense of the school department; the scope and further needs of the school system; the financial aspect of the problem and the ability of the city of Oakland to maintain a good system of schools. It is found that the form of organization can best be modified by coordinating the present four separate departments under the re¬ sponsible direction of the superintendent. It is found that overhead expense, excluding the salaries paid the six members of the board of education by the city, is 2.5 per cent of the total estimated cost for the maintenance of the educational work of the city. Consider¬ ing the work that is accomplished in the different branches of the administration, it is found that this expense is comparatively low. It would not be unreasonable to increase this expenditure to 3 per cent or even 3.5 per cent. The expenditures for education in Oakland have shown a marked rise because the old type of school system has, during the past five or six years, been displaced by efforts to meet the newer demands 490 EDUCATION REPORT, 1915. made upon a school system designed to meet the community needs. The chief causes of this rise are found to be : The increased salaries for teachers; the large increase in the number of teachers employed; the recent rapid introduction of kindergarten instruction; the additions to the supervisory force; the organization of new high schools and new departments in these schools ; the reorganization of a number of the elementary schools for instruction along department lines ; the addition of new subjects of instruction in the elementary schools and of new departments in the high schools, such as domestic science and home economics ; an excellent reorganization and expansion of the work in music ; the organization of a department for health development and sanitation ; the better organization of the work in physical training and the provision of directed school play¬ grounds ; the organization of a department of child study, the classes for the instruction of atypical children ; the organization of a vocational school ; the extension of the courses in the evening high schools ; and the beginnings of an evening lecture system. F ourteen of these “ causes ” are reviewed in detail from the stand¬ point of cost. The study “ does not reveal any place where any im¬ portant economy is possible, if the school system is to continue to serve the needs of the children of the community.” The detailed con¬ sideration of the increase in. the cost of maintenance of all of the city departments, the increase in tax rate, the comparison of increase in property valuation, the increase in the cities of the school system, and considering the financial burdens upon the city as estimated by com¬ parison of wealth, size, and per capita costs for maintenance with other cities in the eastern, middle western, and western sections of the country, the study finds ‘‘that there is no need for any curtail¬ ment of the public-school system in Oakland.” If economies must be effected, the city should turn to “other departments than that which deals with the education of its future citizens.” FOREIGN SURVEYS. It is well known that the American survey movement has been preceded by a definite survey movement abroad. Bulletin, 1915, No. 37, of the United States Bureau of Education, “Some Foreign Educational Surveys” (39 pp.), by James Mahoney, contains an ac¬ count of “ certain foreign types ” and describes surveys conducted in Belgium, Canada, England, France, Germany and Austria, Ireland, New South Wales, New Zealand, Scotland, Sweden, and Switzerland between 1798 and 1914. “educational surveys.” This report for the year under consideration may appropriately close with a reference to two brief discussions of the “ some 30 sur¬ veys” which had been made at the beginning*of the year. In the ninth annual report of the Carnegie Foundation for the Advance- SCHOOL SURVEYS. 491 ment of Teaching (123 pp.), dated October 15, 1914, President Henry S. Pritchett presents a number of observations on the growth and values of the new survey movement. Since “ no other subject touches life on so many sides or includes such a wealth of varied material,” it is most important u to have authoritative and thorough investigation of the fundamental facts and principles ” found in our educational activity. It is noted as significant that the surveys have for the most part been made in order to secure “ suggestions and direction for the next step in progress ” and have been an expression of the in¬ terest of the public in educational matters. As to the future of the movement, it is felt that “ there is every indication that some such scheme of educational inquiry will become a permanent feature of American education.” From the present indications it would be hazardous to infer, and dangerous for general educational welfare, to suppose that educational control and advice will become concentrated in the hands of a few experts, and much will have been gained if the need for the critical habit of mind becomes part of the educational routine. More important than the occasional survey is constant study of and familiarity with progress in contemporary educational thought on the part of those charged with the conduct of the schools. It is noted that “ these reports have added nothing radical to edu¬ cational thought or literature.” The work of a survey should include : First, the historical development of the system studied; second, the relation of educational needs to economic, political, and sociological conditions; and third, conclude with a constructive program which “ should point a way not too far removed from present conditions as affected by the factors mentioned.” It is also noted that there is an absence of “ agreement as to the ends of education,” that the stand¬ ards of measurement are “ equally indefinite,” and that the compara¬ tive method “ does not give a measure of the essentials or establish guiding principles.” Accordingly, these surveys reveal a great deal as to the present scientific status of our educational knowledge. “ The value of the recent educational surveys lies not so much in their actual contributions as in the suggestions to which they give rise.” In the same report (pp. 56-59) are found brief observations and comment on the report on education in Vermont which present the results of the first study of this character conducted by the division of educational inquiry of this foundation. The wide and sharp criti¬ cism which this report awakened is constructively interpreted. “ A SURVEY OF SCHOOL SURVEYS.” On April 17, 1915, Dr. Leonard P. Ayres, director of the division of education of the Russell Sage Foundation, delivered an address on “A Survey of School Surveys ” at the close of the second annual 492 EDUCATION REPORT, 1915. conference on educational measurements, held under the auspices of the extension division of Indiana University.1 In tracing the de¬ velopments of the survey movement and pointing out the important characteristics of the 30 surveys which have been made, Dr. Ayres adds information on different items, such as agencies and directors, cost, length of time expended, and the size of the reports. These surveys have been carried through by organizations or individuals as follows: Individuals, 7 ; universities, 6^ bureaus of municipal research, 5; State departments of education, 3; foundations, 8; United States Bureau of Educa¬ tion, 2 ; municipal departments, 2 ; national societies, 2. The directors of these 30 surveys have been the following: Professors of education, 13 ; special investigators, 11 ; directors of foundations, 4 ; United States Commissioner of Education, 1 ; superintendent of schools, 1. The cost figures that are available for the different pieces of survey work are as follows : Montclair, N. J., $500 ; Baltimore, Md., $2,000 ; East Orange, N. J., $1,000; Bridgeport, Conn., $1,000; Waterbury, Conn., $126.89; Portland, Oreg., $7,500 ; New York, N. Y., $125,000 ; State of Ohio, $10,000 ; State of Vermont, $10,000 ; Springfield, Ill., $3,261 ; San Francisco, Cal., $700 ; Butte, Mont., $4,500. The time required is as follows : Baltimore, 3 months ; East Orange, 2\ months ; Vermont high schools, 4 months ; Montgomery County, Md., 4 months ; Waterbury, 3 days ; New York, 2 years 2 months ; Portland, 4 mpnths ; Ohio, 8 months ; Springfield, 2| months ; San Francisco, 3 months ; Butte, 1 month. Nine surveys were conducted by 1 individual, 8 surveys conducted by 2 individuals, 4 surveys conducted by 3 individuals, 2 surveys conducted by 4 individuals, 2 surveys conducted by 5 individuals, 1 survey conducted by 7 indi¬ viduals, 3 surveys conducted by 8 individuals, 1 survey conducted by 12 indi¬ viduals. The published reports vary greatly in size. The smallest consists of 6 pages and the largest of 2,373 ; 11 have less than 100 pages ; 3 from 100 to 200 pages ; 2 from 200 to 300 pages ; 2 from 300 to 400 pages. To summarize the salient characteristics of the survey, it may be said that they are 30 in number; that they have all been conducted in the past four years ; that they are increasing in frequency ; that they have largely been con¬ ducted by professors of education; that they have largely been undertaken by agencies or individuals' outside of the school systems ; that they range in cost from $126 to nearly $126,000; that the time consumed ranges from three days to more than two years ; and that the reports range in bulk from 6 pages to nearly 2,600 pages. 1 Indiana University Bulletin, October, 1915, pp. 172-181. CHAPTER XIX. PROGRESS IN THE EDUCATION OF THE DEAF. By Edward Allen Fay, Oallaudet College, Washington, D. C. Contents. — The training of teachers — Much reading of books — A constant language envi¬ ronment — Better speech — Vocational training — Pensions for teachers — Tests of effi¬ ciency and mentality — A correction. THE TRAINING OF TEACHERS. In the early days of the education of the deaf in America little provision was made for the special training of teachers for the work. There was generally no preliminary training whatever. During their first year of service young teachers were given a thorough course of instruction in the sign language, which was then regarded as the all-important element in the instruction of the deaf, and they received some advice and suggestions from the head of the school and older teachers; otherwise they were left largely to their own devices. No doubt they would have done better work if they had been prepared for it by courses in pedagogy, psychology, and the special needs of the deaf; perhaps they spoiled two or three classes while they were learning how to teach; but being generally men of liberal education, graduates of New England colleges, mostly of Yale, eager to solve a new and intensely interesting problem in education, they accomplished, notwithstanding their lack of special training, wonderful results in the teaching of language, which is the essential feature of the education of the deaf — results which, during the same term of instruction, are not surpassed and probably are not equaled at the present day. The need of special training for teachers of the deaf is now much greater than it was formerly. For this there are two reasons. One reason is that nowadays comparatively few men of liberal education can be persuaded to become teachers of the deaf, on account of the greater' pecuniary inducements offered them in other occupa¬ tions. A large majority of the present-day teachers are young women whose only general preparation has been that of the high school, rarely the normal school, too often only the common school. 493 494 EDUCATION REPORT, 1915. Without some special training their work would be far inferior to that of the highly educated, profoundly thinking men of former days. The other reason is that the teaching of speech and speech reading, which now has become general in the schools, demands a thorough knowledge of the physiological basis of speech, the visible move¬ ments upon which speech reading depends, and the various ingenious devices by which deaf children may be led to produce the vocal ele¬ ments, combine them into words, give the proper inflection and accent in sentences, modulate the voice, etc. Here the college graduate, with all his superior mental equipment but without special training, would be almost as much at a loss how to proceed as the tyro just out of the grade school. The training of teachers of speech in America was begun by Dr. Alexander Graham Bell, at Boston, in 1872, and was continued in a private school under his supervision until 1879. For several years subsequently a few young women were prepared in various schools for the deaf to give instruction by the oral method, but no general provision for the training of teachers was made. To meet this need, to provide for the deaf students of Gallaudet College hearing and speaking associates who would give them prac¬ tice in speech and speech reading, and at the same time to raise the general standard of qualifications for teachers of the deaf in America, Dr. Edward M. Gallaudet, in 1891, persuaded Congress to establish a normal department at Gallaudet College for a limited number of young people, mostly men, who had received a liberal education. Candidates for admission were required to have, in addition to a college diploma, a certificate of proper capacity from their previous instructors and of special fitness for the work from the head of a school for the deaf. Exceptions to the requirement of a collegiate degree have been made in some cases where there were unusual quali¬ fications in other respects ; but, in general, the requirements have been maintained. Both oral and manual methods of instruction are in¬ cluded in the curriculum. The results hoped for by Dr. Gallaudet in the establishment of this normal department have been fully realized. While some of the graduates have risen to the highest positions in the schools, becoming superintendents, principals, and head teachers, the general standard of the work of teaching the deaf throughout the United States has been raised in a marked degree. The Clarke School at Northampton, Mass., under the direction of Dr. Caroline A. Yale, which for several years had had a training class for its own teachers, began in 1892 to admit a few students who might become teachers in other schools. Fourteen years later, through the aid of the Melville Bell Memorial Fund, the school was enabled still further to enlarge the capacity of the training class. PROGRESS IN THE EDUCATION OF THE DEAF. 495 The requirements for admission have always been high and the course of instruction thorough. The curriculum is limited to the oral method. Most of the students are young women. Dr. Yale is also doing much to improve the quality of speech work in the United States by conducting a summer school, which is attended by teachers from schools for the deaf from all parts of the country. While Gallaudet College and the Clarke School have thus provided the schools with many well-trained teachers, they have never been able fully to supply the demand. In consequence, a considerable number of schools within recent years have found it necessary to establish training classes for their own teachers and in seme cases have admitted students who afterwards became teachers in other schools. The result of all these efforts is that at the present time the entrance of an untrained teacher into a school for the deaf is as rare as the entrance of a trained one was 25 years ago, and the quality of the work accomplished in the schools, especially the oral work, has been greatly advanced. MUCH READING OP BOOKS. One of the most important aids in the acquisition of language by the deaf is much reading of books. From the frequent repeti¬ tion of words and phrases, by which the hearing child unconsciously acquires language through the ear, the deaf are wholly shut off; reading, and reading alone, can give them this needed repetition. Although the early teachers recognized language as the great want of their pupils, sought earnestly for the best methods of im¬ parting it, and were acquainted with Dalgarno’s principle that it is the frequency with which words are presented to the mind that impressed them upon the memory, they seem to have overlooked the fact that this need can be met by much reading of books and in no other way. In the considerable body of the literature of the pro¬ fession for more than 50 years after the establishment of the first schools for the deaf in America, there is not a single reference to it. Probably few teachers during that period encouraged their pupils to read much unless the pupils had a natural taste for it ; one pupil who had such a taste reported in after life that his teacher even discouraged him from reading, because it took time that he thought might better be devoted to the learning of set lessons. The value of this means of acquiring language seems to have been first discovered by a man who was himself deaf, Henry C. White, then a student in Gallaudet College. Seeing that some of his fel¬ low students who were congenitally or quasi-congenitally deaf had a much better command of the English language than others of equally good natural advantages and an equally long term of in¬ struction, he sought the cause of this difference. He found it in the 496 EDUCATION REPORT, 1915. circumstance that those who understood and wrote English well were eager readers of books, while those whose command of Eng¬ lish was inferior had, like the great majority of deaf -born people, no taste for reading, and did little more of it than was required by their instructors. His article on “ Reading as a Means of Acquiring a Good Command of Language,” published in the American Annals of the Deaf in 1879, was the first of many that have been written on that subject. It remained for Dr. Alexander Graham Bell to point out the rea¬ son, which is stated above, why reading is so helpful to the deaf in the acquisition of language. This he did in a lecture to the students of Gallaudet College in 1887 and in an address to the conference of superintendents and principals of American schools for the deaf in 1888. Since then he and others have persistently urged its im¬ portance. American schools for the deaf now generally recognize its value and endeavor more and more to make use of it. Ingenious devices are employed to give children a taste for reading at a period when their vocabulary is still very scanty; little story books, written in the simplest language, are prepared for beginners ; stories suited to classes of varying grades are printed in the school papers ; attrac¬ tive books are supplied in great profusion for the use of older pupils : reading periods are assigned during school hours or (in the Ohio school) during the hours formerly devoted to evening study ; teachers encourage and guide pupils in their reading; in some schools special teachers of reading are employed. It can not be affirmed that these methods always lead the pupil to a mastery of language or a love of literature; but where they are efficiently applied they result in an enlargement of his vocabulary, a comprehension and use of language, a development of the imagina¬ tion, breadth of vision, clearness of thought, and sense of values that fully justify the labor bestowed. A CONSTANT LANGUAGE ENVIRONMENT. While much reading of books gives the deaf child a repetition of words that corresponds in some respects to the repetition that the hearing child receives through the ear, it does not provide the same incentive to the use of language by the child himself, nor afford the same opportunity for practice in it. These essentials to the mastery of language are supplied as far as possible by the teacher in the schoolroom, who faithfully drills his pupils day after day and year after year in the use and practice of the English language, making all his other instruction subsidiary to this. Much further than this few of the schools go. On the playground and in the general intercourse of daily life outside the schoolroom the children, not yet having a sufficient command of the language of words to use it as a means of PROGRESS TN THE EDUCATION OF THE DEAF. 497 communication, resort to the easier and more intelligible language of signs. This is true not only of the combined-system schools but also of the oral schools. The attempt to repress by severe measures the use of signs by little children who have as yet no other means of communication results in what is worse than the use of signs — no communication at all. The sign language thus is apt to keep its place in the mind of a congenitally deaf person as the natural medium of thought and expression in daily life, while written and spoken language are too often looked upon as something belonging exclusively to the schoolroom. This great drawback to the mastery of language is probably most successfully overcome in the Western New York Institution for Deaf-Mutes, at Rochester, N. Y., under the direction of Dr. Z. F. Westervelt. In that school the manual alphabet is used, to the ex¬ clusion of signs, as the ordinary means of communication as well as of instruction from the very beginning of the child’s education. The English language is so readily acquired by this method that the pupils become able to express their childish wants in it at an early stage of their instruction. In their hours of recreation they are under careful supervision, the persons in charge being always ready to address them in English rapidly spelled upon the fingers and to encourage and assist them in using English in the same way them¬ selves. The children are thus provided with a constant environ¬ ment of the English language, and the results from a language point of view are highly satisfactory. Other American schools do not deem it wise to follow the Western New York Institution in its strict adherence to the manual alphabet method, some because they regard the sign language as too valuable a factor in awakening and developing the mind of the deaf child and too convenient a means of addressing the pupils in as¬ sembly to be wholly rejected; others because they believe that speech, to the exclusion of the manual alphabet, should be the only medium of instruction and communication. But if they wish to achieve as good results in language as the Rochester school can show they must in some way provide an equally effective language environment for all the waking hours of the pupils. English, spelled on the fingers, written, or spoken, must be the language used in the trade school and on the playground as well as in the classroom ; and with the children there must be at all times when they are not in school or shop com¬ petent supervisors who will surround them with a constant atmos¬ phere of good colloquial English. Such supervision demands a higher standard of intellectual and moral qualifications than is usu¬ ally to be found in persons available for monitorial service and in¬ volves a larger expenditure than most schools can afford. In the Kendall School, at Washington, D. C., this difficult problem is solved 12034°— ed 1915— vol 1 - 32 498 EDUCATION REPORT, 1915. to some extent by requiring the students of the Normal Department of Gallaudet College to act as supervisors during a part of every day. BETTER SPEECH. The vocal utterance of those whose ears are sealed to sound is usu¬ ally more or less painful and disagreeable, and sometimes, even after years of instruction by faithful teachers, almost unintelligible except to the teachers themselves, to members of the family, and to inti¬ mate friends. This has generally been regarded as an inevitable, though deplorable, consequence of deafness ; and oral teachers of the deaf, knowing with how great an expenditure of effort on their part and on their pupils’ part the power of speech has been acquired, have been indignant when the results attained were criticized as un¬ satisfactory. Parents, too, hearing from their heretofore voiceless children the longed-for words “papa” and “mamma,” and finding them able to make their simple wants understood in their own homes through speech, have been amazed and delighted at the transforma¬ tion wrought and have asked for nothing more. Within the past two or three years, however, there has grown up a belief among oral teachers that better results in speech than have hitherto been achieved are not only desirable but really possible. This belief is due to the fuller understanding of the mechanism of speech, the discovery and invention of new devices for teaching it, and the introduction of music, both instrumental and vocal, to give the idea of rhythm and increase the control, flexibility, and strength of the voice. The success of Prof. Charles A. White, of Boston, in developing Helen Keller’s voice so that she is able to address large public audiences has shown what can be accomplished under un¬ usually difficult conditions. The declaration of Dr. Yale at the con¬ vention of American instructors of the deaf held at Staunton, Va., in 1914 that “the plea now should be not for more speech, but for better speech,” met with an enthusiastic response from the large body of teachers present. What is said above of the importance of a constant language en¬ vironment in order to acquire a mastery of language is equally true of a constant speech environment in order to secure the best results in speech and speech reading. Not only must the most advanced methods of instruction be used by the most competent teachers in the schoolroom, but the pupil must be surrounded by an atmosphere of speech at all times. In oral schools this requires the employment of numerous supervisors of superior qualifications; in combined- system schools not only that but also the separation of the orally taught pupils from the manually taught out of school hours as well as in the schoolroom. PROGRESS IN THE EDUCATION OF THE DEAF. 499 VOCATIONAL TRAINING. The schools for the deaf were the pioneers in vocational training in America, though they called it by another name. They have always recognized the importance of preparing their pupils while in school to become self-supporting vrhen they graduate. The equip¬ ment for the work and the character of the instruction given in some cases, however, have not been of the best. The high standard of the trade schools for hearing youth established within recent years has aroused the emulation of the schools for the deaf, and a general effort is now being made to improve the condition of their industrial de¬ partments. The great obstacle in the way is the lack of sufficient means. In this respect the endowed schools, as the New York and Pennsylvania institutions, which have an income from their invested fimds as well as support from the State, have an advantage over the State schools which are wholly dependent upon legislative appro¬ priations. So much time is required to give deaf children the necessary knowledge of the English language and other branches of learning that the term of instruction allowed, though much longer in America than in any other country in the world, is all too short for the addi¬ tion of adequate vocational training. This difficulty is overcome to some extent in various ways. Gallaudet College offers optional courses for young men in electricity, chemistry, scientific agriculture, floriculture, stock and poultry raising, and dairying; for young women, courses in library cataloguing and dressmaking. The In¬ diana and New Jersey State schools have established postgraduate courses in shop work. The [Michigan school made a new departure last year by opening a school of agriculture under a different regime from that of the other departments of the institution. F or the pupils in this department the school year begins the 1st of March and closes the 24th of December. The pupils go home for their long vacation from Christmas to March, instead of in the summer. During the term they spend half a day in school and half a day at work on the farm under the direction of a graduate of the Michigan Agricultural College. They are taught the science of agriculture in the school¬ room and the art of agriculture in their work. The course includes not only general farming, but also dairying' and the raising of poultry and swine. The proper division of the time between school and shop has been a subject of much discussion among teachers of the deaf. While there is still some difference of opinion on this subject, the majority now probably believe that five hours a day should be given to the schoolroom and two and a half or three hours to the shop until the last two or three years of the term of instruction. During these 500 EDUCATION REPORT, 1915. last years they would divide the day equally between the academical and the industrial training. The interdependence of the two depart¬ ments is more and more fully recognized and, by correlation of the work of brain and hand, by joint meetings of the literary and voca¬ tional teachers, and frequent visits to one another’s classes, mutual aid and cooperation are sought. PENSIONS FOR TEACHERS. A few schools for the deaf have been able to provide teachers of long service with suitable pensions when they retired on account of advanced age, but such schools are the exception, not the rule. For several years the three great organizations of teachers of the deaf in America — the Convention of Instructors, the Conference of Super¬ intendents and Principals, and the Association to Promote the Teaching of Speech — have been working together in the effort to establish some system of pensions which would be available for all deserving teachers. Various plans have been proposed, but have encountered obstacles that seemed insurmountable. Recently, how¬ ever, California, Indiana, Minnesota, and New York have passed laws making teachers in State schools for the deaf eligible to the pensions provided for teachers in common schools. This seems to be, on the whole, the most satisfactory solution of the problem, and it is to be hoped that it will be adopted generally throughout the country. TESTS OF EFFICIENCY AND MENTALITY. At the meeting of the Convention of American Instructors of the Deaf, held at Staunton, Va., in 1914, there was a symposium on “ Measurement of Efficiency of Schools for the Deaf.” It was pointed out that the educational departments of some States are attempting to measure the efficiency of schools for the deaf without any comprehensive knowledge of the peculiarities of the work, look¬ ing at it almost solely from the point of view of teachers of hearing children. They insist, for instance, that the same textbooks should be used as in the common schools, that the same standards should be applied, and even that ordinary teachers should be allowed to take charge of deaf classes without any special training for the work. In order to correct this mistaken view, the Conference of Superin¬ tendents and Principals, meeting in conjunction with the convention, adopted the following declaration of a basic principle in the edu¬ cation of the deaf: The education of the deaf child — which is claimed as a matter of right, not of charity — while a part of the general educational movement, is a distinct and highly specialized branch of the work, and, as such, requires the services of expert educators of the deaf — those who know not only the commonly applied principles of pedagogy and psychology, but who also, through special training, PROGRESS IN THE EDUCATION OF THE DEAF. 501 active experience, and thorough research work, know the possibilities, the pecu¬ liarities, and the limitations of the deaf child ; who know clearly what is possi¬ ble and practical, as opposed to the impossible and theoretical. This is a knowledge not possessed even by those who proclaim themselves masters, theo¬ retically or otherwise, of the work with the hearing child, who, as a matter of fact, receives his education largely at the hands not of his school-teacher, but of the thousands with whom he comes in contact outside the schoolroom, and through the acquisition of his mother tongue, with its vocabulary and expres¬ sion, which comes to him naturally and easily from the very day of his birth — all of which is denied to the deaf child. With this special knowledge of deaf- child nature, as referred to above, acquired through years of study of, and ex¬ perience with, the deaf, one may readily perceive that the problems presented are not ordinary ones, that they are indeed complex, and, further, that the ordinary curricula, textbooks, grade divisions, and modes of procedure adapted to the hearing child must be very decidedly modified with the deaf child. To those who are not in the work of educating the deaf, this knowledge does not come, and they are ill-prepared to criticize methods, progress, and results which necessarily must be seen and judged from a viewpoint entirely different from their own. The conference regarded this question of efficiency in schools for the deaf as so important that it appointed a committee to study it and to arrange a general scheme for the measurement of efficiency wherein mentality tests and age and class-year norms should be established. The committee consists of Mr. R. O. Johnson, of Indiana; Mr. Augustus Rogers, of Kentucky; Dr. A. L. E. Crouter, of Pennsyl¬ vania; Mr. J. W. Jones, of Ohio; and Mr. W. M. Kilpatrick, of Connecticut. These gentlemen have before them an exceedingly complicated and difficult task, but they have gone to work at it energetically and intelligently. They early secured the assistance of several psychologists of national reputation, who have attended the meetings of the committee and made many valuable suggestions. Two psychologists, Dr. Rudolph Pintner and Mr. Donald G. Pater¬ son, of the Ohio State University, who had previously experimented upon deaf children with the Binet- Simon scale and ascertained that if could not be applied satisfactorily without modifications, have examined, under the direction of the committee, the pupils of the Ohio, Indiana, and Pennsylvania schools, using tests for mentality specially designed by themselves. The committee hopes to be able to present its conclusions to the conference at its next regular meet¬ ing, to be held in 1916.1 *A CORRECTION. In the chapter on “ Progress in the Education of the Deaf,” in the Report of the Com¬ missioner of Education for the year ending June 30, 1913, the statement was made that Mrs. Edwin G. Hurd, of the Rhode Island Institute, was the first actually to apply the Montessori method to the education of the deaf. This was an error. Mrs. Hurd, as the report states, began the use of the method in January, 1913, but in February, 1912, Mrs. J. Scott Anderson, of Torresdale House, Philadelphia, had a Montessori class of deaf pupils, and in the summer of that year full equipments for the Montessori work were procured for the New York institution, and teachers with special training were put in charge. ' J . . . ■ ' ■ - - ■ - - . 4 ■ ■ ' . ■ . - CHAPTER XX. EDUCATION FOR THE BLIND.1 BY EDWARD E. ALLEN, Director of the Perkins Institution and Massachusetts School for the Blind, Watertown . Mass. Contents. — Progress in education for the -blind — Progress of the day-school movement — Progress at the institutions — The blind and higher education — Classes for the con¬ servation of vision — The prevention of blindness — Influence of providing work for the adult blind — Summer schools for adults — Home teaching — Embossed books and their circulation — The blind and museum extension — Progress toward a uniform type. In 1872 there were 1,900 pupils in attendance upon the 27 schools for the blind; in 1914 there were 4,971 pupils in 62 schools. The property devoted to this field of education in 1872 was reported to be $3,986,678.71; in 1914 it was given as $15,224,693. The cost per pupil for instruction and maintenance necessarily keeps large; in 1914 it was $360. This is owing to the fact that the schools are mainly residential, also that the proportion of teachers and other employees to enrollment is larger than in other types of educational institutions. In one institution, where the proportion of all em¬ ployees to pupils is approximately as 1 to 3, the pay roll amounts to about 60 per cent of the total current expenses, and yet this institution recently rebuilt in such manner as to reduce the number of people on its pay roll by 10. PROGRESS OF THE DAY-SCHOOL MOVEMENT. Public education of blind youth is then admittedly expensive when compared with that of the seeing. The attempt in certain places to make it less so and actually to apply compulsory education laws to the blind by creating the machinery for teaching them in the public schools and receiving local pupils there, which began with the twen¬ tieth century, is meeting with undoubted success. It is but fair to the originators of this plan to say, however, that they look for even greater educational efficiency from it, because the blind children are kept all the time with seeing children and in the world to which they 1A somewhat statistical chapter on this general subject appeared in the 1913 report of this bureau. None had before been published by it since 1872. This resumption of the matter indicates in itself a recognition of the growth and importance of the work of educating the blind. 503 504 EDUCATION REPORT, 1915. normally belong, rather than removed for a part of the time to a special residential school, even though in the latter case conditions of pupil competition are equalized and every conceivable chance is given for acquiring a well-balanced education. Be that as it may, the public-school classes for the blind are growing both in number, in attendance, and in balance, and, though the movement is believed by most to be still an experiment, it is one which the whole profes¬ sion can not but observe with sympathetic interest and be ready to aid and further so far as proves just and right to the blind them¬ selves. Many, perhaps most, expert observers feel that, while these “ day schools for the blind ” possess certain indubitable advantages over “ boarding schools for the blind,” the latter likewise have their advantages, and that, until the existing state of society changes and a saner responsibility for all childhood and youth reigns, the best interests of the blind will demand both kinds of schools; also, that most of the blind would benefit by experience in each kind. It is felt, too, that education is not a matter of dollars and cents, but of results, and that blindness should command whatever the condition calls for. It is gratifying to note, therefore, that a most helpful cooperation exists between the two kinds of schools; also that each kind has stimulated the other to work toward overcoming its defects, with resulting benefit to both. The day schools, as soon as they showed that their blind pupils could hold their own in the studies required by others of their age and grade, found themselves criticized by the institutions for failing to balance with physical training, manual training, and music the more purely intellectual studies of the public- school curriculum. To supply this evident lack some private asso¬ ciations in behalf of the blind and some semipublic agencies, like the Fox Fund in Brooklyn, came to the rescue, supplementing the existing facilities in an effective and beautiful way — such as bringing a larger number of the children together for story-telling, dancing, and social games, giving plays, forming Boy Scout battalions and Camp Fire chapters, providing inspirational talks on personal hy¬ giene, knitting for the Belgians, work in manual training, lessons in cooking, in chorus singing, and even individual lessons on the piano. Some, notably hi New York City, also gave vocational opportunities in piano tuning. Obviously, these activities have meant utilizing occasional out-of-school hours — afternoons, evenings, and Saturdays. Where private organizations did not wish to take labor and means from the adult blind, as in Wisconsin, yet desired to get these social¬ izing and balancing benefits for the children, they caused legislation to be enacted, raising the State appropriation for a blind pupil at¬ tending day schools from $150 to $200 a year. In the light of this experience. Ohio made its appropriation $200 at the outset. In the EDUCATION FOR THE BLIND. 505 three Ohio cities conducting these classes the school day of the blind is now six hours instead of five, and certain attendance is required on Saturdays also. The 1913-14 annual report of the superintendent of schools of Cleveland contains two full-page illustrations and 14 printed pages descriptive of the city’s classes for the blind and their activities. Indeed, Cleveland would appear to be the center of Ohio’s movement for such classes, the Cleveland supervisor of blind classes having been given charge of the classes of the same kind recon¬ structed in Cincinnati and begun in Toledo. This fact augurs well for the general success of the dav-school movement whose aim. as given in the 1914 report of the Chicago schools, where the movement originated, is “ to give to the blind child the opportunity of growing up in a natural environment and to provide him such training as will enable him to mingle later on in the business and social world as nearly as possible like a normal member of society.” Eleven cities now conduct day-school classes for blind children. “ The room for the blind at each center is in charge of a special teacher, but the time of the pupils is divided between the work in the special room and that of the regular grade class rooms, the work in the special room being of necessity largely individual and supple¬ mental.” 'Where the pupils are many, an embossing press is run in order to provide textbooks: where they are few, as at Xewark, X. J., the special teacher often writes out by means of an embossing type¬ writer, known as a Braillewriter, copies of the books needed which she can not procure elsewhere. In the school year 1913-14 the whole number of children attending these day schools was 422, Xew York City enumerating 194 in IT centers. PROGRESS AT THE INSTITUTIONS. There are 48 residential schools for the blind, registering in 1913-14 a total of 4,399 pupils. Many of these “ institutions,” being located in populous centers, not only permit their pupils to go home for week¬ ends but urge as many as can to do so. Most of the pupils remain ,at home over the Christmas and Easter holidays, and all must leave the institution during the long summer vacation. In other words, these schools have long recognized the danger of weaning their chil¬ dren from home and have seemed to be doing their best to prevent it. But they, too, have been touched by the movement away from insti¬ tutions for children and. being perhaps influenced by the criticisms of the advocates of day schools for all kinds of pupils, have striven to meet these criticisms by introducing new socializing influences. The annual reports of these institutions and the school notes appearing in the Outlook for the Blind . a periodical chronicling every kind of activity for and by the blind, are more and more filled with out-of- class events in which the pupils participate — public festivals, con- 506 EDUCATION REPORT, 1915. certs, dramatics, pageants, and even with accounts of athletic, type¬ writing, and other contests with boys and girls who have full use of their eyesight. Where there are “ patrols ” of blind Boy Scouts and camps of blind Camp Fire Girls and nests of “ Bluebirds ” — and these are multiplying — the blind and the seeing are inevitably brought more and more into contact. At least three residential schools insist on pupil participation in the daily housework and are highly pleased with the results ; and we read of others either adding new buildings, as, very recently, a kindergarten at Batavia, N. Y., or planning to re¬ build on the cottage system — all definite tendencies away from the congregate toward the segregate manner of housing. Again, there are increasing reference to courses in domestic science and to such out-of- door activities as school gardening and farming and poultry keeping scientifically conducted. In fact, the reports and the periodical now enrich and enliven their reading matter with pictures of such agen¬ cies and activities, indicating the greater emphasis placed upon them. All this tends to attract attention and to bring the schools into the public eye. Formerly the institutions felt more deeply than now the need of saving their pupils from the influences of home, the visiting of par¬ ents being often discouraged. Even to-day the rules of at least two institutions provide that parents and friends of the pupils can not be entertained at meals or overnight. On the other hand, the rules of several others contain definite invitations for parents to spend a night at the school. The much-to-be-desired cooperation of parents and teachers can be promoted in no other way so well as by bringing them together. THE BLIND AND HIGHER EDUCATION. The idea is evidently growing in the institutions that selected pupils who are ready for high school, normal school, and college should either leave the institution entirely or attend from it the pub¬ lic school or college desired. Daily contact with seeing students, necessitating self -measurement by the standards of the world, should be in the highest degree developmental. It is significant that there is a growth in the number of institu¬ tions whose high-school department is on the list of fully accredited high schools. Two institutions report that recent acts of assembly require the superintendent of their State school for the blind to be a trained teacher of the blind. It is also to be noted with satisfaction rather than with wonder¬ ment that numbers of the blind are in college, and that as a rule they more than hold their own, usually graduating with honor rank. The explanation is not far to seek. Only the best and most deter- EDUCATION FOR THE BLIND. 507 mined essay higher education, and, as compared with others, they are more mature upon entrance, better prepared and more habituated to mental concentration, less able to put their best energy into ath¬ letics and other distractions, and more filled with “the motive of the life career.” It would appear that the University of Texas appre¬ ciates in an unusual degree the advantage of having blind students, since it had seven in 1914 and nine in 1915. It is reported that its senior law class in 1914 elected blind young men to the offices of president, vice president, and secretary-treasurer. In any com¬ munity of seeing people the presence of the blind who achieve note¬ worthy results in spite of their handicap is inspiring, and therefore extremely serviceable to the community. In order to make it more possible for such people of parts to ob¬ tain higher education, six States have now made limited appropria¬ tions of money, obtainable by individuals under certain conditions, either to defray the expenses of a reader or for other needs or for both. CLASSES FOR THE CONSERVATION OF VISION. The movement to include all kinds and conditions of children, sub¬ normal, and even supernormal, in the public schools and to instruct them according to their needs and possibilities has in two or three cities brought together in special classes children who see too little to progress, in the usual grades and too much to be patient under methods used by the blind. As such pupils are obviously out of place unless trained through means modified by the condition of their eye¬ sight, special centers for them have been recently opened in a number of cities in Europe, and in Boston, Cleveland, Cincinnati, and Toledo in America. The instruction is addressed largely to the eye, under the watchful care of oculists, its chief object being to conserve such sight as the pupils have. For psychological reasons such pupils would better be called semisighted than semiblind. The multiplica¬ tion of these classes will be a relief to institutions for the blind, most of which still have to admit these children with defective vision and to treat them as semiblind pupils rather than as semisighted. THE PREVENTION OF BLINDNESS. The schools are very generally recognizing the obligation resting upon them to render valuable aid in local and nation-wide cam¬ paigns for preventing blindness. The Legislature of Arkansas, for example, recently voted a sum of money to its State school for the blind for the purpose of spreading knowledge and means of such prevention. Again, the State Medical Society of North Carolina has just appointed the superintendent of its State school a member 508 EDUCATION REPORT, 1915. of the society’s committee on conservation of vision. And, again, Principal Van Cleve, of the New York Institute for the Education of the Blind, has been made managing director of the new national committee for the prevention of blindness. This committee and kindred agencies keep on hand for general use slides, charts, and other means used in a modern publicity campaign. As evidence of the increasing attention to this matter the librarian of a special library of literature on all matters connected with blindness and the blind reports that her most notable and important accessions since 1907 fall in the section of u Cause and prevention.” INFLUENCE OF PROVIDING WORK FOR THE ADULT BLIND. The librarian of the special library above mentioned likewise reports large recent accessions under the heading “Adult blind,” the most of these being under the subheading “ Industrial training.” There are now, in 1915, besides numerous societies, at least 14 State associations for the blind conducted with private funds and 8 State commissions conducted with public funds. These provide means of employment not only for people blinded in adult life but also for increasing numbers of former pupils of the schools for the blind, thus stimulating those schools to bestow a more complete training in the useful arts at which the blind may be profitably employed. In this and other ways have the schools been changed and benefited by the twentieth-century campaign in behalf of the adult blind. Where a field officer works under the management of a school, as at Pittsburgh, Pa., and Faribault, Minn., home and school can be kept in fairly close touch; and where he is also director of an em¬ ployment bureau, as in Philadelphia, the constant pressure his de¬ mands exert on his school for better workers is having a wholesome effect upon the quality of its instruction. SUMMER SCHOOLS FOR ADULTS. In communities where public and private agencies in aid of the adult blind are either nonexistent or feeble or where the institution superintendent prefers to have it so, he has opened his doors for a summer school for adults. The instruction and practice given, while mostly in the manual arts or handicrafts and piano tuning, have not wholly excluded such practically intellectual matters as reading, typewriting, etc. Supt. Bow, of the Minnesota institution, has suc¬ cessfully conducted a summer school for men since 1906, not 1911 as previously reported, and one for women since 1914. Following this lead Supt. Hall opened in the Washington State School for the Blind, in July, 1915, a summer school for blind men and blind women. EDUCATION FOR THE BUND. 509 HOME TEACHING. There are large numbers of old blind people; the median age of the 57,272 blind population reported for the United States in 1910 was 59.6 years. Most of these older blind people are at home and, if sitting in idleness, are generally unhappy. Organized attempts to relieve their condition without removing them from home were begun in Great Britain at least as early as 1854, by sending teachers to carry cheer, encouragement, and instruction to them. This is what is meant by “ home teaching.” The first permanent home teaching in America was begun in 1882 in Philadelphia, its chief service being to teach the blind to read an easily tangible type and to circulate books among them, a solace which is the greatest possible boon. Massa¬ chusetts began home teaching in 1900, the first to do so with public money. Since then at least 13 other States have instituted the work either with private or public funds or with both, and while all teach reading as their chief instrumentality, most home teachers teach whatever else they can; for their pupils can not read all the time and crave an occupation through which they can be useful and per¬ haps earn a little money. It has been found that the most efficient home teachers are blind people selected for their intelligence, re¬ sourcefulness, and cheer. Here, then, is an excellent and growing employment for the blind graduate and one for which the schools can and do prepare. EMBOSSED BOOKS AND THEIR CIRCULATION. The report of the Commissioner of Education for 1913-14 gives a total of 115,000 volumes in raised type in the various schools for the blind. The circulation of these is largely among present and past pupils. Material in 64 public and State libraries goes wherever a blind reader sitting at home makes her wants known.1 According to the 1914 report of the New York City Library, 26,224 volumes or magazines went out in 12 months from that collection alone, most of them by mail. In August, 1915, the Post Office Department an¬ nounced a substantial reduction in postage on reading matter for the blind exchanged between the United States and Great Britain. The weight limit is increased from 4 pounds 6 ounces to 6 pounds, and a flat rate of 10 cents a pound for each package exceeding 18 ounces in weight is charged. Should the efforts of the uniform type committee lead to a wider interchange of literature between the two countries, the reduction is likely to prove of great service. 1 Circulations through the Post Office Department were made possible on a large scale by the franking privilege granted in 1904. 510 EDUCATION REPORT, 1915. THE BLIND AND MUSEUM EXTENSION. Established schools for the blind have collections, more or less extensive, of specimens and models for object teaching. Their pupils can “ see ” certain things in no other way than through handling them. A visitor to European continental institutions is astounded at the amount and variety of their object-teaching material. American instructors of the blind would possibly do well to increase the stress now laid by them upon such means of clarifying the conceptions of their pupils. Day schools, particularly, would appear to be liable to lack such opportunity. In New York City the danger was fore¬ seen and means taken to avert it in 1909. The American Museum of Natural History then exposed objects of contemporary interest, like polar expedition sledges and clothing, and invited blind people, young and old, to “ see ” them there. The things were explained and lectures given. Later special collections were sent to the centers fo'r blind children in the public schools of the city and of neighboring cities, like Newark, N. J. Indeed, this work, which is part of the movement for museum instruction and its extension to the schools of Greater New York, has been endowed in behalf of the blind, trans¬ portation is supplied for the blind, and guides are furnished to and from the museum. As in Washington, D. C., people of note are glad to entertain and instruct the blind, and have done so for years at the Library of Congress and the National Library for the Blind, so in New York experts, such as Bear Admiral Peary and Ernest Thompson Seton, have lectured to audiences of blind people. PROGRESS TOWARD A UNIFORM TYPE. Many systems of embossed types palpable to the fingers of the blind have been put forth since 1784, when the first one was printed in Paris. These systems fall under two heads — those composed of lines and those composed of points or dots. The latter are writable as well as readable by the blind and partly for this reason have pre¬ vailed. Nearly all the codes are arbitrary, like the Morse telegraphic code. Three are in extensive use to-day — Braille in most countries, New York Point and American Braille in America. Americans de¬ siring the best possible instrumentalities for their blind, on the ground that blindness is in itself sufficient handicap, have so far been unable to agree on which is best. As a consequence, their presses have been issuing books in two point systems, in some case even dupli¬ cating the same book in each system. To be sure the blind can readily master both, but having two systems is manifestly wasteful in time, money, energy, and in product. The blind are the obvious sufferers. A movement for uniformity, which the blind themselves began about 1900 and which a few devoted ones among them labored EDUCATION FOR THE BLIND. 511 for and even financed for a number of years, has been gaining head¬ way, particularly since 1911. At a convention of the American Association of Workers for the Blind, money was raised for con¬ tinuing this investigation by a uniform type committee which had been appointed by that association in 1905. Since then more funds have been contributed, enabling the special investigators to travel widely in this country and in England and to compute from their tests both an ideal, or most efficient, system and a compromise system, thought to be more likely to meet with acceptance by the British, who are on the whole satisfied with their present alphabet. This past summer, at a convention of the association held in Berke¬ ley, Cal., the committee made its final report, which was accepted for adoption and the committee discharged. The system recom¬ mended, called “ Standard Dot,” is the compromise, and while its alphabetical characters are those of Braille, the spacing prescribed both for writing and for printing them is similar to that of New York point; it also differs from any other single system in most of the punctuation marks and in its special characters for groups of letters known as “ contractions.” Standard Dot is thus seen to be a new system. However, the conviction overwhelmingly shown at the convention above named and at that held in the same week by the American Association of Instructors of the Blind was for uniformity, not for diversity; and while the latter-named body ac¬ cepted Standard Dot for immediate trial, it appointed a strong committee both to see that the test was carried out in the schools and to make every reasonable effort to agree with the British uni¬ form type committee, to the end that there shall be but one system for the English-speaking blind. This American “ commission on uniform type,” so called, is composed of workers and instructors, and is financed so that one of its members may give his whole time to the work. It has caused certain books to be embossed in Stand¬ ard Dot, and it has been instructed to report its findings in the sum¬ mer of 1916. Thus, though not a few of those most concerned ex¬ pected that the “ type question ” would be definitely settled at Berke¬ ley, the majority of those feeling the responsibility involved voted for the delay which practically every one saw was absolutely re¬ quired if the introduction of another system to those in use was to be avoided. The progress toward uniform type is the most impor¬ tant recent advance in the progress of the education of the blind in the United States. . . : : L: •: l;:. v ,:5'V ; - ■ ' - ' : ‘ . ‘ . - CHAPTER XXT. LIBRARY ACTIVITIES. By J. D. Wolcott. Chief of the Library Division, Bureau of Education. Contexts. — Legislation — Public library extensions — County library systems — State-wide use of university libraries — Library service to immigrants — Library exhibits at the Panama-Pacific Exposition — Meetings of associations — Recent books on library ad¬ ministration and technique. LEGISLATION. During the past year a considerable amount of important legis¬ lation relating to libraries was enacted. The general tendency was to extend the scope of library activities and to increase appropri¬ ations for work already existing. The following is a survey by States of the general movement in library legislation during the year, including outlines of the laws which were passed, and also ref¬ erences to some proposed measures which failed of enactment. Alabama. — The Alabama legislature of 1915 passed an act requir¬ ing all libraries in the State, except those of strictly private char¬ acter, to make regular and specific reports to the State department of archives and history. California . — Section 1715 of the Political Code was amended by adding a clause authorizing the school board in any city maintaining a public library to arrange for library service similar to arrange¬ ments that are allowed between county free libraries and district schools. (S. B. 1129, ch. 469, Laws of 1915.) Section 1741 of the Political Code was amended to provide that the high-school board of any higli-school district lying wholly or partly in a county maintaining a county free library shall have power to enter into a contract with the board of supervisors whereby the high school may secure the advantages of the county library. This bill will enable high-school boards to arrange for branches of county libraries in the various high-school buildings. (S. B. 811, ch. 464, Laws of 1915.) The library fund in cities not divided into school districts, under the provisions of an amendment to section 1714 of the Political Code, was increased to a sum not to exceed 80 cents for each child in average 12034°— ED 1915— VOL 1 - 38 513 514 EDUCATION REPORT, 1915. daily attendance. The effect will be to increase the number of sup¬ plementary books in the elementary schools. Connecticut. — The following increases in appropriations for the two fiscal years ending September 30, 1917, over those for the same purposes for the preceding biennium were made by the- 1915 general assembly: For school libraries, $20,000, increased from $18,000; for public libraries, $20,000, from $19,000; for the public library com¬ mittee, $8,000, from $6,500. Illinois. — A bill was passed at the 1915 session increasing the maxi¬ mum tax rate for public library purposes in incorporated cities hav¬ ing up to 100,000 inhabitants to 2 mills on the dollar annually, from 1^ mills. (S. B. 114.) Cities with a population of over 100,000 may not levy a tax to exceed 1 mill on the dollar annually ; their pre¬ vious limit was 6 cents on $100. With reference to this new law, the librarian of the Chicago Public Library is quoted as follows : Our tax rate has been increased from six-tenths to one mill, which will net us about $200,000 more than we have been receiving. This assures us resources for considerable extension of our work during the coming calendar year, when the first installment will be available. * * * The law is a general State law which gives at the same time to cities outside of Chicago a possible increase of 66f per cent revenue, subject to the local aldermanic approval. A county library bill was introduced in the 1915 legislature, but failed of passage. Indiana. — A library bill designed to codify the library laws of Indiana, approved by both the Indiana Library Association and the Indiana Library Trustees’ Association, was introduced in both houses at the 1915 legislative session. It passed the house, but failed to be favorably reported by the senate committee. A new bill was drawn up comprising those sections of the first bill which provided for county libraries and greater freedom in township extension. This new bill passed the senate, but failed in the house owing to the rush of business in the last few days of the session. Io'ioa. — The public-library law relating to the number of library trustees was amended by the general assembly of 1915, so as to make the number 5, 7, or 9 at the option of the city council, to be fixed by ordinance. Previously, 9 was the only number permitted. An increase of $4,000 was made in the biennial appropriation for the Iowa library commission. The appropriation for the commis¬ sion made by the general assembly of 1913 was $7,600. Kansas. — The maximum tax rate for establishment and mainte¬ nance of free public libraries in cities having less than 40,000 popu¬ lation was raised from four-tenths of 1 mill to a half mill on the dollar by the Kansas Legislature of 1915. The limit for a public- library levy in cities having over 40,000 population continues to be LIBRARY ACTIVITIES. 515 one-fourth mill, as provided in section 1 of chapter 80, laws of 1913. The appropriation for purchase of traveling-library books was increased from $2,000 to $3,000 per year. Maine. — The annual appropriation for regular traveling libraries was increased from $2,500 to $3,500, and $1,000 was also appro¬ priated annually for the years 1915 and 1916 for the purchase of special traveling libraries for circulation among high schools located in those cities and towns having no public libraries. Massachusetts. — A Massachusetts act of 1915 authorizes the board of free public-library commissioners to determine by examination, or by such rules as it may establish, the selection and appointment of supervising librarians and all other library workers who are paid, under the authority of the board, from the treasury of the Common¬ wealth. The trustees of the Massachusetts State library were allowed $5,000 for the purpose of continuing work on the card catalogue for public use. Minnesota. — The appropriation for public-school library aid in Minnesota was reduced in 1915 from $31,500 to $25,000 per year. Missouri. — The appropriation for the Missouri library commission for the biennial period 1915-16 was increased to $15,430 from $14,200, which was the 1914-15 allowance. A bill was introduced in the legislature of 1915 providing for the establishment and maintenance of county libraries throughout Mis¬ souri. This bill was practically identical with the California county- library law and was introduced for the purpose of arousing discus¬ sion before the next legislative session, its immediate passage not being expected. Montana. — The Montana Legislature of 1915 enacted a county- library law, of which the most prominent features are as follows: Upon petition signed by not less than 20 per cent of the qualified voters of a county, at least one-half of whom shall reside outside of the county seat, the county commissioners may establish at the county seat a county free library. Any incorporated city or town in the county may withdraw and cease to participate in the benefits of such county free library. The county free library shall be under the general supervision of the board of county commissioners, who may appoint as county librarian any person who is a graduate of a library school or who has had one year’s practical experience in library work. The board of county commissioners may annually levy a special tax, not to' exceed 1 mill on the dollar, for the purpose of maintain¬ ing the county free library. School libraries may be maintained as a part of the county free library. Instead of establishing a separate 516 EDUCATION "REPORT, 1915. county library, the board of county commissioners may enter into a contract with the free public library of any incorporated city or town to assume the functions of a county free library. Nebraska . — The biennial appropriation for the Nebraska State library commission for 1915-1917 contained an addition of $900, making the total $16,900. New Jersey. — The annual appropriation for the New Jersey public library commission, which in 1914 was $13,400, was increased to $16,000 by the legislature of 1J15. On November 1, 1914, in ac¬ cordance with legislative enactment, the commission formally took over from the department of public instruction the supervision of school libraries and the control of the State school library funds. New York. — The New York Legislature of 1914 provided that district school libraries shall be free for public circulation in all districts where there are no regular free public libraries. The appropriation for the aid of local public libraries was in¬ creased at the 1915 legislative session from $35,000 to $37,000 for 1915-16. An act to exempt from taxation the property of free libraries in the State was vetoed by the governor May 25, 1915. North Carolina. — The General Assembly of North Carolina, at its 1915 session, established a legislative reference library as a depart¬ ment of the North Carolina historical commission, with an annual appropriation of $5,000. The biennial appropriation for the equipment and operation of traveling libraries by the North Carolina library commission was in 1915 increased to $4,000 from the previous $3,000, as made in 1913. North Dakota. — The State public library commission of North Dakota was in 1915 abolished by legislative enactment and its func¬ tions transferred to the newly created State board of regents. Oregon. — Chapter 346, general laws of Oregon, 1915, authorizes any county in the State to assess, levy, and collect a special tax, not to exceed 1J mills on the dollar, for the purpose of erecting a central public-library building upon a site approved by the county and con¬ veyed to such county by any person, firm, corporation, or city, school district, or union high-school district. Ohio. — An important law supplementing the county library law of Ohio was passed by the General Assembly of 1915. It provides for the establishment, maintenance, care, management, and control of a county library in counties where a library has been bestowed on the county by either gift or bequest. Pennsylvania. — The appropriation for the support of the Penn¬ sylvania free library commission for the biennial period 1915-1917 was reduced to $24,000 from $31,000, which was the allowance for LIBRARY ACTIVITIES. 517 the preceding two years. This reduction necessitates considerable retrenchment in the work of the commission. The legislative act relating to free public nonsectarian libraries and branch libraries within the State and their maintenance, in¬ cluding taxation for their support, etc., was vetoed by the governor. The measure was described as a codification of existing laws relating to free public libraries, and raised the minimum tax rate to 1 mill per annum. Since this would have largely increased the library budgets of municipalities, the bill was vigorously opposed by the cities of the State. South Dakota. — An act of 1915 (ch. 195) amends paragraph 5 of section 5, chapter 217, Laws of South Dakota for 1913, which pre¬ scribed that the State free library commission should annually desig¬ nate a list of books from which the county library boards should select books for the school libraries. As amended, this paragraph now makes it a duty of the commission “to render upon request assistance to county superintendents and to county library boards in selecting books for school libraries.” The legal number of members of a board of public library trustees, which was fixed at three by chapter 217, Laws of 1913, is enlarged to five, two of whom must be women, by chapter 195, laws of 1915. The biennial appropriation for the free library commission for 1915-1917 was made $4,000 per year, an increase of $1,000 per year over the previous allowance. Texas. — An act providing for the establishment of county free libraries was passed by the Texas Legislature at its 1915 session (general laws, 1915, ch. 117). The following is a synopsis of the main provisions of the law : Four ways are provided by which library privileges may be se¬ cured: (1) A separate county free library may be established at the county seat; (2) any incorporated cit}7 or town maintaining a library may become a part of the county free library system; (3) a county free library of one county may extend its privileges to another county that has no county library; (4) a free public library of any incor¬ porated town or city may assume the functions of a county library. When petitioned so to do by 25 per cent or more of the qualified voters of that part of a county which is to be affected, the commis¬ sioners’ court shall order an election. If a two-thirds vote in this election is favorable, the commissioners’ court shall proceed to estab¬ lish and provide for the maintenance of a county free library. Under methods 2, 3, and 4 above, the commissioners’ court of any and all counties, and all library boards, are authorized to enter into contracts, deciding upon their own terms. A tax not to exceed 6 mills on the $100 valuation must be levied upon all property outside of incorporated cities and towns maintain- 518 EDUCATION REPORT, 1915. ing free public libraries, and upon all property within incorporated cities and towns which have elected to become a part of such county free library system. In the million-dollar appropriation bill for Texas rural schools there is a clause requiring that each school receiving aid from this appropriation shall be provided with “ such library, books, maps, and globes as recommended in the State course of study.” Added appropriations in 1915 are $1,500 for a legislative reference librarian and $500 for conducting legislative work. Utah. — Chapter 109 of the laws of Utah, 1915, provides: The State board of education shall also promote the establishment of libraries and gymnasiums throughout the State, and shall have power to appoint a secretary, who shall work under the direction of the State superintendent of public instruction. West Virginia. — Chapter 64 of the Laws of West Virginia, 1915, authorizes incorporated cities and towns, and also counties and school districts, to establish public libraries and reading rooms sup¬ ported by taxation, and to appoint library boards for their manage¬ ment. W ashing ton. — By an act of 1915 the Legislature of the State of Washington extended the operation of its public library law to cities of the fourth class, or incorporated towns. (Ch. 12, laws of 1915.) Wisconsin. — The appropriation for the general work of the Wis¬ consin free library commission was reduced by the 1915 legislature from $34,085 to $32,000. Wyoming. — The Legislature of Wyoming, in chapter 24 of its session laws of 1915, raised the maximum limit of the annual county library tax which a board of county commissioners is authorized to levy to one-half of 1 mill on the dollar, from the previous limit of one- fourth mill. PUBLIC-LIBRARY EXTENSION. The following is a summary by States of the number of public libraries established and of public library buildings erected during the past year, so far as reported to the Bureau of Education : NEW PUBLIC LIBRARIES, 1914-15. Alabama, 1 ; California,1 4 ; Colorado, 9 ; Connecticut, 3 ; Georgia, 4; Illinois, 3; Indiana,’ 14; Iowa, 7; Kansas, 7; Kentucky, 7; Maine, 3; Minnesota, 6; Missouri, 2; Nebraska, 7; New Jersey, 17; New York,2 16; North Carolina, 4; North Dakota, 7; Pennsylvania, 8; Rhode Island, 2; South Dakota, 3; Tennessee, 1; Texas, 7; Utah, 2; Washington, 2; Wisconsin, 2; Wyoming, 2. Also 490 branch libraries. 2 Also 8 branch libraries. LIBRARY ACTIVITIES. 519 NEW LIBRARY BUILDINGS, 1914-15. California, 21; Colorado, 2; Georgia, 4; Illinois, 6; Indiana, 12; Iowa, 3; Kansas, 3; Kentucky, 4; Maine, 2; Massachusetts, 7; Min¬ nesota, 5; Missouri, 3; Nebraska, 4; New Jersey, 5; New York, 13; North Carolina, 2; North Dakota, 1; Ohio, 4; Rhode Island, 1; South Dakota, 2; Tennessee, 1; Texas, 5; Utah, 5; Washington, 1; Wisconsin, 2; Wyoming, 2. COUNTY LIBRARY SYSTEMS. Montana and Texas enacted county-library laws at their 1915 legislative sessions, and, while arrangements have not yet been com¬ pleted in either State for establishing libraries, seven counties in Montana are already circulating petitions under the new act. The West Virginia Legislature passed a law authorizing municipalities, under which term counties are included, to establish and maintain public libraries. In other States already having appropriate legis¬ lation the organization of new county libraries continued during the year, with especially marked gains in California and Wyoming, where county extension now prevails in a majority of the counties. Notable progress was also made in Oregon.1 General laws under which counties may establish and maintain libraries, or contract for county service with libraries already exist¬ ing, are now in force in 16 States. These States, with the year of enactment, are: California (1909); Iowa (1913); Louisiana, for parish libraries (1910) ; Maryland (1898) ; Minnesota (1905) ; Mis¬ souri (1909) ; Montana (1915) ; Nebraska (1911) ; New York (1911) ; Ohio (1898) ; Oregon (1911) ; Texas (1915) ; Washington (1901) ; West Virginia (1915) ; Wisconsin (1901) ; Wyoming (1899). In 6 of these 16 States county libraries organized under State-wide legis¬ lation are in operation, the number in each case being as follows: California, 33; Minnesota, 9; Ohio, 6; Oregon, 5; Washington, 1; Wyoming, 14. A seventh State is Wisconsin, with 15 county travel¬ ing library systems, organized under its county library law. The county free-library system has been more widely extended in California than in any other State. By October 1, 1915, the system had been adopted by 33 out of the 58 counties in the State, namely, Alameda, Butte, Colusa, Contra Costa, Fresno, Glenn. Humboldt, Imperial, Inyo, Kern, Kings, Lassen, Los Angeles, Madera, Merced, Modoc, Monterey, Plumas, Riverside, Sacramento, San Bernardino, San Diego, San Joaquin, San Luis Obispo, San Mateo, Santa Bar¬ bara, Santa Clara, Siskiyou, Solano, Stanislaus, Tulare, Ventura, Yolo. The total number of county free libraries in operation in California grew from 22 on July 1, 1914, to 26 on June 30, 1915, 1 The prospect for the passage of a law permitting the establishment of county libraries in Indiana is considered good, and similar laws are proposed in Illinois, Pennsylvania, South Carolina, and other States. 520 EDUCATION REPORT, 1915. and by October 1, 1915, the number had increased to 30, with 3 others established and soon to be opened. Of the total area in the State of 158,297 square miles, the equivalent of 104,958 square miles is now covered by the county system, and 1,601,887 of the 2,377,549 per¬ sons in the State are within reach of the service. The California county library is also coming into closer touch with the people through the multiplication of its branches. 'On July 1, 1914, there were 752 branches in connection with the county free libraries, and on June 30, 1915, there were 1,226 branches. The people of counties that have adopted the county free-library service are enthusiastic over its effectiveness. The California State library at Sacramento assists in the county free library work by supplying advice and encouragement, and by freely lending its books to the county libraries. A county free library organizer is sent out to explain the law to those desiring in¬ formation regarding it. On J anuary 1, 1915, a school library organ¬ izer was also added to the staff, whose duty is to explain to school superintendents and trustees, teachers, and any one else interested, the benefits a school district receives by joining the county free library. The Iowa law provides that a town, township, school corporation, or county may contract with a public library in a near-by town for the free use of its books. County extension is not in operation, but 14 town and city libraries are at present lending books to one or more outside towns or townships, which in turn contribute to the support of these libraries by means of tax levies. There are no libraries in Maryland organized under its general county library law, but at Hagerstown, in that State, is located the Washington County free library, established by a special legislative act in 1901, and receiving support from both city and county. The Frederick County free library, wffiich was opened in 1914 at Fred¬ erick, Md., is not supported by public funds. The nine county libraries now in operation in Minnesota are located in Anoka, Clay, Hennepin, Itasca, Lake, Meeker, Olmstead, Steele, and Washington Counties. Nothing has yet been accomplished under the provisions of the county library law of New York State. The principal difficulty in the way of arranging for county library service under this general law seems to arise from its requirement that the property of any city or town now maintaining a library be taxed a second time if a con¬ tract for the outside districts is made. This obstacle was found in-^ superable in a recent test case in Broome County, where county serv¬ ice from the city library of Binghamton was desired. A remedy may possibly be found in so amending the law as to exempt from LIBRARY ACTIVITIES. 521 taxation for this purpose all property already paying a library tax, as is done in California, Nebraska, and other States. In addition to the six county libraries in Ohio organized under general enactment, located in Erie, Green, Paulding, Richland, Ross, and Van Wert Counties, there is the Hamilton County library at Cincinnati, established under a special law of 1898 applying to only two counties in the State — Hamilton and Cuyahoga. In Oregon the county library system has been adopted by five counties — Multnomah. Wasco, Hood River, Umatilla, and Klamath. Many other counties are considering the system, which is recom¬ mended by the Oregon State library as the best method of making books available to the rural population. The library of Thurston County is the only county library at present reported from the State of Washington. In Wyoming, out of a total of 21 counties, county libraries are located at the county seats of 14, namely, Albany, Big Horn, Carbon, Converse, Fremont, Johnson, Laramie, Natrona, Park, Platte, Sheri¬ dan, Sweetwater, Uinta, and Weston Counties. Five of these libraries send out boxes of books in the form of traveling libraries to rural districts. Indiana has no modem law under which county libraries may be established and operated. At Indianapolis is the Marion County library, organized under an old act of 1852, according to which it may receive not more than $75 from the county annually. The public library of Bedford accords its privileges to the citizens of Lawrence County, which contributes to the support of the library. At Evansville is an old county library, rarely used, belonging to Vanderburg County. No one of these libraries does extension work. Rural extension of libraries in Indiana, in recent years, has been effected chiefly through the township as a unit. Of the 1,017 towrn ships in Indiana 91 now enjoy library privileges extended by 86 libraries. In view of the fact that less than 10 per cent of the rural inhabitants of Indiana have free access to a public library, a vigorous movement is now under way looking to further extension of libraries by means of the township plan, as well as by the passage of a law permitting the establishment of county libraries wherever desired in the State. In North Carolina four libraries are serving the rural inhabitants of their respective counties, which in turn are giving the libraries financial aid. These four libraries are the public library of Salis¬ bury, Rowan County; the Good Will Free Library of Ledger, Mitchell County; the public library of Durham, Durham County; and the public library of Greensboro, Guilford County. The last- named county has appropriated $1,250 for one year toward the sup- 522 EDUCATION REPORT, 1915. port of the Greensboro public library, in order that the full priv¬ ileges of the library may be extended to all white citizens of the county. In addition to loans made directly from the library in Greensboro, six regular stations have been established in the county. This is the greatest advance in rural library extension so far made by any county in North Carolina. Attention in this chapter has so far been directed to county libra¬ ries which receive financial support or aid, either by taxation or appropriation, from their respective counties. In addition to li¬ braries of this class, there are also city and town libraries that are free to the inhabitants of the respective counties, though having no official recognition from the county government. The Warren County library at Monmouth, Ill., receives no tax support from the county, but different portions of it appropriate sums in order to obtain library privileges. It is the only county library in the State, and is an endowed institution. The Willard Library at Evansville, Ind., is an endowed library, supported by the income from invested funds and a small appropria¬ tion from the Evansville city council. According to the terms of the endowment, it is free to the residents of Yanderburg County. No library has yet been organized in Missouri under the provi¬ sions of the county library law. The Jewett Norris Library, of Trenton, is an endowed institution, free to the residents of Grundy County, in which it is located. In New York State are two endowed libraries, not under county management nor receiving county support, but which by the terms of their charters are free to the residents of their counties. These are the library of the Cornell Library Association, in Ithaca, Tompkins County, and the Wadsworth Library, in Geneseo, Livingston County. The second of these sends books to delivery stations, schools, and clubs in various parts of the county. To recapitulate, the county library system is officially recognized in the United States by a total of 91 counties, which either maintain county libraries or contract with city or town libraries to render county service. These 91 counties are distributed as follows: Cali¬ fornia, 33; Indiana, 2; Maryland, 1; Minnesota, 9; North Carolina, 4; Ohio, T; Oregon, 5; Washington, 1; Wisconsin, 15 (traveling li¬ brary systems) ; Wyoming, 14. In addition to these, the residents of a certain number of counties situated in various States are al¬ lowed the free use of city or town libraries located in their counties, without contributing to the support of these libraries. LIBRARY ACTIVITIES. 523 STATE-WIDE USE OF UNIVERSITY LIBRARIES. The university library naturally has its part to perform in realizing the new conception of the function of a State university, that it is to serve the people of the entire State. The first duty of a university library is to the university community, but without in¬ terfering with its obligations to its immediate constituency, the library has many opportunities to serve the people of the State at large by lending books, pamphlets, and periodicals; by compiling bibliographies, and by supplying information which may be obtained from publications on file in the library or from specialists in the university faculty. This service is regularly rendered by the library in close cooperation with the extension division of the university. In States having no library commissions, as Montana, Oklahoma, and Wyoming, the State university library properly exercises some of the functions usually belonging to a State library commission, such as assistance in organizing public libraries, the provision of traveling libraries, etc. It may be remarked here that care needs to be taken to coordinate the extension work of the State university library with the activities of the State library commission, or State library, in cases where one or both of the latter exist alongside of the former. The requests from citizens at large for assistance from the State university library are steadily increasing in volume in a number of States, and if the service is to keep pace with the demand, more books and an enlarged library staff will be required. Some typical examples of wider service rendered by State university libraries during the past year are presented in the following brief reports: U niversity of California. — In every way possible, the library of the University of California endeavors to meet the needs of serious individual workers throughout the State of California. Books are not loaned directly to individuals, but through the local library. During 1914—15 the library made 189 loans, comprising 387 volumes, many of which were sent to libraries in Nevada, Washington, Oregon, New Mexico, and Texas. The borrowing library is required to pay transportation charges both ways, and is usually allowed to retain the loan for 30 days. The University of California library also undertakes to answer inquiries, supplies reference lists, and some¬ times sends copies of brief extracts, all without charge. The library is free for reference, and there is a constantly increasing use of it for this purpose by residents of San Francisco, Oakland, and Berkeley. Indiana University. — The Indiana University library sends cut, as interlibrary loans, any nonperiodical material requested, provided it is not needed for class use. Such books may be kept for two weeks, the borrower paying transportation charges both ways. Brief bibli- 524 EDUCATION REPORT, 1915. ographies are prepared on request. The use of the library by bor¬ rowers throughout the State is increasing steadily. University of Minnesota. — The library of the University of Minne¬ sota makes every effort to serve the citizens of the State, outside of the university community, so far as this can be done with justice to its local constituency. Many requests for information and assistance are received both by mail and telephone. The library usually lends its books through the borrower’s home library, but if this method is impracticable, will lend directly to individuals of certified reliability. The volume of this outside work is large and constantly increasing. U niversity of Montana. — The library of the University of Mon¬ tana gives free help to communities in organizing the county libra¬ ries provided for by the new State library law of 1915. As a part of the State educational system, the university library is glad to extend all possible assistance to the high schools of Montana. Under reasonable regulations, books and pamphlets are loaned upon request, and where this can not be done, reference lists or suggestions regarding sources of information are supplied. The university library is forming, in a tentative way, a series of package libraries on civic, political, and social subjects, to which ad¬ ditions will be made as rapidly as possible. As at present con¬ stituted, these libraries consist mainly of clippings from metropoli¬ tan newspapers. Magazines containing related material are in some cases lent by the university. Borrowers pay the postage on these package libraries. The University of Montana library also cooperates with the bureau of public information of the extension division of the univer¬ sity. University of North Carolina. — The library of the University of North Carolina serves the State in three ways: (1) By preparing reference lists and bibliographies for inquirers; (2) by giving, through letter, answers to specific questions; and (3) by loaning books and pamphlets from its collection and bulletins prepared by the bureau of extension of the university. Books and pamphlets are loaned for use in special studies and in¬ vestigation, as for debating purposes, and may be kept for three weeks. No charge is made for any of this service, except that the postage on the packages is paid by the borrower. The service during the year 1914—15 comprised the sending of 1,045 letters and 1,196 books and pamphlets. The librarian of the uni¬ versity reports that no service which the library has rendered has been more fruitful, and certainly none has been more genuinely appre¬ ciated. University of North Dakota. — The University of North Dakota library is not only filling the regular demands made upon it by the LIBRARY ACTIVITIES. 525 university community, but is daily meeting specific and real needs of the people out in the State. During the year 1914—15 the library served directly 147 towns in the State; 312 requests were received, in response to which 987 books, periodicals, and pamphlets were sent out, in addition to many bibliographies and letters. A comparison with earlier statistics of this work shows a marked increase in 1914-15 over previous years. The correspondence on file shows that the uni¬ versity library serves in this way bankers, business men, editors, lawyers, librarians, ministers, school superintendents, school prin¬ cipals, teachers, and high-school students. The library is officially recognized by the university authorities as a very definite and essential part of the extension organization of the institution, in that it acts as a bureau of general information, sends out books, pamphlets, periodicals, and documents, compiles bibliog¬ raphies, and refers the inquiries it receives demanding expert and technical knowledge to the proper men on the faculty.1 University of Oklahoma. — The University of Oklahoma sends out rural traveling libraries which supplement the bulletins of the uni¬ versity extension division, on the various subjects treated by them. In order to make these collections of value to the entire community, many other topics have been added, covering a wide range of infor¬ mation and interest. These libraries are 45 in number, containing 12 to 15 books each, and are lent free of charge to any community or rural school for a period not exceeding four weeks. University of Oregon. — During the year ending September 30, 1915, the University of Oregon library sent by parcel post to persons outside of Eugene 473 packages of books, pamphlets, and periodicals. Of these packages, 186 were sent to schools and teachers, 73 to public libraries, 71 to ministers, and 31 to students. The library will send to any responsible citizen any books that can be spared, to be kept for one month, the borrower paying transportation charges both ways. A special effort was made to serve the ministers of the State. Inter¬ denominational conferences of ministers are held at the university each summer, and the resources of the library are brought to the at¬ tention of those in attendance. Monthly lists of books added to the library are mailed to persons requesting them. Duplicate copies of text editions of some of the English classics were loaned to a number of schools. The library staff also does its best to answer inquiries from any persons wishing information of various kinds that can be briefly given, and for this purpose keeps in close touch with the members of the university faculty. 1 For a fuller account, see State- wide Use of the University Library, by Clarence W. Sumner, Quarterly Journal of the University of North Dakota, 6 : 60-64, Oct., 1915. 526 EDUCATION REPORT, 1915. University of Texas . — The people of Texas are calling on the State university library more and more each year for the loan of books. The university is supplying schools and clubs throughout the State with materials for papers, discussions, and debates. A resident of Austin, or of any part of the State, may enjoy the privilege of regularly drawing books from the University of Texas library by making a deposit of $5 with the university auditor. This amount is returned to the borrower upon his surrender of the privilege of using the library. University of Utah. — Citizens of Utah in general may use the library at any time for reference, and may borrow books which can be spared, provided the book desired is not to be found in the local public library. Borrowers pay the transportation charges both ways. University of 'Washington. — The library of the University of Washington lends individual books to anyone in the State, if the book requested is available for circulation and is not needed immedi¬ ately in the university. Books are lent through the local library if practicable, or if not, directly to the individual. No guaranty is required. From August 1, 1914, to August 1, 1915, outside loans from the University of Washington library amounted to 452 books and 458 pamphlets and magazine articles. During the same period the bureau of debate and discussion of the extension division of the university sent out 22,084 items, including pamphlets, magazine articles, and books. Some of these were in packages containing a number of items upon the same subject; others were individual loans. Additional statistics are as follows: Number of packages sent out, 1,184; number of centers served, 202; number of subjects covered, 149; bibliographies prepared, 6. University of Wisconsin. — Speaking of the university library and the State historical library, the librarian of the University of Wis¬ consin says, in his report to the board of regents for the biennial period ending June 30, 1914, page 317 : Both libraries are especially glad to be of service to the college and public libraries of Wisconsin, and these libraries apply to us frequently for the loan of books and for bibliographical assistance. The university library and the State historical library cooperate freely with the department of debating and public discussion of the university extension division and with the Wisconsin free library commission in this matter of loans to libraries and schools in the State. Our feeling is that where books, not in immediate demand, can be of service to residents of the State outside of Madison, it is in accord with the general policy and aim of the university to make them available. University of Wyoming. — The library of the University of Wyo¬ ming lends books, when consistent with the regular needs of the uni¬ versity, merely on prepayment of express charges. Questions on LIBRARY ACTIVITIES. 527 historical, economic, literary, scientific, technical, or practical sub¬ jects are answered freely. Traveling libraries containing 20 to 25 volumes are sent by the University of Wyoming library to any part of the State free of cost except for transportation charges. The list of books in each library covers a variety of subjects — fiction, history, biography, science, travel, and children’s literature. These collections circulate in every part of the State and are transported by any convenient method — parcel post, horseback, stage, automobile, wagon, freight, or express. The libraries are very popular and the demand for them exceeds the supply of books and boxes. LIBRARY SERVICE TO IMMIGRANTS. The public library continues to be an important adjunct in the work of Americanizing the foreign-born population settled in great numbers in many parts of the country, especially in the large cities. Standard reading matter in their own languages is also supplied to the mature immigrants who can not be expected to gain a command of English. This service is rendered both by the State libraries and library commissions, and by city and other local libraries. There is a growing recognition of the importance of this work, and its scope is being extended and its efficiency increased by the adoption of im¬ proved methods and equipment. Some of the more notable ex¬ amples of library work for foreigners during the past year are the following : The Massachusetts free public library commission has a director in charge of work with foreigners. Last year 83 traveling libraries in 17 foreign languages and in simple English were sent to 56 towns in the State. Nineteen lists in nine foreign languages were prepared for 12 towns expecting to purchase books for their foreign popula¬ tion. The director spoke at nine meetings and made 24 visits to libraries in furthering the work with foreigners. Many local libra¬ rians have cheerfully assumed the additional burden of work involved in providing books for foreigners, and satisfactory results from the work are reported in nearly all cases. In addition to their strictly professional services, one librarian was instrumental in securing funds to start an evening class in English for Polish mill operatives, and another librarian started a club for Greek girls, with activities in both social and industrial lines. The Connecticut public library committee reports that during 1913-14 five traveling libraries in Italian, Polish, Hungarian, and French were loaned seven times, with a total circulation of 527. In 57 libraries in the State, books representing 14 modern languages are available. 528 EDUCATION REPORT, 1915. The Minnesota public library commission circulates traveling libraries in Finnish. French, German, Norwegian, Polish, and Swed¬ ish. Occasional requests are received for Italian and Dutch books. The needs of foreign readers in Minnesota are receiving increased local attention, especially from the libraries on the Iron Eange, where there is great demand for books in many languages. These libraries are cooperating in this work through an exchange of books and in preparation of lists. One library in this region, in addition to supplying books in foreign languages, prepared a list of books in simple English for new Americans. A Bohemian library association was organized at Hopkins to place Bohemian books in the public library. In Nebraska the State library commission sends out traveling libraries in German and in Bohemian, and foreign books are also supplied by many public libraries. The Wisconsin free library commission sends out to libraries and elsewhere groups of books in various languages — German, Nor¬ wegian, Swedish, Bohemian, Danish, Polish, Finnish, Italian, Yiddish. The California State Library is undertaking to meet the needs of the State for foreign books, which are loaned through the county free libraries. Books are supplied in French, German. Portuguese, Spanish, Italian, Russian, and Swedish. The Boston Public Library has recently acquired collections of books in Polish, Swedish, Yiddish, and Italian, the Yiddish and Italian collections being principally translations from English works adapted to the needs of the North End branch. The foreign popu¬ lation is served chiefly through the branches. One branch custodian reported that more than 12 different races were represented in the new borrowers of the year. There is a strong demand for readers for foreigners and for books in easy English for use by the immigrants. The foreign department of the Providence Public Library, which is in charge of a special custodian, contains 6,742 volumes. In this collection 19 foreign languages are represented, some far more fully than others. There are also 131 volumes in English, for the most part manuals intended to teach a foreign reader the language, cus¬ toms, government, etc., of the LTnited States. The circulation in this single department was 14,195, while in addition 571 volumes in for¬ eign languages were circulated from the branches, deliveries, etc. A series of lectures for foreigners was given in the library building under the direction of the immigrant educational bureau. During 1914 the circulation department of the New York Public Library issued 649,727 volumes in foreign languages. The languages represented, arranged in a list according to the volume of circulation LIBRARY ACTIVITIES. 529 in each, decreasing in order from the largest number of volumes to the least, were as follows: German, Yiddish, Russian, Hungarian, French, Italian, Bohemian, Polish, Hebrew, Spanish, Roumanian, Swedish, Modern Greek. Besides the languages just named, there was con¬ tained in the total number of volumes reported a minor group of 12 additional modern languages. The Buffalo, N. Y., Public Library emphasizes the use of the library by the immigrant population as a most important service which it is able to render the community in the constructive work to¬ ward better citizenship. The branch libraries in Buffalo come into contact with people from most of the European countries, many of whom do not speak or read English. The two largest groups are from Poland and Italy. Last year the library issued two small hand¬ books entitled “ Books for Poles in America,” and “ Books for Ital¬ ians in America,” which call attention to the public library and give brief lists of appropriate books. The fact that it was necessary to increase the stock of Polish and Italian books is an indication of the extent of their use. Branch 4 of the free public library of Newark, N. J., is its “ for¬ eign branch.” Here the library has books in the languages of the many foreign people who live in that part of the city — German, Yid¬ dish, Polish, Russian, Ruthenian, and Italian. This branch library numbers 10,000 volumes, and made last year 170,651 loans. The Carnegie Library of Homestead, Pa., maintains an educa¬ tional department which offers instruction in mechanical drawing, common and higher branches, and English for foreigners. The foreign-English class was attended in 1914 by 55 students. The library circulated Slovak, Hungarian, Polish, Italian, French, Ger¬ man, and Lithuanian books among the foreign employees of the Homestead steel works. The library building also contains a music hall, club rooms, a gymnasium, and baths. A “ free library ” was started in 1912 in the home of Mrs. Paul Kreuzpointner, at Altoona, Pa., beginning with 10 books in the summer kitchen of the house and 4 members. The location is in a section of the city inhabited by workingmen, many of whom are foreigners. The library was popular from the first, and its mem¬ bership has now increased to over 500. Supplementing the original library there are now five branches — a Polish branch, an Italian branch, a Negro branch, a Broad Avenue branch, and a small branch for messenger boys at the Western Union Telegraph office. The Polish and Italian branches contain books in Polish and in Italian as well as in English. The total number of volumes in use is 1,764. Funds for the library are chiefly derived from the membership dues of 25 cents per year of the Altoona free library association, which has 12034° — ed 1915 — vol 1 - 34 530 EDUCATION REPORT, 1915. 120 members. Donations of books and magazines are also received from various sources. The Cleveland, Ohio, Public Library endeavors to provide good books for adult immigrants from other than English-speaking coun¬ tries in the appropriate languages. These books include general reading, together with works on American history, biography, and institutions, preparation for naturalization and citizenship, and the study of English. The collection now has books in 22 languages other than English, is very largely used, and is reported by the librarian to be entirely inadequate for the growing demand. The foreign division of the library has charge of this material and also attends to the books in English for foreigners, which include textbooks, readers, books on civics, and a collection of easy and interesting books for reading and study. At the Chicago Public Library, in order that readers of books in foreign languages might have the same privileges of inspection and examination as those enjoyed by patrons of the open shelves, a num¬ ber of alcoves were set aside last year for the accommodation of groups of books in the various continental European tongues to the number of some 15,000 volumes. It was impossible to transfer the entire foreign collection to the new quarters, but a division was made by placing the most recent works on the new shelves in what is now called the foreign room and leaving the older works in their former location in the stacks. Thus, about one-fifth of all the German books, comprising the accessions of the past 10 years, were sent to the new room, and relatively similar allotments of French, Bohemian, Polish, and Scandinavian books were included. In other languages, with smaller collections, it was possible to find room for all the books. In this latter division are the books in Italian, Spanish, Russian, Yiddish, Lettish, Lithuanian, Hungarian, and Dutch. The estab¬ lishment of this open-shelf book room has doubled the library’s pre¬ vious circulation of books in foreign languages. Of periodicals in foreign languages, the St. Louis Public Library receives 65 German, 24 French, 6 Polish, 20 Bohemian, 3 Danish, 5 Hungarian, 8 Italian, 5 Spanish, 3 Croatian, 11 Yiddish, and 1 each in Arabic, Swedish, Lithuanian, and Russian. The branches report extensive use of their books by foreign readers during the past year. The Crunden branch has a very good Yiddish collection, and a demand for Italian books has made itself felt. The foreign issue at the Soulard branch amounted to 29 per cent of the total annual circu¬ lation. Of the 13 languages issued, the largest use was in German, Bohemian, and Hungarian. During the year purchases were made in Servian, Croatian, Slovak, modern Greek, and Ruthenian, and the services of the foreign papers, the clergy, and men prominent in LIBRARY ACTIVITIES. 531 various activities were enlisted in giving publicity to this branch of the work. Work with foreigners on the Pacific coast presents problems some¬ what different from those arising in the East or Middle West. The Seattle Public Library bases its ministrations to these people on in¬ formation obtained by a survey of their numbers, their neighbor¬ hoods, their clubs, their newspapers, and their special activities. The chief nationalities represented in the foreign population of Seattle were found to be Greek, Italians, Croatians, Japanese, Scan¬ dinavians, and Germans. The knowledge gained in the preliminary survey was of great assistance to the library in selecting books for these people, and in acquainting them with the English language and American institutions. In many cases the library staff came into very close personal touch with the foreign pupils in the city night schools through the cooperation of their teachers. LIBRARY EXHIBITS AT THE PANAMA -PACIFIC EXPOSITION. Libraries and their services to the community were well repre¬ sented at the Panama-Pacific Exposition by various exhibits, of which the following were especially noteworthy: In the Palace of Education a comprehensive display made by the American library association illustrated many lines of library activ¬ ity by means of photographs, plans, publications, blanks, forms, etc. The principal headings under which this material was arranged were as follows: 1. Library work with children, including relations of public library and school, and school libraries. 2. Public libraries — their civic and social services, including mu¬ nicipal reference and provision for blind and other special classes; their art and music work, and aid to industry, exemplified by two typical cities, Los Angeles and Cleveland. 3. Service of library commissions, State libraries, and county libraries, to the rural population, by means of traveling libraries and other forms of extension. 4. Special libraries, including business, factory, engineering, and legislative reference libraries ; college and university libraries. 5. Library publicity, by means of motion pictures, newspaper arti¬ cles, reading lists, circulars, bulletins, etc. 6. Technique of library work. T. Professional training for library work. The California State library and California library association joined their exhibits with those of the American Library Association, the most conspicuous California display being a map of the State 40 feet square, showing the present condition of its county library 532 EDUCATION REPORT, 1915. system. Moving pictures of library work in the State were also shown in the hall of the California school exhibit. The exhibit of the United States Bureau of Education included a set of its own publications, a 6-foot shelf of books for a home reading course, a rural school library for California, and a representative collection of American college annuals; also statistical charts show¬ ing recent library progress in the United States and the advantages of county libraries. Rare books, manuscripts, maps, and newspapers relating to the early history of the Pacific coast and of Spanish America were im¬ portant features of the Library of Congress exhibit, located in the Palace of Liberal Arts. Other noteworthy parts of the exhibit came from the catalogue division of the library, the card section, and the divisions of bibliography and music. Statistical charts of American library progress were also shown. Among the State exhibits in the Palace of Education, that of "Wisconsin gave especial prominence to school libraries. It included photographs of typical high-school and rural-school library rooms in various parts of the State, and charts containing school library laws and statistics. A typical rural-school library of about 200 vol¬ umes was another feature. A public library survey of Oshkosh showed the distribution of adult and child borrowers by means of black and red tacks, respectively, each tack standing for a house. The Oregon school exhibit in the Palace of Education included charts showing the work of the Oregon State library and of school libraries in the State. New York displayed a relief map of the State showing the location of its various educational institutions, including the public libra¬ ries, by means of small, different-colored electric lamps. In the California State building were a number of special exhibits of free county libraries, including those of Contra Costa, Solano, and Yolo Counties. Moving pictures and lantern slides of libraries were shown in the Massachusetts building. The Missouri building contained a special library of Missouri authors. The exhibit of the library of the Philippine Islands, Manila, in the Philippine Islands building, consisted of about 1,300 volumes covering the history of the islands from 1585 to 1785. In addition there was a collection of more recent literature relating to the islands and about 100 volumes illustrating the work of the native book¬ binder. LIBRARY ACTIVITIES. 533 MEETINGS OF ASSOCIATIONS. AMERICAN LIBRARY ASSOCIATION. The thirty-seventh annual meeting of the American Library Asso¬ ciation was held at Berkeley, Cal., June 3-9, 1915. Out of a total registry of 750 persons two- thirds were in attendance at each of the general sessions, and the special meetings also were well attended, notwithstanding the difficulties of location and the counterattrac¬ tion of the Panama-Pacific Exposition. The presiding officer of the conference was Hiller C. Wellman, librarian of the Springfield (Mass.) Public Library, president of the association for 19LD15. His presidential address reviewed the development of library work into the manifold features of to-day, and raised the question whether all of these were properly within the province of the library. Papers were presented by Henry W. Kent, secretary of the Metropolitan Museum of Art, on “ The book,” and by T. M.-Cleland, of New York, on “The fine art of printing.” Everett R. Perry, librarian of the Los Angeles Public Library, spoke on “ Bulletins and library print¬ ing.” The address of Herbert Putnam, Librarian of Congress, en¬ titled “ Per contra,” stated and reviewed the arguments against cer¬ tain tendencies of the modern library, answering the objections effectively. R. R. Bowker, of New York, addressed the conference on “ The function of the public library,” which he said must be re¬ sponsive to and measured by the needs of its community environ¬ ment. “ New features in library architecture,” illustrated by lantern slides, was presented by Chalmers Hadley, librarian of the Denver Public Library. In a paper on “ The child in the school and in the library,” Willis H. Kerr, librarian of the Kansas State Normal School at Emporia, maintained that the library should do nothing that can be done by the school, but is a no less important factor in education. George F. Bowerman, librarian of the Public Library of the District of Columbia, discussed “ How far should the library aid the peace movement and similar propaganda?” The various sections of the association and the affiliated organiza¬ tions also held proceedings which were interesting and well attended. Among them was the recently established school libraries section, which discussed various problems of school library management and listened to reports of progress. The officers elected for 1915-16 were as follows: President, Mary W. Plummer, director Library School of the New York Public Library; first vice president, Walter L. Brown, librarian of Public Library, Buffalo, N. Y. ; second vice president, Chalmers Hadley, librarian of Public Library, Denver, Colo. 534 EDUCATION REPORT, 1915. NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION, LIBBAEY DEPARTMENT. The departmental congress on libraries of the fifty-third annual convention of the National Education Association and Third Inter¬ national Congress on Education, met at Oakland, Cal., August 24, 1915, with Harriet A. Wood, of Portland, Oreg., in the chair. The proceedings brought out many facts regarding library procedure in elementary, high, and normal schools, which were stimulating and helpful to those in attendance. Reports were made by departmental committees on rural - school libraries, elementary - school libraries, high-school libraries, and normal-school libraries, and by the Na¬ tional Education Association and American Library Association committees on standardization of the course of study in library in¬ struction in normal schools. These reports showed encouraging progress during the past year. Ella S. Morgan, librarian of Lin¬ coln High School, Los Angeles, Cal., presented a paper on “ High- School Library Progress in California,” in which she compared con¬ ditions in 1903, when the first high school librarian was appointed, with those of the present day. During this period 70,997 volumes in 143 high schools have increased to more than 340,000 volumes in 255 schools, with a corresponding improvement in equipment and meth¬ ods of administration. There are now 33 high-school libraries in California which have trained librarians. At the evening session Edward O. Sisson, commissioner of education for Idaho, spoke on “ Books and Education,” and Bernard C. Steiner, librarian of the Enoch Pratt Free Library, Baltimore, Md., read a paper on “ The Library as a Continuation School.” John D. Wolcott, of the United States Bureau of Education library, gave a survey, illustrated with stereopticon slides, of progressive high- school libraries in the United States. An exhibit illustrating the equipment and operation of high- school libraries, with special reference to California conditions, occu¬ pied a room in the Oakland municipal auditorium during the con¬ vention of the National Education Association and attracted much attention from those interested in the subject. In addition to photo¬ graphs, plans, pictures, forms, pamphlets, etc., the exhibit comprised a collection of handsome editions of standard books suitable for inclusion in school libraries. SOUTHERN CONFERENCE FOR EDUCATION AND INDUSTRY. A significant organized movement for better high-school libraries in the South was inaugurated by the library conference at the meet¬ ing of the Southern Conference for Education and Industry at Chattanooga, Tenn., in April, 1915. This consisted in the appoint¬ ment of a committee on high-school libraries, of which C. C. Certain, LIBRARY ACTIVITIES. 535 of the Central High School, Birmingham, Ala., is chairman, and J. L. McBrien, school extension agent in the Bureau of Education, secretary. The general membership of the committee is divided into two sections dealing with city and rural high schools, respectively, each section consisting of representatives for various groups of Southern States. A plan of work was mapped out for the committee to follow during the coming year. OTHER MEETINGS. The Twenty Seventh Educational Conference of the Academies and High Schools in Relation with the University of Chicago was held April 16, 1915, with “ The relation of the organized library to the school ” as the central theme for discussion. About 1,000 teachers were in attendance. The program was prepared under the direction of the librarian of the University School of Education, Miss Irene Warren. A large number of prominent librarians from the Missis¬ sippi valley participated in the conference, among whom were Arthur E. Bostwick, W. D. Johnston, Henry E. Legler, Carl B. Roden, George B. Utley, M. S. Dudgeon, Samuel H. Ranck, Mary J. Booth, and May Massee. A library conference imder the auspices of the Wisconsin free library commission was held at Madison, Wis., July 22-30, 1915. “ The librarian and the book ” was the central theme of the con¬ ference, which was attended by 175 persons, representing 14 States, including one or more delegates each from 49 Wisconsin libraries. Many librarians of prominence in the Middle West took part in the program, and keen interest was manifested in the discussion of the various topics presented. RECENT BOOKS ON LIBRARY ADMINISTRATION AND TECHNIQUE. A number of notable books appeared during 1914-15, dealing with library administration and history, and library science and tech¬ nique, from which the following may be selected for special mention : The County Library. The Pioneer County Library (the Brum- back Library of Van Wert County, Ohio), and the County Library Movement in the United States, by Saida Brumback Antrim and Ernest Irving Antrim, with an introduction by P. P. Claxton.1 The Relationship Between the Library and the Public School. Reprints of papers and addresses, ed. by Arthur E. Bostwick.2 State and County Educational Reorganization. The Revised Con¬ stitution and School Code of the State of Osceola, by Ellwood P. Cubberley.3 1Van Wert, Ohio, The Pioneer press [1914] xiv, 306 p. 2 White Plains, N. Y., and New York City, The H. W. Wilson company, 1914. 331 p. 12°. 3 New York, The Macmillan company, 1914. xx, 257 p. 8°. 536 EDUCATION REPORT, 1915. This bock presents a plan for educational reorganization which Prof. Cubberley has worked out in the form of a school code and constitution for a hypothetical State called Osceola. The plan rec¬ ognizes the library as an important adjunct of the school, and under¬ takes to bring the librarian and teacher into cooperation. It makes the State library one of the branches or bureaus of the State depart¬ ment of education. The county is made the unit of school adminis¬ tration, with central schoolhouses as centers of the community life, not only for teaching but also provided with an auditorium and a branch library in each. All such schools outside of incorporated cities are to come under the single control of a county board of edu¬ cation. The library of the county also is to be under the control of this county board of education, which will appoint a county libra¬ rian, to be certified by the State and nominated by the county superin¬ tendent of education. There are to be branch librarians, who also must hold State certificates in library work. One county library is to be established in each county, and in each community center a branch library containing a duplicate card catalogue of the entire county collection, so that the branches may borrow books from the county library at the county seat and through it from the State library. The school libraries are made part of the county library system, and the purchase and distribution of all their books is in¬ trusted to the county library, which in turn is controlled by the county board of education. In cities the library is placed under the city board of education, according to the system now in vogue in a few American cities. There is thus throughout in this school sys¬ tem of the State of Osceola a very close coordination of library and school. The board of supervisors, school trustees, and so-called political officials are eliminated from educational affairs by the plan. The author presents this outline as a good scheme for securing effec¬ tive organization and states that its successful operation would de¬ pend upon the character and ability of the men intrusted with its management. Among the new publications issued by the American Library As¬ sociation publishing board were the following chapters of its Manual of Library Economy: Chap. 3. State libraries, by J. I. Wyer, jr. Chap. 7. High-school libraries, by Gilbert O. Ward. Chap. 8. Special libraries, by Richard H. Johnston. Chap. 16. Book selection, by Elva L. Bascom. Chap. 23. Government documents (city and State), by J. I. Wyer, jr. The board also published a supplement, 1900-1910, to the A. L. A. Index to general literature, and a revised and enlarged edition of Theresa M. Hitchler’s “ Cataloging for small libraries.” LIBRARY ACTIVITIES. 537 Elementary and advanced manuals for teaching the use of books and libraries are now available as follows : Lessons on the use of the school library for rural schools, State graded schools, village and city grades; also for use in high schools in the giving of such library instruction outlined as has not been given in the grades. Prepared by O. S. Rice, supervisor of school libraries; issued by C. P. Cary, State superintendent. Madison, Wis., 1915. 135 p. 8°. The practical use of books and libraries; an elementary manual; by Gilbert O. Ward. 2d ed., rev. and enl. Boston, Mass., The Bos¬ ton book company, 1914. 104 p. 8°. Instruction in the use of books and libraries; a textbook for nor¬ mal schools and colleges; by Lucy E. Fay and Anne T. Eaton. Bos¬ ton, Mass., The Boston book company, 1915. 449 p. 8°. Bulletin 1915, No. 6, of the United States Bureau of Education, A study of the colleges and high schools in the North Central Associa¬ tion, contains on pages 100-106, a statistical study of the library facilities available to high schools in the territory of the association, both in high-school libraries and in public libraries. Similar studies for other sections of the country would be of interest and value. Bulletin, 1915, No. 25, of the Bureau of Education, entitled Public, society, and school libraries, contains a statistical report of libraries in the United States in 1913. . ’ . CHAPTER XXII. EDUCATIONAL WORK OF AMERICAN MUSEUMS. By Paul Marshall Rea, Secretary of the American Association of Museums j Director of the Charleston ( 8 . C.) Museum. Contents. — Introduction — Extension work of public museums of science — Extension work of public museums of art — College museums — Museum work of secondary schools — Museums of history — United States National Museum — New York State Museum — Independence Hall, Philadelphia — Conclusion. INTRODUCTION. Visits to museums in all parts of the United States, the discussions of the American Association of Museums at its San Francisco meet¬ ing, and the returns made to the Bureau of Education unite in conveying a strong impression of increasing interest throughout the country in the educational work of museums. This interest is mani¬ fested (1) by the enthusiasm with which leading museum workers discuss the educational side of their work; (2) by the considerable number of museums reporting a recent beginning in educational extension work; and (3) by the apologetic tone of many reports from museums that are not doing any of this work. It can be stated confidently that the educational and extension work of museums is a permanent addition to education and in no sense a fad. It is not a formal system to be readily outgrown, but an idea capable of the most varied and flexible application to the chang¬ ing needs of times and places. It has won recognition and appre¬ ciation by its results, and has been so large a factor in the growth and general financial support of the museums adopting it that their continued development of it is assured. Of much importance for a wider dissemination of information regarding this new relation between museums and schools is the recent publication, as a bulletin of the United States Bureau of Edu¬ cation,1 of a paper on “ The Educational Museum of the St. Louis Public Schools” by Carl G. Rathmann. This profusely illustrated account of a remarkable and conspicuously successful teaching mu¬ seum fills the need for an exposition of the traveling exhibit idea 1 Bulletin, 1914, No. 48. 539 540 EDUCATION REPORT, 1915. and should stimulate closer relations between schools and museums throughout the country. In previous reports the work of particular museums has been cited to illustrate the general principles and tendencies of the edu¬ cational and extension work of museums. In this chapter it seems desirable to enumerate briefly the activities of a larger number of museums as an indication of their variety and extent. Space forbids any attempt to make this list complete. Selection has been made to include museums of a wide range in size and resources and to rep¬ resent the various geographical areas of the country. In a previous report 1 it has been shown that the public museums have been the pioneers in developing the sense of responsibility to the people, which is the mainspring of all extension work. The pres¬ ent activities of this class of museums will therefore be reviewed first. The term public museum is applied to those museums receiv¬ ing their maintenance largely or wholly from public funds or from endowments and private gifts that are not restricted to special inter¬ ests. For convenience of reference and comparison the science mu¬ seums and art museums are treated separately. College museums and history museums also form natural groups with special charac¬ teristics. EXTENSION WORK OF PUBLIC MUSEUMS OF SCIENCE. The American Museum of Natural History in New York reports 1,300,000 school children reached by its extension work in a single year. In addition to the traveling exhibits and the lectures on geog¬ raphy, history, and science given at the museum to between 40,000 and 50,000 children, three local lecture centers have been established in selected schools. In two of these the lectures wrere given in school hours as a part of the school work. In these three centers 20,000 children attended the lectures, and the year’s total is expected to reach 50,000. For the first time in its history the museum’s series of more than 30,000 lantern slides have been placed at the disposal of public- school teachers for use in the classroom. These slides are available separately or in groups or in lecture sets, accompanied by full descriptions, and are delivered and collected by museum messengers. The museum maintains 635 traveling exhibits, comprising more than 10,000 specimens, which are in daily use among more than 400 schools having more than 1,000,000 pupils. 1 Rea, P. M. Educational work of American jnuseums. Rep. Commis. Educ., 1913, Vol. I, ch. 13, pp. 299-311. EDUCATIONAL WORK OF AMERICAN MUSEUMS. 541 Cooperation with the public libraries is receiving particular atten¬ tion. Several special traveling exhibits were sent to the children’s rooms in the libraries for the purpose of stimulating the reading of good books relating to the subjects illustrated by the specimens. The success of the experiment is strikingly illustrated in a branch library on the lower west side. An Eskimo exhibit in this library was followed in less than four weeks by an increase in the call for arctic books from 0 to 400, and other branch libraries had to be called upon to supply the demand. Extension of this work is under way. The interesting work with the blind, conducted by the American Museum, was described in this report last year.1 The New York Botanical Garden began in 1905 to utilize its advantages in correlation with the nature-study work of the public schools in New York City. The classes assemble from the various schools of the Bronx in charge of their teachers, and the audiences number from 450 to 850. After the lecture the pupils are divided into convenient groups, each under the guidance of a lecturer or demonstrator, and the topics treated in the lecture are further illus¬ trated and enforced by a study of the museum collections and of the living plants in the greenhouses and out of doors in the forest and plantations. These lectures and demonstrations give pupils in the crowded city a close contact with nature and a breadth of view and inspiration such as could never be obtained in the more restricted conditions of the classroom. The total attendance at these lectures was approximately 115,000. Special lectures and demonstrations are provided for the meetings of societies, clubs, and other organizations, some of which are closely associated with the work of the schools. Throughout the year the garden is visited by biology classes from schools and colleges in New York City and vicinity, and members of the staff are specially detailed to conduct such classes or other visitors through the grounds. Regular public lectures on botanical subjects are given every Sat¬ urday afternoon from April to November and are attended by many school children. Many of the publications, the Journal in particular, have contained articles of interest to public school children, some of which were written by the children themselves in competition for prizes offered by the garden. The Public Museum of the Staten Island Association of Arts ana. I Sciences gives Friday afternoon lectures from October to March for children above the 4 B grade. In April, 1915, the Bird Lovers’ Club conducted in the museum a bird-house contest among school children. In all 232 bird houses were constructed, of which 127 1 Rep. Commis. Ednc., 1914, Vol. I, ch. 23, pp. 506-507. 542 EDUCATION REPORT, 1915. were brought to the museum. Of these 24 received prizes and 12 were given honorable mention. Four hundred and fifty visitors came during the first nine days of the display for the express pur¬ pose of viewing the houses, and about 50 houses were sold to the public. Significant of the interest aroused and the skill developed is the fact that several of the highest prizes were won by pupils who had never taken any kind of sliopwork in the schools. The Children's Museum of Boston has shown a steady growth during its second year. Lectures for private and parochial schools are now given in addition to those for the public schools. During July and August children from the settlement houses occupy all the time of one assistant. For the year ending September, 1915, 297 lectures were given to classes containing 11,000 pupils. The total museum attendance for the year 1914 was 63,000. The museum has been incorporated and is administered by a board of nine trustees. An advisory council, a teachers’ council, and a museum aid associa¬ tion are closely affiliated with the trustees and render important aid in the development of the museum. The Fairbanks Museum of Natural Science , St. Johnsbury , Vt., arranges its educational work in cooperation with the superintendent and teachers of the public schools. Special nature lessons are given monthly in grades 3 to 9, inclusive. The 19 town classes, with about 500 students, have regularly appointed lessons at the museum ; the 11 rural schools, with 150 students, at their own school buildings. Dur¬ ing the past year progress has been made in correlating the nature study with drawing and English composition. Field classes and bird study are conducted through the spring, and a flower table is main¬ tained during the spring and summer. Bequests for the identifica¬ tion of flowers, minerals, etc., are given prompt attention and infor¬ mation is frequently supplied on special topics. The Park Museum , Providence , R. /., has developed a novel method of focusing the interest of children visiting the museum in groups of 50 to 100. This is done by what is called a “ museum game.” Each child is given a card bearing a puzzle sentence about some object in the museum. These sentences are carefully chosen to convey some fact of interest and information, and the children are asked to com¬ plete the sentence. A typical card may read as follows: “A - is a large animal with a Roman nose.” As soon as a child reports a question correctly to the official in charge he is given another card. At the end of the allotted period all the children are gathered in the lecture room. This method is found to remove all problems of dis¬ cipline, the children going steadily about, absorbed in their search for information. In the lecture room they become reporters of the facts they have gleaned and show a keen interest in what their com- EDUCATIONAL WORK OF AMERICAN MUSEUMS. 543 rades have learned and in what the instructor has to tell them. The curator reports the advantages of this plan as follows: (a) From the child's point of view : 1. He has received a lesson in independent research, concentration, obser¬ vation, and memory. 2. His interest in natural science is stimulated. 3. The museum has become a storehouse of knowledge to him rather than something intangible. 4. The spirit of rivalry and enjoyment in the game, as such, makes its own peculiar appeal to the children and arouses great enthusiasm. (5) From the museum's point of view : 1. The children have received one or more definite impressions of the mu¬ seum exhibits rather than a confused jumble of ideas. 2. The children have been stimulated to come again and actually do come often in groups of two or three to the office with a request to “ play the game ” by themselves. 3. The problem of disciplining an ordinarily boisterous crowd has been eliminated because the mind of each individual is occupied along a par¬ ticular line, and excellent order is actually maintained by the boys and girls themselves. The Museum of Natural History, Springfield, Mass., is visited by teachers with their classes from Springfield and neighboring towns for a general survey of the collections and to hold actual teaching exercises. A classroom and illustrative material is provided. Col¬ lections of minerals, rocks, and birds are loaned to the schools or given permanently. Prizes have been offered by the museum for the best collections of minerals and insects. A very convenient check list of bird migrations is published by the museum. A chil¬ dren’s table is provided with special exhibits, frequently changed, and with books borrowed from the children’s room of the city library. The Newark Museum Association, in New Jersey, has from its in¬ ception been fundamentally an educational museum. That is to say, its preservation of things valuable only or chiefly for their rarity has always been incidental to its purpose of getting, showing, explain¬ ing, and lending things calculated to enlarge the knowledge and the interest of the people within its influence. The museum, indeed, grew out of the similar mission of the library which founded it. The library lends not only books, but magazines, newspaper cuttings, pictures, charts, poems, and it early began to keep and to lend rocks, birds, butterflies, physiographic models, and industrial collections. Some of these things have been taken over by the museum, others are still lent by the library. Each year, besides numerous other exhibits, the museum has one considerable exhibit covering a fundamental human industry. Last- year the subject was pottery; this year it is to be textiles. Processes 544 EDUCATION DEPORT, 1915. in operation and steps of processes in sequence are shown, and an active docentry makes the exhibit a live teaching agency. Last year over 2,000 children came in classes and a number of clubs in groups for this instruction from Newark and neighboring cities, including Pratt, Teachers College, and other schools of New York, In conjunction with these exhibits pamphlets are issued, and from the exhibits are gathered materials not only for a permanent exhibi¬ tion in the museum, but for circulation in the schools. The school teachers, having visited the larger exhibition, are thus better able to deal with the traveling exhibits. The Charleston Museum , in South Carolina , maintains a depart¬ ment of public instruction in charge of a curator. The museum is formally affiliated with the board of school commissioners, and the relations with the public schools are arranged in detail by conference between the curator of public instruction and the superintendent of schools and the supervisor of primary work. The nature study in the primary grades is based upon the use of traveling exhibits from the museum and upon a manual prepared by the curator of public instruction. Economic and industrial exhibits are regularly used in the sixth and seventh grades in connection with geography. Over 70 different traveling exhibits are in regular use and are delivered by wagon provided by the museum. They remain one week in each school and are then transferred to the next school. Exhibits which have finished the public-school schedule are started on a similar schedule among private schools in the city. Requests for the use of the exhibits are received in increasing numbers from schools in other parts of the State, and these are granted in so far as they do not conflict with regular schedules within the city. In addition to the traveling exhibits the museum offers the follow¬ ing facilities to schools: (1) Docent service in the exhibition hall; (2) lectures on particular exhibits; (3) special lectures at the museum in illustration of subjects pursued in the schools; (4) the use of a classroom and specimens for teachers with classes; (5) special ex¬ hibits of educational value from time to time; (6) a reading room supplied with popular nature-study literature adapted to the needs of both teachers and pupils and in charge of a trained librarian; (7) copies of the Charleston nature-study course furnished to teachers on request; (8) lectures to primary-school teachers supplementary to the nature-study work in the schools. The museum conducts a natural-history society, having three sec¬ tions, one for boys, one for girls, and one for adults, each of which meets in the museum once a month. Field trips for each section are conducted by the curator of public instruction. The Cincinnati Society of Natural History maintains a museum and circulates seven sets of school cabinets, each set consisting of one EDUCATIONAL WORK OF AMERICAN MUSEUMS. 545 case each of birds, insects, and minerals. Each case is accompanied by a monograph descriptive of its contents. These sets arc started out about October 1 of each year and remain a month at each school, thus reaching about G3 schools in the course of the academic year. The society also provides a course of illustrated lectures on Saturday nights, which are open to the public without charge. The Buffalo Society of Natural Sciences conducts an extensive edu¬ cational work in close cooperation with the school authorities, as de¬ scribed in a previous report.1 Traveling exhibits are sent to the schools, and grammar-school classes also come to the museum on a regular schedule for lectures and demonstrations, which are an offi¬ cial part of the school curriculum. On Friday evenings from No¬ vember to May free public lectures are given to audiences averaging 800 to 900 people. The Chicago Academy of Sciences offers the following special fea¬ tures: (1) A large series of habitat groups, (2) the constant use of the celestial sphere by schools, (3) a children’s science library, and (4) a story hour conducted by the librarian. The habitat groups show the animals of the Chicago area in their natural surroundings and form very beautiful and instructive exhibits, which appeal strongly to all visitors. The celestial sphere is a mechanical device for the study of the heavenly bodies. The Milwaukee Public Museum maintains an extensive educational work, which has been fully described in the proceedings of the Ameri¬ can Association of Museums.2 The Educational Museum of the St. Louis Public Schools is a model of its kind. Space forbids an account of its work, since it has been mentioned in a previous report3 and is fully described in a recent bulletin issued by the Bureau of Education.4 The California Academy of Sciences , San Francisco , is planning to organize educational and extension work as soon as it is installed in its new building now nearing completion. Dr. Barton W. Ever- mann, who was appointed director of the museum March 15, 1914, says in his first report : “ The one thing that impresses one most in the study of eastern museums is their activity along educational lines, and the ways in which they are endeavoring to interest the public, and to be of service to the public.” Dr. Evermann then emphasizes the importance of a carefully thought-out method of cooperation between the museum and the public and private schools. It is prob¬ able that the first extension activity will be the circulation of natural history exhibits among the schools. xRep. Commis. Educ., 1913, Vol. I, ch. 13, p. 306. 2Proc. Am. Assoc. Mus., VIII, 1914, pp. 60-64. 3 Rep. Commis. Educ., 1913, Vol. I, ch. 13, p. 309. 4 Bulletin, 1914, No. 48. 12034°— ed 1915— vol 1 - 35 546 EDUCATION REPORT, 1915. The Oakland Public Museum , California , inaugurated a definite policy of educational work within two months after the opening of the museum 1 6 the public in October, 1910, by means of lectures to classes from the city schools. The excellent exhibit of American colonial material was made the basis of lectures on colonial life and customs. Teachers were quick to note the advantages of this method of teaching history and brought many classes to the lectures. Other lectures on history and natural history, closely correlated with the course of study in the public schools, have been added from time to time. The lecturer also visits the schools to give talks illustrated by museum specimens. A second method of extension work is by several series of loan material which are in almost constant use by the schools. A con¬ tinuous exhibit of fresh wild flowers is of much interest to gardeners and park men as well as to the general public. Although one of the youngest museums on the Pacific coast, the Oakland Public Museum seems to be the pioneer in organized educational and extension work in this section. The Museum of History , Science , and Art , Los Angeles , Cal., reports that it is working in close relation with the University of Southern California and the Manual Arts High School and is organ¬ izing a system of educational work with the public sqhools, modeled upon that of the Milwaukee Public Museum. EXTENSION WORK OF PUBLIC MUSEUMS OF ART. The Museum of Fine Arts , Boston , maintains extensive educational work which is summarized by the director, Dr. Arthur Fairbanks, as follows: The work with schools is twofold: (1) Lectures and lecture courses for teachers, to train them to deal intelligently and sympathetically with works of art in their teaching, and (2) trained guidance for groups of children who are brought from various schools to the museum. In practice it has been related to four lines of school work, viz., history, geography, and ancient languages, as well as drawing and design. Each of these subjects has been frequently treated in lectures for teachers. Lists of objects in the museum which illustrate the school work in these lines are furnished free to teachers, and the city of Boston furnishes various series of illustrations from objects in the museum for use by pupils in the schools. Groups of pupils are sent to the museum with or without a teacher and receive guidance (docent service) from a member of the staff. The museum instructor meets younger children; older children are met either by her or by a member of the department which they desire to visit. The extension work consists partly of courses given primarily for museum school students, but open to the public, partly of specific extension courses. The aim of this work is to deal not with the history of art, but rather with the objects of art themselves. In addition to courses of lectures and guidance to visitors, there are regular Sunday gallery talks, each on one object or one group of objects in the museum ; and a series of Thursday conferences and lectures by an expert on some objects or group of objects has been given regularly. EDUCATIONAL WORK OF AMERICAN MUSEUMS. 547 The Worcester Art Museum, Mass., reports 4,741 photographs and lantern slides loaned to 24 schools, 10 churches, and 13 clubs and other organizations in 1914-15, as compared with 3,198 in 1913-14. Thirty- nine special talks were given to classes from schools, compared with 16 talks in the previous year, and 23 talks to other organizations, as compared with 15 in the previous year. The special work with chil¬ dren described in this report1 last year has been continued. The following comment is of interest : After four years the deeper and fundamental aim of the work is seen to justify itself. Those engaged in it have been enthusiastic about it from the start. But even to casual visitors to the museum its effects are sometimes strikingly apparent. A concrete instance may serve for illustration : Two boys of about 14 years, and plainly from a walk of life not made easy by riches, were seen the other day walking about in the galleries quietly and earnestly discussing new acquisitions made by the museum since their last visit. It was apparent not only that they knew perfectly how to conduct themselves, but that they were thoroughly enjoying the paintings in a way not possible to either grown-ups or children without some previous instruction in the very delicate art of appreciation. The secret is easily explained — the boys had formed a habit several years ago of fairly regular attendance at the Saturday afternoon stories. Their acquaintance with the collections in this museum is real and intimate, and, needless to say, their future visits to other galleries of art will be a source of genuine enjoyment to them. The Rhode Island School of Design, in Providence, maintains both an art school and a museum. One of its special purposes is the in¬ struction of artisans in drawing, painting, modeling, and designing in order that they may successfully apply the principles of art to the requirements of trade and manufactures. A special feature of its relation to the schools of Providence is the awarding of scholar¬ ships in the School of Design on the basis of competitions in drawing among public-school children. The superintendent of schools has arranged a definite schedule to bring classes from all the city schools to the public library, the School of Design, the Park Museum, the Rhode Island Historical Society, and the statehouse. Under this plan 2,244 pupils visited the museum of the School of Design in the year 191U15. The Parrish Art Museum, Southampton, Long Island, is an inter¬ esting example of a privately owned museum endeavoring to exert as strong an influence as possible in a small community. During the past year a docent has been provided to give instruction to public- school children and adults. The attendance of children is volun¬ tary, but the classes meet regularly and the attendance has been satisfactory. 1Rep. Commis. Educ., 1914, Vol. I, ch. 23, p. 501. 548 EDUCATION REPORT, 1915. The Metropolitan Museum of Art , New York City , offers the fol¬ lowing special advantages to New York teachers and pupils: (1) - Free admission on Mondays and Fridays, which are made pay days largely to facilitate students by giving them a greater op¬ portunity for privacy than is possible on free days. School children are welcome every day, but the pay days are theirs in a peculiar sense. Upon application made beforehand, a ticket is sent to the teacher, admitting the teacher and class. (2) If a teacher is preparing courses of study to be conducted at the museum, members of the staff will gladly advise him concerning the objects contained in the collections and aid him to use the re¬ sources of the museum to the best advantage. An index of the paint¬ ings by subject and an index of the objects illustrating Greek and Roman history are obtainable. (3) The use of classrooms equipped with stereopticon lantern, chairs, tables, and blackboard for talks given by the teacher to the class. Lantern slides may be borrowed, and books and photographs from the library may be taken to the classrooms to increase the in¬ terest and effectiveness of the talk. (4) The services of a member of the museum staff to show the collections to the class or give them a talk, illustrated by the lantern. For this assistance application is made by letter, the day and hour of the proposed visit being specified. (5) If a teacher can not bring his class to the museum, but can find time for a talk in his own schoolroom, arrangements can be made for a member of the museum staff to go to the school and render such service. (6) The use in lectures outside of the museum of over 12,000 lan¬ tern slides owned by the museum of objects both here and elsewhere that illustrate the subjects represented in its collections. A set of mounted photographs of objects in the collection may also be bor¬ rowed for schoolroom use. The Arnot Art Gallery , Elmira , N. F., which has only been or¬ ganized three or four years, has already developed a system of co¬ operation with the public schools. This work has been done on the initiative of the museum but has received the support of the board of education, which includes in the school work two visits to the art gallery each year by pupils of the sixth, seventh, and eighth grades. The director of the gallery talks to these classes. The gallery has also held a prize exhibition of the work of the children in these grades, the material being selected by the director of draw¬ ing in the public schools. Prizes were given for the best water-color and pencil or charcoal drawings in the nature-study work in the sixth and seventh grades and in still-life charcoal studies in the EDUCATIONAL WORK OF AMERICAN MUSEUMS. 549 eighth grade. The cooperation of the Arnot Art Gallery is ac¬ knowledged in the annual report of the public schools of Elmira. The Albright Art Gallery , Buffalo, makes a specialty of art in¬ struction for school children, teachers, societies, clubs, and the general public through the medium of docent service. The Carnegie Institute , Department of Fine Arts, Pittsburgh, provides docent service for individuals or organizations desiring in¬ formation concerning the works shown in the galleries. The children of the schools are brought to the institute by their teachers. Twenty- six clubs and 64 classes from the schools of Pittsburgh and vicinity availed themselves of this service last j7ear. The museum also con¬ ducts a children’s hour on Saturday mornings at which the volun¬ tary attendance testifies to the enjoyment of the children. Toledo Museum of Art. — The varied and extensive educational work of this vigorous young museum was described in detail in this report1 last year, when it was noted that plans were being made for a bird-day celebration for the purpose of arousing community interest in the beauty and economic value of birds. This bird campaign is reported as showing results far exceeding expectations. Not only thousands of children but hundreds of grown people were led to study and plan for the welfare of useful birds. Three thousand bird houses were constructed in the manual training departments of the public schools from lumber furnished through the museum. When these houses were exhibited in the museum, in March, 11,000 people visited the exhibition. The houses were given by the children to the city and put in place in the public parks by the Boy Scouts, under the direction of expert ornithologists. Bird houses were also placed in the school grounds and around the homes of the children. Hundreds were purchased at the art museum and placed in private grounds. A permanent museum bird club is now organized under the auspices of the museum. The similarity of this work to that of the museums of science is a striking illustration of the common purpose which underlies museums of all kinds. The Minneapolis Institute of Arts opened its beautiful new build¬ ing on January 7, 1915. During the first two months all the children in the grade schools were given time off from their school work and brought in groups by their teachers to see the institute and the ex¬ hibits. A volunteer worker was stationed in each room to tell the children something of the history of the things that they were see¬ ing. These visits took about an hour and a half each and presented merely an introductory survey. The children came in groups of 25 to 30 at one-half hour intervals all day. Since that time the task of organizing the work of the institute in its new building has so 1 Rep. Commis. Educ., 1914, Vol. I, ch. 23, pp. 501—503. 550 EDUCATION REPORT, 1915. fully occupied the attention of the staff that no formal extension work has been undertaken. Docent service is provided at certain hours, however, and the institute hopes to do much more with school children this year. The City Art Museum, St. Louis , supplies docents and provides lectures and lantern slides upon demand. Circulating collections of paintings, with printed descriptions, are sent to the schools of the city. Paintings are also sent to the public library. All publications of the museum are mailed to the schools. Western Gallery of Art , Kansas City. — The curator reports that the museum has been helpful in many ways to every grade of the public and private schools from the kindergarten to the high school, as well as to the colleges and universities and other educational in¬ stitutions of Kansas and neighboring States. Docent service is pro¬ vided, and every effort is made to assist visitors. Definite correlation with the school system has not been effected. COLLEGE MUSEUMS. The deplorable condition of college museums as a class when the Directory of American Museums was prepared in 1910 was described in this report two years ago,1 and some of the reasons for this con¬ dition were revealed by an analysis of the history and limitations of this class of museums. Extension work for the benefit of the gen¬ eral public can hardly be considered a duty of college museums, but it is a question worthy of serious consideration by college author¬ ities whether their museums can not be made to yield a return upon the investment they represent by promoting a closer relation between the public and the college. Prof. Homer R. Dill says that the opening of the Laysan Island cyclorama in the University of Iowa museum drew more than 2,000 visitors in the first two days and that special excursions from all parts of the State are arranged by the railroads with this beautiful exhibit as the objective. He believes the great need of the college museums to be men capable of building modern picture groups and that the possession of such exhibits will be worth many times their cost as an advertising feature. To supply men with the necessary training Prof. Dill has organized a special course in museum tech¬ nique at the University of Iowa and has assurances that some of the many small colleges in Iowa will employ his graduates to develop their museums in the manner he advocates. It is certain at least that the public museums have set new stand¬ ards of installation and demonstrated the possibilities of extension work, and have thus put a new face upon the problem of the college museum. 1 Rep. Commis. Educ., 1913, Vol. I, ch. 13, pp. 229-302. EDUCATIONAL WORK OF AMERICAN MUSEUMS. 551 The following are typical of the reports received this year from college museums. The stimulating influence of the public museums is evident in some cases, especially in parts of the country where university extension is popular. The University Museum at Harvard is used in university courses but offers no organized facilities to schools other than a general hospitality and a limited guide service. The Fogg Art Museum at Harvard, in addition to the regular use of the collections to illustrate the work of courses in Harvard Uni¬ versity and in Radcliffe College, circulates among the high schools of Massachusetts three sets of slides — one devoted to the monuments of ancient Greece, one to the monuments of ancient Rome, and one intended to illustrate English history. The set of Greek slides was used by 22 high schools and the Roman slides by 26 in the year 1913-14. These have been in constant use during the winter months and the museum hopes later to extend this service considerably. The Social Museum at Harvard attracts the attention of various classes of serious students outside the university courses in which it is regularly used. Exhibits are loaned to national and international congresses and to public bodies for temporary display. A classified list of the collections is published in a pamphlet entitled “ The Social Museum as an Instrument of Museum Teaching.” The Farnsworth Art Museum at Wellesley College contains the laboratories and studios in which the regular courses of the art de¬ partment of Wellesley College are conducted. The primary purpose of the museum is to provide material for this work. A special activity is the maintenance of a training course for museum assist¬ ants. Graduates of this course are now engaged in art-museum work in Minneapolis, Chicago. Rochester, Providence, and Boston. The Hilly er Art Gallery at Smith College is maintained primarily for the art department of the college, but during the past three years has been opened to the public on Sunday afternoons, when it has more general visitors than on any other day. During the past year a series of talks on special exhibitions has been successfully given on Sunday afternoons. Wesleyan University Museum reports that while there is no sys¬ tematic arrangement for the use of the collections by the -schools of Middletown and vicinity every encouragement is given to teachers to bring their classes to the museum, and in some cases specimens are loaned to the teachers. The University Museum at the University of Pennsylvania pro¬ vides special talks by the curators either in the exhibition rooms or in the auditorium to classes of school children from the grade and high schools, and especially to classes made up from clubs and other 552 EDUCATION REPORT, 1915. organizations in the city and from colleges in the vicinity of Phila¬ delphia. The School of Mines at the Pennsylvania State College Contains an extensive collection of minerals and models illustrating the various industries of the State and which are used only in the regular work of the school. The photographs accompanying the report of the dean suggest that this material might be of the greatest value in extension work. The Museum of Zoology at the University of Michigan reports the extension work as growing slowly. It consists in the loan of collec¬ tions of Michigan animals to schools, the identification of specimens, and the supplying of information on biological subjects to the people of the State, and the giving of extension lectures. An effort is made to impress upon the residents of Michigan the importance of the museum as a central repository for Michigan zoological material. The success of this work is indicated by the number of requests for information, the increasing demand for the school collections, the cooperation of amateur naturalists, the increased appropriations allowed by the regents, and the gifts of money received from private sources each year. The Classical Museum at the University of Illinois reports that in addition to the use of the museum in regular university courses it is visited by classes in ancient history and classics in the high schools of Champaign and Urbana. The Museum of European Culture at the University of Illinois , which was described more particularly in this report 1 last year, has grown both in the extent of its collections and in the number of visitors and seems to be successfully fulfilling the purposes for which it was organized. The Bennett Museum of Christian Archaeology at the Garrett Biblical Institute , Evanston , III ., is used in connection with a course on Christian archaeology in the College of Liberal Arts of North¬ western University. It is used also in connection with courses in ancient history in Northwestern University, Northwestern Acad¬ emy, and the Evanston High School. The Museum of the Department of Fine Arts at Indiana Univer¬ sity comprises collections selected with direct reference to the uni¬ versity courses in painting, sculpture, drawing, architecture, and engraving. During the past three years the museum has successfully loaned traveling exhibits of pictures throughout the State. This work has become so important that it is now administered under the extension department of the university, but remains in charge of 1 Rep. Commis. Educ., 1914, Vol. I, ch. 23, pp. 507-508. See also Proc. Am. Assoc. Museums, VIII, 1914, pp. 120-124. EDUCATIONAL WORK OF AMERICAN MUSEUMS. 553 Prof. Alfred M. Brooks, who is head of the department of fine arts and who has created the museum during the past IT years. The Museum of Birds and Mammals at the University of Kansas is successfully circulating traveling exhibits among the public schools of the State. The State Museum at the University of Nebraska distributes geological and mineralogical specimens to the accredited high schools of the State. Delegations of pupils, commercial clubs, etc., from various towns in the State visit the museum. Last year a lecturer was appointed, and the work is expected to be considerably enlarged this year. The museum provides special material and places labora¬ tories at the disposal of visiting teachers with their classes, who often spend an entire afternoon in this work. The art departments in col¬ leges and high schools are also supplied with specimens to be used as models in drawing. The University of Colorado Museum encourages teachers and students of the grade and high schools to visit the museum and use its collections. The curator frequently lectures before scientific and other societies, teachers’ institutes, etc. Lantern slides relating to the museum exhibits are loaned upon request. An increasing num¬ ber of requests for information and for the identification of speci¬ mens is received each year. The University of Arizona Museum is maintaining very little extension work at the present time, but plans formulated by the present curator form so admirable a program that they may be briefly stated as follows: (1) To classify and arrange the collections so that they may be readily understood. (2) To arrange visiting days for classes from the elementary schools within reach of the museum, (3) To give university courses in archeology and to give exten¬ sion courses in Tucson and neighboring towns. (4) To give popular illustrated lectures at the university and throughout the State on the archeology of North America and especially of Arizona. (5) To circulate throughout the State representative collections of Arizona birds, insects, and minerals and of prehistoric life and modern Indian life in Arizona and surrounding States. The University of Oregon has heretofore had no regular museum, but reports the recent establishment of a geological museum and the intention of working toward a large university museum for all de¬ partments in the future. Small sets of minerals and rocks are already being sent to various schools, which retain them for a period of about one month. There seems to be an admirable opportunity 554 EDUCATION REPORT, 1915. for the museum in connection with the general extension work of the university. MUSEUM WORK OF SECONDARY SCHOOLS. Several secondary schools report unusually good museums and show a keen appreciation of their educational value. Among these may be mentioned especially the Joliet Township High School in Illinois, which maintains a museum occupying at present five or six rather large rooms. The material is used in classes in geography, history, biology, zoology, and English composition. Occasionally some of it is sent to the elementary schools on the request of the principal or teachers. The superintendent says : We have already planned in our next building venture to have an entire building, three stories, with 12 rooms given over entirely to the museum with a view to making its value as an educational factor more pronounced. * * * We are much inclined to think that too little attention has been given to this phase of educational work, and when we see what is done in this particular in the city of St. Louis we wish that our position could be as for¬ tunate as theirs. MUSEUMS OF HISTORY. About 25 per cent of all museums in the United States are devoted to history. They are maintained for the most part by historical societies, and, although they would ipake a strong popular appeal if properly supported and administered, they are usually inactive and neglected. Public museums in many instances devote a part of their attention to history, especially to the installation of period rooms and to ex¬ tension work. Their influence seems to be discernible already in an awakening of some of the smaller history museums. The field of history as a museum subject may be expected to develop rapidly when the right methods are generally adopted. There is a small group of history museums which have adequate resources and progressive methods. Among them may be mentioned the museums of the Essex Institute at Salem, Mass., the Buffalo His¬ torical Society, the Chicago Historical Society, and the Ohio Arch¬ aeological and Historical Society. The Chicago Historical Society allied itself directly with the edu¬ cational forces of the city in 1913 by establishing children’s lectures on Chicago history, conforming to the course of study in the public schools. The society considers this one of the most important activi¬ ties it has ever undertaken. In the beginning the lecturer was sent to the school, but after a brief trial period all lectures have been given in the society’s rooms, where the children are surrounded by the actual objects of the museum. Among the smaller institutions, one of the best known to the writer is the museum of the Nantucket Historical Society in Massachusetts. EDUCATIONAL WORK OF AMERICAN MUSEUMS. 555 Others which show at least a desire to develop their educational influence are the Fitchburg (Mass.) Historical Society, the Mont¬ gomery County (Pa.) Historical Society, and the Whiteside County (Ill.) Historical Society. Although the secretary of the State Historical Society of North Dakota is very modest in his report of the educational activities of the society, its publications indicate that, in addition to preserving historic sites, publishing historical material, maintaining a library and museum, and conducting field explorations, the society is maintaining lecture work among schools and communities throughout the State. It would be difficult to outline a more valuable program of historical work, and it is to be hoped that the society may be successful in its purpose of arousing interest in history throughout the State, as well as in preserving historical records. UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUM. Although the United States National Museum is not in a position to conduct any of the usual forms of extension work, it has con¬ tributed in no small way through a long period of years to the up¬ building of museums throughout the country. It has done this by distributing among schools and colleges educational series of speci¬ mens. The extent of the service thus rendered by the National Museum is too little known and appreciated. NEW YORK STATE MUSEUM. No better illustration of the changing sentiment regarding the relation of museums to the public can be found than the section on “ The Educational Function of the State Museum of Science” in the report of the director of the New York State Museum.1 After call¬ ing attention to the fact that “the good repute of the New York State Museum has come more from the work of original research which it has fostered than from the educational service thus far ren¬ dered through its collections,” the director continues: At no time in the history of the organization has there been an adequate museum ; not once in all its career have the people been able to come into actual touch with the materials on which the published scientific works have been founded or to learn through their own eyes tbe real meaning of the resources and of the operations of nature which have been portrayed on the thousands of pages and plates of our public reports. The fact that this time has now arrived, that capacious quarters are about to be fully equipped for the reception of the material objects of science, brings, in effect, a new function to this division — that of making an efficacious and im¬ pressive contribution to the education of the people into these sources of knowl¬ edge in a building devoted throughout to the official diffusion of knowledge. 1 N. Y. State Mus., 66th Ann. Rep., 1912, Vol. I, pp. 9-15. 556 EDUCATION REPORT, 1915. In the science of paleontology, a science of which the State of New York has for years been the especial patron, this fact is preeminently true. The museum resources herein are large, but of this large accumulation there is only a small part that can be made to tell its fascinating story to the uninitiated. To con¬ sider for a moment the demands nf this science alone and its place in a museum, the people of the State have a right to know what it is all about and why such extraordinary encouragement has been given to its prosecution ; how it is that the State of New York has acquired its repute as the exponent of this science, and, if it is true that more is known of the paleontology of this State than of any equal area of the world (as has been said by a distinguished French geologist), where is the proof of this outside of published documents. There are no mysteries in science and the fruits of this knowledge are the property of the people who have paid for it. There is thus laid upon this division the acquisi¬ tion of materials in this field of science that will tell the story of the life in the seas and on the lands of ancient New York, its beginning, its development, and its outcome, and tell it in a way so lucid and intelligible that the visitor to the museum can read it and learn it. No good thing, therefore, that can make clearer the wonderful history of life in this part of our ancient earth, and so help to enforce the broader lessons of the life from which we have derived our own existence, can be sacrificed or neglected for so simply gross a reason as that appropriations for this work are inadequate. A scientific specimen in a laboratory and such a specimen in a museum are of two vastly unlike qualities. The one tells its story to the expert, the other must be made to tell its simple and clear story to the larger world. Certainly no clearer exposition could be desired of the obligation of a great museum to the people who support it, and it is to be hoped that the New York State Museum will succeed as completely in transforming invertebrate paleontology into a popular museum subject as the American Museum has succeeded with vertebrate paleontology. INDEPENDENCE HALL, PHILADELPHIA. Independence Hall began in 1914 to provide docent service and lectures for school children, the experiment proving a success from the start. The curator talked to 7,000 children ranging in age from 9 to 18 years. Daily engagements three months ahead have been made with schools and colleges in Philadelphia and vicinity for these lectures. With the secondary grades the subjects are related to the classroom work of each grade. With older children a general review is given of the colonies before the war and of the Revolution itself. More time is given to industrial history than heretofore. EDUCATIONAL WORK OF AMERICAN MUSEUMS. 557 CONCLUSION. While the important educational function of museums is now generally recognized alike by the leaders in both museum work and school work and by the teachers wTho have come in contact with it, it is nevertheless true that — (1) As yet only a comparatively small proportion of the museums in the country are thoroughly aroused to its possibilities, and these chiefly among what are designated in this report as public museums. (2) There is a much larger opportunity for educational work among the smaller public museums, college museums, and historical- society museums than is now appreciated. (3) The initiative in this wrork is usually taken by the museums, and school authorities who have not had actual experience with it are not thoroughly alive to its advantages. (4) Museum facilities are available to schools in various localities to a very unequal degree. There is clearly need of some agency to stimulate and coordinate museum educational work throughout the country and to diffuse a full knowledge of it among schools and other educational organiza¬ tions. The American Association of Museums is endeavoring to do this and has appointed a special commission for museum cooperation for this purpose, while the Bureau of Education is performing a valuable service in giving publicity to the work, but there is need of still more highly organized effort if the facilities which are proving so valuable in a few centers are to be made accessible to both town and rural schools throughout the country. The experimental period is closed. Educational work has been done as efficiently by small museums as by great museums, in small towns as well as in great cities. Its State-wide extension among rural schools has been shown practicable. The need is for systematic encouragement of its development. • . I- - ' . - ■ CHAPTER XXIII. EDUCATIONAL WORK OF THE CHURCHES. Compiled by J. O. Knott, Editorial Division, Bureau of Education. Contents. — Introduction — Roman Catholic parish schools — Lutheran parochial schools — Presbyterian Church schools — The schools of the Presbyterian Church in the United States — Schools of the Baptist Church (North) — Educational work of the Methodist Episcopal Church — Schools of the Methodist Episcopal Church, South — Schools under the direction of the Moravian Church in America — The educational work of the Con¬ gregational Church — The schools of the Reformed Church in America — Educational work in the Protestant Episcopal Church — Denominational schools for Indians. INTRODUCTION. The following account of the educational work of the churches in the United States and its dependencies for 1915 is more compre¬ hensive than for last year. It is still, however, incomplete for two reasons. First, several of the bodies reporting have not had time to collect full statistics. The Methodist Episcopal Church, for example, gives an account of its educational work mainly from the viewpoint of the Sunday school, preferring to wait until 1916 for a more detailed report. A representative of the Protestant Episco¬ pal Church explains in a letter to the bureau that time did not permit him to make a formal report. His letter gives some out¬ standing facts concerning the educational work of that church, which are included in a section of this chapter. Other denomina¬ tions, notably the Disciples of Christ, the Southern Baptist Church, the African Methodist Episcopal Zion Church, the African Metho¬ dist Episcopal Church, the Colored Methodist Episcopal Church — all of which it was hoped could be included in this year’s report — could not get their data in hand in time to make any report. In the second place, some denominations make no report this year because, as their representatives declare, conditions given last year have not sufficiently changed to justify another statement. Still other denominations are not reported because their representatives say that there is not enough work included under the general head of parochial or parish education being done by these churches to call for special notice in this chapter. The work of the Young Men’s Christian Associations is given in a separate chapter.1 The report included in this chapter on the educational work done by the several denominations in behalf of the Indians embodies the latest statistics. 1 See Ch. XXIV. 559 560 EDUCATION REPORT, 1915. ROMAN CATHOLIC PARISH SCHOOLS. By Rev. Patrick J. McCormick, Associate Professor of Education, Catholic University Washington, D. C. In the Catholic school system, the elementary parish schools in¬ creased 85 in number during the school year 191A-15. While the enrollment for the 30 new Ruthenian- Greek schools was not pub¬ lished, the total registration increased 26,347. The total of schools reached the number 5,488, as compared with 5,403 for 1913-14, and the total enrollment became 1,456,209, while that of the former year was 1,429,859. As with the statistics for the Catholic population, which increased from 16,067,985 to 16,309,310, there was a substantial growth in schools and attendance. For the first time since 1911 data have been gathered for the parish high schools. The Catholic Educational Association, through the advisory committee of its executive board, has published (1915) a report on the condition of Catholic secondary education in the United States, in which it is shown that there are altogether 1,276 secondary schools, 56 of which are the high-school departments of colleges, 577 girls’ high schools or academies, and 599 parish or city high schools. The parish high schools have a total registration of 29,476 in high-school grades — 17,594 boys and 11,882 girls. Of these schools, 438 were especially studied by the committee, and it was found that all but 29 are directly connected with one or more parish elementary schools. The report shows that while many of the 128 new schools which had answered the committee’s 1914 inquiry “ were in existence three years ago, fully as many Catholic high schools have sprung into existence during the past three years.” The important process of standardization of high schools through affiliation with the Catholic University, touched upon in last year’s report, has continued in a satisfactory manner. During 1914-15, 19 new schools were added to the accredited list, which now com¬ prises 89 high schools, distributed as follows: Alabama, 1; Cali¬ fornia, 3 ; Colorado, 2 ; Connecticut, 2 ; Georgia, 2 ; Illinois, 4 ; Indi¬ ana, 2 ; Iowa, 8 ; Kentucky, 4 ; Maryland, 1 ; Massachusetts, 4 ; Michi¬ gan, 2; Minnesota, 2; Missouri, 4; New York, 3; Ohio, 19; Okla¬ homa, 1; Oregon, 1; Pennsylvania, 8; Tennessee, 1; Texas, 10; Wash¬ ington, 1; Wisconsin, 4. Among the administrative and supervisory officers, a few changes may be noted. The district boards in the diocese of Syracuse have been consolidated into one school board, and the membership of the boards of inspectors and visitors in many dioceses have been nu¬ merically modified. The Rev. J. B. O’Leary has been designated diocesan director of schools for the diocese of Galveston. The Rev. Joseph Y. S. McClancy has been appointed inspector of schools for the diocese of Brooklyn to succeed the late Rev. Joseph D. McKenna. EDUCATIONAL WORK OF TIIE CHURCHES. 5G1 Summer schools, largely attended by the teachers of the parish elementary and high schools, were successfully conducted by De Paul University, Chicago, Ill.; Marquette University, Milwaukee, Wis. ; Creighton University, Omaha, Nebr. ; and the Catholic University, Washington, D. C. In the last-named institution, which had an extension at Dubuque, Iowa, the total enrollment reached 608, with 40 States and 59 dioceses of the United States and Canada repre¬ sented. Teachers’ institutes were also held in various religious com¬ munities, and in dioceses for the teachers of their respective juris¬ dictions. The diocese of Cleveland held its first annual institute in June, 1915, and the enrollment was 450. Tables 1 and 2 are based on data supplied by the Official Catholic Directory, published annually by P. J. Kennedy & Sons, New York City. Table 1. — Diocesan school boards and supervising officers. [Archdioceses are indicated by an asterisk (*).J Ecclesiastical province. Diocese or Title of governing board and archdiocese. number of members. Name and title of supervising officer. Baltimore Boston Chicago. Cincinnati. Dubuque. ♦Baltimore. Examiners of teachers (2) Richmond Wheeling _ Wilmington. ♦Boston . Examiners of schools: For Baltimore (4) . For Washington (4) . For rural districts (4) . Examiners of schools: Northern and western district (2) Southern and eastern district (2) . Examiners of schools: 3 district boards (1, 2, and 2). .... School board (4) . Burlington . School board (3) . F all River . Diocesan school visitors (2). Hartford . Portland... Providence. Springfield. School visitors (4) . Examiners of teachers (3) Examiners of schools (9) . School board (2) . Alton . Belleville. ♦Chicago. . Rockford. Columbus. Diocesan school board (6) _ _ Diocesan school board (6) . . Diocesan school board (13) . School board: 3 district boards (6,6, and 4). School board (5) . Detroit. Fort Wayne Examiners ofteachers (7) . . School board : 6 district boards (9, 10, 4, 3, 2, and 4). Diocesan school board (9) . . Cleveland . Grand Rapids. Louisville . Nashville . Toledo . Davenport Lincoln . School board (6) . School board (10) . Examiners of teachers and diocesan school board (6). School board (6) . School board: 5 district boards (1, 3, 2, 2, and 2).. Diocesan school board ($) . Rev. Lawrence Brown, su¬ perintendent (Baltimore city). Rev. Augustine F. Hickey, S. T. L., supervisor of schools. Rev. W. J. Fitzgerald, S. T. L., diocesan super¬ visor of schools. Rev. John F. Conlin, P. R., diocesan school visitor; Rev. P. F. Doyle, assistant diocesan school visitor. Rev. John J. Murphy and Rev. John P. Curran, su¬ perintendents of schools. Rev. A. E. Lafontaine, su¬ perintendent of schools. Rev. William A. Kane, su¬ perintendent. 12034°— ed 1915— VOL 1 - 36 562 EDUCATION REPORT, 1915. Table 1. — Diocesan school hoards and supervising officers — Continued. Ecclesiastical province. Diocese or archdiocese. Title of governing board and number of members. Name and title of supervising officer. Dubuque(Con.) Milwaukee. New Orleans. . . New York. Oregon . Philadelphia. . Ruthenian- Greek. St. Louis . St. Paul. San Francisco. . Santa Fe . Omaha. Sioux City. . Green Bay . . La Crosse . . . Marquette. . ♦Milwaukee . Superior. . . . Dallas . Galveston. . . Little Rock . Mobile . *New Orleans. Albany . . . Brooklyn. Buffalo. Newark _ *New York. Ogdensburg. Rochester... Syracuse Trenton . ♦Oregon City. Erie . Harrisburg. . . . ♦Philadelphia . Pittsburgh. Concordia _ Kansas City.. Leavenworth. ♦St. Louis . Wichita... Bismarck. Crookston. Duluth. Fargo.. Diocesan examiners of teachers (2) . Diocesan school board (12) . 7 local school boards . Diocesan school board (6) . Diocesan school board (3) . School board (7) . School commission (6) . Diocesan school board (9) . School commission (4) . Diocesan school board (3) . Diocesan school board (5) . Diocesan school board (6) . Catholic board of education (16) (11 ecclesiastics, 5 laymen). Diocesan school examiners (9) . Kings County school board (21) . . Queens County school board (6). . Nassau County school board (4). . Suffolk County school board (5) . . Diocesan school board (7) . School board (14) . New York City and Yonkers school board (20). Westchester County school board (7). Orange and Rockland Counties school board (5). Ulster and Sullivan Counties school board (4). Putnam and Dutchess Counties school board (5). School board (7) . : . School board (2) . School board (8) . Examiners of teachers (4) . Diocesan school board (21) . Diocesan school board (6) . School board (11) . Diocesan school board (12) . Examiners of school teachers (11) . Diocesan school board (3) . Diocesan school board (5) . . Diocesan school board (6) . . Diocesan school board (9) . Diocesan high-school board (3) . Diocesan school board (13) - Diocesan school board (4) . Parochial school board (5). School board (7) . School board (10) . St. Cloud . ♦St. Paul . Sioux City . Winona . Monterey-Los An¬ geles. Denver . Diocesan school board (5) . School board (6) . Diocesan school board (6) . School board (7) . Inspectors of diocesan schools (9) . School board (6) . Rev. L. J. Harrington, school examiner. Rev. J. B. O’Leary, diocesan director of schools. Rev. Thomas V. Tobin, su¬ perintendent. Rev. L. J. Kavanagh, super¬ intendent. Rev. Joseph A. Dunney, in¬ spector of schools. Rev. Joseph V. S. McClancy, inspector of schools. Rev. Edmund F. Gibbons, superintendent of parochial schools. Rev. John A. Dillon, super¬ intendent of schools. Rev. Joseph F. Smith and Rev. Michael J. Larkin, su¬ perintendents of schools. Rev. William J. McConnell, superintendent of paro¬ chial schools. Rev. Edwin V. O’Hara, diocesan superintendent of schools. Rev. John M. Gannon, D. D., D. C. L., superintendent of schools. Right Rev. Mgr. P. R. Mc- Devitt, superintendent of Jarochial schools; Rev. ohn E. Flood, assistant superintendent. Rev. H. C. Boyle, superin¬ tendent of schools. Rev. A. V. Garthoeflfner, superintendent of schools. Rev. Hugo Tell, O. S. B., diocesan superintendent of schools. Very Rev. J. Baker, V. G., inspector of schools. EDUCATIONAL WORK OF THE CHURCHES. 503 Table 2. — General statistics of parish schools in 1111 ) and 1915. (Archdioceses indicated by asterisk (*).] 1914 1915 Ecclesiastical province. included in province. Catholic popula¬ tion. Pupils. Schools. Catholic popula¬ tion. Pupils. Schools. Baltimore . ♦Baltimore.. . . 261,000 25,207 91 261,000 25,254 91 (Includes Delaware. Charles ton 9,650 970 8 9,300 651 8 Maryland , V irginia . West Virginia, North Caro- (S. C.). Richmond. . .. 41,000 4,205 27 42,000 4,800 27 lina, South Carolina. St. Augustine. 39, 270 3,606 18 40,600 4,021 18 Georgia, eastern Flor- Savannah . 18,340 3,567 17 18, 708 3,. 541 4,000 17 ida.) V heeling . 55,000 3,411 18 55,000 22 W i 1 m ington 37,000 4,056 14 38,000 4,100 14 (Del.). North Carolina 6,954 1,309 16 6,972 1,400 16 ♦Boston . 900,000 60,428 6,356 122 900,000 61,666 7,045 98 (Includes Maine, New Burlington.. . . 80,978 21 82, 878 21 Hampshire. Vermont, Fall River. . . . 167, 892 12, 881 30 164,000 13,344 30 Massachusetts, Rhode Hartford . 438, 4 S3 35,831 82 441, 193 37,556 82 Island, Connecticut.) Manchester. . . 130, 081 17,214 41 130. 081 17,664 41 Portland . 124.400 12,563 42 131,638 13,578 44 Providence.... 270,000 19,995 37 275,900 19, 169 38 Springfield. . . . 328,000 28,260 65 328,000 28, 960 67 Alton . 8J.000 71,500 10, 113 10,226 66 87,000 10,309 10, 205 68 (includes Illinois.) Belleville . 80 71,500 80 ♦Chicago . 1, 150. 000 106, 134 107, 750 247 1,150.000 108, 879 109. 162 , 256 Peoria" . 12, 505 75 12, 957 75 Rockford . 54, 000 4,605 28 56,000 4,730 28 Cincinnati . ♦Cincinnati . . . 200,000 i 30, 100 120 200,000 30,281 120 (Includes Ohio, Indi- Cleveland . 380,000 44,211 141 392,000 46,490 141 ana, Kentucky. Ten- Columbus . 101. 179 12. 581 57 101, 179 12, 987 57 nessee, lower Michigan.) ; ■ Covington . 60,500 7,003 38 60,400 7, 446 37 1 Detroit . 344,000 35,486 89 344,000 36,374 91 Fort Wayne... 112. 187 17,831 89 117,186 18, 952 89 Grand Rapids. 140,000 16, 897 76 140,000 17,400 80 Indianapolis . . 127, 051 18,379 122 127,955 18, 559 122 Louisville . 105,570 13, 912 82 110,209 14,091 85 Nashville . 18,500 3,740 23 19,000 4,200 30 Toledo . 100,000 14, 716 68 100,000 15,070 72 Dubuque . Chevenne . 12, 750 117 1 13,000 223 2 (Includes Iowa, Ne¬ Davenport .... 52, 790 5,753 42 53,043 4,806 42 braska, Wyoming.) Des Moines _ 31,885 2,634 17 31,885 2, 634 17 ♦Dubuque .... 132, 560 25,890 92 132,560 25,890 95 1 Keamev . 11,263 249 2 11,959 283 2 Lincoln . 25, 746 1,800 28 30, 979 2,245 21 Omaha . 78,950 10, 675 89 80,465 10, 954 92 Sioux City. ... 59,860 8,025 55 61, 672 8, 339 58 Milwaukee . Green Bay .... 146, 765 18, 590 107 146, 765 18,633 108 (Includes Wisconsin, La Crosse . 118, 300 10,352 77 115,000 10, 438 80 northern Michigan.) Marquette . 98.500 7,688 25 97. 090 7, 955 26 ♦Milwaukee . . . 260,000 35,343 154 260,000 37, 242 155 Superior . 53,139 4, 654 23 54. 705 4,582 23 New Orleans . Alexandria.... 35,000 1.583 18 36,200 1, 851 18 (Includes Louisiana, Corpus Christi 84,000 1,500 14 80,000 2, 130 22 Alabama, Mississippi, Dallas . 64,000 6,316 38 30,000 5,071 33 Texas, Arkansas, Okla¬ j Galveston . 65,000 5, 462 39 36,000 •• 5,288 40 homa, western Florida.) i Little Rock. .. 23,000 3,328 42 23,000 3,305 42 Mobile . 42,500 4; 955 34 44,570 5,803 36 Natchez . 28,570 4,175 21 25,362 3,767 20 ♦New Orleans. 550, 000 19,640 117 550,000 21,628 90 Oklahoma . 36,578 4,972 38 38, 233 4,865 39 San Antonio. . 100,000 6,791 60 139, 576 7, 675 63 New York . Albany . 205,000 750,000 18, 735 71,863 51 205,000 750,000 18, 611 58,259 49 (Includes New York Brooklvn . 100 106 State, New Jersey.) Buffalo . 307,340 34, 148 125 307, 441 35, 811 125 Newark . 425,099 55, 294 123 425,000 56, 793 125 ♦New York.... 1,219,920 83,742 168 1, 219, 920 86, S63 176 Ogaensburg. . . 96,000 3, 795 17 97,000 3,888 17 Rochester . 155, 000 29, 711 59 155, 000 21,194 63 Svracuse . 151, 463 9,904 22 151, 463 10, 943 25 Trenton . 149,000 13,664 45 160,000 13.702 44 Oregon . Baker City. . . . 6, 450 850 6 6, 450 703 4 (Includes Oregon, Boise . 16,000 1,500 10 16,000 1,389 8 Washington, Idaho, Great Falls.... 26,500 1,000 9 27, .500 1,200 9 Montana, Alaska.) Helena . 95,000 5,700 14 70, 000 5, 836 14 ♦Oregon City. . 60,000 4,382 44 60,000 5, 921 46 Seattle . 98,009 6, 467 40 70,000 4,529 27 Alaska . 11,500 376 8 11,500 360 8 564 EDUCATION REPORT, 1915. Table 2. — General statistics of parish schools in 1914 and 1915 — Continued. Ecclesiastical province. Philadelphia . . (Induces Pennsylva¬ nia.) St. Louis . (Includes Misso u r i , Kansas.) St. Paul . (Includes Minnesota, South Dakota, North Dakota.) San Francisco . (Includes California, Nevada, Utah.) Santa Fe . (Includes Colorado, Arizona, New Mexico.) Ruthenian-Greek . Total . Dioceses included in province. 1914 1915 Catholic popula¬ tion. Pupils. Schools. Catholic popula¬ tion. Pupils. Schools. Altoona . 92, 810 8, 735 35 94,530 9,567 37 Erie . 125,000 11, 692 47 125, 000 12, 247 47 Harrisburg.... 58, 410 8,892 49 59, 233 9, 755 42 *Philadelphia . 650,000 71,833 154 700, 000 74,934 154 Pittsburgh. . . . 480, 000 50, 772 166 509,000 52,743 175 Scranton . 278, 009 18, 130 84 278, 000 18,270 84 Concordia . 28, 200 3,455 32 30, 201 3,981 31 Kansas City... 60,000 5, 678 52 70, COO 6,967 52 Leavenworth . 70,000 7, 083 51 70,000 6, 500 52 St. Jos^ ph . 35, 000 3,006 25 35,000 3,269 28 *St. Louis . 375, 000 33,844 164 385, 099 32, 044 168 Wichita . 32, 500 2,958 36 32, 500 2,958 36 Bismarck . 31, 000 1,812 9 33, 500 1,880 9 Crookston . 21,250 760 5 23,000 970 7 Duluth . 43,200 2, 185 9 45, 400 2,625 10 Fargo 69 871 1 888 17 69 871 2 492 16 Lead . 16) 000 ’841 8 15) OCO * 186 3 St. Cloud . 65,500 3,000 22 65,500 4,600 25 *St. Paul . 265,000 22,351 93 265, OCO 22,817 95 Sioux Falls . . . 55,000 3,859 29 30, 500 3,831 29 Winona . 67,000 6,110 29 67,000 6,300 32 Monterey and 110,000 9,280 38 139, 480 9,316 40 Los Angeles. Sacramento . . . 50,000 2,050 11 50,000 2,312 11 Salt Lake . 13,000 898 7 13,000 280 4 *San Francisco 250, 000 13,900 46 280,000 12, 236 46 Denver . 109, 182 6,550 27 108,336 7,291 30 *Santa Fe . 140,573 4,415 21 140, 573 3,607 22 Tucson . 55,000 1, 730 10 40,000 2, 359 7 500, 000 120 500,000 150 16,067,985 1,429,859 5, 403 16,309,310 1,456,206 5, 488 LUTHERAN PAROCHIAL SCHOOLS. By W. H. T. Dau, Concordia Seminary, St. Louis, Mo. The present report on the status of the Lutheran parochial schools during 1914 has been prepared under an even greater handicap than its predecessor for 1913. The largest Lutheran body, and the one most devoted to the parochial school, the Missouri Synod, decided at its general convention at Chicago in May, 1914, to discontinue the annual publication of parish reports, and to publish these reports in periods covering three years. The next report will appear in Janu¬ ary, 1917. The reason for this action was economy. To publish sta¬ tistical tables exhibiting in detail the status and progress of church work in nearly 3,700 congregations entails a considerable expense. Moreover, the changes in the statistics of most congregations from one year to the next are not very great. Accordingly it was held that the last published statistics might be made to serve for several years. Some of the Lutheran Church bodies, however, have given to the public more exact statements regarding their parochial school work than were available for 1913. A comprehensive view of all the facts obtained shows that there is no marked change in the status of the Lutheran parochial schools of the country. EDUCATIONAL WORK OF THE CHURCHES. 565 For the history and location of the various bodies named in this chapter the reader is referred to the extensive account which was published by the Bureau of Education in 1913.1 From the United Synod in the South no parochial school work has been reported. It is a question whether the school reported last year by the Mississippi Synod, which is federated with the above-named larger body, has been abandoned. If so, there is here to be recorded a loss of 1 school, 2 teachers, 119 pupils. The United Synod at the beginning of 1914 reported a baptized membership of 71,225 (69,603 in 1913), and a communicant membership of 50,748 (50,819 in 1913). Xo parochial schools are reported from the General Synod, which now numbers 441,444 baptized and 328,586 communicant members (420,282 and 320,246 in 1913). The baptized membership of the General Council has arisen from 766.623 in 1913 to 769,456, and the communicant membership from 493,279 to 504,023. The parochial schools in this body have within the last year increased from 593 to 620, the number of teachers from 690 to 754, and the number of pupils from 26,067 to 26,818. The General Council is composed of 13 synods. Seven of these re¬ port no parochial schools. Among the remaining 6 the totals given above for the entire General Council are distributed as follows: Ministerium of Pennsylvania, 40 schools, 73 teachers, 2,270 pupils (13, 22, and 2,120 in 1913) ; Ministerium of Xew York, 80 schools, 42 teachers, 3,466 pupils (77, 41, and 3,295 in 1913) ; Swedish Augustana Synod, 437 schools, 613 teachers, 19,250 pupils (446, 598, and 18,927 in 1913) ; Synod of Canada, 39 schools, 22 teachers, 980 pupils (37, 22, and 810 in 1913) : Pacific Synod, 4 schools, 4 teachers, 72 pupils (3, ( ? ) , and 118 in 1913). The Synod of Xew York and Xew England, which appeared in the report for 1913, reports no parochial schools at present. The changes in this part of the report as compared with last year’s would indicate that the parochial school has increased in efficiency in the Ministerium of Pennsylvania and in the Swedish Augustana Synod, both bodies having increased the number of their teachers for a smaller number of schools. The 14 independent Lutheran bodies operating in the United States report 1,102,463 baptized and 690,528 communicant members (1,083,141 and 672,150 in 1913). All but three make at least partial reports of parochial school work done by them, totaling 1,437 schools, 1,595 teachers, 79,472 pupils (1,426, 1,986, and 78,981 in 1913). The differences in this division between the present figures and those for 1913 are due chiefly to defective reporting; e. g., the Xorwegian Synod, the United Danish Lutheran Church, and the Xorwegian Lutheran Free Church have published no reports for the present 1 Ad. Rep. Comm, of Educ. for 1913, vol. 1, Ch. XVII, p. 395. (Also reprinted sep¬ arately.) 566 EDUCATION REPORT, 1915. year. The total gains or losses in this division, as given above, are distributed among the various independent synods, as follows : The Ohio Synod has increased from 285 to 290 schools and from 122 to 132 teachers, but has decreased from 9,708 to 9,655 pupils. Conditions have remained the same as last year in the German Buffalo Synod (20 schools and 7 teachers), the Norwegian Eielson’s Synod (6 schools and 4 teachers), and the German Texas Synod (12 schools, 12 teachers, 250 pupils) . Hauge’s Norwegian Synod last year reported 185 schools, with 6,000 pupils, failing to give the number of teachers. This year the same synod fails to give the number of schools, but reports 222 teachers and the same number of pupils as last year. The German Iowa Synod reports 985 schools, 39 teachers, 11,448 pupils (500, 37, and 11,448 in 1913). The Danish Lutheran Church reports 59 schools, 78 teachers, 2,224 pupils (84, 52, and 2,498 in 1913). The German Immanual Synod has increased from 11 to 18 schools, from 11 to 19 teachers, and from 702 to 814 pupils. The Finnish Suomi Synod reports 47 schools, 50 teachers, and 2,800 pupils (49, 53, and 2,175 in 1913). The United Norwegian Church reports 1,032 teachers and 46,281 pupils (941 and 36,500 in 1913). The 89 parochial schools which were credited to the United Danish Lutheran Church in the last report have not been reported this year. There is no reason to believe that they have been abandoned. From the Norwegian Lutheran Free Church no report has ap¬ peared this year. Last year’s figures for this body were 185 schools, 220 teachers, 9,700 pupils. The synods composing the Synodical Conference have increased their baptized membership from 1,283,750 to 1,299,727 baptized, and from 831,120 to 778,500 communicant members. For reasons explained before, the report for the Missouri Synod is the same as last year, 949,771 baptized and 575,299 communicant mem¬ bers, 2,259 schools, 1,371 teachers, 96,287 pupils. The Wisconsin Synod reports 190,415 baptized and 153,521 com¬ municant members, 310 schools, 118 teachers, 36,112 pupils (190,217, 175,624, 318, 118, and 35,875 in 1913). The Minnesota Synod reports 97,291 baptized and 25,547 communi¬ cant members, 120 schools, 26 teachers, 16,121 pupils (97,271, 48,114, 154, 26, 16,121 in 1913). The District Synod of Michigan numbers 21,673 baptized and 8,843 communicant members and reports 75 schools, 29 teachers, 3,085 pupils (21,673, 15,514, 75, 9, and 3,021 in 1913). EDUCATIONAL WORK OF T1IE CHURCHES. 567 In the District Synod of Nebraska the baptized membership has increased from 20,105 to 20,285, the communicants have decreased from 11,108 to 6,090, the schools from 30 to 20, and the teachers from 5 to 4 ; the number of pupils, 1,085, remains the same. For the Slovak Synod there are reported 20,292 baptized and 9,200 communicant members, 28 schools, 2 teachers, 1,420 pupils. The figures were respectively 20,285, 15,631, 25, 2, and 8,821 in 1913. PRESBYTERIAN CHURCH SCHOOLS (NORTHERN). By Marshall C. Allaben, Superintendent of Schools, Woman’s Board of Home Missions of the Presbyterian Church in the United States of America. The educational work of the Presbyterian Church is so conducted that a full report of this phase of its activity would involve not only the Presbyterian Church in the United States of America, but also the United Presbyterian Church and the Presbyterian Church South. The account herein given has reference merely to the primary and secondary schools of the Presbyterian Church in the United States of America under the administration of the {a) Woman’s Board of Home Missions and the (b) Board of Missions for Freedmen. (a) The task of the Woman’s Board, of Home Missions is pri¬ marily to establish and maintain grammar and secondary schools at strategic points throughout the United States, among communities deprived by location, race prejudice, environment, or for some other reason from the advantages of public-school education or Christian influence and training of any kind. Through the mission schools * established in such centers appeal is made to the moral and spiritual sides of life, and the resulting tendency is almost invariably a gen¬ eral mental awakening and improved standards of living. The course of study followed in the mission schools is similar to that of the State public schools, with greater emphasis placed on industrial training, so that when boys and girls leave these schools they are well equipped for the successful undertaking of life in a rural en¬ vironment, either as useful citizens or as home makers. These are approximately 235 teachers and 3,600 pupils connected with the mission schools, and with few exceptions the teachers are either college or normal-school graduates. 568 EDUCATION REPORT, 1915. The following table of statistics will give an idea of the number and enrollment of the schools classified according to the various fields representing the work of the woman’s board : Presbyterian schools under the Woman's Board of Home Missions. Population. Boarding schools. Day schools. Total. Commis¬ sioned workers. Enrollment. Boarding schools. Day schools. Total. Alaskan . . 1 1 15 146 146 Indian . 5 1 6 44 357 25 382 Mexican . 3 11 14 50 305 780 1,085 Murrain . 2 4 6 33 278 281 559 Southern mountaineer . 11 11 84 1,070 1,070 Porto Rican and Cuban . 3 3 9 383 383 Total . 22 19 41 235 2, 156 1,469 3,625 In addition to the above schools, mention should be made of Pres¬ byterian schools in immigrant communities. These are controlled on a different basis from the others, the work being administered locally, although the funds pass through the hands of the board. Organized effort for Slavs, Bohemians, Hungarians, and other for¬ eigners has been recorded, but the day school and community work are so blended that they can not well be differentiated in a brief report. (h) The Board of Missions for Freedmen has for its task the edu¬ cational development of the Negro race in the South. This is a problem which has confronted the church ever since the emancipation of the Negro 50 years ago, until now it is concerned with more than 8,000,000 colored people, largely in rural communities, scattered throughout 13 States. When the fact is considered that 30 per cent of these 8,000,000 people are illiterate, it can readily be seen that the church is committed here to a most important work. In the 13 States referred to the Board of Missions for Freedmen has established 140 schools, having 480 teachers and approximately 17,000 pupils. Only Christian teachers are employed, and as a rule they must be members of the Presbyterian Church. Of the 140 schools, all with the exception of 6 are under the administration of responsible colored people. The value of industrial training is recognized as an important part of the curriculum of the schools, and Bible and catechism are required daily studies. The schools are classified and distributed as follows: EDUCATIONAL WORK OF THE CHURCHES. 569 Presbyterian schools under the Hoard of Missions for Freedmen. States. Boarding schools for young men. Boarding schools for young women. Coeduca- tional boarding schools. < Mhcr schools. Total. Alabama . 1 2 3 Arkansas . 5 5 10 3 Florida . 3 Georgia . 4 9 13 Kentucky . 1 2 3 Maryland . 1 1 Uiwiwipni . 1 1 North Carolina . 1 1 4 23 29 Oklahoma . 1 1 2 S mth Carolina . 1 4 40 45 Tennessee . 1 8 9 Texas 1 1 Virginia 1 20 21 Total . 2 - 20 114 141 SCHOOLS OF THE PRESBYTERIAN CHURCH IN THE UNITED STATES (SOUTHERN). By Henry H. Sweets, Secretary of Education, Louisville, Ky. The General Assembly of the Presbyterian Church in the United States is composed of 16 synods, which comprise the States of Mary¬ land, Virginia, West Virginia, North Carolina, South Carolina, Georgia, Florida, Kentucky, Tennessee, Alabama, Mississippi, Lou¬ isiana, Missouri, Arkansas, Oklahoma, and Texas. Each one of these synods is now engaged in the work of correlating, standardizing, and unifying the appeal of all of the institutions within its bounds. In all of these there are 6 theological seminaries with 36 teachers, 43 buildings, property valued at $1,000,000, endowment funds of $1,840,000, and 95,000 books in the libraries. There are 28 colleges with 38T in the faculties, 3,873 students, 164 buildings, property valued at $4,895,000, endowment funds of $2,234,600, and 149,936 books in the libraries. There are 21 institutions of the grade of academies, collegiate in¬ stitutes, and junior colleges with 154 in the faculties, 1,482 students, 54 buildings, property valued at $796,000, endowment funds of $130,000, and 12,702 books in the libraries. There are 34 mountain schools of varying grades with 117 in the faculties, 2,806 students, 72 buildings, property valued at $273,300, and endowment funds of $15,100. There are 11 orphans’ homes and schools with 42 in the faculties, 1,016 children, 76 buildings, property valued at $773,000, and endow¬ ment funds of $171,000. This gives a total of 100 educational institutions with 736 in the faculties, 9,491 students, 409 buildings, property valued at $7,734,030, endowment funds of $4,386,603, and 255,359 books in the libraries. Mountain schools. — Thirty-four schools of varying grades are be¬ ing conducted in the Appalachian Mountains, in the States of West 570 EDUCATION REPORT, 1915. Virginia, Virginia, North Carolina, Georgia, Tennessee, and Ken¬ tucky, and one in the Ozarks in Missouri. Negro schools. — Three primary schools for the Negro population are conducted ; and a large college and theological seminary at Tusca¬ loosa, Ala., is maintained by the church. Indians. — A college and high school are maintained in Oklahoma for the Indians. Mexicans. — Several primary schools and an industrial training school of higher grade have been established in Texas to minister to the Mexican population. SCHOOLS OF THE BAPTIST CHURCH (NORTH). By F. W. Padelford, Corresponding Secretary, Board of Education of the Northern Bap¬ tist Convention. The Baptist Churches of the Northern States maintain an educa¬ tional system that includes 8 theological seminaries for the profes¬ sional training of its ministers, 24 colleges and universities, and 25 academies. Most of the academies confine their instruction to work usually given in the four- year high-school course, though a few have developed the courses belonging to the junior college. The accom¬ panying table indicates the character of these schools, their size and strength. The Baptist Church has no parochial school system and maintains no schools below high-school grade, save such as are con¬ ducted among the exceptional populations. Among these populations the church conducts several schools for training ministers for their own people, as follows: For the Ger¬ mans at Rochester, N. Y. ; for the Italians at Brooklyn, N. Y. ; for the Hungarians ait Cleveland, Ohio; for the Norwegians and for the Slavs at Chicago, Ill.; for the Swedes at Minneapolis, Minn.; and for the Danes at Des Moines, Iowa. These schools give in¬ struction of all grades, according to the requirements of the pupils, from the grammar school through the divinity school. The Baptists also maintain, through their home-mission boards, 13 colleges and 10 schools of secondary grade for the Negroes. These are well scattered through the Southern States and enroll over six thousand pupils. In addition to these schools entirely maintained by the boards, many teachers are supported in schools under other control. For the education of the Indians, the church maintains Indian University at Bacone, Okla., besides one other school of lower grade in the State and two schools in Mantana. Schools for Chinese children are sustained in San Francisco, Sacramento, and Oakland, Cal., and at Portland, Oreg. ; for the Poles in Milwaukee, Wis. ; and for the Italians in Brooklyn, N. Y. Schools of various grades from the kindergarten to divinity schools are conducted in Cuba, Porto Rico, and Mexico. EDUCATIONAL WORK OF THE CHURCHES. 571 The following tables give the most recent statistics: Table 1. — Baptist educational institutions in the Northern States. Name. Location. Col¬ lege stu¬ dents.1 2 3 Total stu¬ dents. Fac¬ ulty. Build¬ ings. Value of land and buildings. Endow¬ ment. Income. Seminaries. 17 36 17 1 (2) (2) (2) 40 83 13 10 $200, 000 $800, 000 $41 000 Chicago) Ill . 318 347 28 3 (») (a) ?8) 4. Kansas City . Kansas City, Kans. . 15 62 11 2 62,000 25,000 15, 359 5. Newton . N ewton Center , Mass 56 70 12 5 217, 750 898, 770 39, 387 18 6 7. Pacific Coast — Berkeley, Cal . 4 20 4 3 20,000 23,973 4, 984 8. Rochester . Rochester, N. Y . 158 83 15 5 502, 686 1, 758, 039 78, 837 Total . 608 719 106 1, 002, 436 3, 505, 782 179, 567 _ Colleges. 976 976 96 2,000,000 3, 258, 926 250, 029 10. Bucknell . 598 628 45 16 335, 192 735, 900 13l’ 085 68 180 18 5 110,000 54, 735 19 ) 828 12. Chicago . Chicago, Ill . 4,340 7,300 274 40 10, 452, 465 18, 398, 273 2, 076) 583 449 449 30 9 375,000 475,000 90,000 14. Colgate . Hamilton, N. Y . 515 31 10 826, 128 1, 123, 881 176) 410 60 187 11 1 140,000 14 154 603 665 45 21 941,000 835,000 126’ 000 17. Des Moines . Des Moines, Iowa. . . 215 600 26 6 220,000 171,000 35)000 18. Franklin . 211 211 15 5 214,000 313,000 43 500 19. Grand Island _ Grand Island, Nebr. 56 200 15 5 130, 000 51,000 17,000 20. Hillsdale. . 246 385 20 6 140,000 315, 069 31 742 21. Kalamazoo . Kalamazoo, Mich. . . 137 137 16 4 132,000 537, 145 39) 232 22. La Grange . La Grange, Mo . 150 175 10 6 70, 000 67, 900 50,000 6 000 23. McMinnville . McMinnville, Oreg. . 84 239 15 4 60, 349 28, 512 24. Ottawa . Ottawa, Kans . 185 280 20 4 132, 000 234, 762 25, 653 25. Redlands . Redlands, Cal . 168 187 18 5 211, 120 96,000 61, 935 26. Rio Grande . Rio Grande, Ohio... 22 210 10 2 36,000 78, 127 3, 257 27. Rochester Rochester, N. Y . 495 495 42 12 1, 048, 000 1, 700, 000 124, 435 28. Shurtleff . Alton, HI . 75 146 14 7 100,000 130, 370 16, 734 29. Sioux Falls. Sioux Falls, S. Dak.. 30 270 13 2 125 000 16,000 30. Stephens . Columbia, Mo . 98 239 24 3 300,000 40,000 50) 000 31. William Jewell. . Liberty, Mo . 232 462 25 12 447, 362 543, 595 57,799 32. Vassar . Poughkeepsie, N. Y. 1,073 1,073 115 3, 079, 559 1,546,962 702, 669 Total . 11, 086 16, 209 948 21, 632, 726 30,949,094 4, 143, 557 Academies. 33. Adelphia . Seattle, Wash . 59 8 2 151, 182 10, 112 34. Bethel . St. Paul, Minn . 119 5 2 70, 000 50, 000 10. Bucknell . Lewisburg, Pa . 72 2 (4) (4) (4) 35. Broaddus . Phillipi, W. Va . 214 12 3 160,000 15,000 36. Cedar Valley _ Osage, Iowa . 62 8 50,000 38, 032 5, 743 37. Chicago Training Chicago, HI . 66 18 1 200,000 25,000 38. Coburn . Waterville, Me . 124 8 3 96,000 33, 598 11, 575 39. Colby . New London, N. H. 150 10 8 175,000 118, 378 35, 664 40. Connecticut . Sutfield, Conn . 185 12 4 200,000 70,000 40,000 41. Cook . Montour Falls, N. Y 102 9 1 122, 000 14, 700 14 758 16. Doane . Granville, Ohio . . . 138 10 (5) (5) (5) 42. Frances Shimer.. Mount Carroll, Ill . . . 144 20 8 140,000 60,000 46,000 43. Hebron . Hebron, Me . 247 14 10 216, 576 200, 931 38, 345 44. Hiawatha . Hiawatha, Kans 120 7 3 30,000 60, 000 6,000 45. Higgins . Charleston, Me . 94 7 2 75, 000 19, 000 4)500 46. Kevstone . Factorvvflle, Pa.... 136 10 6 120,000 24, 400 20, 335 47. Maine Central. . . Pittsfield, Me . 221 11 3 120, 000 53, 265 21, 129 48. Peddie . Hightstown N. J 330 19 12- 376 985 130, 117 120 506 49. Philadelphia Philadelphia, Pa. . . . 50 29 1 130, 000 5,000 13, 145 Training. 50. Pillsbury . Owatorma Minn. 204 15 8 260 000 293,000 48,000 51. Ricker... . Houlton, Me . 152 7 2 60)000 22, 700 7,000 52. Vermont . Saxtons River, Vt 72 10 10 200,000 76,000 20,000 53. Wayland . Beaver Dam, Wis... 173 13 6 208, 125 247 762 46 769 54. Western Penn¬ Mount Pleasant, 84 7 2 35’ 000 51,000 6, 441 sylvania. Pa. 55. Worcester . Worcester, Mass . 275 21 6 550,000 200,000 50,000 Total . 3, 593 297 3, 745, 868 1, 732, 883 641, 022 Grand total . . . 20, 521 1,351 26, 381, 030 36, 187, 759 4, 964, 146 1 In seminary figures “College students” means college graduates. In college figures it means students in the 4 college classes. 2 Included in Colgate University. 4 Included in Bucknell University. 3 Included in Chicago University. 5 Included in Denison University. Table 2. — Negro and miscellaneous schools for year ending May 31, 1915. 572 EDUCATION" REPORT, 1915. ’ Num¬ ber of con¬ ver¬ sions. r—i U- CO (NOQ 00 2 h© o ^-ioo co Pur¬ suing nurse train¬ ing course. . co ■ • • i i js a Pur¬ suing mis- 144 ; 05 • • C5 -i Pur¬ suing minis¬ terial course . 20 15 15 co ; ^ co jr >■ a 2 00 j Pre¬ par¬ ing for the minis¬ try. g22 68 18 28 11 5 ^ § CSJ s ^2 2- : Re¬ ceiv¬ ing in¬ struc¬ tion in in¬ dus¬ trial work. §22 -11 SSS1S 1 P 2 2 161 92 70 47 ggs 2gg sgsgs 2 g 1 3 38 : £J col¬ lege course. 16 53 53 2 ja : C5 1 :g : 3 Pre¬ par¬ ing for col¬ lege. 165 14 124 ■ ^ o 2 £3 cS : a £ 5I 1 ■ Average attendance. Gen¬ eral aver¬ age. IS1 ssa “ISIS 3 1 3,205 u 170 371 182 94 82 Board¬ ers. g|g 2sS| ffi 8 1,901 38 2 28 $ Day stu¬ dents. gg3 sgg 22§§g £ S 1 49 112 229 165 66 35 Pupils. Total. III III Sill! 2 1 3,845 §1 3 i§ 2 Fe¬ male. 134 350 118 210 1 /i>7 ; : g ” 2,128 g3 g 8S 2 Male. 31a is S| : 8 3 i 1,717 49 85 232 175 56 27 Teachers. Total. S&S 2Sg SgggS 2 2 1 22 a 2® ® Negro. *1 i C5i OCO CO O CO HOCOOlO CO T-H C5iO O 05 CO Male. oo to co ; cs sec ; OO CO CO s ION *0 CO CO i-« White. Fe¬ male. Is® 05 •CO HHNJO • 05 > O pq w 3 o 3 £ s a i a $ i o Eh Canada: Ontario1 2 3 4 . Quebec . Nova Scotia . New Brunswick. Manitoba . British Columbia Prince Edward Island . Alberta . . . 2, 523, 274 2, 002, 712 492, 338 351,889 455, 000 392, 480 93, 728 373,000 492, 432 243, 576 1911 1911 1911 1911 1911 1911 1911 1911 1911 1913 1913 1913 1914 1914 1914 1914 1912-13 245, 436 413, 239 31,890 9,186 234, 807 198,545 30,067 8, 359 480, 243 411, 784 106, 351 70, 622 93, 954 61, 957 17,555 19.03 20.56 21. 62 20. 00 20. 64 15.78 19.00 1,600 1,952 272 201 474 161 9,576 11,649 2, 620 1, 831 2,390 422 11, 176 13, 601 2,892 2,032 2, 864 1,843 583 1 812,325,907 2 4, 538, 225 1, 556, 618 2 1,009,335 3 6,079,720 4 4, 634, 877 207,605 Saskatchewan. . . New Foundland. _• _ 1 . i _ 1 . . .. 1 1913 1 j 51,764 i I 381,860 . 1 . . i . 1 1 Enrollment and expenditures do not include collegiate institutes and high schools, which enrolled 33,746 pupils. 2 In 1912-13. 3 Including SI, 426, 758 for buildings and 11,893,430 for payments on notes, debentures, etc. 4 Includes S637,490 for buildings, furniture, etc. CHAPTER XXVIII. EDUCATION IN THE LATIN- AMERICAN STATES. Contents. — Mexico, hopeful signs — The States of Central America and Panama ; current activities ; statistical summary — States of South America : Introduction ; notes on individual States ; statistical summary. MEXICO. The greater portion of Mexico has been so devastated by the revo¬ lutionary war that schools and higher institutions have nearly ceased their operations. Education played a very important part in the efforts at internal improvement made by President Diaz during his long term of office, and the work thus started gives a basis for new operations as soon as quiet is restored. The minister of public education and finance, Dr. Felix Palavicini, appointed by Sr. Carranza, executive in charge of the de facto gov¬ ernment, has undertaken to reorganize education in the Federal District and also to restore schools in the States that were brought under the control of Carranza. Among the measures adopted by this minister was a system of traveling schools, in charge of com¬ petent teachers who formed classes and attempted to conduct schools at various points. A commission was also appointed to visit the United States and study educational systems and the conduct of individual schools, with the hope of eventually improving conditions in Mexico. Associations of philanthropic and patriotic women have earnestly labored to promote the welfare of teachers and to keep alive interest and enthusiasm in the cause of education. These facts give hopeful indications for the future development of the States that have been in the throes of revolution for the past two years. The system of schools organized in the City of Mexico and the Federal District under President Diaz included kindergartens, primary schools, and higher primary schools. These provided a con¬ tinuous course of elementary instruction covering eight years. Grad¬ uates from the higher primary schools were admitted to the normal school, where they passed five years in special training for the teach¬ er’s profession. Provision was also made at public expense for the education of professional men, doctors, lawyers, engineers, etc. 649 650 EDUCATION REPORT, 1915. Mission schools under the charge of different religious denomina¬ tions have contributed greatly to the enlightenment of th*e Mexican people. They were everywhere encouraged in peaceful times and have even succeeded in continuing their work in the midst of the general disturbance. In the States that have not been affected by the revolu¬ tion, schools have been maintained as usual. The private schools un¬ der foreign auspices, chiefly German and English, are generally flourishing. CENTRAL AMERICA AND PANAMA. All the States of Central America have organized systems of pub¬ lic instruction comprising primary and secondary schools and higher institutions. The official regulations provide for the grading of primary schools as kindergarten covering the ages 3 to 6 years, elementary covering six years, and higher elementary covering a period of two years. The terms of classification differ somewhat in the different States, but tk: grading is arranged on the same general plan. Teachers are appoi nted by the minister of public instruction or by local authorities and, as in the United States, teachers of pri¬ mary schools remain in the same grade from year to year while the pupils are promoted. The general preference is for separate schools for boys and girls or separate classes in the same building, the teach¬ ers being chosen from the sex corresponding to that of the pupils. At the present time experiments are made in the different States looking toward more flexible grading, the adaptation of primary studies to local conditions, and the instruction of boys and girls in the same classes as a means of economizing both the supply of ma¬ terial appliances and the teaching service. According to a recent official statement, in some departments of Honduras mixed schools have been tried as an experiment. They have given so much satisfaction that it is probable the plan will be generally adopted for rural schools ; in San Salvador, in addition to the ordinary six-year elementary school, rural schools are established which give a brief course of instruction covering three years. They provide not only for the children of the white population, but for native Indians. The same experiment has been tried in Panama, where attendance upon the rural schools is obligatory for three years only; in Costa Rica, which has made greater advance in respect to primary education than any other one of the Central American States, a very important movement in rural education has been started by the establishment of schools which are furnished with gardens, orchards, and fields, and which provide for rural industries carried on under a special program of instruction and with teachers thoroughly possessed of the community ideal.1 1 For an extended account of this experiment, see the Report of the Commissioner of Education for 1914, vol. 1, pp. 665-667. EDUCATION IN CENTRAL AMERICA AND PANAMA. 651 As a consequence of the special interest manifested in rural educa¬ tion, a decree was issued in January, 1915, providing new regulations for the normal schools. These include specific instructions respecting the preparation of teachers for the new type of rural schools. Among proposed reforms in the system of public education are the consolidation of schools in the same vicinity, increased adaptation of the courses of study to meet local needs both in cities and the country, and the unification of primary and secondary schools. In reference to the last proposition, the secretary of public instruction says: The public school has a social and political mission in the country, and can not, therefore, be limited to mere primary education. It should include sec¬ ondary education also, since, without the latter, popular education is imperfect and does not promote ideals of public morality and citizenship which should prevail in the modern state. The minister of public instruction for Nicaragua, in his current report, dwells upon the hindrances to the spread of public education in that State. He recommends appropriations for the immediate construction of school buildings, which are sadly lacking, and ade¬ quate appropriations in order that salaries may be paid which shall insure the service of competent men and women in the primary schools. The commercial and industrial activities which have been stimu¬ lated by the closer relations with the United States resulting from the opening of the Panama Canal, have directed attention to the urgent need of provision for agricultural education. With regard to Honduras a recent consular report says: Of a total of $1,659,304 declared exports for 1914, 89 per cent consisted of bananas. The rich coast lands, favored with heavy rains and a hot climate, make an excellent location for the production of this fruit. Attention is now being given to closer cultivation. The market demands are sharper and many of the old plantations have outlived their power of production. Those who have given close attention to the raising of the fruit have received increased returns in a finer grade of fruit. It is only recently that the planter has come to realize that rough handling of fruit is costly. The Tegucigalpa consular district is essentially not an agricultural country. The crop of corn, beans, rice, sugar, and a negligible amount of vegetables barely serve for local needs in the best years. The crops of 1914 were almost a total failure, making necessary large and continued imports of breadstufis. The department of agriculture is endeavoring to create an increased interest in the cultivation of henequen and sugar cane, and also in irrigation in connec¬ tion with pasturage for cattle. The report concludes as follows : Honduras, with all varieties of climate, with its lowlands on the coast, its valleys and undulating plains, and its highlands in the interior, all covered with a rich and fertile soil, can produce all classes and kinds of fruit, grains, and vegetables, such as bananas, plaintains, coconuts, pineapples, mangoes, 652 EDUCATION REPORT, 1915. aguacates, oranges, corn, beans, rice, wheat, oats, sugar cane, coffee, tobacco, indigo, etc., but most of these will never be produced on a large scale until highways are built and transportation facilities afforded the people. This is the situation the country presents. It is rich, but undeveloped. It is easily susceptible to great development, but its population is scant and they have not the means to develop it themselves. Capital must be imported with which to do it, and those furnishing the capital will control and receive the benefits of increased trade and commerce. The principal agricultural products of Costa Rica are bananas and coffee. With respect to the former an American consul writes: The decrease of more than a million bunches during 1914 was no doubt caused by the ravages of the banana disease and the falling off of the demand during the last five months of the year. Many of the banana plantations that formerly shipped fruit through Port Limon have now ceased producing, and others are no longer profitable. The presence of the disease has not entirely discouraged planters, but it is an established fact, and is by all acknowledged to be a serious menace to the industry. Its results are well known, but its origin and elimi¬ nation are as yet unsolved problems. The United Fruit Co. has spent large sums of money in scientific research endeavoring to find a way out of the difficulty, but no real progress has yet been made. These statements emphasize the need of agricultural colleges in the States of Central America. Measures for their establishment are, however, comparatively recent, whereas schools of arts and trades for both boys and girls are maintained in all the chief cities, and appropriations are called for to increase and improve their equip¬ ment. There is a tendency, also, to establish departments of man¬ ual training and commercial instruction in secondary schools and normal schools. A school of commerce is maintained at the capital of Costa Rica to which boys and girls are admitted, provided they have finished the first two years of study in a secondary school and have reached the age of 14 years. In Honduras the institutions for secondary education under public control are the National Institute of Tegucigalpa, the National Col¬ lege of Santa Rosa of Copan, “ La Independence ” of Santa Bar¬ bara, and “La Fraternidad ” of Juticalpa. An important school of commerce is annexed to the National Institute, occupying the same building and managed by the same director. The chief institutions for secondary education in Guatemala are the Central National Institute for Boys, with an enrollment in 1913 of 553 pupils; the Central National Institute for Girls, with 385 pupils; the National Institute and Normal School Annex for Boys, at Chiqumula, with 274 pupils; and a similar school for girls in the same city, with an enrollment of 80 pupils; the National Institute for Boys and Practical and Commercial School Annex at Quezalte- nango, with 40 pupils. EDUCATION IN SOUTH AMERICA. 653 Each one of the practical schools for boys is provided with com¬ plete workshops for ironwork, carriage work, carpentry, printing, binding, tinning, etc. The practical school for girls at the capital has been recently ex¬ tended and provided with a fine dining room and kitchen and the best sanitary appliances. PANAMA. The system of public education in Panama includes the kinder¬ garten, attended by children 5 and 6 years of age, and primary schools for children of the compulsory school period; that is, the ages of 7 to 14. The primary schools are organized in six grades, for which an official course of study is provided. The instruction may be given in private schools or at home, but in both cases must be under official supervision. In certain localities an obligatory course of only three years is established in rural schools. Teachers are appointed by the minister of public instruction to fixed grades or sections where they remain during satisfactory serv¬ ice, the pupils thus passing under different teachers as they are pro¬ moted from year to year. The minister has proposed that in the appointment of teachers they shall not be named for specific grades in the school in which they are to teach, but that it shall be left to the inspector of schools, or the director of each school, to decide upon the advantage or disad¬ vantage of having the same teacher for the same pupils from year to year. Central America — Population and school enrollment. State. Capital. Total population, census of 1911. Enroll- 1 ment in ; primary 1 schools, 1913. Costa Rica . San Jose . 388. 286 1,992; 000 40, 458 553, 446 600,000 ' 1,161,426 360, 118 33,908 61,163 Guatemala . Guatemala . Honduras (British) Belize . Honduras (Republic) . Tegucigalpa . 40, OCO 30,996 39, 309 22,825 Nicaragua . Manaeua . Salvador San Salvador. . Panama . Panama . . . SOUTH AMERICA. Introduction. All advices from South America show continued activity with respect to increase of the means of public education and the extension of its scope. These activities must be regarded as a feature of the awakened industrial and commercial spirit, which is indicated by railroad enterprises, improvement of ports, formation of industrial companies, and similar undertakings. 654 EDUCATION REPORT, 1915. Every State of South America has legal provision for establishing primary schools throughout its area; among the many causes which have combined to prevent the accomplishment of this purpose must be included the lack of periodical school census, without which present conditions can not be known, nor progress measured. Several States have recently accomplished complete surveys and are able to present very full statistics relating to schools and higher institutions ; other States have made similar surveys of particular divisions. Statistics derived from these sources, supplemented by the annual reports of the ministers of public instruction in the several States, are summarized at the close of this chapter. In general the official regulations provide for the grading of the primary schools, a grade corresponding to a year as in the United States. Flexible grading is provided for in nearly all the large cities, provision being made for semiannual promotions. Teachers are appointed by the local school authorities, and assigned some¬ times to the grades for which they are respectively best fitted and sometimes to the charge of particular subjects. The courses of study for primary and secondary schools are drawn up by committees or boards pertaining to the central or local depart¬ ments of education; the official programs are usually supplemented by lists of authorized textbooks. These lists are extensive and pro¬ vide as a rule for choice between different authors. In the area con¬ trolled by the authority prescribing the list it must be used; and, as a rule, when the list emanates from a central department, it is accepted as a model by local authorities and also by the managers of private schools. To the latter class, it may be said, belong the greater number of secondary schools. The textbooks for the usual branches of study in both elementary and secondary schools are in the Spanish (Castilian) language. Sometimes for use in the most elementary grades a primer or easy reader in the native dialect is allowed. In all secondary schools modern languages are taught, French be¬ ing universally required, and for a second language choice between English and German. It need hardly be said that the textbooks are in the language studied. The procedure with respect to the choice and supply of textbooks is illustrated by the following citations from current official reports. The report for Uruguay says: The school textbooks are adopted by a committee appointed by the general board of primary instruction, which receives from the Government the corre¬ sponding authorization for indicating to the teachers the books that ought to be used in the State schools. The judgment of that committee for the adoption of textbooks is ample and liberal, avoiding annoying exclusiveness for authors and editors, so dangerous for education. Almost all the textbooks are in ac¬ cordance with the programs in force and with ruling pedagogical principles EDUCATION IN BKAZ1L. 055 and have been written by national authors. Their price is yet rather high, hut it is hoped that competition will tend to make them cheaper. In Chile according to the report of the minister — the council of public instruction provides each year a list of the textbooks be¬ tween which the rector of each establishment for secondary education depend¬ ing upon the Government may choose, with the agreement of the professors of the several branches, books which shall be issued in the course of instruction. The council may add new books to the official list after it is issued. Great interest is manifested at the present time in all the leading States in the subjects of hygiene, sanitation, agriculture, and Eng¬ lish, and textbooks dealing with those subjects are in demand. NOTES ON INDIVIDUAL STATES. Salient educational interests and movements in individual States are covered by the statements which follow, derived either from offi¬ cial reports or official correspondence. BRAZIL. The extreme conditions comprised in the area and population of Brazil are well known. Its vast extent, unexplored regions, immense plantations, and populous cities exercise a fascination over the minds of travelers and explorers. The most important event in the recent history of education in Brazil was the decree of April 5, 1911, which created a Federal board of education with authority to establish pri¬ mary schools in the various States, which previously were entirely independent in this matter. It was proposed at the same time that a complete census of the country, including educational data, should be taken, but owing to lack of funds this survey has been postponed. The same lack of funds has interfered with the action of the Federal Government in respect to supplying the deficiency of schools in the backward States. From current advices it appears, however, that this measure, combined with the growth of public opinion as to the importance of education, has stimulated the action of the State au¬ thorities so that, in general, educational provision is increasing. The latest statistics on the subject (1910) are included in a summarized table at the close of this chapter. Brazil is essentially an agricultural country, although only a frac¬ tion of its soil has been brought* under cultivation. It furnishes 75 per cent of the entire coffee crop of the world and a very large pro¬ portion of the rubber crop. The exports of cacao are worth an¬ nually about $10,000,000. The main resources of the country — dye- woods, hardwoods, and minerals — are as yet scarcely touched. The fertility of the soil and the ease with which the natural products are grown explain in some measure the indifference to scientific agricul¬ ture and agricultural training which prevailed up to a very recent time. 656 EDUCATION REPORT, 1915. It was not until 1909 that the Government manifested a serious purpose to develop and direct this industry by appointing a secretary of agri¬ culture. In October of the following year a decree was issued provid¬ ing for the establishment of a superior school of agriculture and vet¬ erinary medicine at Rio de Janeiro, and the institution was formally inaugurated July 4, 1913. By a decree of April 15, 1914, there was created a class of practical schools of agriculture, and in accordance with successive decrees preparatory schools of agriculture were es¬ tablished in several places and experimental stations were created. Thus legal provision was made for a great system of agricultural edu¬ cation under Government control. The following particulars showing the actual results of these meas¬ ures are taken from the report of the minister of agriculture, indus¬ try, and commerce for 1914: Enrollment in agricultural schools. Number of students. Superior School of Agriculture and Veterinary Medicine, Rio de Janeiro _ 85 Escolas Medias ou Theorico-Praticas de Agricultura : Bahia _ 43 Porto Alegre - 21 Preparatory schools of agriculture : Barbacena, Minas Geraes _ 118 S. Luiz das Missoes, Rio Grande do Sul _ 34 S. Bento das Lages, Bahia - 24 Satuba, Alagoas _ 62 Additional preparatory schools have been authorized at Tubarao, in Santa Catharina; at Guimaraes, in Maranhao; at Igarape-Assu, in Para ; and at S. Simao, in Paulo. Experiment stations have also been established at Canna de Assucar, in Campos, and Algodao, in Coroata. Government action in respect to agricultural education was pre¬ ceded by a work of private initiative in the State of Sao Paulo. The following statement with regard to this institution was made before the Society for the Promotion of Agricultural Science at Washing¬ ton, D. C., by Prof. Clinton D. Smith, who was called from the United States to assume charge of that enterprise. Prof. Smith said : The school of the State of Sao Paulo, most progressive of the States, is the result of the gift of a wealthy and patriotic citizen, Dr. Luiz Vicente de Souza Queiroz, who, in 1892, presented his plantation to the State government for the purpose. It was as director of this* institution that I was appointed in 1908 and had good opportunity to study the Brazilian boy at close range. Many of the students were sons of wealthy planters and did not greatly relish the idea of personally handling a plow. This was a performance they had associated only with their fathers’ laborers — not with sons of gentlemen. I got them interested by doing it myself first. I tried to make it apparent that the proper handling of a plow was an art. I threw an “ atmosphere ” around EDUCATION IN ARGENTINA. 657 it and soon had them not only willingly but anxiously waiting their turn at the handles. On the other hand, many of the boys had never in their lives seen a plow in action or driven any sort of a team and the novelty made it attractive. As a rule, the work with cattle and horses proved a delight and the young men soon learned to judge both with a good degree of self-assurance. In connection with the exhibit of a series of handsome photographs, Prof. Smith said : You can see by these pictures how really beautiful the campus is. The im¬ posing white buildings, the turf and the wonderful variety of plants, trees, and shrubs that decorate the grounds make it most attractive. The grounds are such a favorite resort for visitors on Sunday in automobiles and carriages that every Saturday the roads through them receive a thorough sweeping in prepara¬ tion for the event. This [indicating another] shows the students playing football. They are very fond of American games, and the playing fields are usually well occupied. The personal contact in the rugby game is not, however, relished, and the soccer game has the call. They are mighty good players, too.1 ARGENTINA. Argentina comprises 14 Provinces and 10 Territories, with a popu¬ lation in round numbers of 7,500,000, which is nearly double the population of 1895. This growth is largely due to immigration, a large proportion of immigrants (at least 80 per cent) coming from Italy and Spain. The Government has published at intervals during the last two decades the results of comprehensive surveys of the educational pro¬ visions of the State and is, therefore, possessed of the data for show¬ ing progress as indicated by the following comparative statistics: School statistics. In 1894. In 1914. Primary schools: Number, public and private. . . . 3,000 7,800 280,000 83,935,400 35 1,376 8840,000 3,000 8420,000 7,077 26,000 890,000 823,786,700 70 8,970 84, 200, 000 10,000 82, 520, 000 Teachers . . Pupils . . E xpenditure 1 . Normal schools: Number . Students . E xpenditure 1 . Secondary schools: Number of students . E xpenditure 1 . } Expenditure given in United States currency. Each Province has independent control of its primary schools, but on account of the failure of several to provide adequate school accom¬ modation 'for the children of school age a law was passed in 1907 authorizing the Federal Government to establish schools where local LAs reported in the Evening Star, Washington, D. C. 12034°— ed 1915— vol 1- 42 658 EDUCATION REPORT, 1915. conditions made this necessary. As a result the more backward com¬ munities have been aided and stimulated to new endeavors in this direction. The development of technical and vocational education under the auspices of the Government is indicated by the following statements derived from a special report:1 TECHNIC AL EDUCATION. Technical schools are a matter of recent development. Two distinct kinds of such schools have been organized and are now maintained in flourishing condi¬ tion. One kind provides technical training in the various trades for young men from 12 to 15 years, while the second type serves to train the young men for positions of foremen and superintendents. For this purpose these schools give a more extensive and intensive instruction along theoretical and practical science, as far as it applies to these various trades. There are four large schools of each one of these types, supported by the National Government at a yearly expense of 1,500,000 pesos ($630,000). In addition to these, there are 15 trade schools for girls, also under the control of the National Government, giving instruction in the trades in which girls predominate, such as millinery, dress¬ making, flower making, telegraphy, typewriting and stenography, glove making, and so forth. COMMERCIAL EDUCATION. Of recent development and also under the control of the National Government are the commercial schools for men and women, which provide adequate modern instruction in salesmanship and bookkeeping. These schools graduate pupils with the rank of bachelors of commercial science and train the certified public accountants. A more recent addition to the scope of these schools is the degree of doctor given for advanced work in economic sciences. The National Govern¬ ment spends about 1,500,000 pesos for this branch of education. MILITARY EDUCATION. Military education comprises seven army and nine naval schools for mechanics and machinists, for the officers of the army and navy, and for pilots and seamen, to which 2,000,000 pesos ($840,000) are devoted. Practical naval instruction is offered in warships and particularly in the training ship Presidente Sarmiento, which recently visited the Panama-Pacific International Exposition at San Fran¬ cisco during her fifteenth cruise of instruction. AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION. Agricultural education in Argentina is of a twofold type, general and special. The special schools, so-called “ regional schools,” look toward the education of future workers in special fields, such as those who engage, for example, in the sugar industries of Tucuman. These schools specialize on the development of industries all over Argentina. The curriculum of the schools is intensely prac¬ tical and covers a sufficient scientific background such as these practical studies require in the various fields. These schools are under the control of the National Government through the department of agriculture. The schools which provide for the thorough scientific instruction underlying all agricultural occupations are under the control of the National Universities of Buenos Aires and La Plata. 1 Prepared for the Panama-Pacific International Exposition. EDUCATION IN ARGENTINA. 659 The annual cost of all agricultural schools Is about 3,500,0000 pesos ($1,470,000), including the expenses incurred in the maintenance of experi¬ mental stations, excursions, and university extension teaching. The manner in which public authorities and private bodies are working to promote the agricultural interests of the State are illus¬ trated by the following statements from current consular reports. The President of the Republic, in his annual message to the Argen¬ tine Congress, says : The invasion of locusts which began in June, 1914, is considered the worst since 1910 and was scattered over an area of 1,000,000 square kilometers (386,100 square miles). In spite of this fact, the united efforts of the National and Provincial Governments and private individuals succeeded in reducing loss to an insignificant percentage. Formerly the locust plague was combated almost exclusively by the numerous permanent and special employees of the Defensa Agricola. This service main¬ tained in some years approximately 4,000 agents and spent as much as $3,800,- 000 annually in salaries, traveling expenses, and freight. In 1914 the Govern¬ ment decided to enforce strictly the law which made the cooperation of property owners compulsory in the destruction of locusts. It was thus able to conduct a successful campaign with the 300 permanent employees of the Defensa Agri¬ cola, with an expenditure of approximately $260,000. In prevision of a still more important invasion of locusts in 1915 the Govern¬ ment is making arrangements to furnish gasoline and other supplies to farmers as cheaply as possible. In view of the ravages caused in fruit groves and other vegetation by the diaspis pentagona, the Government decided in 1914 to adopt the method pre¬ scribed by Prof. Berlesei, which is said to have given satisfactory results in Italy and the United States. An honorary commission of leading fruit growers was appointed to introduce and propagate the Berlesei prospaltella. The Government of the Province of Cordoba has proposed to the provincial legislature the establishment of a model farm, to include the agricultural indus¬ tries of the region — orcharding, dairying, poultry, pig and bee raising, and the preparation of fruit and vegetable preserves. Private societies. — The Sociedad Rural, of Rafaela, Province of Santa Fe, expects to open in the near future a school which will give practical instruction in the handling of agricultural machinery. According to press reports an agricultural cooperative society, with 200 mem¬ bers, known as the Economia Agricola, has been formed at Casilda, in the Province of Santa Fe. The society proposes to store and sell the produce of its members, dealing directly with exporters. It has sheds and machinery for shelling corn.1 UNIVERSITY EDUCATION. With respect to higher education the special report already cited says : The universities of Argentina maintain the traditional faculties of juris¬ prudence, belles lettres, philosophy, and pure and applied sciences, developing also the newer departments of university work, such as agriculture, pedagogy, etc. The enlargement of the activities of these universities, especially the crea- 1 Report by Consul William Dawson, jr., Rosario, May 28, 1915. 660 EDUCATION REPORT, 1915. tion of the University of La Plata, is proof of Argentina’s advancement in this field. The La Plata University has been instrumental in the exchange of pro¬ fessors and has encouraged the visits of public men of note from Europe and the United States of America, thus recognizing the desirability of maintaining the most pleasant relations with Europe and North America. In connection with higher education in Argentina, it is a point of interest that the number of university graduates in the city of Buenos Aires is in pro¬ portion with the population larger than in other cities of the world. The budget of the three or four foremost important universities of Argentina reaches 8,500,000 pesos ($3,570,000) a year, and their combined attendance was 9,100 students in 1914. The budget ox Argentina for the current year carried for ordinary expenditures a total of $136,781,723. Of this amount $27,779,865 was appropriated to the minister of justice and education, PARAGUAY. The educational system adopted by the Government of Paraguay in 1902 provides for the following classes of elementary schools: Rural schools, with three grades; elementary schools, with four grades; and more complete schools having six grades. Instruction of the same character is given in these different classes of schools, the last-named class carrying the student two grades higher than the elementary and three grades higher than the rural schools. Pupils who do satisfactorily the work of one grade in a scholastic year are promoted to a higher grade; the teachers remain in the same grade; the pupils therefore are under a new instructor with each change of grade. The number of scholars in the first three grades of the complete schools is limited to 50 for each grade, in the three upper grades the number is limited to 40. Classes in the subjects taught in the graded schools are held at night for the benefit of children who are employed during the day, the majority of the pupils of these night schools being newsboys, bootblacks, etc. The system of employing teachers for special subjects, which pre¬ vails throughout the secondary schools in South America, is applied to a certain extent in the elementary schools of Paraguay. URUGUAY. Uruguay is the smallest State of South America, comprising an area of 72,153 square miles and a population of 1,279,359 (census 1913). Of the total, about 18 per cent were foreigners, the Italian and Spanish contingent making up nearly two-thirds of this number. The population, while varied, is really more homogeneous than that of the majority of the South American States. EDUCATION IN URUGUAY. 661 As regards its economic and financial condition, Uruguay is regarded as one of the most fortunate of the South American Republics. The chief causes of its stable condition are (1) the char¬ acter of its main products, which are the necessities of life, the demand for which has been strengthened by the war; (2) the rela¬ tively slow and steady economic development of the country; (3) the relatively small amount of foreign capital and the fact that it has been conservatively placed; (4) the scrupulous care taken by the Government for over 20 years to maintain its credit and to keep its currency on a sound basis. In 1908 a very complete census of the State was taken, which dis¬ closed alarming conditions with respect to illiteracy. At that time the illiterates 5 to 14 years of age comprised above 50 per cent of the population, and the adult illiterates, that is, 15 or more years, 35 per cent ; even in Montevideo the ratio of illiterates 5 to 14 years of age was 27 per cent, and for adults above 15 years of age 21 per cent. These facts and the rapidly increasing interests of agriculture and trade gave a new impetus to efforts for extending and improving public education. Between 1908 a*nd 1913 the enrollment of pupils in primary schools increased from 60,863 to 91,746, an increase of 23 per cent, which was a little greater than the increase in population, showing that the deficiency in school accommodation which existed at the earlier date was reduced. The enrollment in 1913 was very nearly 8 per cent of the population. The law with respect to compulsory education has been well en¬ forced in cities, towns, and villages, and in rural districts having sufficient population to support a school. There has been no oc¬ casion for inflicting penalties upon parents for violation of the law, since applications for admission to the schools are generally far in excess of the school accommodations. The State is largely agricul¬ tural, and nearly half the population live in rural districts covering a territory of 74,000 square miles; under these conditions particu¬ lar interest attaches to the efforts for providing adequate schools for the rural population and maintaining their efficiency. The nature of these efforts is indicated by the following particulars drawn from the latest report of the minister of public instruction : The State has established mixed schools in almost all the rural districts which have sufficient number of children of both sexes to average an attendance of not less than 30 pupils. Scholastic obligation extends to all boys who reside at a distance not exceeding 4 kilometers from the school. For girls the distance is 2 kilometers. The pupils go to school on foot, in any vehicle, or on horse¬ back, which is the most usual way. The rural schools are almost all mixed and are installed in properties be¬ longing to the State, granted temporarily and gratis, or rented, and have a capacity for 40, 50, or 60 pupils, although there are some that have more. 662 EDUCATION REPORT, 1915. Rural schools are directed by married schoolmasters or by schoolmistresses, married or single, who have their residence in the establishment they direct. When the attendance of pupils exceeds 60, an assistant is allowed. Since the permanence of pupils in rural schools never exceeds three years, a simple program has been outlined which can be developed in that short period, so that when the pupil leaves school, he knows how to read, write, to perform the principal arithmetical operations, and something of geography, history and the Constitution of the Republic, and he has been impressed with notions of the purest morality. Experience shows that the stay of the rural pupil in school can not be continued longer, because as soon as his strength permits he is at each moment required by the daily works of the country, with which he helps his parents procure their living. The struggle for life is the strongest reason for taking him so young from school. The number of rural schools rapidly increases ; in 1906 it was 400, in 1910 the total was 760. This increase is partly due to a law of 1906, which appropriated $1,000,000 for the erection and improve¬ ment of school buildings. In the application of this fund great attention has been paid by the general board of primary instruction to the choice of sites for the new schools and their suitable equip¬ ment. The system of school inspection is so ordered that every school in the State is visited three or four times a year by a principal or sub¬ inspector, who reports directly to the minister of public instruction. The spirit and method of this service are admirable, and most cordial relations exist between teachers and inspectors. The general in¬ spection is supplemented by medical inspection, which is well or¬ ganized and comprises at the present time six physicians. The obligatory course of instruction in the primary schools, as already explained, covers three years. Endeavors have recently been made to extend the period of instruction for children in the country, and to increase their advantages by changes in the system of secondary education which would enable pupils to enter the “liceos” (departmental secondary schools) upon the successful com¬ pletion of the brief course of the rural primary school. The law authorizing this relation was secured in 1912 and has hardly yet passed the experimental stage. It appears, however, that additional preparation would be required in order that pupils from the rural schools might keep pace in the liceos with those who enter from the urban schools.1 The high degree of illiteracy to which reference has been made is the result of the scarcity of schools in the past, and also in great part of the scattered nature of the rural population. A serious endeavor has been made to overcome the evil by the establishment of schools for adults, incorporated with the educational system. This action was authorized by a law of 1907, which was well supported by public 1 See Bu. of Educ. Bull., 1915, No. 26, “ Secondary Schools in the States of Central America, South America, etc.,” pp. 19-20. EDUCATION IN URUGUAY. 663 opinion and has resulted in the establishment of about 50 evening schools at different centers. These have an average attendance of 2,000 pupils. In the classes for women, instruction is given in sewing and cutting garments, and weekly conferences are held for both sexes, in which the teachers endeavor to impart ideas of public affairs, good citizenship, etc. The importance of agricultural teaching has been recognized by including the subject in the curricula of the normal schools and in all examinations for public-school teachers. Unfortunately, however, the instruction in this subject has been largely theoretical. An im¬ provement in this respect is reported by the Department of Rocha, which has established a “park for schools” adapted for field and garden cultivation. The same Department has also established a higher commercial school, the only institution of the kind maintained by the State that has successfully adhered to the purposes indicated by its title. Montevideo, the capital of Uruguay, is the seat of a university of the highest order of secondary schools and of several national in¬ stitutions which illustrate the broad conception of education that has been in the minds of the leaders of the State. Among the special institutions is the National Institute for the Deaf and Dumb, which was established in 1910. There are also two normal schools at the capital, one for boys and the other for girls, both of which are highly developed and well equipped with laboratories, drawing-rooms, and models for drawing, manual workshops, and the latest illustrative material. The normal schools sustain intimate relation to the rural schools of the country. The greater proportion of their students come from the interior Departments, and after obtaining the diploma of master of first grade the graduates are obliged to exercise their profession for at least two years in the Departments to which they belong. By this means it has been foimd possible to secure trained teachers for the public schools of the smaller villages, and even rural districts. The course of study in the normal schools is completed in four years, and during the period State pupils enjoy a pension of $15 a month in order to meet the expenses of residence in the capital. The average attendance at the institutions is 50 in the school for boys and 250 in that for girls. Normal institutes are also maintained in six Depart¬ ments of the State. The pedagogical library and museum at Montevideo has re¬ cently established a circulating section. By this agency teachers who do not reside in the capital can secure upon request pedagogical books which are loaned gratis for a stated term. 664 EDUCATION REPORT, 1915. CHILE. The latest annual issued by the Chilean bureau of statistics com¬ prises several volumes, of which one is devoted to public instruction. The survey is very complete as regards the schools and higher institu¬ tions of Chile and their classification and relations to public admin¬ istration, as will be seen by a summary of the statistics included in the tables at the close of this chapter. The Government has recently extended the provision for industrial and technical training and has also adopted measures for unifying the courses of instruction for primary and secondary schools. In 1913 two commissions were appointed by the department of industry and public works — one to investigate and report upon the agricultural schools of the country, and the second a commission of mining experts, to advise as to the exploitation of unworked mines and increased provision for training mining engineers. The work of these commissions, although not yet completed, has excited discussion of their purposes in educational meetings and journals. This is par¬ ticularly the case in regard to instruction in agriculture, which has for many years been included in the official program for primary schools. A recent article in the principal educational journal declares that no practical results have come from the requirement as to elementary instruction in agriculture, but it has served to fix the idea in the minds of educators and to prepare the way for more fruitful efforts in the future. The author of the article believes that reform must begin with the normal schools. The cooperation of the agricultural society and of the national education association has been sought in support of a plan providing for an agricultural normal school with experi¬ mental fields adjoining and for a few model rural schools with gardens attached. It is also suggested that prizes be offered for articles on the subject written by agricultural experts in Chile.1 The budget passed by the Chilean Congress for the current year (1915-16) carries $122,450 (U. S. currency) for public instruction. This is less than 1 per cent of the entire budget and represents a mere fraction of the public expenditure for education, which is supplied mainly by the provincial governments. BOLIVIA. Bolivia is characterized by the large proportion of parochial and private schools which are subsidized by the State or municipal gov¬ ernments. The country has been slow to recognize the need of mod¬ ern education, although the normal school at Sucre is a recognized center of research and educational progress. 1 Revista de Educacion Nacional, Decembre, 1914 ipp. 519-526). EDUCATION IN PERU. 665 During the present year the Government has sought information as to the conduct of schools and higher institutions in the leading foreign countries, as a preliminary step in plans for the improve¬ ment of the existing schools. The budget for 1914 carried nearly a million dollars for public instruction. PERU. Peru has an area exceeding 700,000 square miles, and a population estimated in 1908 at four and one-half millions, not including the uncivilized Indians. The State has been called the “treasure chest” of South America, principally on account of its mineral wealth, although it is also rich in agricultural resources, the exported prod¬ ucts including rubber, cotton, cane sugar, and alpaca wool. The abundance and nature of these natural resources indicate the great importance to the State of scientific knowledge and its practical ap¬ plications to agriculture, grazing, mining, and engineering. Special provision for technical education was begun in 1874 by the establishment of a school of mines and civil engineering at Lima. This action was followed by the establishment of a national agri¬ cultural school and more recently a school of arts and trades. With this development the importance of enforcing the law making ele¬ mentary instruction obligatory became evident, and finally the need of modernizing the general scheme of public instruction and espe¬ cially the programs of the normal schools and the public secondary schools. The serious endeavor in this direction which was made in 1909 and the influences that prevented its immediate success have been considered in previous reports ; there are, however, signs of its effects in a gradual change in the prevailing ideals and methods of education. The current year has shown a revival of efforts for the general improvement of the system of public instruction. These efforts are taking the practical form of surveys of particular departments as a basis for improvement and progress. An important survey was conducted last year by the inspector of primary instruction for the Department of Lima and the Province of Callao. The results are presented in a report giving detailed statistics of primary education in the sections surveyed and extended discussion of the general con¬ ditions and the principles that should direct future activities. With respect to physical education, which is generally provided for in all public schools, the inspector says : No one system of physical education is followed, but methods are adapted to the different ages and conditions of the pupils, and are, therefore, somewhat diversified. Outdoor games and exercises such as football, basket ball, volley ball, and swimming are especially, prominent. Physical exercises for girls are considered of no less importance than those for boys. 666 EDUCATION REPORT, 1915. Vocational education in Peru is divided into technical, com¬ mercial, agricultural, industrial, and domestic. The training is in¬ tended to overcome the want of correlation between the education of the school and the demands of daily life. The inspector advises that a commission be appointed to investigate the conditions and plan the work before attempting to develop it on a large scale throughout the country.1 ECUADOR. Ecuador has an area of 116,000 square miles, divided into IT Pro¬ vinces. The estimated population is 1,500,000, of whom the great majority are Indians; inhabitants of pure European blood are few, and those of mixed blood are about one-third the total. Under these conditions the general diffusion of education has been impossible. The General Government has taken special measures during the past few years to promote the cause of primary education. Secondary and higher education are fostered by the church (Eoman Catholic), and there are flourishing schools at Quito and Guayaquil. The superior council of public instruction has just created a school of commerce at Bahia de Caraquez, the second school of the kind organized by the department of education. The budget for primary education submitted by the department for 1915 amounts to 1,250,000 sucres ($607,500), an increase of $57,000 over the budget for 1913. COLOMBIA. The Republic of Colombia comprises a population of 5,071,000 (census 1912), of whom 30,000 are uncivilized Indians. The State is organized in 14 Departments, 2 “ intendencies,” and 7 minor divi¬ sions. The control of education throughout the State is centralized in a cabinet officer, the minister of public instruction, who is repre¬ sented in each Department by a director general. This organization facilitates the general survey of educational conditions, although a complete census of schools and pupils is still wanting. In general, private schools are more flourishing than public schools ; the former, however, draw their pupils from the better classes of society, while public schools offer the only provision within the reach of the poorer classes. In the more advanced Departments there has been a decided increase of school attendance within the last few years, and in two Departments, viz, Caldas and El Valle, the enrollment in schools ex¬ ceeds 10 per cent of the population, whereas in the State as a whole the percentage is only 5.3 per cent. The following particulars from a recent consular report showing conditions in the Department of 1 E studios sob re la instruccion primaria. Joseph Byrne Lock ey, inspector of instruccion primaria del departmento de Lima y de la Provincia Constitucionel del Callao, Lima, 1914. EDUCATION IN COLOMBIA. 667 Bolivar, capital Cartagena, may be taken to illustrate the status of schools in the more advanced Departments. This report says: The private schools in this Department number 33, with a total enrollment of 2,137 pupils. The four secondary schools have an enrollment of 520 pupils. A recapitulation of the number of schools and the attendance shows: 258 primary schools (7,103 boys, 6,228 girls) _ 13,331 4 secondary schools _ 520 33 private schools _ 2, 137 295 schools _ 15, 988 In the municipality of Cartagena there are 27 public schools as follows : 1 boys’ high school. 8 boys’ primary schools. 10 girls’ primary schools. 2 boys’ night schools. 6 alternate (coeducational) schools. The average attendance is 1,024 boys and 871 girls (for the year 1913). In 1914 the average attendance was about 2,000. The schools are maintained at an expense of $20,448 annually. Most of the school buildings are leased property. The teachers, numbering 54, receive salaries which average a little less than $27 a month, while the highest salary paid is $50 a month and the lowest is $15. Public instruction reaches its highest point in the University of Cartagena, which was founded by a decree of October 6, 1827, and formally opened November 11, 1828. The university comprises five departments, as follows: (1) School of philoso¬ phy and letters; (2) school of science; (3) school of medicine and natural sciences; (4) school of law and political science; and (5) school of mathematics and civil engineering.1 Theoretically, all schools and institutions in the Department are adjuncts of the university. For example, schools of fine arts and primary schools are regarded as annexes of the university school of philosophy and letters; schools of commerce, telegraphy, agricul¬ ture, etc., as annexes of the university department of science. A recent decree issued by the minister of agriculture provides for the foundation of a National Institute of Agriculture at Bogota, with an experimental farm annexed. The program includes normal courses to prepare students for teaching agriculture with practical demonstrations. The courses will be specialized as required for horticulture, floriculture, etc. One scholarship will be granted by the Government to each De¬ partment, and six at large to be assigned by the minister of agricul¬ ture and commerce. Bogota, the capital of the State, is the seat of the National Uni¬ versity,2 comprising four faculties: Natural sciences and medicine, law and political science, mathematics, and dental surgery. The preparation for admission to the specialized courses of the university 1 From report by Consul Ross Hazeltine, Cartagena, Colombia, Mar. 26, 1915. 2 By a clerical error a paragraph relating to higher education in Colombia was included in an account of Venezuela in the Report of the Commissioner of Education, 1913, vol. 1, pp. 7-10. 668 EDUCATION REPORT, 1915. is made in two affiliated colleges, San Bartolome and San Bernardo. Bogota is also the seat of two public normal schools, a national con¬ servatory of music, a school of arts and trades, and a school of fine arts. The two last named are in charge of private associations, but subsidized by the State. At Medellin, the capital of the Department of Antioquia, there is a school of mines which is maintained by the National Govern¬ ment. By a recent decree the Govermnent has authorized the establish¬ ment of a national institute of agriculture and veterinary science at the capital, and the choice of a location for an auxiliary school of agriculture and animal husbandry. A scholarship will be awarded in each department of the two schools. By a decree issued during the current year it is declared that physicians, graduates of schools not in Colombia, must submit to the following regulations: (1) Present a diploma or diplomas obtained from a foreign college well known for the thoroughness of its course. These diplomas must carry the certificate of the minister or of a consul general accredited by this Republic; (2) Submit to a clinical examination before a council composed of one pro¬ fessor of internal clinics, one of clinical surgery, and one of another member of the faculty ; (3) Present a printed thesis on some national medical theme, on which the medical council will require the author to explain orally what may seem to the council proper in a public examination ; and (4) The councils of professors before which the clinical examination and the thesis be presented, and the fees which they may charge, will be in accordance with the regulations which the faculty may provide in the ordinary preparatory examinations. VENEZUELA. The systematic efforts on the part of the Venezuelan Govermnent to extend the school provision and improve the entire system of edu¬ cation have been noted in previous reports of this series. These efforts are still continued, but under great discouragement by reason of the apathy of many of the States and the want of financial sup¬ port. The decrease of the customs receipts and the internal revenue, which is attributed to the European war, has forced the executive departments to cut down their estimates for the current fiscal year. The department of public instruction has reduced its original esti¬ mate of $736,447 to $442,897, or 40 per cent, and the appropriations by the several States are likely to fall off proportionately. The Federal GoA^ernment has, however, indicated its intention of pushing a few practical measures for improAung the elementary schools under its immediate direction. The latest report of the minister of public instruction dwells upon the need of a new order of rural education, but points out certain EDUCATION IN VENEZUELA. 069 difficulties in the way of attempting at once to distinguish between urban and rural conditions. On this subject he says: Rural schools. — Connected with the question of school construction is the foundation of rural schools provided with a special program. By the decree of February 10 this kind of institution was authorized. It is not, however, de¬ sirable to complicate the classification of the schools, programs, regulations, and laws, which would be the result of creating the special rural school. It is not enough, in effect, to establish a conventional distinction, calling “ urban ” the schools situated within the limits of the population of the capitals of the States and other municipalities and “ rural ” those which are outside these same limits. Persons who have traveled in the interior of Venezuela and noticed the gradual transition between the different sections, between urban and rural groups ; who have observed the capitals of States which are simply collections of humble homes and, on the other hand, rural centers of second order which have an importance greater than or equal to the capital of the State will easily comprehend that the proposed distinction is not practicable. It would only convert almost all the schools into rural ones. But there is another reason more weighty which is based upon the psychology of the people. Not one of the new small centers of populations would be reconciled to be treated as a village and to have its school called “ rural.” On the contrary, all will aspire to apply the term “ college ” to their schools, although only the first elements are taught in them. The term “ rural ” is understood as a disparagement. For this reason it is necessary to proceed in an inverse way in this matter. The first rural school should be established in the environs of Caracas under the immediate inspection of the minister of public instruction. There will be no difficulty in calling one of the new schools with only one teacher “ rural ” when there are added to its programs the principles of agriculture and for the instruction in the field work a small farm is attached, or, better, a model farm. The teachers on their part should know the fundamental principles of agriculture and how to teach them, and the pupils should cultivate the soil with their own hands. If this plan is followed throughout the Republic and the small farm schools provided with competent instructors, the benefit in the development of agri¬ cultural industry, the basis of new public wealth, will be great.1 NATIONAL SCHOOLS OF ARTS AND TRADES. The National School of Arts and Trades for boys maintained at Caracas offers a select course in the general subjects of primary edu¬ cation, together with training for various trades. In the general course mathematics is extended to include geometry, and lineal draw¬ ing forms a special feature. The trade courses are numerous, in¬ cluding typewriting, lithographing, industrial modeling, bookbind¬ ing. metal work, ironwork, carpentry, tapestry, woodwork, forging, electrical engineering, telephoning, management of automobiles, etc. The monthly salaries range from 1,000 bolivars ($200) for the di¬ rector to 100 bolivars ($20) for the teacher of arithmetic. It is noticeable that the salaries for the trade teachers average higher than those for the general subjects. 1 Memoria del ministerio de instruccion publiea 1914, tomo primero, p. XLV. 670 EDUCATION REPORT, 1915. The Woman’s School of Arts and Trades, Caracas, is also a na¬ tional institution, under the control of the minister of public instruc¬ tion. The program of the school comprises at present the following subjects: Cutting out garments and needlework, making hats and artificial flowers, tailoring, white embroidery, washing and ironing, cooking, weaving hats, bookbinding, stenography and typewriting, bookkeeping, photography, gymnastics, drawing, gardening, and horticulture. The school year is divided into two semesters, the first from September 15 to February 15, and the second from Feb¬ ruary 15 to July 15. The school hours are from 7 to 11 a m. and from 1 to 5 p. m. The arrangement of the course of instruction is as follows: Two semesters for photography, washing and ironing, and two school years, or four semesters, for the other subjects. Applicants for admission to the school as regular students must have completed the five years’ course of elementary instruction as shown by a certificate of proficiency. Pupils can enter the classes for washing, ironing, and hat weaving without the certificate, pro¬ vided they can read and write. Young women may come to the classes in the capacity of hearers, but without having the rights of the regular pupils in relation to examinations, certificates, and diplomas. SCHOOL FOR NURSES. A school for nurses was established by a ministerial order of Feb¬ ruary 25, 1914, as an annex to the School of Arts and Trades for Women, and opened with impressive ceremonies the 24th of March following. The minister calls attention to the fact that the importance of such a school is not generally recognized, as the social customs and sentiments of the country relegate women to private life and domestic duties. At the same time the action received the support of many representative men and women, and 17 candidates presented them¬ selves for admission. The course of instruction is arranged for two years, beginning with the 16th of September each year and ending with a general examination in the month of July. The subjects of the course and their distribution among the semesters are as fol¬ lows : First semester: General anatomy and pathology, their application to the more common diseases and treatment of the latter. Second semester: Practice of minor surgery — bandages, healing, operations, local applications, etc. First aid in case of accident. Care of the sick in general. Third semester: Completion of the studies of anatomy and physiology applied, especially of the nervous system. General pathology and practical hygiene, special care of women at childbirth, and infants. Fourth semester: Elementary pharmacy and cooking for the sick ; special care of the insane ; economy, administration, and regimen of hospital. LEADING NEWSPAPERS OF SOUTH AMERICA. 671 Entrance conditions. — The candidate for admission must he not less than 18 nor more than 40 years of age, and must have had at least an elementary education. She must be of good physique, healthy, and with no notable phy¬ sical defect, and must have been vaccinated and recently revaccinated. She must also present a certificate of good moral character. Those completing the course will receive the title of “ enfermera ” (trained nurse ) . Relations were established between the school for nurses and the Hospital Vagas. LEADING NEWSPAPERS OF SOUTH AMERICA. Newspapers play a very important part in the formation of public opinion in South America, a fact which has not escaped the notice of travelers from the United States, several of whom have recently given extended accounts of this phase of intellectual activity in South America. The following notices of leading journals are cited from recent articles on the subject: A visitor from North America is struck by the peculiar conditions obtaining in the newspaper world of South America. With prices higher than our own, with a much more restricted circle of readers, circulations of 100,000 and 150,000 daily are reached in such centers as Buenos Aires and Rio de Janeiro. “La Prensa ” (The Press). — One of the most remarkable institutions in the world is the Buenos Aires organ, “La Prensa” (The Press). It is housed in a $5,000,000 building, and besides its function of giving up-to-date news it sup¬ plies free medical service to all subscribers, offers prizes in many fields of intellectual endeavor, has its own weather bureau, a department of first aid to farmers, and what not. Its cable service is one of the best in the world, and despite its uninteresting appearance — a fault all too common in South American newspapers — it is the greatest journalistic power in the Argentine Republic. “La Nation ” ( The Nation), also of Buenos Aires, performs a generous service by publishing, in cheap form, good translations of the best foreign books. “El Mer curio ” (The Mercury), published simultaneously in Santiago and Val¬ paraiso (Chile), is more lively than its distinguished Argentine contemporary and every bit as influential. Founded by an Englishman in 1827, its career has been one of uninterrupted success. Under the editorship of Carlos Vildosola it has risen to a preeminence in the life of Chile which entitles it to the sobriquet, “The Times of South America,” and its career is quite as imposing, in its way, as that of any of Lord Northcliffe’s leading organs in England. Vil¬ dosola, by the way, has done excellent service as Paris and London corre¬ spondent for his paper, has written on the function of the press in modern society, and is the possessor of a charmingly simple, yet powerful, style. “O Jornal de Comertio,, (Journal of Commerce) , founded in the same year as the Chilean Mercurio, has had at its head some of Brazil’s most noted writers. Rodriguez, one of its greatest editors, is known in this country for his book (written in English) on the “Panama Canal.” Names like Coelho Netto, Joas do Rio, Olavo Bilac (prince of Brazilian poets), Machado de Assis, and others stand for men who are or have been intimately bound up with the country’s journalism. Machado de Assis, first president of the Brazilian Academy of Letters, and now some years dead, was one of the leading literary influences of the Republic. His Portuguese is of remarkable lucidity; whether as a journalist, critic, or 672 EDUCATION REPORT, 1915. novelist, his work adorns the nation’s letters. Ruy Barbosa, who succeeded him as president of the academy, comes also from the field of journalism. Important technical journals and medical journals are also pub¬ lished in the leading cities. Statistics of primary and normal schools of South America. States. Year of statis¬ tics. Enrollment in pri¬ mary schools. Enroll¬ ment in schools for special classes. Enrollment in nor¬ mal schools. Expendi¬ ture for primary education. Public. Private. Public. Private. Argentina . Bolivia . 1913 1913 1910 1913 1913 1914 1911 1913 1913 1913 622, 781 (58, 634, 539 321, 298 253, 017 84, 654 50, 000 146, 272 91, 746 47, 132 123,944 865) 6, 874 7,226 60 1S29, 022, 497 Brazil . Chile . Colombia . 60, 188 12, 072 10, 365 2,506 2,633 (1,3 453 160 ;57) 7,912,625 Ecuador 2 607, 500 Paraguay . Peru . Uruguay . 21, 874 1,999,137 1,700,000 Venezuela . 1 Argentine currency. 2 Government appropriation. Secondary and higher education. States. Year of statis¬ tics. Number of general secondary students. Technical and voca¬ tional secondary students. Univer¬ sity students. Students in higher technical schools. Total ex¬ penditure for public education. Public. Private. Public. Private. Argentina Bolivia _ Brazil . Chile . Colombia. Ecuador. . Paraguay . Peru . Uruguay. . Venezuela. 1913 1913 1910 1913 1913 1913 1911 1913 1913 1913 8, 788 3. 200 (2,583) 30,258 25,286 6,510 1,228 528 4,674 3, 252 18, 103 16, 049 634 6,550 9,354 6,000 877 351 (226) 7,491 1,291 3, 918 1,730 437 580 502 46 i$42,433,977 1,011,080 611,545 2 1, 154, 340 10,216,235 1 Argentine currency. 2 Government appropriation. EDUCATIONAL STATISTICS OF CHILE. 673 Summary of educational statistics of Chile , J9I3. Classes of schools. Public. 1 Private. Schools. Nuihber of pupils. Schools. Number of pupils. PRIMARY EDUCATION. Elementary and higher primary schools . 3,039 317,415 504 60, 188 Normal schools for men and for women . 16 2, 633 2 160 Model schools attached to normal schools . 15 3,883 15 3,470 Schoolslfor recruits: 37 6, 158 Navy . ". . 9 1,339 Total . 3, 131 334,898 .506 60, 348 SECONDARY EDUCATION. Lyceos (for boys and girls) . 86 25,286 121 18, 103 HIGHER EDUCATION. Universities and university schools . 12 3,065 8 853 TECHNICAL AND VOCATIONAL. Commercial institutes . 11 3,728 10 1,787 Agricultural institutes. . . 1 67 Agricultural schools . 5 345 1 i 159 Mining schools . 2 114 Industrial schools . 3 438 Schools of arts and trades . . 30 4,652 36 4,532 . PHYSICAL AND MANUAL. Higher institute of physical education . 1 199 l . AAA Central schools of manual training . 4 1,114 : / 4 40i MILITARY TRAINING. Special schools of the army . 6 1,016 Special schools of the navy . 7 1, 232 SPECIAL EDUCATION. National conservatory of music . 1 959 Various establishments . 2 68 7 871 12034° — ed 1915 — vol 1- 43 CHAPTER XXIX. EDUCATION IN GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND. Contents. — England : Evidences of progress — Advisory council for industrial and scien¬ tific research — The official report — New demands in education — Scotland : Medical in¬ spection — Ireland : Central authorities for education — The committee of investiga¬ tion — Department of agriculture and technical instruction — System of agricultural instruction — Technical instruction — Central institution. ENGLAND. EVIDENCES OF PROGRESS. The last important official act on the part of Mr. Pease, president of the board of education, was his speech in committee of the House of Commons, May 13 (current year), supporting the demand for the sum of £9,906,378 ($49,531,890) to complete the amount necessary to defray the expenditure for public education for the year ending March 31, 1916. On account of the depletion of his staff, 321 members having joined the colors, Mr. Pease was unable to supply the statistics which generally accompany the presentation of the budget estimates. In place of these he dwelt upon the way in which the work of the board had been affected by the war during the nine months since its outbreak. His speech covers all salient particulars of the record of public education during this important period. Among the causes of the increased expenditures noted was the necessity of feeding twice as many children as the number reported a year ago. Immediately after the outbreak of the war the number was raised to 200,000 and in May was still 70,000. Intimately connected with this work is that of providing schools for mothers. During the year the board of education was helping 151 schools of this character, and at the same time the local govern¬ ment board came to the assistance of the work by grants for ma¬ ternity and child welfare. In order to prevent overlapping and waste, the presidents of the two boards named entered into an agreement to the effect that all matters connected with institutions provided by a sanitary authority should be supported out of grants by the local government board, and all matters connected with schools for the collective instruction 675 676 EDUCATION REPORT, 1915. of mothers should be in the province of the board of education. In this connection Mr. Pease said: It is a platitude, I know, when I say that it is a waste of effort to try to educate children who are not physically fit. Our great object is to get children to the schools in a healthy condition. If we get them thus and' maintain them in a healthy condition, depend upon it they will learn a great deal more, and there will be much less waste of public money than there has been in the past. The demand for women in many directions has produced also a demand for women who have babies or very small children in their homes. One of the great social dangers in the country has been that these children should be not properly provided for when their mothers were at work. By a system of creches which have been supported by the board of education, and by grants, we are doing a very good work. We have now 77 institutions in the country. During the past year we have contributed something like £5,000 in grants in helping to look after these tiny tots while their mothers were at work. I do not think the value of that kind of work can be easily overrated. In respect to the activities of the board in the province of higher education, it was announced that no moneys would be called for dur¬ ing the year to aid in building grants for training colleges. At the same time the need of additional aid for higher institutions was distinctly recognized. The number of secondary schools in relation with the board of edu¬ cation increases rapidly with a corresponding increase of the grant allowed them by the Government. The total appropriation for this purpose, which 10 years ago was only £163,000 ($815,000), in 1914 reached £730,000 ($3,600,000). In regard to the future of the secondary schools, so liberally aided by public money, the president of the board said : Improvement depends on five things : An earlier entry in the secondary school; the imposition of some test, so that those only of reasonable ability should go forward into these schools ; an undertaking by the parents that the children shall attend the full course in the schools ; a better system of scholar¬ ship, so that the ladder may be improved to enable more able children to go forward to the university ; and more vocational courses should be attached to those schools. We have at the present moment eight of these secondary schools with engineering courses, which lead up to the technical institutions, and I think money can very well be spent by local authorities, assisted by the Gov¬ ernment in vocational courses in many of our secondary schools. The education estimates for the year 1915-16 carry a total for the schools sharing in the annual grants of £15,481,378, as against £15,245,621 for the financial year 1914-15, a net increase of £235,757 ($1,175,000). Additional grants for 1915-16 in favor of higher education, promotion of science, etc., amount to £740,807. Naturally almost every item of normal expenditure shows some increase. Special interest, however, attaches to the increase by £33,000 of the annual grants for the education of defective children and an increase of £145,000 ($725,000) for medical inspection and medical treatment. This includes $490,000 allowed for school meals. EDUCATION IN GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND. 677 ADVISORY COUNCIL FOR INDUSTRIAL AND SCIENTIFIC RESEARCH. The most important event of the year as regards education is the formation of an advisory council in the board of education charged with the interests of industrial and scientific research. The causes and purposes of the council were explained by Mr. Pease in his address on the budget. In introducing the subject he said : The war has brought home to us and to our notice that we have been far too dependent for very many processes and many materials upon the foreigner, and we have realized that it is essential, if we are going to maintain our position in the world, to make better use of our scientifically trained workers; that we must increase the number of those workers; and that we must endeavor to secure that industry is closely associated with our scientific workers and pro¬ mote a proper system of encouragement of research workers, especially in our universities. The fault in the past, no doubt, has been partly due to the remiss¬ ness on the part of the Government in failing to create careers for scientific men. It has also, I think, been due partly to the universities, who have not realized how important it is that pure science ought to be utilized with applied science and brought into close contact with manufacturing interests. I think it was also partly due to the fact that the manufacturers themselves undervalued the importance of science in connection with their particular industries. It was partly due, too, to the fact that the ratepayers have been too niggardly in making provision in connection with their technical institutions and colleges. In support of his position Mr. Pease cited many cases which went to prove the vast importance of an appropriation for this purpose, and which starting at a comparatively small figure ought to develop into substantial sums of money in the future. The proposition ex¬ cited animated discussion in which eminent representatives of science and technical industries, now members of the House of Commons, participated. The scheme was approved by Parliament and the sum of £25,000 granted for the initial fund. The body to be responsible for this work is a committee of the privy council, which is to be assisted by a. small advisory council composed mainly of eminent scientific men and men actually engaged in industries dependent upon scientific research. The administrative chairman of this latter body is Sir William S. McCormick, LL.D. In the subsequent reorganization of the Government Mr. Pease vacated the office of president of the board of education, and was succeeded by Mr. Arthur Henderson, M. P.. for the Barnard Castle division of Durham and chairman of the Parliamentary Labor Party. The change afforded occasion for a review of the admirable work accomplished by Mr. Pease, which is universally recognized. It is particularly noted that schools for mothers received official sanction and grants through his efforts. His more recent endeavor to bring scientific knowledge to the service of conditions brought about by the war have given an immense impetus to this important work, and it is announced that his successor will give hearty sup¬ port to the work of the advisory council as outlined by Mr. Pease. 678 EDUCATION REPORT, 1915. THE OFFICIAL REPORT. The latest report of the Board of Education in England, issued early in 1915, is introduced by a brief summary of the important effects of the war upon schools and higher institutions within the province of the board. From this survey it appears that at the out¬ break of the war, when the majority of schools were having vacation, the authorities of some areas, notably London, thought it desirable to terminate the vacation and resume the work of the schools earlier than usual; in a few other cases it was suggested that the vacation might be prolonged in order that the elder children could help in harvest work; neither of these expedients, however, was found to be generally necessary. On the contrary, the resolution was expressed on all sides — That in the national crisis it was the first duty of all concerned in the public system of education to see that that system was carried on as far as possible without interruption and with undiminished efficiency, and this feeling was emphasized in a letter publicly addressed by the president of the board to his colleagues in the service of national education. The difficulties arising from the war are considered under the fol¬ lowing heads: Depletion of teaching staff. — Up to the 30th of September, 1914, 3,877 men, or 9.2 per cent of the total number of men teachers, had been called to naval or military service and 5 women teachers to the duties of nurse. The great majority of the men were certificated teachers. Since the date named the numbers given have been greatly increased. In the elementary schools the gaps thus occasioned have been filled to a large extent by what are called the reserves of the profession. This includes many qualified teachers who left the service upon marriage and whose offer of service in this emergency has been gladly accepted. Decrease in number of students. — Returns relative to the 34 uni¬ versities and university colleges in England and Wales which are aided by Government grants show that 2,530 full-time students, or about 30 per cent of the total number of men students, had joined the forces by the end of January. In the training colleges for men about 645 out of a total of 1,420 students had joined the forces. It was anticipated that these numbers also would be greatly increased during the spring and summer. In regard to the technical, art, and evening schools which receive grants from the board the loss of students can not be exactly given, but appears to range at points up to 50 per cent and averaging for all these institutions about 25 per cent. Occupation of buildings. — The school buildings occupied for hos¬ pital purposes which involved the transfer or discontinuance of the school activities, as reported in April, 1915, included 60 elementary EDUCATION IN GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND. 679 schools, 17 secondary schools, 9 training colleges, 2 universities, part of one university college, and 4 technical schools. The occupation of school buildings for billeting has varied at different times according to the movements of the troops. The re¬ ports show that the premises of at least 705 elementary school build¬ ings, 33 secondary, 15 technical, and 4 training colleges have been so occupied at different times. So far as possible these exigencies have not been allowed to stop the work of the schools. Provision for special demands . — It was impossible at the time of the report to ascertain the number of Belgian and French children, whose families have taken refuge in England, that had been received into some of the schools within the province of the Board, but it was known that a very large number of such children were happily at work in the schools. The need of forming camp classes for recruits was recognized very early in the war and facilities both for instruc¬ tion and recreation of the soldiers were provided by many local authorities and assisted by voluntary bodies, notably the Young Men’s Christian Association. From a report issued in December, 1914, it appeared that up to that time 41 local education authorities had maintained such classes and were entitled to the special grants offered by the board for this work. Administrative measures. — The necessities of the war have caused various modifications in the conditions laid down by the board upon which various classes of schools share in the Government grant. The exceptional cases affecting the efficiency of elementary schools or training colleges will be taken into account in rewarding the grants, and training colleges and local education authorities have been noti¬ fied that trained teachers who are under an obligation to serve in approved schools for not less than 7 out of the 10 years following the completion of their training, and who proceed on military service, will be allowed to count the period of their military service during the continuance of mobilization toward the fulfillment of their obli¬ gation. Eventually, also, it is proposed to reimburse the schools and universities for loss sustained by the occupation of their buildings. NEW DEMANDS IN EDUCATION. The meetings of educational associations during the year have been marked by forecasts of new demands that must be met as a consequence of the war. In these discussions emphasis has been placed upon the need of larger provision for technical training, and in particular for a large extension in respect to the teaching of mod¬ ern languages and literature. The first of these considerations simply reiterated the convictions that have been pressed upon the 680 EDUCATION REPORT, 1915. attention of Government and local authorities for the last decade. The question of modern languages has been brought into an entirely new relation to educational thought by the events of the war. It formed the chief subject of discussion at the July meeting of the London Education Committee, at which a resolution was moved and adopted that classes for foreign languages and literature should be at once formed in six institutes for young women. At the meeting of the Modern Language Association, held at the University of London in January of the present year, this subject gave the keynote to the inaugural address by the president, Mr. W. W. Vaughan, the master of Wellington College, who said, in part: Besides the stake that we as citizens and teachers have in the war, it touches us still more closely as teachers of French and German. The vast majority of our members have spent weeks and months, possibly years, not as tourists, but as residents in one or other, if not in both, of the countries that are the protagonists in this great war. We, if any, should understand the tragedy of what is happening, and we pay for that complete understanding by a deeper heartache. Some of us have sung “ Deutschland uber alles ” in a German Kneipe. Some have watched from the great Dresden River the Whit-Sunday sun gilding the Saxon highlands. Some have cheered, with their contemporaries, the burning eloquence of the Spanish democrat, Castelar, in the College de France. Some have enjoyed the freedom of the Quartier Latin and tramped with buoyant French students through the forest of Fontainebleau till the boots which were sold to us as students, with price and sole alike reduced, gave us a respectable excuse for calling for a halt and food. Some have felt the spell of Wagner in the opera house at Bayreuth. Some can never forget how they laughed with Jeanne Samary, how they cried with Bartet, how they thrilled at the voice of Got and le Bargy as they listened to Moliere or Racine or Emile Augier in the parterre of the Theatre Franqais. Memories such as these — im¬ perishable sweeteners of national bitterness — have been crowding into my mind while thinking of those days when I tried to qualify as a teacher of modern languages, and therefore as a member of this association ; and as they come in their battalions I find it hard to compose a fitting presidential address. The great subjects that might have appealed to me, if not to you, in an ordinary year seem trivial now. Questions, merely academic, have lost their savor. SCOTLAND. The report of the education department of Scotland for the school year 1914-15 shows that local school boards generally endeavor to carry out the provisions of the education act of 1908 extending the field of their activities. These extensions relate (1) to the enforce¬ ment of compulsory school attendance and the prolongation of the period of school life; (2) to welfare services for promoting the health of children and their social and industrial conditions. Under the first head the report considers particularly the need of adequate school provision in districts presenting exceptional condi¬ tions, such as large cities where unforeseen demands arise from the EDUCATION IN GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND. (S81 influx of workers required for new or increased industries and sparsely populated sections of outlying districts. In cities, apart from the demands created by shifting population, are those arising from the improved standards of sanitation and comfort and the altered conditions of school organization and courses of instruction. Buildings which were regarded as ample and excellent at the time they were built are now condemned because they fall below the re¬ quired standard in regard to lighting and ventilation or do not pro¬ vide facilities for the physical exercises and manual training which have become indispensable. In order to reach the school children in remote districts two methods have been adopted. Under one a teacher is engaged to instruct the children in or near their own homes; in the other case arrangements are made for the conveyance of children to and from school. The latter plan, which has proved successful in the United States, has proved to be nearly impracticable in Scotland, where the children are generally not conveyed daily, but at the beginning and end of the week, thus obliging them to be away from home for five nights in the week. To this plan parents naturally object. With regard to the instruction of children in or near their own homes by a temporary teacher the report says : The arrangement is, at the best, a makeshift ; a certificated teacher is rarely procurable for this class of school, and, generally speaking, it must be admitted that the education given is distinctly inferior, both in quality and quantity, to that which the children would obtain by regular attendance at the ordinary classes of a fully recognized public school. Some improvement in this method of instruction has been secured by increasing the salaries offered to the temporary teachers. It will readily be seen that the conditions explained prevent the complete enforcement of compulsory school attendance; at the same time steady improvement in this particular is reported and clearly indicated by the high percentage of average school attendance. The education law of 1911 fixes 14 years as the age for leaving ele¬ mentary schools. Children above 12 years of age may, however, be exempted from attendance at an earlier age at the discretion of the local school board with the approval of the department. Systematic efforts are made to retain all children up to the leaving age, and longer so far as possible. For this purpose supplementary classes and high schools are established, the programs in both cases pro¬ viding for continuance of the elementary branches with the addition of special subjects having an industrial bias. The supplementary classes reach children who are not able to meet the conditions for admission to the higher grade schools. These classes are most successful in the large cities, and experience shows that the best results are attained by their centralization. In respect 682 EDUCATION REPORT, 1915. to Glasgow, the largest city in Scotland (population 784,500), the official inspector says: In the large town school, and especially in the school in which supplementary work is concentrated or centralized, the problem of classification and differen¬ tial treatment of the pupils is much less complicated, and in some cases, as in the recently opened Onslow Drive School, Glasgow, the provision made for a number of separate classes may even contribute to the rapid promotion of the pupils. * * * It is interesting in this connection to observe that in recent years, while the stream to higher grade schools in Glasgow has practically not varied in volume, there has been the very marked and gratifying increase of no less than 50 per cent in four years in the number of children who have entered supple¬ mentary courses. During the period 1910-1913 the average attendance of pupils in the supplementary courses in Glasgow rose from 4,047 to 6,061 ; at the same time the attendance in higher grade schools remained very nearly stationary, about 2,500. Govan Parish, a suburb of Glasgow, having a population of about 90,000, is following the example of the larger city and as rapidly as possible centralizing the supplementary classes. In Dundee concentration of classes has also proved advantageous. This city or burgh is situated in the northern and highland divisions of Scotland, which form one inspection area comprising 13 counties and a population of 1,021,572 largely rural in character. The school districts of this division are generally small and scattered, and there¬ fore present peculiar difficulties in the way of maintaining the sup¬ plementary classes. Peculiar interest therefore attaches to the re¬ port of one district in this division, comprising North Forfarshire and two smaller counties. With respect to supplementary classes, the inspector reports: According to the returns at the end of the school financial years the per¬ centage of supplementary scholars, to the total enrollment is 9.4 in North For¬ farshire, 10.9 in Shetland, and 11.4 in Kincardineshire. The following table gives ( a ) the number of pupils who left school, (6) the number of these who spent more than one year in a supplementary course, and (c) the percentage of (5) to (a). Statistics of supplementary classes. Counties. (a) Number of pupils who left school. ( ft ) Pupils who spent, more than one year in a supple¬ mentary school. Ratio of («) to (ft). North. Forfarshire. . 601 240 Per cent. 40 Shetland . . . . 403 204 51 Kincardine . 506 256 52 EDUCATION IN GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND. 683 During the past session there has been a further increase in the number of schools in the district in which provision has been made for instruction in prac¬ tical subjects. The progress made in the three sections of the district is shown by the following comparative tables: Number of schools teaching certain practical courses. The subjects for the supplementary classes are indicated by the table already given. In addition the Scotch code requires that every school shall make adequate provision for physical exercises, singing, drawing, nature knowledge, geography, history, and (for girls) sewing, all of which are regarded as auxiliary and to be so conducted that they will not interefere with, but will “ subserve in large degree the purposes of the main instruction in English and arithmetic.” In regard to the relation between the usual branches of elementary instruction and the practical branches which find place in the ex¬ tension courses, the official report says: At no time has primary education been regarded in Scotland as simply a matter of instruction in reading, writing, and arithmetic, and at the present time less than ever is it so regarded. The problem is how to use the various subjects of instruction so as to develop all the faculties of the child, to elicit liis sympathies, regenerate his impulses, cultivate his faculty of observation, exercise his intelligence, and improve his powers of expression. This is a high and difficult art, demanding for its practice thoughtful, devoted, and well- trained teachers. Provided the art be skillfully employed, proficiency in read¬ ing, writing, and arithmetic will be secured as a matter of course, as an inci¬ dental result, within the usual limits of school life in the case of normal chil¬ dren. But to aim at this incidental result-, principally or directly, may well be to stultify the whole educational process without securing more than an evanescent, because mechanical, proficiency in the subjects on which instruction has been concentrated. Still, for practical purposes, reading, writing, and arithmetic may be taken to be the main subjects of instruction in the primary-school curriculum. All the others are to be regarded as auxiliary. That is, they are valuable for the dis¬ cipline they afford and the variety of means they offer for exercising the in¬ telligence of the children, rather than for the amount of positive knowledge or of proficiency acquired, even although that may not be inconsiderable. 684 EDUCATION REPORT, 1915. MEDICAL INSPECTION. Organization of the service. — The service is conducted under the general supervision of Dr. Lewis D. Cruickshank, medical officer of the Scotch education department. The local authorities -directly re¬ sponsible for the work are the county education committees formed in accordance with the education act of 1908. These committees represent the education authorities in each county, including school boards and secondary school and the general health authority for the county, namely, the county council. As a rule the county medical officers of health is at the head of the school-inspection service in his area, and the medical men appointed to carry on the examination of the children and schools are assistants to this officer. In a very few counties the school medical officer is independent of the county medi¬ cal officer of health, but in all counties the health service and the medical inspection are coordinated. The county education com¬ mittees frame schemes for medical inspection which must be ap¬ proved by the department. If a scheme is accepted by a school board, that board receives from the Government one-half of the cost incurred for the medical examination and supervision of the pupils. Assistants. — In connection with the work of medical inspection, 56 school nurses are employed. Of this number, 26 are employed by 12 counties and 30 by 10 cities or towms. With the single exception of Ayr, all the “ burghs ” that have separate schemes of medical inspection now employ nurses. There are also part-time school nurses employed in several counties, and, it is recognized that this branch of the service is of the utmost importance in following up the results of advice given by the medical officers and in the con¬ tinued supervision of defective cases. The success of this service leads to the hope that secondary education committees will make arrangements for the employment of nurses and thus bring about closer relations between schools and homes throughout the country. Invaluable assistance is also rendered by teachers whose attention to the physical well-being of the pupils increases in a most encourag¬ ing manner. They not only take great interest in defective children, but show constantly increasing, appreciation of the careful hygienic supervision of all the children under their charge. The medical officer says : “ It is through the medium of the teacher that we must look for the success of any scheme of school-health administration.” Conduct of the inspection. — The systematic medical inspection of the school children is carried on during the school hours. The attempt is not made to examine all the children annually. Ex¬ perience indicates that such examination three times during school life, together with an examination of all special cases selected by EDUCATION IN GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND. 685 the teachers or the parents, is sufficient to enable the medical officer to detect and keep under supervision all defective children. The great purpose of the service is “to discover those ailments of sub¬ acute or chronic nature that may render the child physically or educationally inefficient.” As a rule, cases of acute illness are easily recognized by parents and teachers and the urgency of such cases usually leads to the necessary medical treatment. Three age periods are selected for systematic inspection, namely: (1) From 5 to 7 years, or “entrants”; (2) from 12 to 14 years, or “leavers”; and (3) an intervening age group taken from about the middle of the school period, or “ intermediates.” Summary for the year. — For the latest year reported (ending July 31, 1913), systematic inspection was applied to 236,169 children, the number of special cases was 158,550, total 414,429 children inspected out of a total average of attendance of 839,049; that is, nearly 41 per cent of the school children were examined by the medical in¬ spectors. The activities of the members of the medical service are indicated by the following examples : In Edinburgh the medical officers, four in number, paid no fewer than 2,480 visits to the schools of the city for the purposes of systematic and special examinations, while the nurses, four in number, paid 2,656 visits to homes in connection with the supervision and “ following up ” of defective cases. In Govan, where a somewhat different procedure is followed, the medical officers paid approximately 1,572 visits to schools, and the nurses 5,800 visits to the homes. In Dundee, 579 visits were paid by the medical officers and 1,251 visits by the nurses during the year. In each of these towns there are also arrangements for the inspection of “ special ” cases at appropriate centers, which are usually known as “ attendance clinics ” or “ inspection clinics.” The above figures do not therefore convey anything more than an approximate idea of the work of the school medical service in the towns. The work in counties is illustrated by the following particulars : In Lanarkshire the medical inspectors, four in number, paid 238 visits to schools for the purpose of systematic inspection, and 472 special visits, while the nurses paid no fewer than 414 visits to homes in connection with ver¬ minous children. In Clackmannan the medical inspector paid approximately 180 visits to schools, and the nurses, three in number, paid 225 visits to schools and 550 visits to homes, in addition to assisting in the work of treatment at the school clinic. In Stirlingshire seven nurses are reported to have paid 4,949 home visits in connection with defective children, and in Linlithgowshire one nurse paid 625 visits to homes. The opinion is expressed that similar activity has been displayed in all the medical inspection districts. The medical officer expresses the opinion that approximately 4 per cent of the school children suffer from defective nourishment, which he regards as the most important cause of general physical and educational inefficiency and its prevention as one of the first and most important steps in child hygiene. The principal causes of mal- 686 EDUCATION REPORT, 1915. nutrition he summarizes as follows: (1) Insufficient or unsuitable food; (2) insanitary surroundings; (3) out-of -school occupation; (4) insufficient sleep ; (5) other causes. Each of the above topics is extensively discussed and illustrated by impressive instances. The conclusions of the medical officer are as follows: With the exception of the relatively small percentage of cases which are the direct result of poverty, it seems evident that the majority of cases of malnutri¬ tion arise from parental ignorance — ignorance of the relative value of foods, ignorance of the value of a clean and wholesome house, ignorance of the value of quiet refreshing sleep, ignorance of the value of play during out-of-school hours. Where parental neglect is the cause the outlook is less hopeful, but neglect is also too frequently the result of ignorance. While education authorities may do a good deal to meet the immediate needs of the situation by providing meals and by regulating the employment of chil¬ dren outside of school hours, and while nurses and school doctors may help by visiting the homes of the school children and giving lectures to the parents, the principal factor in the campaign against physical inefficiency must be edu¬ cational, information must be disseminated through the homes, and the rising generation must have a practical training in the methods of healthy living. But as one medical officer says, “ Education may point the way, but society must make the journey itself.” Following up and treatment . — The report emphasizes the great importance of following up children found defective at the medical inspection, and the difficulties of this part of the service are con¬ sidered in detail. In addition to the medical officer, school nurse, and teacher, the attendance officers and voluntary workers give large assistance in this work. The percentage of defects remedied, treated, or improved given for 29 areas varies from 26.9 per cent in Forfar County to 75 per cent in Ross and Cromarty Counties. School clinics. — During the year school clinics or centers for special treatment were maintained at 14 places, and in addition 159 school boards provided a certain amount of medical treatment. Of this number, 124 made provision for treating defects of vision, 62 for dental treatment, 58 for minor ailments, and 9 for the treatment of ringworm by means of X-rays. In closing this section of the report, the medical officer says : It seems clear that defective vision and defective teeth can not be treated, either economically or efficiently, upon a parochial basis, and the only hope of their successful treatment in the rural districts would appear to rest upon the establishment of efficient organizations under the secondary education com¬ mittees (appointed for counties). EDUCATION IN GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND. 687 IRELAND. CENTRAL AUTHORITIES FOR EDUCATION. Education in Ireland is fostered by public funds which are ad¬ ministered by the following bodies: The commissioners of national education, the intermediate education board, and the department of agriculture and technical instruction. A fourth body, styled the com¬ missioners of education in Ireland, constituted under provisions of the educational endowments (Ireland) act of 1885, is charged with the supervision of education endowments, their management, accounts of schools and boards sharing in them, and the approval of the schemes of education adopted by these schools and boards. The schools themselves may pertain to the national system of elementary edu¬ cation or to the class of intermediate schools. THE COMMITTEE OF INVESTIGATION. The chief complaint that has arisen in connection with the national system of education in Ireland relates to the status of teachers, in¬ cluding their salaries and the system under which they have been graded and promoted. This subject was committed to a special com¬ mittee appointed in January, 1913. This committee consisted of representative men and by the terms of the reference they were directed — To inquire and report whether the rules, regulations, and practice of the com¬ missioners of national education in Ireland with regard to the inspection of schools and to the awarding of increments and promotion to teachers and the methods adopted by the inspectors in carrying out their inspection are condu¬ cive to sound education, to efficiency on the part of the teachers, and to fairness and uniformity in their treatment ; and whether any, and if so what, changes are desirable in the system of inspection ; and also to report upon the relations of the commissioners and their inspectors to the teachers and upon the rules and regulations of the commissioners with regard to the conduct of the teachers, and especially as to whether such rules and regulations unduly restrict the liberty of the teachers in any respect, and whether in any cases some notice of the intention to make new rules should be published, and whether due facilities for appeal and means of access to the board are allowed to the teachers. The investigations and inquiries of the committee were continued for over a year, testimony was heard from persons representing every phase of the question under consideration, and the conclusions of the committee are embodied in a series of recommendations which promise, if adopted, to remove many of the disabilities under which the teachers of Ireland have worked. The liberal spirit of the com¬ mittee is indicated by the final resolution, which is as follows: That in the interests of education in all parts of the country all responsible proposals to vary the program to suit the special circumstances of each locality should be met with a generous as well as a careful and discriminating consid¬ eration. The committee note that in England there is no such thing as a com¬ pulsory subject. 688 EDUCATION REPORT, 1915. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE AND TECHNICAL INSTRUCTION. One of the greatest contributions to the development of public edu¬ cation has been made by Ireland in the system carried on by the de¬ partment of agriculture and technical instruction. The main fea¬ tures of this work as adopted under the direction of Mr. (now Sir) Horace Plunkett are still continued. A central department develops the general plan of action and disburses the Government fund for the work. In respect to agriculture the department has the advice of a council constituted for that branch of the service, and with respect to technical education the advice of a technical instruction board and a consultative committee of education. The income of the department consists of an annual appropriation of £166,000 ($830,000) and the interest on an original endowment of £205,000 ($1,025,000), together with such additional appropriations as are allowed from time to time. The distribution of the funds is deter¬ mined by an act of 1899 [agriculture and technical instruction (Ire¬ land) act]. A few central institutions are maintained by the department, but its great objects, namely, the promotion of scientific agriculture throughout the country and of technical industries under favorable conditions, are pursued by means of a well-developed plan of coop¬ eration with local authorities and agents. This principle is steadily maintained in the educational work of the department. STSTEM OF AGRICULTURAL INSTRUCTION. The principal features of the system of agricultural instruction fostered by the department are as follows: Itinerant instruction, agricultural schools and classes, the training of instructors and teachers, and the maintenance of higher agricultural institutions and experiment stations. These various agencies were all in successful operation throughout the year 1911. The scope of work in charge of the itinerant instructors and its increase over the preceding year are indicated by the following table : Agriculture. Horticulture and beekeeping. Poultry keeping. Butter making. . 1912-13 1913-14 1912-13 1913-14 1912-13 1913-14 1912-13 1913-14 Number of instructors appointed . 45 45 40 41 36 39 35 3 Number of lectures delivered . 627 757 190 126 144 153 131 110 Estimated attendance at lectures . 28,180 37,250 7,600 4,662 10,061 3,256 1,682 1,650 Number of courses conducted . 81 84 0 0 131 139 213 195 Number of students admitted to courses . 1,244 1,281 0 0 1,778 1,801 1,863 1,881 Number of visits to farms, gardens, dairies, etc . 17, 065 19,000 34,815 36,068 15, 167 18,966 6,286 6,754 Number of demonstro/tioii plstts 2 003 2,132 372 360 Number of field experiments 3 760 3 787 1 EDUCATION IN GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND. 689 TRAINING OF TEACHERS. Courses of training for appointments under the schemes of itinerant instruc¬ tion and in agricultural schools and colleges were continued in the agricultural faculty of the Royal College of Science, Dublin, at the Albert Agricultural Col¬ lege, and at the Munster Institute. Arrangements were made to enable students of the Ulster dairy school to complete at that school the course of training for teacherships in agricultural schools for girls. Twenty-one students completed their training during the year and obtained appointments in connection with the agricultural work of the department. No less than 166 students trained at the institutions mentioned are now employed on the department’s staff or as county instructors or teachers. TECHNICAL INSTRUCTION. In accordance with section 16 of the act of 1899, the annual sum of £55,000 allowed for the purposes of technical instruction is to be divided into two parts, one part of which must be distributed, in pro¬ portion to their respective populations, among the county boroughs in aid of approved schemes of technical instruction, and the other part is applicable to schemes of technical instruction elsewhere than in county boroughs and for certain other purposes mentioned in the act, such as the collection of information for the purposes of technical instruction. At the meeting of the board of technical instruction held on May 31, 1912, the question of the fifth triennial division of the funds was considered, and the board unanimously concurred in the department’s proposal that the arrangements made in respect of the fourth trien¬ nial period should be renewed for the fifth triennial period. Accord¬ ingly the allocation of funds for the three years ending March 31, 1915, is as follows: For technical instruction in county boroughs, £26,000; for technical instruction elsewhere than in county boroughs and for central purposes, £29,000. The board therefore controls the expenditure of an annual sum of £29,000, which is applicable for technical instruction elsewhere than in county boroughs and for certain central purposes. The balance of the £55,000, viz £26,000, allocated, with the concurrence of the board, for technical instruction in the six county boroughs, is applied in aid of schemes in these boroughs subject to the approval of the depart¬ ment alone. The year reviewed was marked by extensions of the work, every urban district of importance having framed a scheme for technical instruction approved by the central board. The system of itinerant instruction in domestic economy, manual training, etc., received new impetus from the regulation under which grants are paid for single subjects at a lower rate than those appli¬ cable to courses of instruction. The time seems to have come when 12084° — ed 1915 — vol 1 - 44 690 EDUCATION REPORT, 1915. the county schemes must be intrusted to organizing secretaries having qualifications for the work and able to devote their whole time to it. The' department insisted upon the employment of such a secretary in a particular county during the year, and will undoubtedly adopt this as a settled policy as rapidly as circumstances permit. Progress is also reported in the work of the organized technical schools in county boroughs and urban districts, an effect, apparently, of the increased adaptation of the courses of instruction to local needs and the system of examinations recently adopted. Special difficulty is experienced in the effort to maintain technical schools in small centers. In this connection the report says : One of the disadvantages under which we labor is due to the absence of the industrial atmosphere that characterizes and encourages the efforts of technical educators in other Countries. A youth not unnaturally seeks to know how he can apply the knowledge he acquires in the technical school. In this connection it is encouraging that employers are taking greater interest in the work of technical schools than was formerly the case. Undoubtedly much more requires to be done in this direction. The strain thrown upon young employees who work during the day and attend the technical school for several hours on several evenings in the week is considerable. The instruction they receive is certainly such as to make them more efficient and more valuable to their employers, and these should be prepared to bear their share of the strain. * * * In parts of the country, as, for example, County Cork, the smaller technical schools are without responsible head teachers, the work being done by traveling teachers, who undertake instruction in a group of schools. Such a system has in many cases been the only possible arrangement in the past. Its drawbacks, however, are obvious. Not only is it difficult or impossible to secure local enthusiasm for a school worked wholly by visiting teachers, but “ intensive ” organization is impossible. For the due development of many of these schools we must look forward to the appointment of responsible teachers for each school. The opinion is expressed that the only satisfactory remedy for these difficulties would be a compulsory-attendance law applicable to both employees and apprentices. The arrangements for training teachers carried out by the co¬ operation of the department with the national education board and local technical committees have been extended during the year. Recently the department have undertaken the training of national teachers in rural science (including school gardening), and by ar¬ rangement with the national board have undertaken the inspection of this subject wherever taught in the national schools. EDUCATION IN GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND. G91 CENTRAL INSTITUTION. The Royal College of Science for Ireland completed its forty- seventh annual session in June, 1914. This institution comprises both technical and agricultural departments, and during the year under review took possession of new buildings which provide for the extension of many branches of the college work which were in need of necessary accommodation and up to date apparatus. The engineering division has been supplied with the most recent ma¬ chines, engines, and testing appliances and is now very completely equipped. The plant of the chemical division has also been greatly extended. The total registration of students in the year was 133, including 49 in the agricultural faculty. The summer course of instruction maintained in the interests of teachers of secondary and technical schools was attended by 397 students. ■ - ■ - CHAPTER XXX. EDUCATION IN THE SCANDINAVIAN COUNTRIES. Contents. — Introduction. Sweden : Current interests — Primary education — Secondary and higher education. Norway : Distinction between rural and urban schools — Course of primary study — Continuation and high schools. Denmark : Special agencies of education — Welfare services — Relation to school hygiene — Sanatoriums and open- air colonies — School lunches — Public gardens for children — School gardens — Public playgrounds, swimming pools, gymnasiums, etc. — School excursions — A school associ¬ ation. INTRODUCTION. The Scandinavian countries are all characterized by the complete¬ ness of their educational provision and the attention paid to prac¬ tical training without the sacrifice of cultural ideals. Primary educa¬ tion is compulsory in the three Kingdoms referred to, covering the period 7 to 14 years of age; its enforcement is facilitated by the combination of official agencies, parental interests, and the adapta¬ tion of schools to the industrial needs and social conditions of differ¬ ent classes of pupils. At the opening of the European war, measures were pending in both Sweden and Xorway looking to improvements in the general scheme of elementary education through an extension and readjustment of the provision for training teachers. The seri¬ ous purposes of the two Governments in this matter were indicated by the increased appropriations for elementary education. Although not directly involved in the war. its effects in these neutral coun¬ tries are indicated by the interruption of many plans looking to the general welfare, including those relating to education. The following particulars relate to current conditions in the separate Kingdoms, as reflected in official documents and periodicals : SWEDEN. The educational system of Sweden was described in detail in the Commissioner’s report for 1913 1 and a survey of more recent, activi¬ ties in the report for 1914.2 By reference to these accounts it will be seen that the development of the elementary schools, and more 1 Vol. 1, chap. 33, Current Educational Movements in Sweden, by Dr. N. G. W. Lager- stedt. 2 Chap. 32. 693 694 EDUCATION" REPORT, 1915. particularly that of the normal schools, in view of modern condi¬ tions has become in Sweden, as in other countries, a matter of great interest. The entire province of teacher training was the subject of investigation by a royal committee which was appointed, in 1906 and continued its investigations down to 1911. As a result of the report of this body, three Government bills were laid before the Riksdag in 1913. The bill relating to the improvement of normal schools or teachers’ training colleges was passed essentially as submitted, and its provisions have occupied the attention of the teachers’ associa¬ tions and educational j ournals down to the present time. PRIMARY EDUCATION. Primary instruction is given in the lower schools (smaskolor), having two or three classes, or in the ordinary primary schools (folkskolor) , having three or four classes; and in some districts in schools combining the lower section and the more extended sec¬ tion. Intermediate between these two classes of schools are special schools for children living in isolated villages or on farms. These schools, which may be ambulatory, are found almost exclusively in the districts of the extreme north. In the larger cities the primary schools are generally completed by upper grades comprising from five to eight classes. For children who only finish the obligatory period of four years, continuation courses are maintained for six months in the year. Attendance upon the latter, as also upon the higher division of the primary schools, is optional. Distinct from the primary schools, properly so called, there are also higher primary schools which generally offer courses of prac¬ tical training differing slightly in that respect from the higher grades of the schools with eight or nine classes. As a rule a separate teacher is employed for every class both in the lower primary schools and in the complete primary schools. At the end of 1912 the number of primary schools of the various classes indicated above was 15,345, of which 1,568 were ambulatory schools and 33 organized as higher primary schools. The total num¬ ber of teachers was 20,634, of whom 5,927, or 28x7q per cent, were men. The number of children of school age (7 to 14 years) was 892,327 ; of this total 774,873, 86x8q per cent, were enrolled in the various classes of primary schools. The children attending secondary schools, schools for special classes, private schools, or instructed at home raise the total number under instruction to 819,438. The remaining number, 72,889, includes 51,518 who had finished the obligatory course of instruction; 3,269 sick or infirm; 14,408 were temporarily prevented from attending school by family conditions, including poverty, extreme distance from school, etc. The close su¬ pervision of the school population shows that only 3,694 children, EDUCATION IN THE SCANDINAVIAN COUNTRIES. GO 5 5^ per cent, were without instruction. The total expenditure for primary education was 44,788,092 crowns ($12,003,208). Of the total the State contributed 28 per cent ; the remainder was provided by local authorities. SECONDARY AND HIGHER EDUCATION. The principle of adaptation, which is clearly shown in the classi¬ fication of primary schools, is equally marked in the provision for secondary education. The schools of this order comprise the lower secondary school (realskola) which has four one-year classes and leads to the higher secondary school examination (studentexamen). The course of the higher secondary school (gymnasium) comprises four years in continuance of the fifth year of the realskola. Thus the complete course of the higher secondary schools covers nine years of study. The gymnasium itself is divided into two parallel sec¬ tions, one a Latin section, the other modem. In 1913 there were 77 public secondary schools, 39 belonging to the lower class (realskola), and 38 to the higher. Of the latter, 4 offered only the Latin course, 7 only the modern course, and 27 were organized with par¬ allel sections. The registration in both classes of secondary schools was 24,129. Of this number about 73 per cent were in the lower schools, 15 per cent in the modern section of the gymnasium, and 12 per cent in the Latin course. The universities were attended in 1913 by 3,734 students; 2,419 at Upsala; 1,315 at Lund. There are also a State faculty of medicine in Stockholm (395 students) and private universities in Stockholm (philosophical and law faculties with 675 students and 97 auditors) and Goteborg (philosophical faculty with 224 students). The growing importance of increased provision for technical and commercial education led to the appointment of the technical com¬ mission already referred to and measures are pending for increasing the number of schools of this order. NORWAY. DISTINCTION BETWEEN RURAL AND URBAN SCHOOLS. The special need of government intervention and support in re¬ spect to rural schools has been recognized in Norway by making them the subject of laws and regulations distinct from those appli¬ cable to urban schools. The official statistics continue the distinction and thus emphasize the principle of local adaptation. F or the latest year reported (1910) the elementary rural schools numbered 5,987, with 280,121 pupils and 5,838 teachers (men, 4,297; women, 1,541). The urban schools wTere organized in 3,241 classes, with 96,602 pupils and 2,725 teachers (men, 923; women, 1,802). 696 EDUCATION REPORT, 1915. The expenditure for both classes of public schools amounted to Kr. 15,845,302 (about four and one-fourth million dollars). Of this total Kr. 8,972,666 (a little more than two and one-half million dol¬ lars) went to the rural schools. Thus it appears that the public rural schools in 1910 enrolled 74 per cent of all elementary pupils, employed 68 per cent of the teachers, and expended 56 per cent of the public funds allowed for the service. These proportions differ little from those of 1905.1 As regards the number of years, the period of compulsory school attendance is the same for all schools. The period of annual attendance, however, is much shorter in the country than in the cities. Recent efforts of the Government have been particu¬ larly directed to extending the school life of country children and improving the qualifications of rural teachers. The adaptation of the rural schools to the conditions of country life is accomplished in two ways: (1) By the organization of a school in two or more classes attending separately; (2) by means of ambulatory schools. The former arrangement makes it possible to meet the needs of children of varying degrees of advancement or differing in industrial needs. Ambulatory schools are for the chil¬ dren of isolated farms, the traveling teacher passing from one to an¬ other according to a fixed schedule. In 1910 the schools of 4,380 dis¬ tricts were organized in sections for separate classes corresponding to half-time schools in the United States. There were also 91 ambula¬ tory schools reported. The remaining district schools, 1,607 in num¬ ber, were conducted as full-time schools. The period of compulsory school attendance covers the ages 6J to 14 in rural districts as against 7 to 14 in the cities; the annual term in the country school, however, is only from 12 to 15 weeks against 40 weeks in the cities. A large proportion of the children (52 per cent) in 1910 attended the rural school for the shortest period ; the average number of days of school attendance for each pupil in the country was 73.8 as against 235 days for each pupil in urban schools. The corresponding figures for 1905 were 72 days for the rural pupil and 231.3 for the urban. Distinction between rural and urban schools is indicated by the difference in the salaries of the teachers, which is the more noticeable because practically all the teachers have special preparation for their work. For instance, in 1910, of the whole number of rural teachers only 118 (66 men, 52 women) had not secured the State diploma. In the cities the annual salaries, as reported in 1910, ranged for men from 1,200 crowns ($321) to 5,200 crowns ($1,393), and for women from 800 crowns ($214.40) to 2,150 crowns ($576.20) ; for the rural schools the average salary only was reported, namely, 935 crowns ($250), an increase of 204 crowns ($54.67) since 1905. 1 The statistics are published quinqueunially. EDUCATION IN THE SCANDINAVIAN COUNTRIES. 097 The particulars given show plainly the need of improvement in the system of primary education. A movement in this direction was begun by the law of 1909, effective January 1, 1910, which pro¬ vided for the increase of all salaries with a further augmentation after a certain term of service. This law also raised the contribu¬ tion from the State treasury for this purpose from 33 to 45 per cent of the amount locally raised for salaries. For the year 1914 the State appropriated 4,400,000 crowns ($1,258,400). Of this amount a little more than one-half, 2,340,000 crowns, was assigned to rural schools. The obligatory subjects of instruction are the same for all primary schools. They include religion, Norwegian, arithmetic, writing, geography, history, natural sciences, and singing. Every school is obliged also to furnish instruction in manual work, physical exer¬ cises, or drawing. Provision is also made for optional branches, which are taught in extra hours. In 1910 about one-fifth of the pupils in rural schools availed themselves of this provision. As regards the language of instruction, it is stated that in 1910, 4,630 districts had adopted the ordinary language (riksmaal) ; the remaining 1,360 districts used the literary language (landsmaal). CONTINUATION AND HIGH SCHOOLS. Endeavors were also made to increase the number of continua¬ tion schools and county (amt) high schools accessible to children in the country, and to adapt the courses of instruction to their special requirements. The number of county high schools having subventions from the State in 1910, was 63, of which 25 were pri¬ vate. These schools are all coeducational and have courses of in¬ struction lasting from six to seven months in the year. Short courses of two to three months are also arranged for young women. The enrollment in the year referred to was 2,996 (1,630 boys, 1.366 girls). Continuation schools were also maintained in connection with 182 rural schools. The courses offered were followed by 1,893 boys and 1,071 girls. While the need of equalizing school provision for country and city children is apparent, the instruction is so excellent that illiteracy is practically eliminated from the Kingdom. Great attention has also been paid in Norway to industrial or vocational education. The schools of this class, however, have recently been placed under the department of agriculture and do not come within the scope of the report here considered. Liberal provision is also made for secondary education leading to specialized courses of the university of Christiania. The road to these higher advantages is open to all classes of the people. 698 EDUCATION REPORT, 1915. DENMARK. SPECIAL AGENCIES OF EDUCATION. The system of education in Denmark and its main features have been the subject of extended accounts in recent publications of this office. Attention has been particularly called to the Danish folk high schools, maintained by private enterprise and State subsidies, which have had a remarkable effect in preserving among the country people the spirit of patriotism and the sense of their public relations and responsibilities. Extended accounts have also been given of the agencies for promoting scientific agriculture and distributive coopera¬ tion. It is recognized that these agencies have depended for their success upon the general intelligence of the people. Public efforts in Denmark, however, have not been limited to the elements of industrial prosperity and the means of intellectual development, the physical well-being of the people has also been a subject of great interest. WELFARE SERVICES. Relation to school hygiene. — The service of school hygiene and medical inspection in Denmark is supplemented by various agencies concerned in the ^welfare of the home and the continued promotion of the health of the young after the school period is completed. The school physician and sanitary expert act as intermediaries between the school, the home, physicians, hospitals, and other institutions. The agencies for promoting the physical well-being of children out¬ side of school include sanatoriums for scrofulous and tubercular chil¬ dren, fresh air colonies for anaemic and underfed children, and char¬ itable societies and institutions for the care of poor and needy chil¬ dren while they attend school. Of the entire population of Denmark (two and one-half million) nearly one-third live in Copenhagen, where all forms of poverty are encountered. Naturally, here, too, are located the principal charitable institutions for the care of children. As the winters in Denmark are humid and not adapted to outdoor sports as in Norway and Sweden, efforts for giving poor and sickly city children the benefits of out¬ door life are necessarily limited to the summer months. Sanatoriums and open-air colonies. — The maritime hospital of Refsnses is so organized that the children admitted may be kept out of doors whenever possible. For those too feeble for such exposure open balconies are provided where they lie and breathe the tonic air of the sea. The open-air treatment is combined with good food, regu¬ lar walks, and other exercises. For children who remain long, school instruction with appropriate gymnastics is provided ; manual work, carpentry, brushmaking, etc., are also taught, the purpose being to amuse and divert the children while their minds and bodies are developed. Similar in organization are the maritime hospital EDUCATION IN THE SCANDINAVIAN COUNTRIES. 099 of Juelsminde and the maritime sanatorium f< i* scrofulous children of the commune of Fredericksburg. The movement for establishing open-air colonies was started in Copenhagen in 1905 by private effort and has become the object of four or five flourishing societies. Among them is a colony founded by the journal Politiken , of Copenhagen, and a second by the public- school teachers of the city. The colonies have steadily developed and accommodate at present about 500 children every year. School lunches. — The work of providing school lunches at a very small cost, or free if necessary, is carried on very systematically in Copenhagen. It was started by a public school teacher whose sym¬ pathies were excited by the appearance of poor children in her own classes, and at present is maintained by several societies. The city grants subsidies for this work, and the King and Queen both contribute liberally to its support. It is estimated that in the winter about IT per cent of the school children of Copenhagen are thus nourished. Other societies give aid in the way of clothing and shoes. F rom Copenhagen this charitable work has spread to other cities of the Kingdom. Public gardens for children. — In agreement with the idea of Froebel that a child should be educated according to the natural faculties and tendencies, 12 public gardens for children are main¬ tained by local societies. The majority of the gardens are situated in the suburbs of Copenhagen; instruction is given in them four hours daily (ordinarily from 9 to 1 p. m.) by women teachers specially prepared in the Froebel Normal School. Children from 3 to 6 years of age are admitted to the gardens, and mothers may come with them, bringing their sewing and similar work. Meetings of the parents are also held when lectures are given on educational subjects and the care of children. School gardens. — The Danes are an agricultural people and the idea of school gardens has been adopted by them with great en¬ thusiasm, State, commune, and private citizens all cooperating for its promotion. Each pupil receives a plat to cultivate; the teacher furnishes the seeds and plants, gives advice, and maintains order. Special lectures in agriculture prepare teachers for the work. The children go to their gardens regularly at appointed times each week, without compulsion; if, however, a child is absent a certain number of times he loses his plat of ground. The main point, and that which constitutes the attraction of the garden, is the sense of being a cultivator and proprietor, for all that is raised belongs to the young gardener. This healthful and easy work imparts new im¬ pressions to the children and a taste for simple pleasures. It is for them a “return to nature.” Public playgrounds , swimming pools , gymnasiums , etc. — The Playground Society of Copenhagen, founded in 1891, receives aid 700 EDUCATION REPORT, 1915. from the city. Through its efforts places in the public parks of the city are generally reserved for the sports of children, and also in the large athletic park which was opened to the public in 1908. Swimming is universally taught and is compulsory in 18 public schools of the capital. Ample facilities for this exercise are provided even in small communes.' Besides instruction in gymnastics in the public schools, voluntary societies are formed throughout the King¬ dom for encouraging the practice of shooting and gymnastic exercises. There are at least 200 gymnasiums in Denmark, maintained at an aver¬ age annual expenditure of about 6,500 crowns ($1,700). In 1907 the legislature passed a law providing that one-half the cost of gymna¬ siums created by the communes should be borne by the Government. School excursions. — School excursions are arranged for periods of two to eight days, and even for longer periods. In the latter case they become extended itineraries into adjoining countries, occupying two or three weeks. Generally 30 boys, accompanied by three or four professors, make up the excursion party; they travel on foot or by bicycles. One of the main purposes of these excursions is to give the boys familiarity with matters that can not be learned at school, such as the operations of industrial establishments, works of art, etc., all of which are explained by the professors in an informal way, the pedagogical results of the excursions being considered more important even than the physical exercise. For the smaller boys and for girls, vacation excursions to the country are arranged, or longer visits when the children may remain from four to five weeks, living in families which offer them hospitality. Excursions to the capital city, lasting from one to four days, are fostered by a society which receives a grant from the Government. A school association. — The Voluntary Union of Boys is the most notable of school societies and resembles both in its organization and purposes the Boy Scouts. The union brings together boys of all classes; all submit to the same discipline; smoking and the use of alcoholic drinks are prohibited. Boys are admitted from the age of 11 to 12 and are advanced each year to a higher grade or class. Every 15 days each section meets to sing, hold conferences, or hear instructive lectures. This association promotes gymnastics and walking exercises, row¬ ing and swimming, and extended excursions. Several sections have ambulance classes for instruction in first aid to the sick and injured. The society has 45 branches in different parts of Denmark; the membership is about 6,000. The underlying principle of all hygenic efforts in the interests of the youth of Denmark, whether related directly to the schools or carried out by agencies outside of the school, is that of assuring the future welfare of the Kingdom by protecting and providing for the rising generation. CHAPTER XXXI. SIGNIFICANT EVENTS IN THE COUNTRIES OF WESTERN AND CENTRAL EUROPE. GENERAL CONDITIONS. Since the breaking out of hostilities in August, 1914, no compre¬ hensive reports dealing with education have been published in the countries of western and central Europe involved in the war. The current educational journals in all the countries referred to are al¬ most entirely given over to discussions of the struggle and records of the devotion and bravery of students and teachers who have gone to the front and the roll of the honorable dead whom their surviving comrades pledge themselves to keep in perpetual memory. Under these circumstances it must suffice to note here significant events and activities pertaining to education that occurred in the scholastic year 1914-15. FRANCE. SIGNIFICANT EVENTS. The budget for the minister of public instruction in France for the year 1914 carried a total of 345,040,345 francs (in round numbers $69,000,000), not including 21,526,064 francs ($4,300,000) for fine arts. The estimates for education proper exceed those for 1913 by above $7,000,000, irrespective of a special grant of 168,000 francs ($33,000) to be used in relief of men of letters disabled by the war and in aid of the widows and minor orphans of teachers who have given their lives for their country. Of the total amount for edu¬ cation proper above 77 per cent was for the service of primary instruction. Great efforts have been made during the year to maintain and in¬ crease the attendance upon elementary schools as a means of guard¬ ing children against the dangers arising from the disturbed con¬ dition of nearly all communities. These efforts seem to have been successful in respect to the children of very tender years, but in¬ dustrial necessities have forced a large proportion of the older boys and girls of school age to take up work in shops, on farms, etc. It need hardly be said that the majority of professors and students in the higher institutions and in the upper classes of the secondary schools have been called to the seat of conflict. 701 702 EDUCATION DEPORT, 1915. According to a report of April, 1915, 134 colleges in France out of a total of 200 (not including those of the Academy of Lille) had been occupied for hospital purposes either wholly or in part. It was therefore necessary to provide temporary accommodations for the pupils, which was accomplished by the hearty efforts of the com¬ munal authorities and private citizens and associations. At the same time it was reported that the places of a large propor¬ tion of professors who were serving in the army were supplied from various sources. Professors that had been retired on account of age were called back to the service, and in places where there were col¬ leges for young girls the women professors assisted freely in the classes of the colleges for boys. The same willingness to serve was shown by men in various lines of professional life who had passed the age for service in the army. Engineers became professors of mathematics, and pharmacists and dentists professors of chemistry and natural sciences, and lawyers and judges revived their classical studies and took classes in Latin and history. In a few cases young university students also gave their services as teachers in the colleges and pursued their studies in the evenings. The annual meeting of the Institute of France convened under the presidency of Dr. Paul-Emile Appell, one ‘of the most distinguished scientific men of Europe. In his inaugural address Dr. Appell char¬ acterized as follows the extraordinary circumstances under which the meeting was held. He said : The greatest honor of which a savant can dream is that of presiding at a pub¬ lic session of the Institute of France, that illustrious society which among all groups of academies existing in different countries presents a unique feature of uniting in one letters, arts and sciences, grace, beauty, truth — a union essen¬ tially French, a characteristic of the genius of our nation. By chance it has happened that under circumstances the most tragic which the modern world has known this presidency is occupied by an Alsatian, a citi¬ zen of Strassburg. Thus Alsace finds itself in the person of one of its sons in the first place in this august assembly. For three months our country has been engaged in a gigantic drama without precedent in the history of the world ; this has brought into a desperate struggle two opposite conceptions of the future civilization of our planet, this little globe lost in space whose ephemeral inhabitants have nothing to live for apart from that vision of the ideal which they carry in their souls. Among the scientific events of the year which were specially noted by Dr. Appell were the following : The unveiling of the monument of our colleague, Marcy, one of those men to whom modern physiology owes so much. The construction by French physicists of a huge electromagnet, in which the intensity and dimensions of the field were to be much greater than those of the most powerful apparatus in current use. Struck with the importance of this work the council of the Faculty of Science of Paris contributed a sum of 50,000 francs to SIGNIFICANT EVENTS IN WESTERN AND CENTRAL EUROPE. 703 its support, and Prince Bonaparte, who has always responded gener¬ ously to every demand of this nature, secured the appointment of an official committee to study the conditions necessary for the comple¬ tion of this undertaking. The results of the consideration of this study were summed up by Dr. Appell as follows: Without quoting any uames, the conclusions may be summarized thus: It is desirable that an important laboratory of magnetic research should be created ; this laboratory should be placed under the patronage of the academy and ad¬ ministered by the University of Paris; in this laboratory should be installed the most powerful electromagnets of the types chosen. The opening address was followed by an eloquent discourse by M. Henri Bergson, president of the Academy of Moral and Political Sciences, who traced the movement of the German mind from the idealism of Kant to the influences which have precipitated the present struggle. The union of Latin countries was celebrated with brilliant cere¬ mony at the Sorbonne, February 12, 1915, under the direction of M. Paul Deschanel, the president of the French Chamber of Deputies. In his opening address M. Deschanel characterized as follows the nations represented in that assembly : Here in our ancient Sorbonne behold the Latin family reunited. First, the eldest, the grand initiator, Greece, source of all light, Pallas Athene, who saved European civilization from Asiatic barbarism ; then Italy, who saved it from the African invasion — Italy, which sends us to-day its great historian, its great poet, its great soldier Ferrero, who vivifies history by sociology, pictures the men of antiquity as if they were alive, and recently celebrating at the capitol the anniversary of the foundation of Rome, evoked with pious fervor the Latin tradition ; d’Annunzio, the fervent poet of the Eternal City, born upon the shores of the Adriatic and mourning Trieste exiled ; Ric- ciotti Garibaldi, whom Paris honors to-day, whose father fought in 1859 in the Alps while we were struggling at Magenta and Solferino ; Ricciotti Garibaldi, who has generously given for us his own son. Then our other sister, glorious Spain, the soul of chivalry, teacher of valor and honor, represented here by its courageous romancer, Blasco Ibanez ; and Portugal, who also has borne to distant shores the ardor of the Latin spirit. Belgium and Roumania were included in similar characteriza¬ tions, and the Latin countries were described as a “ family united in its magnificent diversity, united to-day because the ancient rivalry between the Latin peoples has no longer reason for existence, the shadows have disappeared, all the interests are united.” SWITZERLAND. NATIONAL EXPOSITION AT BERNE. In the summer of 1914 a national exposition was held at Berne, Switzerland, to celebrate and exploit the progress of the nation. An important feature of the exposition was the educational exhibit 704 EDUCATION REPORT, 1915. which set, forth in a very striking manner the chief elements of national strength in the confederation. Deprived of great natural resources, this country has succeeded by its determination and in¬ genuity in creating national industries which have secured for it an important place in the world’s trade. These industries have been fostered and developed by the aid of industrial and technical schools. More important yet are the social institutions for mutual aid and succor and the labor legislation and bureaus which are worthy of imitation by all other countries. In few countries of the world is public education so highly developed, but the dangers of official routine have been avoided by the encouragement everywhere given to private initiative, fo rit is in private schools that scientific educa¬ tion finds a fruitful field for its experiments and new departures. One of the most instructive divisions of the educational exhibit referred to was that in which the private schools were displayed. Among the collections that excited special attention were a series of charts contributed by the College of Geneva, illustrating the use of pictures in the teaching of literature. They included movable pic¬ tures comprising portraits, caricatures, views of buildings, costumes, monuments, etc., relating to the author or the period studied. In this collection naturally pictures relating to Rousseau were promi¬ nent. The scientific college of Lausanne contributed a collection formed by the pupils themselves, illustrating the development of artistic glassware. Similar collections were shown by other schools, indicating the manner in which the pupils are induced to develop the subjects that they are studying by illustrative collections. The prevailing interest in educational psychology was indicated by mono¬ graphs from different institutions treating of modern psychological methods and features. Among the subjects thus elaborated were the tests of Binet and Simon, experimental tests of memory, and psy¬ chologic observation of pupils from 12 to 15 years of age. Gymnastic training, which has been carried to high perfection in Swiss schools, was illustrated by a chart from the secondary school of the Canton Thurgovia, and a program of school excursions by a chart from the school for boys in Fribourg. The Society for the Promotion of Manual Training made a graphic exhibit of its admirable methods as applied to pupils of dif¬ ferent ages in the schools for both general and vocational education. A NOTABLE INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE. One of the most remarkable meetings held during the year was the International Conference of Socialist Women, which convened at Berne in March, 1915. It is a forecast of the new responsibilities that are coming to women as a consequence of the war. SIGNIFICANT EVENTS IN WESTERN AND CENTRAL EUROPE. 705 The meeting furnished an occasion for reviewing the measures planned and carried out by organized bodies of women for meeting present social exigencies in the several nations. In these efforts teachers have been especially active; their knowledge of the child population has enabled them to direct relief services in the most practical and economical manner, while at the same time their pro¬ fessional training has been of great value in the work of instructing women of the humbler classes in various forms of remunerative labor. The conference called together representative women from the neutral States of Holland, Italy, and Switzerland, and from the belligerent countries, England, France, Germany, and Russia. Reso¬ lutions were passed denouncing war and calling for a solid basis of peace. EDUCATION FOR COLONIAL SERVICE AND ACTIVITIES. In that era of expansion which preceded the catastrophe of war and which found its highest expression in scientific researches and their practical applications to social and industrial activities which promised to bind all men together by the sense of their common humanity and needs, preparation for colonial service and activities occupied the attention of humanitarians and statesmen in the leading countries of Europe. This interest led in several quarters to an ex¬ amination of the existing agencies for this special purpose. The im¬ portance of the subject has been enhanced by the war and it still holds a place in public discussions of future Government policies. A brief consideration of existing centers for this work may, there¬ fore, well claim attention. Although the colonial possessions of the British Government greatly exceed those under any other power, England has no insti¬ tution devoted entirely to the preparation of candidates for service in the colonies. The need of such an institution, particularly in the interests of the Indian Empire, has been prominent in discussions and projects for the organization of Eondcn University and was fore¬ shadowed by tlie establishment of the Imperial Institute. At present the higher civil administration of British India is re¬ cruited from the following sources: (1) Open competitive exami¬ nation in England; (2) the Indian army; (3) the patronage of the secretary of state ; (4) the patronage of the local governments. The universities and higher technical schools of Great Britain and Ire¬ land bear a part in the preparation of candidates for this service. At Oxford there is a special delegacy for superintending the instruction of India civil-service candidates, and one of the most important adjuncts of the university is the India Institute, which has a corps 12034° — ed 1915 — vol 1 - 45 706 EDUCATION REPORT, 1915. of curators all of whom are specialists in some one of the depart¬ ments in which are comprised the collections of the institute. At Cambridge a board of Indian civil-service studies is consti¬ tuted, the principal function of which is — to provide from time to time, for Indian civil-service students resident at Cambridge, such assistance in preparing for their final examinations, and also such special supervision, as they may think necessary, applying for that pur¬ pose such funds as may be assigned to them from time to time by the senate. Trinity College, Dublin, is on the list of institutions in which se¬ lected candidates for the civil service of India are permitted to reside during their year of probation which follows the passage of the open competition examination for the Indian civil service. During this period the students at Trinity have facilities for completing their studies in Oriental languages and Indian law and history. In France provision for the preparation of men for colonial service has grown out of the passion for knowledge which developed in the early part of the eighteenth century and which led to the establish¬ ment of highly specialized schools. Among these were the School of Living Oriental Languages, the Museum of Natural History, a great school of research equipped with facilities for instruction and investigation in every department of organic and inorganic matter, and the Ecole Pratique des Hautes Etudes, which in the departments of history, philology, and the section on religion added in 1885, pro¬ moted comparative study of the sciences relating to the social and spiritual development of the human race. These schools were main¬ tained in the interests of savants and not for administrators, directors of industry, or agriculturists. The more recent extension of the uni¬ versities by means of faculties, laboratories, libraries, etc., has vastly multiplied the provision for these various orders of specialized study. The possession of Algiers awakened the French Government to the importance of the practical preparation of young men for the development of that tropical country, but provision for this purpose was directed to preparation for the climatic conditions and changed environment and for the direction of agricultural enterprises. The modern colonial policy of France originated with Jules Ferry, min¬ ister of foreign affairs from 1883 to 1885, and represented in Indo- China by Paul Bert, governor general. Under this administration a system of education for the natives was organized, having for one of its purposes their preparation for official positions ; in 1885 a com¬ pany of young Cambodians specially selected was sent to the Ecole Coloniale at Paris in order that they might be prepared for public service upon their return. The school, which is maintained in part by subventions from the State, has had large development in the last decade, and at present comprises sections for the study of matters pertaining to Indo-China and to Africa, including special courses SIGNIFICANT EVENTS IN WESTERN AND CENTRAL EUROPE. 707 in penitentiary administration and the customary forms of native civil tribunals. Among other centers in F ranee affording a high order of prepara¬ tion and the direction and administration of colonial affairs and enterprises should be mentioned the colonial institutes auxiliary to the Universities of Bordeaux and Nancy; the Institute of Colonial Medicine at the University of Paris and the School of Colonial Medicine of the University of Marseille; the Higher School of Co¬ lonial Agriculture at Nogent-sur-Marne and the Colonial Schools of Agriculture at Tunis and Phillipeville in Algeria. The higher commercial school at Paris (Ecole des Hautes Etudes commerciales), which requires the same preparation for admission as the universi¬ ties, includes an important section of colonial commerce. In the development of this work in France there was a noticeable lack of attention to administrative science. This deficiency was met by the establishment at Paris of the Ecole Libre des Sciences Poli- tiques, which from the first directed its efforts toward this higher purpose, emphasizing in its program the matters relating to colonial conditions. The course of study for the colonial section is compre¬ hensive and the scope of each subject precisely defined. The school was founded by M. E. Boutmy, and includes in its faculty many dis¬ tinguished French pubilicists and economists, among them Pierre Leroy-Beaulieu, R. Georges Levy, Rene Pinon, and Emile Bourgeois. The colonial possessions of the Dutch in Malaysia form the great¬ est empire of dependent people in the world, excepting only that of the British Empire in India. The preparation of officials for the East Indian administration and of managers for plantations, etc., has long occupied the attention of the Netherlands Government; measures recently adopted for the education of the, natives of East India have increased the services for which special preparation is required. The Polytechnic School at Delft has been distinguished by the number of its graduates who have been appointed to posts in the East Indies. These young men generally complete their preparation by a post-graduate course of two or three years in the school main¬ tained at Leyden for this special work. Here they are taught the Java, Malay, and Boegine languages. This institution is under the direct control of the minister of the interior, and the head master and teachers are appointed by the sovereign. The State Agricultural College at Wageningen offers a thorough course in colonial agricul¬ ture, which is intended for students who desire to go out to the East Indies as assistants or managers of great plantations and who re¬ quire, in addition to the knowledge of the products to be cultivated and marketed, i. e., sugar, coffee, tea, etc., an elementary knowledge of colonial laws and customs. 708 EDUCATION REPORT, 1915. In 1892 the Government organized a complete system of education in the East India possessions, which includes two divisions, one for the colonists modeled upon the home system and the other for the natives. An important feature of the system of native education is the estab¬ lishment of training schools for native officials. As a rule these schools include a normal department for training native teachers, and a higher section, with courses in jurisprudence, public and ad¬ ministrative law of the Indies, political economy, land surveying, waterways, etc. In 1909 a professional school intended to prepare native magistrates was opened at Batavia. The last event in the history of colonial education in the Nether¬ lands is the establishment of a university of commerce at Rotter¬ dam, which was opened with imposing ceremonies on November 8, 1913. The university offers extended courses of training for consular and diplomatic examinations and has already applied to the Govern¬ ment for the right of instituting a doctorate in commercial science. This will be open also to students taking the course mentioned. The university is maintained by private funds. The Hamburg Colonial Institute, Germany, was founded in 1913 largely through the efforts of citizens whose wealth and enterprise gave Germany a place among colonial powers. The project for rais¬ ing this institute to the university plane has been delayed, but in its equipment for its specialties and in the scheme of study it is unsur¬ passed. The elaborate scope of instruction may be indicated by an outline of the main subjects comprised in the fourth year of study. These are as follows: (1) General colonial history of the present time. (2) Colonial historical exer¬ cises. — Bookkeeping and knowledge of balances. — Plant nourishment, cultiva¬ tion and principles of fertilizing. — General zoology, with special study of the ani¬ mals of different colonial possessions. — Utilization of fishing waters on the coast and in the interior.— Experimental chemistry, particularly concerning the technic of agriculture. — Geological conditions in the German protectorates. — Geography of the German colonies. — Economical geography of Mexico, Central America, and West Indies. — General knowledge of Islam, including the law of Islam. — Ethnology of German colonies. — Studies of English colonial territory. — Hygiene in the Tropics. — Introduction into general phonetic languages, espe¬ cially considering the African, followed by courses in specified languages. — Con¬ struction of houses, roads, and bridges in the colonies. This comprehensive program is worked out in elaborate detail, each topic being arranged for successive or parallel courses under different professors. For instance, colonial law is treated in three separate courses comprising principles, their application to various situations, and court methods, and extending to administrative prac¬ tices in colonies under different European Governments. The most original work in charge of the institute is research carried on by the branch for ship and tropical diseases. Of equal importance, and greater popular interest is the systematic study by phonetic SIGNIFICANT EVENTS IN WESTERN AND CENTRAL EUROPE. 709 methods of various African and Asiatic languages existing hitherto in unwritten form. Grammars, dictionaries, and textbooks are be¬ ing compiled for the study of such languages, with the aid of natives resident in Hamburg and of professors who make frequent visits to the countries where such languages are spoken. The broad spirit in which the curriculum has been developed is indicated by the per¬ manent place given to the study of missionary wTork, which is con¬ sidered in respect to its intrinsic importance and its relation to national undertakings. The budget of the institute in 1913 amounted to 105,833 marks (about $26,000) and its faculty comprised 21 pro¬ fessors with 14 assistant instructors ; the students numbered 83. GERMANY. Among the manifestations of vigor on the part of Germany dur¬ ing the past year those relating to education are important, al¬ though overshadowed by military affairs. The appropriations by the Prussian Government for education for 1914 amounted to 281,103,937 marks (in round numbers $70,000,000). This was an increase of nearly 10,000,000 marks over the appropriations for 1913. These appropriations form a comparatively small part of the entire expenditure for education, which falls largely upon local authorities or is supplied by the income of invested funds. It is stated that the budget for 1915 shows no decline in this particular. The amount carried in the budget of 1914 for elementary schools was 180,897,761 marks, which is a little more than one-third of their annual cost. How far local contributions promise to meet the bal¬ ance is not known at present, excepting in the case of the large cities, which are not only liberally supporting their schools, but providing also for extra welfare services in behalf of children. Advices indicate that both cities and rural districts have made strenuous efforts to maintain their elementary schools and to insure the attendance of all children not forced by industrial exigencies into various fields of labor. As regards secondary and higher insti¬ tutions the situation is depressing. It is estimated that 70 per cent of the students of the German universities and at least 80 per cent of the students of the technical high schools are in the conflict ; every educational journal recounts deeds of heroism performed by teachers and students, and mourns the losses that are decimating their ranks. The condition of children bereft of parental guardianship by the war has excited the sympathy of teachers, many of whom have planned excursions, improvement clubs, and social recreations for their pupils out of school hours. In Berlin a kindergarten has been established to care for children from 2 to 6 years of age whose mothers are either unable to support them or must neglect them for their daily work. In the events of the year the opening of the new university at Frankfort on the Main (Oct. 18, 1914) challenges special attention. 710 EDUCATION REPORT, 1915. The institution marks a departure from old ideals scarcely less notable than that accomplished by the establishment and operations of the great technical universities. In particular the provision for medical research places the new university among the foremost cen¬ ters of the world in this respect. It comprises no less than 10 scientific institutions, amply endowed for research and instruction, among which are the Royal Institution of Experimental Therapy and the George Speyer House, under the direction of Dr. Paul Ehrlich. The university starts with an endowment of $2,000,000, and will probably receive liberal annual appropriations from the city. It is estimated that Frankfort already expends above half a million dollars a year on higher education, and the amount could easily be increased. This sum with the original endowment would enable it to rival the chief universities of the ancient type. Peculiar complications affect the new institution from the fact that the wealth of the city is largely in the hands of Jews and its future depends somewhat upon equal recognition for them in the faculty appointments. This situation and the civil purposes which have determined in a measure the proposed scope of the university curriculum present a problem of unusual interest in university movements in the Kingdom. Probable changes in the drift of educational effort as a result of the war have formed the subject of numerous and extended discus¬ sions in the educational press of Germany. An article contributed to the Archiv fur Padagogik dwells upon the subjects that will be emphasized in the education of the future, supporting the conten¬ tion in each case by impressive argument. In the opinion of the writer, technical education will assume new importance; in the teaching of ethics greater stress will be placed upon the rights of the State; and larger recognition, he predicts, will be given to the philosophical elements of the Herbartian pedagogics. CHAPTER XXXII. EDUCATION IN SOUTHERN AND SOUTHEASTERN EUROPE. Contexts. — Italy : Educational surrey, 1914-15 ; new commercial school at Milan ; inter¬ national prize contest ; statistical summary ; illiteracy ; the National Association for Pedagogical Studies — Other countries of Southern Europe. ITALY.1 The past year has been noteworthy in Italy for the destruction of elementary schools by the earthquake that devastated large por¬ tions of central Italy and the subsequent efforts to provide school facilities for the pupils, by the attempt to make the higher insti¬ tutions attractive to foreigners, and by discussion of the need for practical experimental schools of agriculture, both of inferior and superior grade. Finally, the war has led to a readjustment of teachers and students to the new conditions. After arguments by various professors and the Associazione Uni- versitaria Italiana the minister of public instruction has given au¬ thority to superior institutions to issue to students inscribed as simple auditors with single courses a certificate for certain sciences or groups of sciences which will be without any legal value in Italy. This is as far as the laws of the country permit him to go. A Jaw is now being sought that will give authority to the superior institu¬ tions to confer the doctor’s degree in science on anyone who has followed a course for a number of years and has sustained before a university committee a scientific thesis on any subject whatever. The proposed law is apparently intended to permit a foreign student to make a selection of studies directed toward work of his own liking or work that is more suited to the conditions of his own country, and to make this selection count for him as full credit for the degree of doctor of science. It is contended that wliile a few Italians may take advantage of this privilege — which is not regarded as altogether desirable in the present state of affairs — certainly all foreigners will do so, and more foreign students will be attracted to Italian institutions of higher learning for the very reason that the privilege of selecting their own studies is granted to them. 1 By W. W. Sniffin, of the office staff. 711 712 EDUCATION REPORT, 1915. As early as July, 1914, numerous requests were being received at the Ministry of Public Instruction from communes desiring to obtain autonomy in the administration of their schools. At least 4,000 such requests were made. Agitation by the clericals also has been made in the past year for the same purpose. The preponderance of women over men in the position of teacher is demonstrated by the fact that in conformity with the law of June 4, 1911, and the regulation of April 6, 1913, out of 10,179 vacant positions 8,911 were for women and 1,268 for men. No position for men was vacant in Sardinia. A change in the ministry took place in November of last year when Signor Grippo, who had been minister before, was given the port¬ folio again. One of his first acts was to issue a circular to the offi¬ cials of his department urging them to promote the institution of infant schools. Moving pictures are now coming to be used in Italy for educa¬ tional purposes. A moving-picture establishment was opened last November in Rome in the “ Calidarium ” of the Thermal Baths of Diocletian under the auspices of the national institute “ Minerva.” Various educational congresses have been held in Italy during the past year. On July 26 and 27 an important congress was held at Naples for the purpose of discussing in detail questions relative to the economic condition of teachers and to the organization and daily program of the classes. Teachers’ congresses were held in September in Calabria, the Marches, and Piedmont, and in December one was held at Terni in Umbria. NEW COMMERCIAL SCHOOL AT MILAN. With the first days of January, 1915, there was opened at Milan a special autonomous commercial school, which is intended to furnish rational medico-pedagogical assistance to the real abnormal students (weak-minded and those of unstable nervous systems) who are ex¬ cluded from the elementary commercial schools. The school was founded by the efforts of a private committee and is assisted by the commune. It is named in memory of Prof. Zaccaria Treves, who in the short time that he devoted to the studies of pedagogy and ap¬ plied psychology during his term of office as director of the Civic Laboratory of Psychology and Pedagogy of Milan had applied him¬ self sincerely and seriously to the problem of assisting abnormal pupils and had laid the fundamental bases for the creation of the first school. The committee, taking its inspiration from Prof. Treves’s ideas, pushed the work forward, and now, in due recogni¬ tion of his work, the school rises with his name. Children of both sexes, from 6 to 12 years of age, will be received up to the limit of 50 pupils. They will be selected by a suitable COUNTRIES OF SOUTHERN AND SOUTHEASTERN EUROPE. 713 commission. The school will give accurate medical assistance, with the application of the hygienic ideas of work, gymnastics, life out¬ doors, feeding, baths, medicinal treatments, electrical applications, etc. ; the education of defectives in the matter of language, of atten¬ tion, etc.; the instruction to those judged capable of receiving it. For this purpose the school includes a preparatory course. The vari¬ ous categories of students will be instructed by the De Sanctis method of scholastic rotation. The control of the school is entrusted to the school physician of the office of hygiene, Dr. Alfredo Albertini, and the instruction to two teachers of literary subjects, two extra teachers, and also a teacher of physical education. The treatment for correct phonetics is entrusted to Prof. Giulio Ferreri, director of the National Insti¬ tute for Deaf Mutes, who, with the personnel of that institute, will assist in the special commercial school. INTERNATIONAL. PRIZE CONTEST. The Ministry of Public Instruction has been enabled through the generosity of Emilio Treves, an Italian civil engineer, to offer a prize of 10,000 lire to the successful contestant in an international contest to be held with the view of combating racial and religious hatred, and especially antisemitism. Conditions governing the con¬ test have been established by the Minister of Public Instruction in a decree issued during the past year. The contest will close on Febru¬ ary 1, 1916. Statistical summary. SUBELEMENTARY INSTITUTIONS AND ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS. School year. Subelementary institutions. Elementary day schools. Infant schools. Orphan asylums. Public. Private. Number. Pupils. Pupils. Classes. Pupils. Classes. Pupils. 1901-2 . 1907-8 . 3,314 3,576 1 355,594 343,563 | 34,900 53,259 61,497 2, 5 '8, 583 3,002,168 8,518 6,534 184,766 148,081 EVENING, HOLIDAY, AND AUTUMNAL SCHOOLS. Old style. New style. School year. Number of evening schools. Number of holiday and autumnal schools. Pupils. Number of evening and holiday schools. Number of pupils enrolled. Numb er of pupils in constant attendance. 1901-2 . 3,010 3,068 2,394 769 178,311 1907-8 . 3,469 182,373 127,948 714 EDUCATION REPORT, 1915. Secondary education , 1911-12. Classes of institutions. Number of institu¬ tions. Number of pupils (including auditors). Public. Private. Public schools. Private schools. Total. Boys. Girls. Total. Normal schools {^ale- I ; ; ! ! ; ; ; ; ; ; " Complementary schools . Gimnasi . Licei . Technical schools . Technical institutes . Nautical institutes . 39 96 104 293 164 342 79 20 2 39 102 236 73 188 22 } 20,264 21,500 39, 115 14,173 85,476 21,137 1,730 697 2,754 9,291 1,601 8,555 1,044 3, 727 42,837 14,994 70, 219 20, 555 1,730 17,234 24,254 5, 5C9 873 23,812 1,626 20,961 24,254 48,406 15.867 94.031 22,181 1,730 Special secondary schools, 1912-13. Number. Students. Special and practical schools of agriculture . 35 1, 716 59 Mining schools . 3 Industrial and commercial schools . 510 i 50, 550 Institutes of fine arts . 26 4,362 5,569 Institutes of conservatories of music . 51 1 Exclusive of students in commercial schools; figures not known. Universities and other higher institutions. Classes. Number. Students. Universities and university schools annexed to royal licei . 24 28 23,376 7,251 University institutes, schools of higher education for women, and special higher in¬ stitutes . MILITARY INSTITUTES. Military schools . 12 4 3,630 586 Naval schools . . ILLITERACY. Between 1872 and 1911 illiteracy was reduced from 68.8 per cent to 37.6 per cent.1 The highest rate of illiteracy in 1911 was found in Reggio di Calabria (70.6 per cent) and the lowest was in Torino (7.8 per cent). Forty-eight and a half per cent of the population of Italy over 6 years of age was illiterate in 1901. The actual number of illiterates over 6 years of age was reduced from 13,351,058 in 1901 to 11,050,454 in 1911. Recent advices indicate that the decline in illit¬ eracy since 1911 has been accelerated, but no statistics are available. 1 Statistics are from Annuario statistico italiano for 1913 (latest published), issued by Direzione Generale della Statistica e del Lavoro. COUNTRIES OF SOUTHERN AND SOUTHEASTERN EUROPE. 715 Illiteracy in Italy in 1011. ILLITERATES 8 YEARS OF AOE AND OVER. Males. Females. Both sexes. Number. Per cent. Number. Per cent. Number. Per cent. j 4,671,674 32.6 | 6,378,780 42.4 11,050,454 37. 6 ILLITERATES 21 YEARS OF AGE AND OVER. Males. Females. Both sexes. Number. Per cent. Number. Per cent. Number. Per cent. 3, 165, 345 34.7 4,747, 0S2 48.5 7,912,427 41.8 There has also been a substantial decrease in illiteracy among con¬ scripts for the military and naval forces and among persons apply¬ ing for marriage licenses. The following table shows the number of such illiterates: Year. Married couples. Conscripts. Number. Per cent. Army. Navy. Hus¬ bands. Wives. Both sexes. Hus¬ bands. Wives. Entire number. En¬ rolled. Per cent. Entire number. Per cent. 1907 . 73,229 104,701 34.2 28.2 40.3 136,659 54,737 31.1 6,610 4*. 5 1908 . 80,344 115,381 34.6 28.4 40.7 133,003 53,530 30.5 7,128 49.2 1909 . 68,178 100.0-9 31.6 25.6 37.6 155,262 70,757 34.8 7,405 45.0 1910 . 65, 746 98,905 30.8 24.8 36.8 136,477 68,274 32.3 6,662 41.6 1911 . 61,347 91,179 29.3 23.6 35.0 132,312 63,608 30.5 7,074 40.3 THE NATIONAL ASSOCIATION FOR PEDAGOGICAL STUDIES. The first part of the year 1915 witnessed a two-day convention of the National Association for Pedagogical Studies (Associazione Nazionale per gli Studi Pedagogici). The president of this organi¬ zation is Prof. Luigi Credaro, and the vice presidents are Profs. P. Veechia and S. de Sanctis. Among the councilors are such well- known Italian educators as G. Yidari, F. Orestano, T. Armani, P. Grossi, R. Resta, L. Sferra-Carini, and G. Cabrini. Plans for the administrative reorganization of the association were discussed. The suggestion was made and widely supported that the association put into action a program of ideas which might be a common policy for those filling the office of president, or otherwise, it was claimed, the presidency would remain the expression of a simple administrative organization. 716 EDUCATION REPORT, 1915. Discussion then followed regarding the purposes of the associa¬ tion. Prof. De Sanctis proposed the immediate resumption of the study of certain problems, vital to the school, which have hitherto been opposed unjustly or poorly applied — for example, the question of school physicians, of afternoon instruction, and of children’s gardens. Prof. Vecchia urged that the association contribute in the work of the revision of the programs of instruction in secondary and normal schools. Prof. Armani, at the instance of the president, set forth the program proposed at the preceding convention of the association. The salient points of this program that he regarded as still valuable are the following: The internal reorganization of the association with a view to renewing the membership of the associates and ex¬ tending the term of the committees ; the compilation of an inventory of the property belonging to the association now deposited in the Pedagogical Museum of the Royal University ; the distribution of the work of the committees in such a way that each councilor would be responsible for the progress of a group of committees; the plan to entrust the committees with historical studies concerning the local scholastic institutions; and the study of the science of educational motion pictures, to which Prof. Orestano has given the benefit of his learning and experience. Prof. Yidari dwelt especially on the theme of agreeing on a fixed policy for the association. He maintained the necessity for attract¬ ing into the ranks of the association the professors of secondary schools, who had remained away from it perhaps because it had seemed that the work developed by the association had not till then touched on problems vital to the secondary school. He ended by proposing that the association should seek to arouse the consciousness of the Italian people concerning the importance of national culture, to reorganize the committees, and to study what connections the association could have with allied associations which are continually coming into existence. Prof. Orestano urged the association to formulate a program with themes and relative rewards to be proposed to the various committees and to students of scholastic and pedagogical subjects. In this con¬ nection he suggested the following : The history of Italian pedagogy and the study of scholastic institutions in the various regions before the unity of Italy in 1870. He considered it desirable to come to an understanding with the university supervisors of pedagogy to en¬ trust to doctorate students themes concerning studies of local schol¬ astic institutions, and recommended that they agree with some pub¬ lisher for the reproduction of the classical works of Italian pedagogy. The subject of the expense involved in this undertaking was not COUNTRIES OF SOUTHERN AND SOUTHEASTERN EUROPE. 717 considered serious, because, it was argued, publication would bring economic advantages to the association in the future. The president, Prof. Credaro, concurred fully in the need of having the history of pedagogy in Italy studied and affirmed the desirability of beginning these studies with the Renaissance. He then spoke of the national and scientific value of a history of Italian pedagogy and maintained that along with these studies of historical research others of an experimental and scientific character ought to be culti¬ vated, which Prof. De Sanctis could indicate. He proposed the nomination of a committee which would prepare the program for work in the direction set forth by the various speakers. After some discussion it was agreed to prepare a circular contain¬ ing these ideas to be sent to the committee and to the members. The preparation of this paper was intrusted to Profs. Yidari and Orestano. On the second day of the convention this circular was submitted by Prof. Orestano, and approved. The purpose of the association, as set forth in the circular, is — to maintain the consciousness of national ideals and of the civil duties which belong to the people, especially in an hour like the present ; to unite the teachers of every order around the standard of conscious, vigilant, and strong national education; to promote by publications, congresses, and historical studies the sense of national work and cordial sympathies toward other people ; in short, to fuse all the living though dormant elements of the rising national consciousness into a strong, compact unity of spirit. To this end the directing council invites the cooperation of all leaders in education thought and activity and in particular seeks to promote the publication of an ample history of Italian pedagogy, a work requiring researches that have never yet been attempted, but which promise rich returns. PORTUGAL. Portugal was declared a Republic October 5, 1910, and the new government formally recognized by the powers in September, 1911. The reform of primary education and its extension throughout the country were made prominent in all announcements of the purposes of the new government. A decree providing for the rigid enforce¬ ment of the compulsory provision of the school law was one of the first measures adopted, but the continued internal disturbances have made it difficult to carry into effect reform measures. An educational survey authorized by the Government in 1911 disclosed the fact that there were in operation at that time 7,120 primary schools, of which 6,320 were public ; neither the enrollment nor the number of teachers employed was ascertained. The lack of school buildings and the totally unsuitable condition of many showed the impossibility of enforcing compulsory school attendance until these conditions should 718 EDUCATION REPORT, 1915. be remedied. On the contrary secondary schools (numbering 82) were reported as in a flourishing condition. They enrolled in 1911 9,749 students, increased to 10,621 in 1912. The number of university students in 1913 was 2,373, distributed as follows: Lisbon, 823; Coim¬ bra, 1,350; Oporto, 200. The technical school registered .232 students, and the higher school of agriculture 87, both at Lisbon. SPAIN. The population of Spain, estimated in December, 1913, at 20,355,986, is comprised in 49 Provinces, varying in population from 97,692 in the Basque Province of Alava to Barcelona with 1,163,242 inhab¬ itants. Prior to 1900 each Province had independent control of pri¬ mary education, which was so little encouraged that above 40 per cent of the population were at that date illiterate. The alarm ex¬ cited by this condition caused the Government to intervene as a con¬ trolling authority in this interest; in 1900 a ministry of education was created; in 1902 the State assumed the payment of teachers’ sal¬ aries and provided for the erection of school buildings in cities or districts neglecting this duty ; in 1909 a law was passed increasing the authority of the State in respect to the appointment of teachers and the internal conduct of schools ; and in 1911 a decree was passed cre¬ ating the office of general director of primary education. That these measures have had the effect of increasing the number of primary schools and improving their general condition is evident from occa¬ sional reports pertaining to particular areas. The latest statistics dealing with the country as a whole are for the year 1908, at which time there were 24,861 public primary schools and 5,212 private pri¬ maries, with a total enrollment estimated at about 2,100,000. The total number of schools was an increase of 6,000 over the number given in the census of 1900. The great industrial and commercial activity in the more progres¬ sive Provinces, and particularly in the Province of Barcelona, has stimulated local and private enterprise in respect to the establish¬ ment of commercial and industrial schools and led to an increased appreciation of the need of primary education as a factor in the public welfare, and it is believed that the next census will show very decided increase in respect to all the agencies of popular education. The movement for modern education proceeds slowly, as the edu¬ cated classes adhere tenaciously to their preference for the long- established literary studies. Secondary education is supplied by 59 institutions, with a registration of about 38,000 pupils. The great purpose of these schools is preparation for the universities. The Government also supports special schools of engineering, agri¬ culture, architecture, fine arts, music, etc. The development of tech- COUNTRIES OF SOUTHERN AND SOUTHEASTERN EUROPE. 719 nical education is hindered by the want of adequate preparation of students for the higher orders of this special training. Efforts have been recently made to increase the interest of for¬ eigners in the facilities for study offered by the higher institutions of Spain. Under the auspices of the Minister of Public Instruction and Fine Arts holiday courses for foreigners were opened in the summer of 1912, and the experiment proved so successful that a third course was announced for the summer of 1914, at whr i time arrangements were made for a continuance of the work in 1915. The holiday courses were organized in general and special sections, the former providing for the study of grammar, literature, history, and the social life of Spain, with intensive study of the nineteenth century. The special section was intended for persons wishing to specialize in the philology and literature of the Spanish language. Visits to the principal museums and art collections of Madrid and other centers of art form a part of the general program. GREECE. As a result of changes brought about by the wars with Turkey and Bulgaria nearly 17,000 square miles were added to the territory of Greece and the population very nearly doubled. In 1907 the esti¬ mated population of the old territory was 2,765,000; including the new territory it was estimated in 1914 at 4,821,000. This expansion greatly increased the difficulty of making elementary education uni¬ versal throughout the kingdom, and subsequent events have prevented the carrying out of plans for this purpose. Before these events the compulsory education law, which covered the years 6 to 12, had not been well enforced, as appears from the fact that 30 per cent of the army recruits were illiterate and an additional 15 per cent could only read. In 1912 the Government appropriated some 10,000,000 drach- mai (about $2,000,000) for elementary schools. The secondary schools of Greece included 41 gymnasia modeled after those of Ger¬ many, 284 middle schools, and 6 commercial schools, having a total enrollment of 31,399, of whom 1,221 were girls. There were also at Athens and Patras Government trade schools, well equipped and sup¬ ported. The education of girls has been for a decade or more the subject of great effort on the part of private associations, and this interest gradually engaged the attention of the Government, in view of the growing demand for teachers and the industrial conditions in the chief cities. Early in 1915 arrangements were completed for the construction in the suburbs of Athens of an important school for girls to be known as the Charocopeion Trade School. The proposed course of studies included those usually taught in a high school, with special classes in domestic sciences, household economy, and 720 EDUCATION REPORT, 1915. trades for which women are especially qualified, such as weaving, spinning, etc. It was expected that the institution would draw pupils from all parts of Greece and that in turn they would instruct their neighbors in the practical arts thus acquired. The patronage of the Queen of Greece seemed to assure the success of this enter¬ prise. Greek Macedonia, acquired as a result of the recent wars, includes a population of a n 'llion and a quarter. Agriculture is the princi¬ pal industry of this region and yields rich returns in spite of primi¬ tive methods of cultivation. The Greek Government immediately took measures for developing this industry and improving the con¬ dition of the tenant farmers. During the year 1914 the ministry of national economy of Greece expended more than $16,000 for repairing and equipping the so- called “Model farm of Saloniki,” and it was understood that this institution would be designated by the minister as the principal agricultural school in Greece. The school was established about 20 years ago but was little developed under the Turkish regime. The model farm has three buildings for scholastic purposes (one of which contains a museum and also a chemical laboratory), a station for stock-breeding purposes, and several outbuildings. The new plans include on the material side the construction of a large school building, the supply of modern agricultural machinery and chemical fertilizers; on the industrial side the improvement of the farm lands, the development of the nursery, and provision for a model dairy and vineyards. An official in charge of the viticulture visits the surrounding villages to give advice to the vine growers. He may also officially quarantine fields infected with phylloxera by directing that no plants from the infected regions shall be brought in contact with healthy plants. The Thessalonica Agricultural and Industrial Institute is an American mission school and was incorporated in October, 1904, under the laws of the State of New York. The object of this mis¬ sion school is to give to Macedonian boys an ideal education, which shall include agricultural and industrial as well as spiritual training.1 The particulars above given relative to movements in Portugal, Spain, and Greece have been derived chiefly from official corre¬ spondence. Even this source of information, for obvious reasons, has failed in the case of the Balkan countries. 1 From report of the American consul, John E. Kehl, Saloniki, January, 1915. CHAPTER XXXIII. EDUCATION IN RUSSIA.1 Contents. — Administration — Statistical summary — Higher education — Technical educa¬ tion — Appropriations for education — Work of the laboratory of experimental psychol¬ ogy — Special institutions. ADMI N ISTR ATIO N . The peculiar system of educational administration in Russia was described by Prof. A. Netschayeff, of the Petrograd Laboratory of Experimental Pedagogical Psychology, in a recent address as follows : 2 Schools in Russia have no administrative center. The various ministries among which, over a hundred years ago, the administration of Russia was di¬ vided, have each their own educational institutions. Owing to a long series of complicated historical conditions, the distribution of educational institutions among separate ministries is not subjected to any strict and logical plan. The polytechnic institutes are under the jurisdiction of the ministry of commerce and industry, and the St. Petersburg Technological Institute is under the min¬ istry of public instruction. The schools for agricultural education are, inde¬ pendently of one another, controlled by the ministry of agriculture and the ministry of public instruction. The medical faculties of the universities and the Women’s Medical Institute are controlled by the ministry of public instruc¬ tion ; but the Imperial Medical Academy, which, until recently, has trained our most eminent scientists, is under the ministry of war. The Imperial Alexander Lyceum, the purpose of which is to train candidates for the diplomatic service and for the higher administrative positions, is under the department for benevo¬ lent institutions. One part of the primary schools is controlled by the ministry of public instruction, and the other of the administration of the Orthodox Church. The curricula of educational institutions under the various ministries diverge greatly from one another, and consequently the passing over of a pupil from a school of one type to one of another type is attended with great difficulty. Es¬ pecially difficult is the passage from a primary school to a grammar school (classical or modern side). As a consequence of the too early specialization in education many Russian educators and public men advocate the idea of one sole school of general education as being the necessary foundation for the subsequent special education. 1 Sources of information : Russian Year Book, 1914 ; consular reports, 1915 ; Report of the Proceedings of the British Association for the Advancement of Science, annual meet¬ ing, 1914. 2 Address delivered before section L of the British Association for the Advancement of Science at the Sydney meeting in August, 1914. 12034°— ed 1915— vol 1 - 46 721 722 EDUCATION REPORT, 1915. Prof. Netschayeff observes, however — that this dispersal of Russian schools under different ministries has also had its good side. * * * Fortunately for the Russian schools, the courses fol¬ lowed by separate ministries on educational questions have often differed one from the other ; that which was forbidden to schools under one' ministry was allowed to the schools under another ; that which one minister considered to be untimely, another minister regarded as necessary. In view of this, public men and pedagogues succeeded, through one ministry or another, in introducing gradually their ideas into educational life. In this respect the great importance of the ministry of commerce and industry in the history of the latest period of Russian school life is particularly noteworthy. This ministry, by allowing public organizations willing to open commercial schools to exercise serious influence over the general work of their schools, by granting liberty for the creation of the educational staff, and by assisting a close rapprochement be¬ tween the family and the schools, has spread over Russia within the course of some 25 years an entire network of educational institutions, maintained exclu¬ sively by social and private means. Many reforms recently carried through in the programs of the schools under the ministry of public instruction have been the result of those accepted in the commercial schools. The difficulty of obtaining a complete view of education in the Empire on account of its enormous extent and vast heterogeneous population is greatly increased by the distributed administration. Although the minister of public instruction has oversight of the great body of elementary and secondary schools and of higher schools of liberal education, still the reports of this official, pub¬ lished at intervals, do not cover the entire province of education. Even with respect to the schools under this ministry complete sta¬ tistics are seldom obtained, as will readily be understood when it is considered that for purposes of local educational administration the Empire is divided into 15 districts, each comprising a number of governments varying from 3 to 15; the average density of popula¬ tion in the governments of European Russia is only 64.6 inhabitants per square mile and falls in Siberia to 1.8. STATISTICAL SUMMARY. The latest summary comprising all classes of schools and higher institutions was published by the statistical commission of Russia January 1, 1911. According to this authority there were at the time in the 15 educational districts of the Empire, with the eight Finnish governments, a total of 7,901,477 pupils and students. Of this number — 6,322,725 (83.2 per cent) attended elementary schools; 446,136 (5.9 per cent) secondary schools; 241,495 (3.2 per cent) special elementary and secondary schools; and 67,863 (0.9 per cent) higher educational establishments. The remaining 518,400 (6.8 per cent of the total number) attended private schools, foreign church schools, and various non-Christian schools of religious character. EDUCATION IN RUSSIA. 723 Thus it appears that out of every 1,000 inhabitants of both sexes in the Empire, 46.2 pupils were under instruction. In Finland the proportion was 69.3 per cent; in European Russia, omitting Fin¬ land, 53.1 per cent; in Siberia, 35.6 per cent; in central Asia, 21.7 per cent. Omitting Finland, the percentage of illiterates for the population above 9 j^ears of age was 73 per cent for Russia as a whole; in the Vistula Provinces, 59 per cent; in central Asia, 94 per cent. As regards the sexes, the number of illiterate females is twice as great as the number of illiterate males. HIGHER EDUCATION. The following particulars pertain to institutions of higher educa¬ tion under the minister of public instruction : Students in universities, 1913. Petrograd _ Moscow _ Kharkof _ _ Kasan _ _ St. Vladimir (Kiev) _ Saratov _ Warsaw (Poland) _ I _ Yuryeff (formerly Dorpat) _ ! _ Novorassiysk ( Odessa ) _ ^ _ Tomsk (Siberia) _ Students. . 8,446 . 9, 940 . 5, 274 . 3, 484 . 4,098 197 . 1, 556 . 2, 749 . 3, 193 . 1, 347 Total 40, 284 A popular university, the General Alphonse Shaniavsky, was opened at Moscow in 1908, the expenses of which are defrayed from a fund left by Gen. Shaniavsky for that purpose. An institution, founded by the munificence of Peter Makoushin, which aims at the instruction on a large scale of the people of Siberia, has been inaugurated in Tomsk. The institution in question is called the House of Science, and is meant to be a popular university where anyone may obtain instruction, from the elementary to the secondary standard, free of charge. It includes also a section for instruction of the kind usually given at universities. Admission to the universities is confined to those who have obtained the leaving certificate (attestat zrelosti) from the gymnasium. Attendance at the universities is promoted by scholarships and funds in aid. The value of the former as reported in 1914 was 556,597 roubles ($284,000), and the value of the funds in aid, 117,821 roubles. The treasury estimates of appropriations for the university amounted in 1913 to 7,652,000 roubles (about $5,000,000). The universities of Russia are closed to women, but education of the university standard is provided for them in classes maintained in Petrograd and Moscow, which together have an annual attendance 724 EDUCATION REPORT, 1915. of about 11,000 students. The medical institute for women estab¬ lished at the capital has about 1,400 students. In 1910 a department of medical science for women was opened in the University of Kharkof. Similar classes for women, but not on the same permanent basis, are maintained in nearly all the university towns of the Empire. Among the most striking signs of intellectual activity are the efforts made by private agencies to meet the universal demand of Eussian women of the middle and upper classes for education of the higher order. The increasing regard for women is indicated by the appointment during the current year of Mme. Staraiszewska as privatdocent in the chair of pathology of the University of Odessa. The appointee com¬ pleted her studies in France at the faculty of medicine of Nancy in 1899. TECHNICAL EDUCATION. Kussia has given important lessons to the world in respect to the organization and management of higher technical institutions in¬ tended to prepare experts for the service of the State. The de¬ velopment of technical schools for artisans and the directors of in¬ dustries is of comparatively recent date. Schools of this class were first established under private auspices and gradually brought under the direction of different ministers, but in 1881 these schools were all transferred to the minister of public instruction, and under this direction a graded system of technical education has been organized, comprising (1) lower technical schools which combine with the elements of knowledge technical training required for the ruder kind of mechanical work — for machinists, draftsmen, etc.; (2) technical schools which provide for general education of the secondary order, combined with technical training required for assistant engineers or foremen in the smaller industrial enterprises. As a result the scope of the higher institutions has been increased and additions made to their number. Attendance at these schools is fostered by scholarships and grants in aid, as in the case of the universities. The following table pertains to these higher technical schools which are of university grade having advanced entrance re¬ quirements and the right to confer degrees. Students in technical institutions. Students. Petrograd Technological Institute _ 5, 215 Kharkof Technological Institute _ 1, 400 Moscow Technical School _ 3, 000 Novo-Alexandriyski Institute of Agronomy and Forestry _ 704 Riga Poly technical Institute _ 2, 088 Tomsk Technological Institute (Siberia) _ 1,171 Total _ 13,578 EDUCATION IN RUSSIA. 725 There are also three mining schools supported by the Government, situated, respectively, at Petrograd, Ekaterinoslav (Donetz mining district), Ekaterinburg (Urals mining district). APPROPRIATIONS FOR EDUCATION. The State appropriations for education in 1912 were: Ministry of public instruction, 114,436,072 rubles ($58,934,577) ; other minis¬ tries, 17,289,039 rubles ($8,903,855) ; total, 131,725,111 rubles ($67,838,432). The estimated appropriations for 1913 were as fol¬ lows: Ministry of public instruction, 136,734,000 rubles ($69,734,- 340); other ministries, 58,339,000 rubles ($29,752,890). Of the increase for the ministry of education, one-half was intended for elementary education. It is noted in this connection that, during the whole period of the 100 years prior to the establishment of the Imperial Duma, the budget for public instruction only increased by 35,000,000 rubles (about $17,000,000). In the five years since the session of the first Duma the appropriations to education have ex¬ ceeded the amount allowed for that purpose during the entire century preceding. At the opening of the European war it was apparent that Russia had entered upon an era of industrial and educational development in which the Government was bearing an important part, in coopera¬ tion with the zemstvos (local administrative authorities) and private enterprise.1 WORK OF THE LABORATORY OF EXPERIMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY. The passion for scientific investigation for which Russian scholars have been distinguished has been manifested not only in the exact sciences but in respect to the departments of knowledge which have to do with man and the social institutions that he has developed. This innate tendency, intensified by the protest against the formalism of the schools, has resulted in important researches bearing directly upon the work of education. The work of Ushinskv, who was called “ the father of Russian pedagogical psychology/’ has been continued by a series of notable savants whose ideas found concrete expression in the educational pamphlets and experiment by Count Leo Tolstoy. The laboratory of experimental pedagogical psychology which was opened at Petrograd in 1901 is one of the chief centers of that class of investigations in Europe. In his address before the British asso¬ ciation already cited, Prof. Xetschayeff, who was intrusted with the organization of this work, described in detail the nature and methods of the investigations there conducted. These comprise tests of mem- 1 For particulars relative to the recent activities, see Repts. of Commr. of Educ., 1912, vol. 1, ch. 23 ; 1913, vol. 1, ch. 39 : 1914, vol. 1, eh. 36. 726 EDUCATION REPORT, 1915. ory, of processes of association, stability of attention, conditions of fatigue, response to suggestions, the hygiene of intellectual work, the relative advantages of visual, auditory, and motor memory, and the relative value of object teaching and of the so-called natural method of teaching foreign languages as compared with book instruction. The investigations outlined above follow, it will be seen, the usual course of similar work in the United States, but the work at Petro- grad has been characterized by its steady direction toward the eluci¬ dation of certain well-recognized educational problems. Most promi¬ nent among these is that of “the changes in the moral life of chil¬ dren dependent on their age and sex,” and as auxiliary to this the problem of coeducation. In respect to the last-named the conclusions stated by Prof. Netschayeff are of unusual interest. He says: The comparison of the results of tests on association, conducted simultane¬ ously in schools of the same type, both with separated education and with coeducation, revealed the favorable influence of coeducation on the general tendency of the imagination of the pupils. In coeducation the general tendency of association among girls loses »that extremely emotional character which is observed in girls’ schools. In this case the inspiring influence of boys is quite obvious. This is particularly noticed in the first stage of the transitional age, when there is generally observed in children an easy yielding to the suggestions of environment. Seeing that the period of sexual ripening begins earlier with girls than with boys, then, while submitted to the psychical influence of their boy comrades of the same age, who have not yet entered into that period, girls in coeducation retain longer the general tendency of imagination natural to a child’s age, and do not display that acute tendency toward concentrating their attention on organic sensations and indefinite emotions, which are so often no¬ ticed during the period of ripening in separate education. A study of associa¬ tion in boys revealed the favorable influence of coeducation over the purity of their imagination, and the calmer course of the first period of sexual ripening. In regard to the relation of teachers to research work the address presents the following suggestions: There is no doubt that in studying the problems of pedagogical psychology, over and above other data, the daily observation of the children by pedagogues is of great importance. In order, however, that one could with certainty bene¬ fit by the results of such observation, it is required to study the degree of their objective authenticity, and to ascertain the sources of the pedagogical illusions possible in this respect. In characterizing the pupils, the teachers describe them often as “ attentive ” and “ inattentive,” “ progressing ” and “ non-progressing,” “ interested ” or “ not interested.” What do such descriptions signify, and on what first impressions of the teacher are they mostly founded? Certainly the elucidation of such questions brings great difficulty. Two con¬ ditions before all are required — (1) that the teachers who characterize their pupils should have reached the level of conceiving the child’s psychology; and (2) that the pupils characterized should be submitted, independently of their teachers, to psychological study, the results of which should be submitted to statistical treatment. In order to create the conditions for the successful study of such complicated problems of pedagogical psychology, I organized, in 1910, a special school (at EDUCATION IN RUSSIA. 727 the St. Petersburg society of experimental pedagogics), the whole personnel of which consisted of persons who hud received well-grounded psychological train¬ ing of the same type (they were my male and female classes at the Pedagogical Academy). At the same time a school hygiene cabinet and a psychological laboratory were organized at the school, where the pupils (and latterly the pedagogues of the school also) were submitted to systematic observation. This experimental school serves at present as the center point of my psychological pedagogical research. We endeavor as much as possible in this school to carry into life those methods of upbringing and education which seem to us at present to be the most perfect. SPECIAL INSTITUTIONS. The laboratory of experimental psychology is an interesting addi¬ tion to the group of special institutions for the promotion of scientific research in different departments of knowledge. The most important of these institutions are as follows: 1. Historico-Philological Institute, St. Petersburg. 2. Bezborodky Historico-Philological Institute, Nezhin. 3. Demidoff Lyceum for Study of Law, Yaroslaff. 4. Lazareff Institute of Oriental Languages, Moscow. 5. Institute of Oriental Languages, Vladivostok. 6. Imperial Lyceum of the Tsarevitch, Moscow. 7. Archaeological Institute, St. Petersburg. 8. Imperial Alexander Lyceum, St. Petersburg. 9. Imperial School of Law, St. Petersburg. Russia is also noted for associations and academies which encour¬ age research by prizes for the results of original investigations and by their publication. At the head of these institutions is the Im¬ perial Academy of Sciences. Russia also possesses 633 public libra¬ ries : In European Russia, 509 ; in Polland, 40 ; in Caucasus, 35 ; and in Siberia, 49. These libraries usually receive grants from the zemstvos; only 11 are subsidized by the Government. The Imperial Public Library is one of the most important in Europe. CHAPTER XXXIV. MODERN EDUCATION IN BRITISH INDIA AND CHINA. Contents. — British India: Extent and organization — Inception and progress of the sys¬ tem of modern education — Recent events — Important reports — Proofs of success — Statistical summary. China: General trend of efforts — Reports from provinces : Kwangtung; Fengtien (dependency); Yunnan — National education conference — Ministerial order — General policy of the minister of education — Schools for modern education (classification and summarized statistics) — Detailed statistics for certain provinces and dependencies — Peking — Universities under foreign auspices — Important pending measures — American activities in respect to the welfare of China — Chinese indemnity students. I. BRITISH INDIA. EXTENT AND ORGANIZATION. British India extends over an area of 1,093,000 square miles, with a population exceeding 244^ millions; it comprises 15 Provinces, within which local self-government is maintained through the agency of elected boards, rural and municipal. The supreme execu¬ tive authority is vested in the governor general, or viceroy, appointed by the Crown and assisted by a council, the ordinary members of which are also appointed by the Crown ; additional members may be nominated by the viceroy. The governors of the chief Provinces are appointed by the Crown. The chief executives of the smaller Provinces are appointed by the governor general, with the approval of the Crown. INCEPTION AND PROGRESS OF THE SYSTEM OF MODERN EDUCATION. The system of modern education in India is not of native or spon¬ taneous origin, like the corresponding work in Japan and China, but imposed upon it by external force. It presents, therefore, lessons of great import to all nations that must endeavor to bring into intel¬ lectual sympathy and practical cooperation with themselves a people of alien civilization and traditions. This work was assumed directly by the British Government in 1853, with no precedents to guide and no centers of support excepting scattered missionary schools and a few institutions established under the rule of the East India Co. The fundamental principles by which the system was governed down to a. late period were set forth in the Dispatch of 1854. 1 1 See Rep. of Commis. of Ed., 1906, vol. 1, p. 124, for outline of the Dispatch. 729 730 EDUCATION REPORT, 1915. The educational commission appointed in 1882 to inquire into the workings of the system confirmed these principles in the main, but dwelt upon the need of more vigorous efforts to bring the mass of the vast population under instruction and of more positive activity on the part of the central government for the accomplishment of this purpose.1 The report of this commission led to the creation of the office of director general of education for India. A third stage in the development of this system was marked by the report of the edu¬ cation commission appointed by Lord Curzon, which disclosed the weakest points of the system and led to the resolution issued by the governor general, March 11, 1904.2 The resolution of 1904 imparted a new impetus to the work of elementary education, efforts for the education of girls, and measures for promoting industrial and technical education. RECENT EVENTS. Progress in the directions indicated has been greatly stimulated since the announcement of the new Government policy with respect to education in India, which was made on the occasion of the Delhi “ durbar ” December 12, 1911, and by the address of the British King delivered before the Calcutta University in 1912, during his visit to his eastern empire. The new purposes of the Government were eventually defined by a resolution (published in the Gazette of India , February 22, 1913) which set forth large plans for the extension of primary education, the improvement of the condition of teachers, and the adjustment of technical education to the special conditions of India. The declaration was confirmed by the increased grants for education from the public treasury. These increases amounted to 50 lakhs of rupees ($1,620,000) for popular education and an extra grant of 10 lakhs ($324,000), which have had the effect of stimulating the provincial governments to new efforts.3 The tendency to central control excited much opposition in pro¬ vincial centers of great influence, but fortunately the direction of the work was entrusted to Sir Harcourt Butler, appointed as member of the council of the governor general of India in charge of education in 1910. His judicious administration completely disarmed all oppo¬ sition, and the announcement of his retirement from the post brought forth universal expressions of regret. It has been the policy of the British Government in India to leave the actual control of education to the provincial governments, and consequently the success of plans for the general diffusion of ele¬ mentary education and for promoting technical education depends 1 See Rep. of Commis. of Ed., 1906, vol. 1, p. 125. 2 Ibid., pp. 126-129. 3 See Rep. of Commis. of Ed., 1913, vol. 1, pp. 873-876. MODERN EDUCATION IN BRITISH INDIA AND CHINA. 731 upon the support which they receive from those governments. The central government, however, both by the increased aid from the public treasury and by the activities of the director general, gives a constant impetus to the local elforts. Higher education was for a long time the supreme interest of the central administration, and in the latest plans it still holds promi¬ nence. These plans comprise projects for the establishment of teaching and residential universities at four centers: Dacca (Prov¬ ince of Bengal), Patna (Provinces of Behar and Orissa), Nagpur (Central Provinces), Rangoon (Province of Burma), and in addition the Hindoo University at Benares (Northwest Provinces). These universities will supply a force in India life that has been wanting in the previously existing universities of India, which were almost exclusively examining bodies. The university projects which have been somewhat severely criticised in England have been warmly sup¬ ported by the British Government in India, and accord with the aspirations of the provincial authorities. Sir Harcourt Butler, who made a brief visit to England before his final retirement from the Indian council, returned to his post to pilot the Hindoo University bill, which passed October 2 of the current year. The sincerity of the oft-repeated purpose of the British Govern¬ ment to advance Indians to prominent positions in the civil service has been signally attested by the appointment of Sir C. Sankaran Nair, an Indian distinguished for his “breadth of view and sanity of judgment,” as the successor of Sir Harcourt Butler in the Indian council. The latter has been appointed lieutenant governor of Burma. IMPORTANT REPORTS. One of the chief outcomes of the commission of 1882 was the reduction of provincial reports on education to a general scheme of statistical presentation. This scheme, carried out in a succession of quinquennial reports, has made it possible to form some conception of the state and progress of modern education in India. The office of the director general (created in 1902) has issued a series of occa¬ sional reports dealing with particular phases of education, pointing out defects, furnishing suggestions, and recording the results of expert inspection. To these important publications there has just been added a report on Indian education in 1913-14, the first of a promised series of annual reports pertaining to the Empire. From this latest publication it appears that even statistics give decided proofs of progress. Between 1911 and 1914 the extra grants (termed nonrecurring grants) from the imperial exchequer for educational extension amounted to £3,161,000, and the additional recurring grants to £826,000. The total expenditure on education in 1913-14 amounted to £6,681,000, as compared with £4,588,000 in the year before the ap- 732 EDUCATION REPORT, 1915. pointment of the education member of the council and a little over £3,000,000 ten years ago, an increase of over 120 per cent in the decade. The number of persons under instruction is rapidly rising; seven years ago the total number of children in the elementary stage of instruction was 4.7 millions; at the end of the year under review it was 6.6 millions. The figures quoted show that instruction is im¬ parted to no less than 28.7 per cent of the boys and 5.4 per cent of the girls of school-going age. In regard to the growing demand for free’ primary education for boys, it may be noted that public funds are taking an increasing share, amounting last year to seven-tenths of the whole cost of elementary schools. The chief characteristic of secondary education, says the report, continues to be the surprising increase in the number of those who seek it. Meanwhile, as pointed out by Lord Hardinge, in an address as chancellor of the University of Calcutta, there has been a phenom¬ enal increase in the number of students in arts colleges. He stated that the number of matriculates within the area of his own university had grown during his viceroyalty from 3,000 to 7,000 annually, and that the number of graduates had trebled. PROOFS OF SUCCESS. The success of this work in India can not, however, be measured by statistics; this critical period of the world’s history has afforded other proofs of its stability and effects, which are admirably summed up by The T hues as follows : The experiment upon which the British rulers of India embarked when they introduced western education is without a parallel in the world’s history. * * * This wonderful experiment has produced wonderful results. West¬ ern education has not only fulfilled its original purpose, which was to train up Indians capable of rendering efficient help in the work of administration. It has created an entirely new caste of Indians, still small in numbers, but of growing influence, more or less familiar with western thought and western methods, who have found in the English language a common medium of ex¬ pression which the many different races inhabiting a vast subcontinent had hitherto lacked. It has produced not a few distinguished thinkers and philos¬ ophers, and at least one great poet ; some able judges and lawyers amongst a whole legion of astute barristers and pleaders ; many keen politicians and too many political journalists; and, of late years especially, a few men of real scientific attainments, as well as men of business who have made their mark in commercial and industrial pursuits. If we were to appraise the value of western education in India only by its best products, we might rest satisfied with such an achievement. But the real test is not to be sought in the brilliant successes of a select minority, but in the effect upon the mass, and if we apply this test to our educational system in India our satisfaction must be sensibly lessened.1 1 The Times Educational Supplement, Tuesday, Nov. 3, 1914. MODERN EDUCATION IN BRITISH INDIA AND CHINA. 733 STATISTICAL SUMMARY. The total number of scholars in public institutions in 1913-14 was 6,854,324, and in private institutions 681,241, making a total of 7,535,565, or an increase of 21 per cent in the last quinquennium. Male scholars were 6,431,200 in 1913-14, as against 5,383,041 five years ago; female scholars in the same year were 1,104,365, as against 831,954 five years ago. This is an increase of 19 per cent in the case of the former and 33 per cent in the case of the latter. The total number of institutions in 1913-14 was 185,584, of which 145,725 were public. Of these institutions only 18,370 were for female scholars. The total number of villages served by these schools was 569,761, and the number of towns (i. e., towns with 5,000 inhabitants or more) was 1,596. The number of students in each class of school or college was as follows : In 1913-14. Public primary schools _ 5, 522, 043 Private elementary schools _ 619, 507 Public secondary schools: Middle vernacular _ 248, 704 Middle English _ 339,549 High schools _ 487,471 Private advanced schools _ _ _ 60, 842 Schools for special instruction _ _ 206. 062 Arts colleges: English _ _ _ 37, 603 Oriental _ - _ _ 1, 669 II. CHINA. GENERAL TREND OF EFFORTS. The effort in China to establish 66 western learning ” on a firm basis, as authorized by the imperial decree of September 5, 1905, is one of the most striking events in the history of education. In a measure the Empire was prepared for such an undertaking through the long-continued influence of mission schools and the rude awaken¬ ing from delusions of national security caused by the issue of the Boxer War and the overthrow of the long-established regime. There was for a time an irresistible reaction against the traditional educa¬ tion and a feverish haste to grasp the new intellectual forces that gave success to foreign armies and ideals. In a measure these were transient experiences and in many Provinces a reactionary movement had set in before the revolution of 1911 which resulted in the decla¬ ration of the Republic. Since that event, and especially since the dissolution of Parliament by the mandate of President Yuan, Janu¬ ary 11, 1914, the educational fevor has abated, and at the same time 734 EDUCATION REPORT, 1915. the system of education formally organized by decree of December 6, 1905, has been the subject of radical changes. General statements, it is true, convey only a partial idea of condi¬ tions in this vast country, which comprises 18 Provinces and 7 de¬ pendencies, with a population estimated at 325,000,000*. By the decrees of 1905 the provincial authorities were given independent control of education in their respective areas and naturally they varied greatly in respect to their support of the new system. The greatest change effected in this system by recent presidential mandates is the provision for a high degree of centralization in the ministry of public instruction. In the opinion of many authorities this transfer of responsibility is unfortunate, since it has caused a decline in provincial activities which the Government has no means of re¬ placing. A contrary opinion is expressed by many others familiar with the Government policies. Dr. Jeremiah W. Jenks, who ren¬ dered expert services in connection with the reform of currency in China, expresses the opinion that the measures adopted by President Yuan “ for the unification of finance, justice, and education ” are of great importance for the future progress of this vast country. The provincial boards, he says, “ for centuries kept the people in the Chinese Provinces absolutely apart from the Government at Pekin.” REPORTS FROM PROVINCES. An intimate view of the effect of changing policies and current conditions in the chief Provinces of the Republic is furnished by consular and other official reports from which the following survey is derived: PROVINCE OF KWANGTUNG.1 Kwangtung (estimated population, 23,700,000) has long been famous for its political, commercial, and industrial leadership ; but although Protestant mis¬ sions and hence also modern education first began there, Kwangtung is to-day- in many respects considerably behind some of the more northern parts of China in respect to education, either under the Government or under the missions. September 2, 1915, is the tenth anniversary of the abolP'on of the old-style literary examining system. Since then the educational policy of Government has suffered many variations. First, there was a time of great enthusiasm for popular education of the new style and all through the country, especially in south China, temples were dismantled, temple and monastery funds were diverted and heavy taxes were levied — all for the new schools. Some modern school buildings were erected and much apparatus secured from Japan and elsewhere. The Government and the people seemed to think that in providing the building and apparatus the problem was solved. Schools were opened by the hundred and an elaborate curriculum was prepared on paper ; but there 1 From reports on education in Kwangtung Province, 1915, by Dr. C. K. Edmunds, president of the Canton Christian College. Forwarded by F. D. Cheshire, American consul general, Canton. MODERN EDUCATION IN BRITISH INDIA AND CHINA. 735 were no teachers who could impart the new knowledge. The people were soon undeceived and a great reaction set in. Riots ensued when tax collectors and census enumerators came around. The monastery and temple priests protested with much popular approval, and the old-style school seemed en¬ trenched again in the hearts of the people. Then came the revolution when a very large number of the schools were closed, and education fell to a low ebb. The revolution successful, the people, recognizing that western learning and western-trained men had been the main spring, were aroused to another burst of enthusiasm for the learning which had done these wonderful things. This time also, at least in Kwangtung, there was a strong man at the head of the educational office, W. K. Chung, a Kui Yan, and trained in the Canton Christian College. Since the second revolution and the resultant centralizing of power in the hands of the governor, the office of commissioner of education has been abolished and a secretary for education has an office in the yamen of the civil governor of the province. The scholarships have not been discontinued for the students already abroad, but no new scholarships have been issued. The lecturships have been discontinued. But the work for the elementary schools has been kept up as well as the smaller income and influence of the present office will allow. Each district has now an educational committee with the magistrate at the head. There are inspectors appointed to oversee the schools and to collect statistics. The fact of reactionary tendencies is noted also in a report hy Consul-General Heintzleman,1 under date of June 19, 1915, with ref- erence to the Fengtien Dependency (population, 5,830,000) . He says : Since the revolution of 1911 educational work in this province has suffered greatly through lack of funds to pay the salaries of instructors and for the maintenance of school buildings and equipment. The commissioner of educa¬ tion informs me that the annual grant for education in this Province has been reduced in two years from $1,400,000 to $700,000, an amount which he states is totally inadequate for the satisfactory conduct of the educational work in this Province. The opinions above cited are confirmed by the following statement from the China Yearbook for 1914: The system of education promulgated by the Manchu Government was fully described in the 1912 issue of this yearbook, and tables were given showing the extent to which the scheme had been realized. The revolution of 1911-12 com¬ pletely disorganized the entire system. All Chinese universities and colleges closed their doors, partly on account of lack of funds wherewith to continue; but mainly because the disturbances throughout the country led the students to throw up their studies and leave for their homes. With the great majority of the schools it was the same. If they were not compelled to close by the desertion of their pupils, they were only able to continue their work for so long as funds lasted. Consequently, in education, as in many other fields, the Republican Government has to start completely anew. Schools reopened as conditions be¬ came settled, but for the last two years educational affairs in China have been in a transition stage. The main principles which are to govern education in China were set forth anew, and during 1913 some progress was made in giving effect to them. Mukden, China. 736 EDUCATION REPORT, 1915. PROVINCE OF YUNNAN. In the Province of Yunnan (population about 9,000,000) recent reactionary tendencies have been less noticeable. A report1 by an American citizen long resident in the capital of this Province says : The first steps looking to the organization of a system of modern education in this Province were taken about 10 years ago, following a series of edicts issued by the then Empress Dowager upon the subject of modern education. The present educational system is greatly in advance of the industrial develop¬ ment of this Province. Yunnan, with a great territory of rugged, mountainous country and a population variously estimated at from 9 to 13 millions, has less than 300 miles of railroad. Hundreds of students, who each year come to Yunnanfu to attend the schools at the capital, have to travel, by chair or on foot or horseback, anywhere from two to four weeks from their homes in distant parts of the Province. When it is remembered that a modern system of education has been grafted upon social institutions and industrial conditions somewhat corresponding to those which existed in England in the days of Queen Elizabeth, the progress thus far made is quite commendable. Further¬ more, this Province has less than 20 schools under missionary or other foreign patronage, so that the present state of advancement has been effected by the Chinese themselves. The Government public schools are supported by the revenues of the Province or of the district in which the schools are located. They are subject to certain rules and regulations laid down by the ministry of education at Peking, par¬ ticularly relating to the courses of study prescribed. For students whose homes are not located in the town in which they are attending school free lodging is provided. Two school uniforms are supplied each year and some of the text¬ books are furnished free. Certain of the schools supply uniforms, shoes, and all articles of clothing free, but charge a small tuition fee. NATIONAL EDUCATION CONFERENCES. The most important event in the domain of national education that has taken place since the Revolution of 1911 was the meeting of the national education conference assembled at the invitation of the minister of education. With respect to this conference the China Year Book for 1914 states : The minister invited 96 delegates, all of whom were graduates of normal colleges in China or abroad, were teachers of three years’ standing, or were educators of some renown. Of these 96, 44 were deputed from the Provinces, including Mongolia and Thibet; 1 represented Chinese residing abroad; 15 came from colleges under the direct control of the ministry of education ; 10 were delegated by the ministries of interior, finance, agriculture and forestry, commerce and industry, war, and the navy ; and the remainder were specially invited by the minister. The conference opened at the ministry of education on July 12 and was formally closed on August 11. Mr. Wang Shao-lien was chairman. While in session the conference discussed upward of 43 bills upon various matters con¬ nected with education submitted by the ministry, of which 23 were approved in their original or a modified form. The conference was summoned in an ad¬ visory capacity only, and it was left to the Government or Parliament to give effect to its recommendations. 1 Forwarded by Consul General Cheshire. MODERN EDUCATION IN BRITISH INDIA AND CHINA. 737 MINISTERIAL ORDER. September 5 of the same year an order was issued by the ministry of education setting forth the general principles to guide in the conduct of schools, the classes of institutions authorized, etc. The following citations indicate the scope of this order : 1. DISCIPLINARY REGULATIONS. A. Educational aim. — The educational aim of the Republic of China is to pay special attention to the development of morals, supplementing it with tech¬ nical and military training, and completing it with a cultivation of the esthetic powers. B. School discipline. — 1. This order contains principles on which school disci¬ pline should be based. 2. The rules of discipline, which are intended for the building up of charac¬ ter. should be strictly observed by all students. 3. All principals, schoolmasters, and proctors have educational responsibili¬ ties, and their precepts and advice should be respected by the students. 4. All principals should, in accordance with the nature and the peculiar cir¬ cumstances of their own school, draw up a number of rules to maintain disci¬ pline. The rules for classrooms, preparation rooms, drill grounds, dining rooms, dormitories, and other matters of discipline should be carefully and separately stipulated. The rules for the government schools should first receive the sanc¬ tion of the minister of education, while those for private schools and schools maintained by local funds should be submitted to the local governmental authority. 5. Students, during their leisure hours, may be permitted to organize asso¬ ciations of athletics, of physical training, of music, and of other useful and literary purposes. These associations, however, should receive the approval of the principal, and be under the direction of the officials of the school. 6. When students have some really valuable suggestions concerning the meth¬ ods of teaching, discipline, or any other matters in the school, they may submit them to the principal *and the faculty either in writing or in person, and they should leave them free to act. The students should not be obstinate, nor should they find any pretest to impede the educational progress of the school. 7. When a student’s conduct is in violation of any of the rules of discipline, the principal should inflict due punishment on him. 8. When a student has, on account of serious breach of discipline, been dis¬ charged from school, and if he shows no real evidence of repentance and of eager desire to reform, and has no reliable guardian, he will not be allow'ed to reenter any other school. 9. This order is applicable to all kinds of schools with the exception of ele¬ mentary schools, whose principals should rewrite the same in simple written style, and explain the same orally to the students. 10. This order shall take effect on the day when it is promulgated. 12034°— ed 1915— vol 1 - 47 738 EDUCATION REPORT, 1915. GENERAL POLICY OF THE MINISTRY OF EDUCATION. Accompanying the above order an announcement was made of the administrative policy of the ministry of education of which the main features are as follows: The ministry should exercise direct control over all branches of special education. For general education the ministry will prepare schemes to be carried out by the local educational organizations, but will send inspectors to supervise the methods adopted. Private schools shall be promoted and protected by the ministry. Funds for education. — Funds for special educational institutions shall be provided by the Central Government or by utilizing Government property as capital. Funds for general education shall be supplied by local taxation or by utilizing local common property as capital. Educational policy in the Peking district. — The Peking educational bureau shall have control over general education in the district, and the expenditure upon this organization, and the schools and colleges under it, shall be tem¬ porarily borne by the ministry of education. High schools and colleges having similar courses of studies shall be amal¬ gamated in order to economize expenditure and increase the number of students. The ministry will endeavor to develop and reform the university and the public library. Policy in regard to students abroad. — As higher education is to be controlled by the ministry direct, arrangements in regard to the sending of students abroad shall be in the hands of the Central Government. Students sent abroad shall have qualifications which will enable them to enter a college, or a special educational institution, or shall have completed a course, and be duly qualified, in a college or special educational institution in China. Education of Mongolians, Tibetans, and Mohammedans. — As the five races have been combined into one nation, each must receive an equivalent training except the Manchus, who have become accustomed to the written and spoken Chinese language, and do not require special treatment. For the Outer Mon¬ golian,1 Tibetan, and Mohammedan tribes, which continue to use their respec¬ tive dialects, special educational methods will be adopted, in order to train them for the union of the five races. SCHOOLS FOR MODERN EDUCATION. CLASSIFICATION AND SUMMARIZED STATISTICS. Modern schools at present existing in China are classified as Gov¬ ernment schools — that is, established by the provincial or local au¬ thorities, mission schools, and private schools. According to the latest statistics published by the board of education (Peking), there are 35,998 Government schools of all grades, with 875,760 students. These figures are proof of the decline that has been reported since 1 Outer Mongolia has since declared its independence under the Hutukhta of Urga. MODERN EDUCATION IN BRITISH INDIA AND CHINA. 739 the second revolution. In the Province of Chekiang, however, there has been, it is stated, an “ increase of threefold both in the number of schools and students in the last three years, and a corresponding advance also in school expenditures.” This is attributed to the richness of that Province, which is the chief silk and tea producing region of the Republic and noted for the intellectual spirit of its people. The present Government places special stress upon the need of primary education for all the people. This is an enormous under¬ taking, not only on account of the immense population to be reached but the difficulty of raising the necessary funds. In 1913 the Govern¬ ment appropriated only $5,207,215 for education, the rest must be raised by local appropriations and private subscriptions. J he effort which this would imply is indicated by the fact that in 1910 the total income for educational purposes in China was 23,331,171 taels (about thirteen and one-fourth million dollars). At that time the educa¬ tional property owned by the Government amounted to 70,367,882 taels (about $40,000,000). Apart from the financial difficulty, the greatest problems resting upon the Government arise from the need of supplying teachers for at least a million schools, and the very complicated language problem.1 All reports agree in respect to the importance of the mission schools in the Republic, the extent of their patronage and influence, and the confidence they inspire. Statistics for 1912 showed that under the Protestant missions alone there were 3,798 primary and day schools with an enrollment of 86,241 pupils, and 5,537 intermedi¬ ate and high schools with 31,384 pupils, and as many as 42 institu¬ tions that had assumed the name of university or college. Statistics of the Catholic missions are not available, but their educational activities are scarcely less important. It has been estimated that there are at least 100,000 pupils enrolled in all the mission schools. Private schools are also highly esteemed and well patronized, but no general statistics of these are attainable. DETAILED STATISTICS FOR CERTAIN PROVINCES.2 PROVINCE OF KWANGTTJNG.3 The number of elementary schools, primary and grammar, under the Government, is 4,100 with 123,000 students. The remaining Gov- 1 Particulars cited from address delivered before the Third International Congress of Education, Aug. 25, 1915, Oakland, Cal., by Z. T. Nyi, M. A., president eastern section, Chinese Students’ Alliance, U. S. A. 2 Particulars compiled or cited from consular reports. 3 Report by F. D. Cheshire, American consul general, Canton, Aug. 4, 1915. 740 EDUCATION REPORT, 1915. ernment schools are classified as follows, statistics of attendance not being given : Middle schools (11 in Canton, none for girls) _ 46 Normal schools (3 for men, 2 for women in Canton; 1 for men, 1 for women in Heungshan ; 1 in Chaochaofu ; 1 in Toi Shaan) _ ' _ 9 Law schools (4 in Canton, others scattered) _ 9 Agricultural schools (1 in Canton, 1 Shiuchow, and 1 Mau Ming) _ 3 Silk-culture schools (San Wui) _ 1 Industrial schools ( Canton, Heungshan, etc. ) _ 5 Commercial schools (Canton, Swatow) _ 5 There is no college; no school above the high-school grade. Catholic missions in Kwangtung report 67 schools for boys and 39 for girls. Their primary aim is to provide instruction in Catholic doctrine to the children of Christian villages. There is also one middle school for boys and one for girls. There is also a theological seminary. Except in the middle schools and in the seminary, the teachers are all Chinese. The numbers of foreign teachers and of pupils in these higher schools have not been reported. The Sacred Heart College, Canton, enrolls 305 students, and the Holy Ghost School, for girls only, 40 students. Both are under the French bishop of Canton, who also has control of the Shin Tak Chinese Primary School for girls only. The total number of schools under Protestant missions (American, British, and German) is 658, with 928 teachers and 22,483 pupils. As in other Provinces, the Protestant mission schools are gradually evolving a unified system and combining in a Kwangtung educa¬ tional association. The outstanding feature in education in Kwangtung is the Canton Christian College, Avhich not only antedates any efforts of the Chinese Government at providing modern education, but is the first and best-developed school under mission auspices. The institution was started by Rev. A. P. Happer, D. D., an American missionary, in 1885, on the earnest solicitation of over 400 Chinese officials, gentry, literati, and merchants. The college is unique among the educational institutions of China in that, while it is a Christian missionary enterprise, it is strictly non- denominational and depends entirely for its support upon individuals who appreciate the kind of work it is doing. Yet it has a larger for¬ eign staff and has received larger financial support from the Chinese than any other school in China. It is chartered under the regents of the University of the State of New York.1 1The office of the board of trustees is at 156 Fifth Avenue, New York City. The presi¬ dent of the board is Charles A. Stoddard, D. D., LL. D. MODERN EDUCATION IN BRITISH INDIA AND CHINA. 741 The college has received signal proofs of the appreciation of the Chinese themselves for this American institution. To quote a recent report from Dr. C. K. Edmunds, the president of the college: Not only have the students always paid relatively high fees for tuition, which have amounted to about half of the total budget for current expense, but since 1907 Cantonese at home and abroad (notably those in America) have con¬ tributed no less than $160,000, Chinese currency, with which all four of the permanent dormitories for students and two primary school cottages have been built. Chinese friends have also provided a launch and telephone line to con¬ nect the college with Canton City. During the spring recess, 1915, the students themselves undertook a cam¬ paign for the college and secured from Chinese in Hongkong, Macao, and Can¬ ton $19,100, Chinese currency. A general association in China for helping this college has just been inaugurated and already over 30 prominent and wealthy physicians, merchants, and others in Hongkong have formed an organizing directorate of a Hongkong chapter. A Canton chapter is also being formed, with the civil governor, a nephew of the famous Li Hung Chang, as honorary president. KIANGSTJ AND CHEKIANG PROVINCES. University education. — Of schools of strictly university grade there are none in this district (consular). There are two educational institutions of college grade in the Shanghai district, namely, that of Soochow, under the control of the board of missions of the Southern Methodist Church of America, and St. John’s University, at Shanghai, under the Methodist Episcopal Church of America, known in China as the American Church Mission. The most im¬ portant innovations in connection with these two schools are the establishment by the former of a graduate law school, which is to be opened in Shanghai dur¬ ing the coming autumn, providing for instruction in both Chinese and foreign law, and the establishment of the “ Pennsylvania Medical School ” by the latter one year ago. St. John’s University, previous to the inauguration of this new medical department, had a school of science and a school of theology. In addition to the foregoing, the “ Harvard Medical School ” has been estab¬ lished in Shanghai in connection with the Red Cross hospital. This school has been selected by the Rockefeller Foundation for Medical Research in China for financial aid during the coming year. A report by Crawford M. Bishop, American vice consul in charge, Shanghai, dated August 4, 1915, describes education in the Kiangsu and Chekiang Provinces, as follows: The Shanghai Baptist College and Theological Seminary of the American Baptist Mission, the Christian College at Hangchow, and Trinity College at Ningpo, in Chekiang Province, are the remaining institutions of college grade under foreign* missionary control. To provide for technical education there is at Shanghai “ The Government Institute of Technology,” formerly known as the “ Nanyang College,” which employs as teachers several graduates of American colleges, and the “ Nanyang Railway and Mining College.” Of purely graduate work, greatest progress has been made in the establish¬ ment of schools and hospitals for medical work. The recent China medical conference, held in Shanghai in the spring of the present year, gave great 742 EDUCATION REPORT, 1915. impetus to this work, while the carrying out of the plans there formulated has been powerfully aided by the Rockefeller Foundation recently established with former Consul General Greene as the resident director in China. Theological schools have been established for a long time, but they do not appear to be on the increase. Graduate instruction in law will be offered for the first time in China in the coming fall. Preparatory education . — In schools of academy and high-school grade con¬ siderable progress has been made both in the number and the standard of the schools opened. Noteworthy is the recent opening of the Shanghai American school for both sexes, the teachers of which are all graduates of American colleges. This school, however, is open to children of foreign parentage only. Of preparatory schools for Chinese, in addition to those already established by various missions in Shanghai, the Young Men’s Christian Association have re¬ cently built a dormitory in connection with their high school (day) and even¬ ing school work. The educational work of the Y. M. C. A. is directed toward training Chinese for practical business life and its curriculum corresponds to that of the city “ business colleges ” in America. The Y. M. C. A. conduct an evening school also at Hangchow. In addition to the foregoing there are high schools in the foreign settlement and in the French municipality of Shanghai, which are maintained by the respective municipalities and are open only to children of foreign parentage. There is as yet no institution of college grade in this district for children of foreign parentage of either sex. By far the larger part of educational work for Chinese, aside from that con¬ ducted by the Government of China, is done by American missionaries or American colleges, the entrance of Harvard, Pennsylvania, and Yale into the China field constituting the most notable recent innovation. Foreign educational institutions for Chinese women. — Of foreign educational institutions for Chinese women there are in Shanghai the school conducted by the Y. W. C. A. ; the Bridgeman Memorial School, located in the Chinese native city ; the St. Mary’s Hall, the women’s department of St. John’s College ; and the MacTyiere School for Chinese Girls, all of preparatory grade. There is no institution of college grade for women in this district except the Women’s Medical College at Soochow. Educational facilities for Chinese women are as yet far behind that provided for the men, both in number and grade of schools. The most important steps that have been taken in recent years toward the im¬ provement of the educational system in this part of China have been the move¬ ments among the various missionary bodies represented here looking toward the establishment of union institutions representing the various organizations in any given locality, and the adoption of a uniform curriculum with uniform entrance requirements and grade of examinations in the various schools. PROVINCES OF KWANGSI, KWAICHOW, AND YUNNAN. The following information with regard to the Provinces of Kwangsi, Kwaichow, and Yunnan is furnished by the officers in charge of the respective Provinces : 1 1 Forwarded by Consul General F. D. Cheshire, Canton, Aug. 25, 1915. MODERN EDUCATION IN BRITISH INDIA AND CHINA, 743 List of scholastic institutions in the Kicangsi Province. Description of school. Num¬ ber. Number of stu¬ dents. Government or private institution. 2 996 Government. N ormal schools . 2 357 Do. First-class agricultural school . I 67 Do. First-class school of labor . 1 98 Do. High schools . 23 4, 282 Do. Normal schools of lectures . 6 342 Do. Girls’ normal schools of lectures . 2 112 Do. Second-class agricultural schools . 3 96 Do. Girls’ second-class agricultural school . 1 7 Do. Girls’ second-class school of labor . 1 4 Do. Preliminary schools . 298 16,315 Do. Girls’ preliminary schools . 13 405 Do. Primary schools . 1,099 44 44,401 2, 323 311 Do. Girls’ primary schools . Do. Law schools of lectures . 2 Private. Preliminary schools . 58 2, 180 12, 878 160 Do. Primary schools . 480 Do. Girls’ primary schools . 3 DO. KWAICHOW. It appears that Kwaichow Province has upward of 1,050 Government schools, with an enrollment of more than 42,500 students ; and upward of 290 private schools, with an enrollment of more than 9,750 students. The subjects taught are strictly in accordance with the rules prescribed by the ministry of education. The above figures do not include schools established by private tutors. YUNNAN - TABULATED STATISTICS. List of scholastic institutions in Yunnan Province during 1913 and 1914. Names. Num¬ ber. Num¬ ber of stu¬ dents. Num¬ ber of grad¬ uates. Num¬ ber of teach¬ ers. Num¬ ber of officers in charge. Annual receipts. Annual expendi¬ tures. Endow¬ ment. Military school . 1 290 Law college . 1 510 203 22 11 $22,279 $16,959 $41, 214 Commercial college . 1 143 High school . 3 1,363 28 96 26 112, 710 108,319 83,970 Normal school . 7 1,477 59 145 47 186, 719 167,336 253, 120 Normal school of special sub¬ jects . 1 208 203 Normal school of lectures . 25 1,304 619 73 34 33,301 28,590 13,500 Scientific experimental school 1 30 24 7 1 3,281 3,281 1,850 Girls’ normal school . 2 129 27 77 11 26,945 26,946 18,396 Agricultural school . 1 412 62 38 15 55, 989 55, 987 50, 543 School of labor . 1 305 26 9 45, 491 45,491 56,596 Girls’ silk worm rearing school. 1 82 20 Primary schools . 4,140 162,182 10,660 4,954 4,007 496,717 501,037 2,385,363 Preliminary schools . 217 15,984 2,000 622 289 160, 128 163, 153 1, 205, 123 Girls’ primary school . 224 13,616 729 361 181 39,660 39,854 166,352 Girls’ preliminary school . 18 787 41 16 5,008 5,080 20,317 Kindergarten . 1 185 92 6 1 2,741 2, 736 Agricultural school . 43 1, 888 274 106 48 22,636 22,204 107,893 Schools of labor . 3 235 11 6 4 5,629 5,662 13,233 Girls’ school . 2 278 18 5 9,595 9,076 4,221 Total . 4,693 201,318 15,011 6,598 4, 705 1,227,829 1,201,711 4,421,691 Apparently the above are all Government schools. It is stated that in the Province of Yunnan there are less than 20 schools under mission or foreign patronage. The largest school under Protestant 744 EDUCATION REPORT, 1915. missions is that of the United Methodist at Chiotung, with about 300 students and 4 foreign teachers. The Catholic missions have several schools for boys and girls, the principal being at Lu-Nan-Chow. At Yunnanfu the French Government supports a school for boys of 120 students and a school for girls of 80 students; there is also a private middle school for teaching English only conducted by the English-speaking Chinese. Canton is the site of the True Light Seminary, comprising elemen¬ tary, intermediate, industrial, and normal departments. FENGTIEN DEPENDENCY. A report by Consul General P. S. Heintzleman, Mukden, dated June 19, 1915, gives the following data regarding the various kinds of schools throughout the Fengtien Dependency for the year 1914: Schools in the Fengtien Dependency. Classes of schools. Number. Number of pupils. Primary and intermediate (boys) . 4,737 33 14 8 6 10 217 14 187, 155 1,819 976 290 216 365 10,341 785 Normal (boys) . Middle (boys) . Agricultural (boys) . Industrial (boys) . Commercial (boys) . Primary and intermediate (girls) . Normal (girls) . Total . 5,039 i 201,947 The total expenditure for education in 1914 for the whole Province was $1,214,800, the actual cost to the Government having been $928,885. PROVINCE OF FUKIEN.1 There are 16 Government schools in this district. One normal school has an enrollment of 250 students and receives an allowance of $4,000 monthly, or $6,000 for each class annually, there being eight classes in the school. One normal school for girls, with an en¬ rollment of 100, receives $1,000 per month, or $3,000 for each class per annum, there being four classes in the school. Tuition and board at both these institutions are free. One law school having an en¬ rollment of 800 students receives an allowance of $3,000 monthly, or $4,500 for each class per annum, there being eight classes in the school ; an annual tuition of $14 is charged in this school. An average monthly allowance of $1,000, or $3,000 for each class, there being four classes in each school, is granted to three middle schools, four industrial schools of a higher grade (technical, com- 1 Compiled from report of American Consul Albert W. Pontius, Foochow. MODERN EDUCATION IN BRITISH INDIA AND CHINA. 745 niercial, agricultural, and sericulture), and one girls’ industrial school of a lower grade ; the number of students in these schools runs from 100 to 200, a tuition of $14 per annum being charged. Five primary schools receive a monthly allowance of $300, or $600 for each class, each school having six classes ; the tuition at these schools is $6 per annum, the number of students at these schools ranging from 60 to 150.1 Private schools. — In addition to the Government schools, there are one private law school and 100 primary schools. Altogether the Government expends annually in this district the sum of $220,000 in its support of the Government and private schools. Mission schools. — The American Board of Missions has an exten¬ sive educational work in this district, including the Foochow Col¬ lege, with 280 students. The American Methodist Episcopal Mission also supports many schools, with an estimated enrollment of 8,110 pupils in primary schools, 1,197 in intermediate schools, 257 in nor¬ mal schools, and 115 in colleges. The Union Theological School represents a combined effort of three different local Protestant mis¬ sions, viz, one British and two American. An Anglo-Chinese col¬ lege is also maintained by the two British missionary societies in the district, which also carry on many day schools. The total num¬ ber of students under their charge, as reported in 1915, was 4,164 (boys, 2,247 ; girls, 1,917). In this consular district, as in nearly all others from which reports have been received, attention is called to the important educational work carried on by the Young Men’s Christian Association in the chief cities of the respective districts. LEASED TERRITORY OF KIAOCHATJ. The Territory of Kiaochau, which has been prominent in the recent history of China, was acquired by the German Government in 1898, and passed under the control of the Japanese November, 1914. During the German occupation modern education was im¬ parted in a few schools under German and American missionaries and in schools of low grade maintained by the local government and designed principally to fit pupils to earn their living in the various German enterprises. The most important institution established during this period was the Government German-Chinese high school, which was opened October 25, 1909, and gradually supplied with a fine group of buildings, admirably equipped for the purposes of a high school. At the time of the capture of Tsingtau by the Japanese, the preparatory department (course five years) of this 1 All values are quoted in Mexican dollars, 100 Mexican dollars being equal to about $40 United States currency. 746 EDUCATION REPORT, 1915. institution contained 332 students, and the advanced department (courses three and four years) , 88. The latter were enrolled in the following courses: Medicine, law, agriculture,. engineering. The latest plans of the present government outlined in July, 1915, relate to the establishment of a university at Tsingtau.1 PEKING. By reference to the statement of the administrative policy of the Government it will be seen that the control of education in Peking is centralized directly in the ministry. The following table pertains to conditions in the year 1910 : Government colleges and high schools in Peking under the ministry of education. For¬ eign teach¬ ers. Chi¬ nese teach¬ ers. Stu¬ dents. Income (taels).1 Expendi¬ ture (taels). Average cost per student (taels). Imperial university . 6 13 200 92,780 73,104 96,852 196,300 40,306 79,032 47,755 91,692 71,545 91,521 154,321 44,085 64,436 36, 126 430 Law college . 10 32 594 120. 446 College of languages . 5 20 323 283. 377 Eight banners’ high school . 26 367 141. 716 Manchu and Mongolian languages high school . 21 240 169. 937 Shuntien high school . . . 19 209 278. 622 Higher normal college . 1 8 76 422. 711 1 The value of a tael in Peking is about 56.5 cents. UNIVERSITIES UNDER FOREIGN AUSPICES. The Imperial University, named in the table, should not be con¬ founded with the Peking University maintained by Protestant mis¬ sions. Special reference should be made to the Tsing Hua College, founded by the Government near Peking for the preparation of students to be sent at the Government’s expense to America, in ac¬ cordance with the undertaking given by China when the United States Government announced its intention of returning a large part of the Boxer indemnity claim. This college was closed as a result of the revolution of 1911, but resumed operations in May, 1912.2 The latest addition to higher institutions in China is the Uni¬ versity of Hongkong, which was opened in 1912 and which, although on British territory and under British influences, is destined to exercise a great influence on progress in China. Measures have also been taken for establishing Hankow University in central China under the auspices of an Oxford and Cambridge committee. 1 From report of the American consul, Willys R. Peck, Tsingtau, July 26, 1915. 2 For extended accounts of this institution see Rep. of Gommiss. of Ed., 1914, ch. 37, pp. 769-770. MODERN EDUCATION IN BRITISH INDIA AND CHINA. 747 IMPORTANT PENDING MEASURES. The Government has under consideration three important propo¬ sitions suggested by the national conference: (1) Attendance at pri¬ mary schools to be made compulsory; (2) determining the relation of mission schools and private schools to the Government; (3) the appointment of scholars versed in phonetics, and representative of all the Provinces, to invent or adopt an alphabet for the Chinese lan¬ guage. AMERICAN ACTIVITIES IN RESPECT TO TIIE WELFARE OF CHINA. Through the action of the Rockefeller board, China has in pros¬ pect a remarkable system of medical education. This purpose is the outcome of the work of a special commission appointed last year to investigate and report upon the needs of China. The members of the commission were Harry Pratt Judson, president of the University of Chicago; Roger S. Greene, United States consul general at Han¬ kow ; and F rancis W. Peabody, of the Harvard Medical School. The commission met in Peking in May, 1914, and spent four months in a study of the existing medical schools, hospitals, and dispensaries in China, and in conference with Government officials, missionaries, and other competent advisers. As a result of this preliminary investigation the foundation has established a Chinese medical board, of which the director is to be Dr. Wallace Buttrick, executive secretary of the General Education Board, and Roger S. Greene, resident director in China. A plan of action recommended by Frederick T. Gates and tentatively adopted by the board is briefly outlined in the report of the foundation as follows : Within the chosen area the plan organizes into one present organic whole the work and growth of many decades, every man, every dollar, every institu¬ tion, every item of equipment now existing for medical work without loss or waste. As the system proves practicable and efficient, we may extend it to other similar centers, or it will perhaps extend itself and China will be in a fair way to lead the world in medicine, for to-day no land, whether in America or Europe, has any system of medicine at all comparable in efficiency or promise.1 CHINESE INDEMNITY STUDENTS. According to the Chinese educational mission, there were 325 Chinese students in the United States, in 1915, maintained from the indemnity fund. Colleges and universities enrolling 10 or more of these students were as follows : Cornell University, 35 ; Massachusetts Institute of Technology, 35; Columbia University, 32 ; University of Third annual report of the foundation. 748 EDUCATION REPOET, 1915. Michigan, 22; Harvard University, 20; University of Wisconsin, 16; University of Illinois, 15 ; University of Pennsylvania, 11 ; and Uni¬ versity of Chicago, 11. The remaining students were scattered through 52 colleges and secondary schools; 1 was attending the United States Military Academy at West Point. Full scholarship students ($960) numbered 250; partial scholarship ($500), 58; special students, 17. As to courses of study pursued by the indemnity students, it ap¬ pears that 38 were taking academic courses ; 104, various branches of engineering; 11, medicine; 5, railway administration; 8, business ad¬ ministration; 10, law; 17, chemistry; 3, forestry; 19, agriculture; 1, architecture; 5, naval architecture; 9, education; 7, banking and finance; 16, economics; 18, political science; 7, mining and metal¬ lurgy; 1, military science; philosophy, physics, and pharmacy, each 3; 1, psychology; 4, sociology; 3, manufacturing; 25, preparatory. CHAPTER XXXV. SYSTEM OF PUBLIC INSTRUCTION IN JAPAN. Contents. — Introduction — Administration — Elementary education: Teachers; school year ; textbooks ; school organization ; schoolhouses ; compulsory attendance ; sources of income ; programs — Schools for special classes — Training of teachers : Higher nor¬ mal schools — Middle schools : Curriculum ; high schools for girls — The higher (sec¬ ondary) schools : Curriculum, students — Professional and industrial education for girls — Universities : General characteristics ; admission requirements, fees, etc. ; sup¬ plementary establishments — Technical education — Auxiliary agencies of education — Extension of the system to Chosen — Art education — Statistical summary — Expendi¬ tures. INTRODUCTION . The system of public instruction in Japan has long commanded attention because of the remarkable power shown by the Government in adapting features derived from western systems to an oriental nation. This interest has been greatly increased since J apan has been recognized as a world power, with a voice in the solution of many international problems and destined to exercise enormous influence on the development of China. The present system of education was developed for the most part during the reign of the late Emperor Meiji. The main features of the system were established by a series of ordinances which showed at first the predominant influence of French ideals and models; later these were replaced by those of England and America ; finally Ger¬ man influences prevailed. After the Treaty of Portsmouth, in 1905, which brought to a close the war between Russia and Japan, there was a marked tendency in the latter Empire to rise above foreign influences and to exalt the national spirit in the conduct of all institutions. TChile foreign influences prevailed, attention was repeatedly called to the fact that, although the modern system of education in the Empire was European in its spirit and organization, the code for that country adopted in 1872 provided for a course of instruction in morals “ which was then unknown in any American or European school.” The importance of this subject was set forth in the imperial rescript 749 750 EDUCATION REPORT, 1915. of 1890, and still more impressively in the rescript of 1908, which is as follows: Know ye, Our subjects: Civilization is advancing day by day and progressing month by month, and the nations of the whole world, east and west, through mutual dependence and help, alike share in its benefits. We confidently anticipate a lasting enjoyment of its blessings, along with other powers, by improving our relations and strengthening our friendship with them. But in order to move onward with the main current of the world’s progress and to share in the blessings of civilization, it is obvious that we must depend upon the developmnt of our national resources. Our coun¬ try has not yet had time to recover from the effects of the late war, and improve¬ ment and expansion are necessary in various branches of our administration. Therefore, with one mind, let all men, high and low, faithfully pursue their callings, be diligent and frugal in the acquisition and management of their property, maintain good faith, continue in righteousness, live simple and sincere lives, shun ostentation and cleave to reality, mutually warn one another against negligence and idleness, and brace themselves to ceaseless activity. The precepts of Our Sacred Imperial Ancestors and the facts of our glorious history shine like the sun and the stars. Indeed, the development of our national resources has its root in reverently hearkening to these precepts, learning the lessons of these facts, and steadfastly acting up to them. In view of the circum¬ stances of the present time We purpose, relying on the cooperation of Our good and loyal subjects, to enlarge the Imperial Plan of the Restoration and to exalt the august virtues of Our Imperial Ancestors. Ye, Our subjects, take to heart these Our wishes. [Imperial sign manual. Imperial seal.] The 13th day of the 10th month of the J^lst year of Meiji. [ Coun ' er-signature of the Minister President of State.] Loyalty to the Emperor, morality, industry, and thrift, the neces¬ sary qualities of good citizenship, are the purposes toward which the instruction in all schools and higher institutions is constantly directed, and this final purpose is kept steadily in view in the ad¬ ministration and organization of the system of education. The main features of this system have been described in publications easily accessible to American students of education. They are briefly stated here in order that certain particulars which will be emphasized may be seen in proper perspective. This purpose is facilitated by a hand¬ book of the system recently issued, from which the particulars given are derived.1 ADMINISTRATION . The system of education is under the control of a department created in 1871. This department comprises three bureaus, to which are assigned, respectively, special education, general education, and religions. The bureau of religion, transferred in 1913 from the de¬ partment of home affairs, is charged with the supervision of the ecclesiastical affairs of the country. These, however, are kept en¬ tirely distinct from educational affairs. 1 Japan, department of education : Education in Japan, prepared for the Panama-Pacific International Exposition, 1915. PUBLIC INSTRUCTION IN JAPAN. 751 At the head of the department is the minister of education, who is assisted by a cabinet which deals with the financial and business side of the educational institutions. Each of the bureaus mentioned is organized under a director, who is assisted by councillors, secretaries, etc. To the central department belong superintendents appointed for local areas, and inspectors either permanent or temporary. An educa¬ tion investigation committee, under the control of the minister of education, was appointed in 1913. The duty of this committee is : To investigate important matters relating to education, to express an opinion upon questions submitted to it by the minister, as well as to present to him its own opinion upon various matters. The committee is composed of representa¬ tives not only of educational authorities, but also of all circles outside of them, and consequently it is many-sided in its nature. The 47 Prefectures into which the Empire is divided are local agen¬ cies of educational administration. The governor of each Prefecture is at the head of its educational affairs, and is represented in the civil districts of his Prefecture by inspectors. Within the jurisdiction of the Prefecture are districts, cities, towns, and villages; the heads of these civil divisions control schools established by them. Educational committees are appointed which help in securing the legally required attendance of children at school. In all Prefectures, districts, or cities there are also educational societies ; and though these are private institutions, they help in the advancement of education in the locali¬ ties to which they belong. ELEMENTARY EDUCATION. The elementary schools are regulated by imperial ordinances, but are under the immediate direction of the local authorities. Provision is made for kindergartens and for special elementary schools under private control which are sanctioned by the authorities. The present consideration of elementary education will be limited to the public schools, which are classed as ordinary elementary and higher ele¬ mentary. Teachers. — The law prescribes explicitly the conditions under which teachers may be employed, their qualifications, and the duties which they must perform. An elementary-school teacher must have a license testifying to his qualifications for the service. The license is granted by the local governor to the graduates of the normal school or other schools appointed as such by the minister of educa¬ tion, or to persons who have successfully passed the elementary teach¬ ers’ test examination; such a license is available all over the country and for life. A teacher is authorized to conduct the business of the school under his care without any other interference than the supervision of the proper controlling authorities ; that is, the local governor or the dis- 752 EDUCATION REPORT, 1915. trict headman ; to inflict necessary punishment upon the children for purposes of education (corporal punishment being forbidden by law) ; to suspend from attendance children suffering from contagious diseases or exposed to such, and also children who are unmanageable ; to arrange the school hours, and in general to adjust the program of the school to local conditions. The power of appointing or dismissing a teacher is vested in the local governor, but the appointment in each case is made on an appli¬ cation from the mayor or chief magistrate of the town or district which is in need of a teacher. The law makes special provision con¬ cerning the cases in which a teacher may be temporarily suspended from duty or permanently dismissed. The importance of liberal provision for teachers is fully recog¬ nized, but the difficulties in the way of adequate salaries are similar to those experienced in other countries. Present salaries and emolu¬ ments are as follows : By the law now in force a regular teacher of the regular course is paid a sal¬ ary varying from 12 to 95 yen ($6 to $47) per month (for distinguished services it may be raised to 120 yen — $60) ; a regular teacher of the special course gets from 8 to 50 yen ($4 to $25) ; and an assistant teacher from $8 to 25 yen ($4 to $13). In addition to the above salaries paid from the city, town, or village revenues, increased salaries for long service, and special additional salaries, are paid from the State treasury. The former are given to those who have served satis¬ factorily for more than five years in a public elementary school within the same Prefecture, while the special additional salaries are paid to such regular teachers as belong to single-classed schools, or have under their charge a class formed of children from the first to the fourth, fifth, or sixth school year in many- classed schools, or have to carry on their work as teachers in some out-of-the- way place. Besides the above, the law provides that an allowance shall be granted to those teachers who teach over 32 hours per week; a bonus may be given to those who have rendered distinguished service, and also to those who take night duty ; medical expenses are allowed to those who are taken sick during the performance of their duties, and an official residence may be pro¬ vided according to local circumstances. An elementary-school teacher is entitled to a retiring pension and family pension. The pension on retirement is a life pension granted to such regular teachers of an elementary school of the city, town, or village establishment as are ordered, after 15 or more years of service, to retire on account of old age, illness, abolition of the school, etc., or to those who, though with less than 15 years’ service, have retired on account of physical disability owing to wounds inflicted or some disease contracted in the discharge of their duties, assistant teachers having the same privilege in this latter case. Even those who are not entitled to a retiring pension, but who .retire after over one or more years of service, are granted a lump sum of money according to the number of years of the service. A family pension is granted to the surviving members of the family in the case of the death of regular teachers of an elementary school of public establishment who were in receipt of, or were entitled to, a retiring pension, or who, though not having completed 15 years of service, have died in the discharge of their duties. PUBLIC INSTRUCTION IN JAPAN. 753 School year. — The tendency toward flexible arrangements suited to local conditions is shown by the fact that whereas the school year begins as a rule on the 1st of April and ends on the 31st of March of the following year, it may begin as late as the 1st of September and end on the 31st of the following August. This matter is left to the discretion of the local governor. The number of holidays in ele¬ mentary schools must not exceed 90 per annum, exclusive of Sundays. The most important holidays are the anniversaxy of the accession of the Emperor Jinmu, the imperial birth celebration day, and New Year’s Day. On each of these days the schools are assembled for a solemn ceremony, which consists of exercises intended to excite the national spirit and feelings of loyalty. The program includes the national anthem sung in chorus by all the school; homage done to the portraits of the Emperor and Empress ; recitation by the school¬ master of the imperial rescript on education; the schoolmaster’s re¬ marks respecting the foregoing; singing in chorus of some song proper for the occasion by the whole school. Textbooks. — The State system of textbooks adopted in 1903 pro¬ vides that the copyright of the books and charts to be used in an elementary school shall belong to the department of education. When there are several books on the same subject the local governor is to use his own discretion in making a selection. The minister of education may sanction books in a few subjects other than those copyrighted by the department. A special committee appointed in September, 1908, has the entire subject of textbooks under investiga¬ tion, with the purpose of exciting competition between book sellers and the authors of textbooks. School organization. — The imperial ordinance requires that there shall be one regular teacher for each class, but when circumstances do not allow this, the system of one regular and one assistant teacher for every two classes or two regular teachers for every three classes may be resorted to. The ordinance also requires that, except in some special cases, the number of classes in an elementary school shall be not more than 18, and that when local circumstances make it neces¬ sary to establish a branch school, the classes in each branch school shall not exceed 3. The law places the highest limit to the number of children in one class at 70 in the ordinary elementary school, and 60 in the higher elementary school. Under special circumstances an addition, not exceeding 10 pupils, may be made to the normal number. Discrimination is made in regard to sex. Girls are generally kept in a separate class from boys in the ordinary elementary school, when a class can be formed of girls of the same school year, and in the higher elementary school, when a class can be formed entirely 12034°— ed 1915— vol 1 - 48 754 EDUCATION REPORT, 1915. of girls. The younger children, however, of both sexes, belonging to the first and second school years in the ordinary elementary school may be formed into one class. Where circumstances require, the pupils of the school may be divided into two sections, so as to be taught at different times of the day. Care is taken, however, that this half-time system shall not be carried to excess, and in all cases permission to make this arrange¬ ment must be obtained from the local governor. An elementary school may provide a supplementary course of in¬ struction, the aim of which is the maintenance and extension of the results attained during the course of elementary education and pro¬ vision for practical instruction. There are two supplementary courses, one for the ordinary elementary school and the other for the higher elementary school; the course of supplementary instruction must not extend over more than two years. Schoolhouses. — The law requires that the schoolhouse in each district shall be a plain strong building well suited to the require¬ ments of instruction, control, and sanitation. The use of the school building, ground, furniture, and playground for other than their proper purpose is forbidden, except in the case of public calamities or for some special purposes which cause no hindrance to education. Thus the schoolhouse is occasionally used for public meetings, and the playground is sometimes open to the public for the purpose of exercise. The teachers residence shall be attached to the school, whenever local conditions permit. Compulsory attendance. — The earliest ordinances made elementary education compulsory for all children for a brief period; by an ordinance of 1907 this period was extended to six years. The legal school period begins the day after the child reaches its sixth year of age and ends when it reaches its fourteenth year. Exemptions from the compulsory provisions are allowed for sickness, feebleminded¬ ness, etc. Elementary instruction may be given either in a public school or at home or elsewhere, but in the latter cases permission must be secured from the chief magistrate of the city, town, or village. A register of all children of school age is kept by the mayor or headman of every community, and the names of children who should enter the school are communicated to the local teacher at the beginning of each school year. An attendance register is also kept by the teacher, and if any of the children whose names have been given to him do not appear within seven days after the day appointed for their entrance, the fact is reported to the chief executive of the district. Similar notification is lodged in case of the absence, for seven successive days, of children who have entered the school. Measures are taken to impress the parents or guardians with the PUBLIC INSTRUCTION IN JAPAN. 755 necessity of correcting this delinquency, and if no notice is taken of this first warning, the matter is carried to the higher authorities. That this system is effective is shown by the fact that in 1912-13 the rate of school attendance throughout the Empire was 98.23 per cent of all children of school age, and the rate of daily average attendance 92.47 per cent. Sources of income. — The support of elementary schools is derived from the community (city, town, or village), the larger areas of local administration (counties and Prefectures) of which the community forms a part, and from the national treasury. The initial cost of establishing elementary schools must be borne by the city, town, or village. If the resources of the community are not adequate, aid must be given from the larger area, the amount being determined by the governor of the Prefecture, and in cases of uncertainty submitted to the decision of the minister of education. The amount of money to be disbursed from the national treasury is fixed at 2,000,000 yen ($1,000,000) per annum, which is distributed to all the Prefectures of the country. Further contributions are received from the “educational stock fund,” 10,000,000 yen ($5,000,000), the amount from this source being determined in making up the annual budget. This money is applied to the equipment of schools and for the encouragement of general education by means of lectures, bonuses for teachers, etc. Each Pre¬ fecture is obliged to maintain a special account for this fund. With the enforcement of compulsory education, measures are taken to do away with tuition fees, but these are still allowed in localities in which the- sudden abolition of the fees would greatly reduce the school income. At present only 3 per cent of the ordinary elementary schools make a charge for tuition. The higher elementary schools do not come within the compulsory period ; therefore it is left to the option of the city, town, or village whether or not tuition fees shall be charged in these. In any case, however, the fees must not exceed 60 sen (30 cents) in a city and 30 sen (15 cents) in a town or village; the rate must be uniform through all the years of the school course. Programs. — In the ordinary elementary school the following sub¬ jects are continued throughout the entire course: Morals, the Jap¬ anese language, arithmetic, drawing, singing, and gymnastics. Addi¬ tional subjects are manual training, which may be given as local circumstances require, sewing for girls introduced the third year, Japanese history, geography, and science, introduced the fifth year. The Japanese language occupies the most time, from 10 to 14 hours a week being assigned to it; arithmetic follows, with 4 to 6 hours a week; morals have 2 hours a week throughout the entire course and also the same in the higher elementary schools which continue the 756 EDUCATION REPOET, 1915. course of the lower schools as arranged for the fifth and sixth years. The higher elementary schools are of two classes, schools having two- year courses and those having three years, the courses being identical for the first two years. The following conspectus shows the complete course of the three-year higher elementary schools : Course of instruction and number of school hours of the higher elementary school for three years of study. Subjects of study. Hours a week. First year. Hours a week. Second year. Hours a week. Morals . 2. Japanese lan- 8. guage. Principles of mo¬ rality. Reading, writing, and composi¬ tion. Fractions, per- centages, propor¬ tion. (A b acus arithmetic of four rules.) Arithmetic - 4 Principles of mo- 2 . rality. Reading, writing, 8 . and composi¬ tion. Proportion. (Aba- Boys, 4; cus arithmetic of girls , 3. four rules.) Japanese tory. Geography Outlines of Japan¬ ese history. j O utlines of world's [ geography. Sequel of the pre¬ ceding year. S u p p lementary lesson on geog¬ raphy. Science. Drawing . Boys, 2; girls, 3. 1 . Vegetables, ani¬ mals, minerals, and natural phe¬ nomena; e 1 e- ments of phys¬ ics and chemis¬ try; simple ma¬ chinery; e 1 e- ments of physi¬ ology and hy¬ giene, and for girls domestic science. Figures (various).. Boys, 2; Subjects of first girls, 3. year extended. 1 . Figures (various) (easy geometric¬ al drawing). ■2. 3. 1 Singing. Gymnastics . . . Sewing . Manual train¬ ing. Agriculture. . . 1. . 3 . 5 . . Boys, 6; girls, 2. Boys, 6; girls, 2. Solo singing (easy singing with staff). Gymnastic exer¬ cises; drill; sports. Sewing, mending, and cutting of common g a la¬ ments. Easy workman¬ ship and draw¬ ing. Agriculture, gen¬ eral principles of agriculture; ma¬ rine products, general princi¬ ples of marine products. 1. 3. 5. Boys, 6; girls, 2. Boys, 6; girls, 2. Solo singing (easy singing -with staff). Gymnastic exer¬ cises; dr'll; sports. Sewing, mending, and cutting of common gar¬ ments. Easy workman¬ ship and draw¬ ing. Agriculture, gen¬ eral principles of agriculture; ma¬ rine products, general princi¬ ples of marine products. 1 . 3 . 7 . Boys, 6; girls, 2. Boys, 6; girls, 2. Commerce. . . . Total... Boys, 6; General principles girls, 2. of commerce (English 1 a n- guage). Boys, 6; General principles girls, 2. of commerce (English lan¬ guage). Boys, 6; girls, 2. Boys, 30; girls, 32. Boys, 30; girls, 32. Boys, 30; gii’ls, 32. Third year. Principles of mo¬ rality. Reading, writ¬ ing, and com¬ position. Supplements of the preceding year, mensura¬ tion, bookkeep¬ ing for daily use. (Abacus arithmetic o f four rules.) History of Japan during Meiji era (the resto¬ ration). Sup plementary lessons on ge¬ ography. Sup plementary lessons on sci¬ ence; elements of domestic sci¬ ence (for girls). Figures (vari¬ ous) (easy geo metrical draw- „ i?g). . Solo singing (easy singing with staff). Gymnastic exer¬ cises; drill; sports. Sewing, mend¬ ing, and cutting of common gar¬ ments. Easy workman¬ ship and draw¬ ing. Agriculture, gen¬ eral principles of agriculture; Marine prod¬ ucts, general principles of marine prod¬ ucts. General princi¬ ples of com¬ merce (Eng¬ lish language). N. B.— Time for practice may be extended out of the hours above indicated. Two hours or less may be deducted from manual training, agriculture, and commerce for boys, and these hours may be given to other subjects of study according to the local circumstances. PUBLIC INSTRUCTION IN JAPAN. 757 By reference to the conspectus given above, it will be seen that the girls have two more school hours a week than the boys. This is allotted to sewing and an extra hour in science. The same arrange¬ ment is made in the course of the lower elementary school after the second year. The regulations prescribe that although in special cases some deviation in the number of school hours a week is allowed, they shall in no case exceed 30 or be less than 18 in the elementary school, and in the higher elementary not more than 32 nor less than 24, except in half-time schools and in the case of younger children. For the latter school hours may be reduced to 12 a week in the ele¬ mentary course. The standard of the courses of instruction and the number of school hours having been determined, the schoolmaster must arrange the details of instruction for each subject of study. Previous to 1900 the results of the school instruction were tested by examination, but since that year this has been accomplished by considering the daily work of each pupil. The change was made with the hope of avoiding — excessive application just before the examination on the part of children whose mental and physical development was still incomplete, but who were often driven thereto by the strain of competition, with results highly injurious to both mind and body. At the end of each school year, when the course has been completed in the ordinary as well as in the higher elementary school, the school¬ master must give a certificate to each of those who have passed through the course satisfactorily. SCHOOLS FOR SPECIAL CLASSES. Provision for the education of the blind and the deaf and dumb is made by both public and private schools, and great attention is given to the practical training of the pupils in order that they may be pre¬ pared for industrial life. At Tokyo there is a school for the blind and a. school for the deaf, both maintained by the General Govern¬ ment and under the direct supervision of the department of educa¬ tion. The former is noted for the successful adaptation of the Braille system to the J apanese “ syllabary ” which was worked out by Mr. K. Ishikawa, an instructor in the school. In this institution, which has naturally become a model for others in the Empire, there are two industrial courses, music, acupuncture, and massage. The course of general study extends over five years, with an additional year for those who specialize in music. 'With respect to acupuncture the report says: Acupuncture being a medical art peculiar to our country, and having been for a long time the occupation for the blind, it has, together with massage and Koto . playing, been introduced into the industrial course for the blind, along with some principles of anatomy, physiology, and hygiene. 758 , EDUCATION REPORT, 1915. The institution provides a training course of one year for students who show ability as teachers. The Tokyo school for the deaf also serves as a model for institu¬ tions of this order throughout the Empire. The curriculum is di¬ vided into ordinary, industrial, and training courses. The industrial courses are drawing, woodwork, and sewing. With regard to the system of teaching speech the report says : Reading, pronunciation, and conversation are taught by Bell’s system of visible speech to those dumb pupils only in the ordinary course who show quick¬ ness enough in learning. It is not taught to all of them for the following rea¬ son: Our characters in common use having been originally introduced from China and subsequently developed in this country, have each of several pro¬ nunciations and almost as many or more meanings, and each has three forms in writing; moreover, the spoken and written languages are entirely different, and a great variety of styles are used in composition, so that the task of teach¬ ing the language is beset by overwhelming difficulties, and some of the pupils would make little or no progress in pronunciation and reading. The institute for the blind and dumb maintained by the city of Kyoto has achieved much distinction. Its teachers have made many improvements in the methods of imparting instruction to young people deprived of their normal senses. TRAINING OF TEACHERS. Provision for the training of teachers is made in normal schools, which in accordance with the latest ordinance on the subject must be established by each Prefecture throughout the Empire, within its own jurisdiction. The number of these local normal schools is at present 90 — 45 for young men, 34 for young women, and 11 coeduca¬ tional. The course of study is divided into two parts : The prepara¬ tory and the regular. The regular course is again subdivided into a first and second section. The preparatory course, which covers only one year, forms a link between the higher elementary schools and the regular normal schools. The official regulations prescribe the subjects of instruction and the distribution of time among them, but modifications are allowed according to local conditions. The following conspectus pertains to the first section of a typical normal school for men. The figures in parentheses show the changes in the curriculum adapting it to the normal schools for women . PUBLIC INSTRUCTION IN JAPAN. 759 Program of typical normal school. Subjects of study. Prepara¬ tory course, hours a week. Regular course (first section), hours a weak. First Second year. Third year. Fourth year. Morals. 2 2 1 Pedagogics 2 Japanese language and Chinese classics. English . History . Geography . Mathematics . Natural history . Physics and chemistry . Civics and domestic science . Handwriting . Drawing . Manual training . Music . Gymnastics . Agriculture, or commerce . Sewing . . (9)10 (5)6 3 2 2 6 3 2 2 (3)4 (2)3 2 (3)5 (4) 4 3 2 2 3 2 2 1 3 2 3 3 2 1 (2)3 (2)3 (2) 1 Pedagogics.. 3 Practice . 9 2 2 2 4 (2)2 1 3 2 (3) 5 (4) 2 3 l (213 (3)2 Total. 31 34 34 34 34 The maximum number of students in each of the schools is 500, all of whom reside in dormitories. The majority secure scholar¬ ships, and after graduation they are required to serve for a certain number of years as teachers in normal schools, middle schools, or high schools for girls. A middle school and an elementary school are attached to each normal school, serving as practice schools for the students, and also as model schools for the benefit of the entire country. The higher normal schools for women are organized in three sec¬ tions, viz, literature, science, and domestic science. The subjects in¬ cluded in the curriculum of the domestic science section are morals, pedagogics, domestic science, science, sewing, the Japanese language, a foreign language, manual arts and drawing, music, and gymnastics. The arrangement of the curriculum as regards sequence of subjects and time assigned is modified according to circumstances. Candi¬ dates for admission must be graduates from the normal school for women or from the high school for girls. The maximum number of students is 300. As in the case of the schools for men, the students reside in dormitories ; they have the benefits of scholarships and are pledged to teach after graduation. Model schools attached to the higher normal schools for women include a high school for girls, an elementary school, and a kindergarten. The second section of the regular course in the normal schools for men extend over one year, and the corresponding course in the schools for women over a period of one or two years. These sections are in¬ tended for more advanced students than those who enter the first section, and in them more time is given to professional training in pedagogics or the theory and art of teaching. 760 EDUCATION REPORT, 1915. HIGHER NORMAL SCHOOLS. Higher normal schools are maintained to prepare teachers for the ordinary normal schools and also for the service of middle schools and the high schools for girls. The normal schools of this class com¬ prise two for young men exclusively and two for women. For ad¬ mission to the schools for men, students must be graduates either of the ordinary normal schools or of middle schools and must pass successfully a test of physical strength, proficiency in studies, and must have testimonials showing their high moral character. The higher normal schools for men include a preparatory course and the regular course, the latter organized in five sections as follows : Japanese language and Chinese classics ; English language ; geography and history ; mathematics, physics, and chemistry ; natural history. A postgraduate course extending over one or two years is provided for the benefit of those' graduates of the regular course who wish to pursue their studies in scientific and educational subjects. The higher normal schools rank next to the imperial universities, their faculties consisting for the most part of university graduates who have pursued their studies in Europe or in America. The need for teachers of technical subjects both in secondary schools and secondary technical schools has created a demand for a different order of training, which is temporarily met by professional courses given in the technical schools of high grade. MIDDLE SCHOOLS. The system of education established in 1872 comprised provision for secondary education. For this purpose the country was divided into 8 university districts, each of which was subdivided into 32 middle school districts. In each of the latter it was proposed to establish a school of general education for pupils who had finished the elementary course. The purposes and scope of the middle schools were not clearly defined at the outset and they were the subject of experiment and changes for nearly 30 years. Eventually it was de¬ termined to limit the middle schools to the general education con¬ sidered as a preparation for the ordinary duties and responsibilities of life and to provide, in a still higher grade of schools, courses of instruction preparatory to the universities. In accordance with the provisions of the law now in force, boys who have completed the six years’ course of the elementary schools are eligible for admission to middle schools. The course of study for the latter is arranged for five years, with a supplementary course of not more than one year. The teachers of the middle schools have special training for their duties and a higher range of salaries than those paid in the elemen¬ tary schools. PUBLIC INSTRUCTION IN JAPAN. 761 CURRICULUM. The subjects of instruction for the middle schools are shown by the following conspectus, covering the first and fifth years : Subjects in the middle schools — Hours per week. Subjects. First year. Fifth year. Hours. 1 8 6 3 4 2 Hours. 1 6 7 3 4 Japanese language and Chinese classics . . . . Foreign language . History and geography . Mathematics _ . Natural history _ . Physics and chemistry . . 4 2 (2) 1 Industry . Drawinp . 1 1 3 29 Sin {drip- . Gymnastics . 3 31 (33) Total hours . By comparing the above conspectus with the program of the higher elementary schools the distinctive character of the middle schools is clearly seen. The practical subjects of the higher elementary schools are represented in the middle school by an optional course in indus¬ try occupying two hours in the fourth and fifth year each. The ele¬ mentary branches are more highly developed. Foreign languages are introduced, election being allowed between English, German, and French. Natural history occupies two hours a week from first to fifth year. Physics and chemistry are introduced in the fourth year, with four hours a week, as in the fifth. HIGH SCHOOLS FOR GIRLS. High schools for girls, like the middle schools for boys, have passed through various modifications and at present are regulated by ordi¬ nances of 1907, 1908, and 1910. The first of these ordinances provided for a four-year obligatory course, to which was added an optional course of one year. The ordinance of 1908 extended the scheme of optional study, and the ordinance of 1910 authorized a course in which the chief subjects throughout should be such as relate to house¬ hold management. As a result of these regulations, secondary educa¬ tion of girls is now provided for by high schools established by the Government or by local authorities, by private high schools of the same character, and by domestic high schools either by public or pri¬ vate origin. The subjects of instruction in the girls’ high schools are similar to those in the schools of corresponding grade for boys, with less time given to mathematics and the sciences and special stress placed upon morals, the Japanese language, and sewing. The domes¬ tic high schools offer a three years’ course in which domestic science and sewing occupy half the time; provision is also made for schools 762 EDUCATION REPORT, 1915. having a two years’ course in which domestic science, sewing, and in¬ dustries of various kinds occupy nearly all the time. In 1912-13 the number of high schools for girls was as follows: Public schools having the general course, 162; private, 55; domestic high schools, public, 115 ; private, 15. They registered about 65,000 pupils. HIGHER (SECONDARY) SCHOOLS. The “ higher schools ” prepare students for admission to the uni¬ versity colleges. They are organized in three departments, varying in their programs according to the division of the university for which the students intend to enter. The scope of the higher schools is shown by the accompanying conspectus of the studies of the three departments. So far as re¬ ported, there are eight higher public schools, which are named from the towns in which they are located (see list). There are many pri¬ vate schools in the Empire of the same general character. Program for higher schools — First department .* Kours per week. Subjects. First year. Second year. Third year. Morals . Japanese language and Chinese classics. English . German . French . History . Logic and psychology . . . Principles of law . Political economy . Gymnastics . 3 1 4 fli Total. 31 32 29 31 i Figures in parentheses show the number of hours given to elective subjects, and the figure in brackets show the number of hours for applicants for admission to the college of literature. Program for higher schools — Second and third departments. Subjects. Hours per week in second department. Hours per week in third department. First year. Second year. Third year. First year. Second year. Third year. Morals . 1 1 1 1 1 1 Japanese . 3 3 English . 8 7 4 G erman or French . 8 7 4 German . 13 13 10 English or French . 3 3 3 2 Mathematics . 5 4 3 2 Physics . 3 3 3 (!) Chemistrv . 3 (2) 3 C1) Geology and mineralogy... 2 Zoology and botany . 4 (3) Drawing . 4 4 2 Gymnastics . .. 3 3 3 3 3 3 Total . 32 32 30 30 31 31 1 Lecture, 3; experiment, 3. 2 Lecture, 3; experiment, 2. 3 Laboratory work, 3. PUBLIC INSTRUCTION IN JAPAN. 763 Curriculum. — The great importance attached to the teaching of foreign languages is indicated by the number of hours assigned to them. This is necessary, because books that must be used in the courses preparatory to university education are found only in Euro¬ pean languages. Throughout the entire period of study in the higher schools great attention is given to the moral and spiritual development of the students, and also to their physical training. This purpose is fostered by the provision of dormitories, which en¬ able the faculties to keep constant oversight over the students. Students. — Candidates for admission to a higher school must be graduates of a middle school, or give proof of equivalent attainments. The pressure for admission is so great that in many cases a com¬ petitive examination is ordered as a means of keeping the number admitted within the limits of the accommodation. The report calls attention to the fact that although the number of special schools of every kind, public and private, has been greatly increased as a result of the recent wars, this fact has not interfered at all with the num¬ ber of middle-school graduates applying for admission to the higher schools. This shows the growing appreciation of general education, and is regarded as a direct result of the spread of primary education. PROFESSIONAL AND INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION FOR GIRLS. Among the notable developments of recent years is the demand for the services of women in different departments of life requiring special preparation either directed to earning a livelihood or to meeting the needs of various forms of public service. In response to these demands there have arisen various classes of special schools, among them schools for training kindergarten teachers, sewing schools, schools for teaching the feminine arts — such as weaving, dye¬ ing, cookery, and manual crafts — and also schools for music and the fine arts. A feature of this development is the provision of special medical schools in which women are prepared to secure licenses to practice, and also diplomas as nurses and sanitary experts. Up to the present time no provision has been made by the Govern¬ ment for the higher education of women. The Japanese Woman’s University, a private institution at Tokyo, has made remarkable progress and given special impetus to the general cause of woman’s education. An advanced school for women of the nobility was estab¬ lished at Tokyo by the “ Noblemen’s Association,” but in 1884 it was placed under the control of the imperial household department. This institution comprises a kindergarten, elementary and secondary de¬ partments, and a course for special study. In 1913 the students num¬ bered 616, including 10 members of the imperial family. 764 EDUCATION REPOET, 1915. UNIVERSITIES. General characteristics. — At the head of the elaborate system of general, liberal, and professional education fostered by the Govern¬ ment of J apan are the four imperial universities. These institutions are intended to provide instruction in literature, science, and art, and to provide facilities for modern research. They are organized in col¬ leges, with the addition of a university hall, which is common to the students of all the colleges who are engaged in special lines of scientific research. The universities have all been established and are maintained by the Government. The control of each is vested in a president and council. The latter body consists of the deans of all the colleges and one professor from each who is chosen by vote. Admission requirements , fees , etc. — Graduates of the preparatory schools are admitted to the universities without further examination. Other applicants must prove equivalent attainments; in case of ex¬ cessive candidates for admission, competitive examinations are held. Students pay their own college expenses, the admission fee being 5 yen and the tuition fee 50 yen annually. Students distinguished for their attainments enjoy the privilege of exemption from the fees, and there are also scholarships and loan funds for the benefit of promis¬ ing students whose private means are insufficient to meet the college expenses. A university student enjoys the privilege of postponing his army conscription or of becoming a one-year volunteer. Graduates from the professional colleges are admitted to practice in the Empire without further examination and may also be granted licenses to teach special branches in secondary schools. The univer¬ sity diploma is inscribed with the special degree corresponding to the course pursued by the student. The following table shows the personnel and student body of the several universities and their distribution in the constituent colleges as reported for 1912-13 : Imperial universities. Colleges. Tokyo. Kyoto. Tohoku. Kyushu. Pro¬ fessors. Stu¬ dents. Pro¬ fessors. Stu¬ dents. Pro¬ fessors. Stu¬ dents. Pro¬ fessors. Stu¬ dents. University hall . 262 78 1 3 College of law 62 2,269 23 382 College of medicine . 52 684 38 321 28 284 College of engineering . . . 72 647 24 83 College of literature . 73 368 42 162 Coll°ge of science 46 135 1 55 1 283 14 34 College of agriculture . 67 619 88 823 Total . 372 4,984 158 1,226 102 858 52 370 1 Science and engineering combined. PUBLIC INSTRUCTION IN JAPAN. 765 Supplementary establishments. — The Tokyo Imperial University has been in existence for many years, and its equipment has been brought to a high pitch of perfection. In addition to the ordinary lecture rooms, there is a library attached to the university, a large supplementary hospital is attached to the college of medicine, an institute for historical compilation is attached to the college of literature, and the Tokyo astronomical ob¬ servatory, the botanical garden, a seismological laboratory, and a marine laboratory are attached to the college of science. The college of agriculture has four large forests — in which the students are trained in the science of dendrology — a pomological garden, a college farm, etc. There are also laboratories of various kinds belonging to the colleges of medicine, engineering, science, and agriculture. The Imperial University of Kyoto has a comparatively short history, but the equipment of each of its colleges has been almost completed. A library is attached to the university, and a supple¬ mentary hospital to the medical college. Laboratories are pro¬ vided where necessary, so that nothing is lacking to the students of the university to assist them in their researches. The college of agriculture in the Tohoku Imperial University has had a long history of 40 years as the Agricultural School of Sapporo, and has consequently become an institution of considerable impor¬ tance. It has eight farms and three extensive forests, where the students may receive practical lessons in agriculture and forestry. Besides these, the university has specimen rooms, a botanical garden, a library, and a museum. The Kyushu Imperial University, though of recent establishment, has had a remarkable development. There is a large hospital attached to the college of medicine, as in the Tokyo and Kyoto Universities. The work carried on at the astronomical observatory belonging to the college of science of the Tokyo Imperial University consists of astronomical observations and the compilation of almanacs, from which the public derives great benefit. The object of the institute for historical compilation, belonging to the college of literature of the same university, is to collect and to compile materials for Japanese history. Forty-three volumes of the Dai-nihon-shiryo (Japanese historical materials) and 40 volumes of the Dai-nihcn-Komonjo (old Japanese documents) have already been published, and continuations of these two works will be pub¬ lished from time to time. The copies made of materials collected from all quarters, and the matter compiled, amount to 46,000 volumes in all. In addition, there is an enormous mass of pictures of his¬ torical personages and old maps, all copied from originals, and of 766 EDUCATION REPORT, 1915. photographs taken from old pictures of noted personages, from old historical illustrations, from old documents, etc. TECHNICAL EDUCATION. Interest in technical education was of comparatively slow growth in Japan until after the close of the Japan-China War. Since that time technical schools have increased in all the principal Prefectures, their progress having been greatly accelerated by the war with Rus¬ sia. As a consequence of this development, the Government has issued a special school ordinance, bringing all schools of this charac¬ ter under public supervision. The classification and specific pur¬ poses of the schools of this character are indicated by the following tabulation : Classification and purposes of the technical schools. HIGHER OR SPECIAL SCHOOLS. Tech ni ml TECHNICAL 9 TECHNICAL SCHOOLS OF PRIMARY GRADE. Apprentices’ 106 Agricultural 165 Agricultural 5 Commercial 30 Gommercial _ . . 7 Marine products 7 Total 21 Total. . _ 308 TECHNICAL SCHOOLS OF SECONDARY TECHNICAL CONTINUATION SCHOOLS. GRADE. Technical 35 Technical Agricultural 167 5, 061 Agricultural 82 Gommercial 213 Marine products 6 Nautical 2 Gommercial 69 Marine products 121 Nautical 11 Others _ 1, 176 Total 203 Total 6,740 MEASURES FOB PROMOTING TECHNICAL EDUCATION. The following citations from the official report pertain to special measures for the promotion of technical education : State aid. — The Government allows pecuniary aid as an encouragement to those public technical, agricultural, commercial, nautical, apprentices’, and technical continuation schools which are acknowledged to have done much toward the advancement of technical education. The aid is given for three years ; but at the expiration of this term it may be renewed if this is thought necessary; The sum thus given is at present 276,000 yen ($55,200) and the number of the schools amongst which the money is distributed is as follows : Special technical schools _ 2 Technical schools of secondary grade _ 145 Technical schools of primary grade _ 246 Privileges. — Amongst the special technical schools and technical schools of secondary grade, whether public or private, those schools receive official sanc¬ tion, according to the regulations, in which the discipline is good and firmly maintained, and in which teachers and equipment are alike adequate to the task of instruction in the various fixed courses of study. In the case of these PUBLIC INSTRUCTION IN JAPAN. 767 sanctioned schools the students enjoy the privilege of postponing their period of conscription and the graduates may become civil-service officials of hannin (ordinary) rank. These sanctioned schools, classified according to privileges, are as follows: With both With one privileges, privilege. Special technical schools _ 4 1 Technical schools of secondary grade _ 191 162 RELATION OF TECHNICAL SCHOOLS TO MEN OF BUSINESS. The relation between technical schools and men engaged in business has lately been becoming closer and closer, scientific theory has been brought into harmony with practice, and the two have been exerting a mutually beneficial influence, the result being on both sides progress and improvement. Business men of every kind have paid visits to technical schools, have seen the students at study or doing practical work ; have handled articles of the students’ manu¬ facture or the products of school farms; have wondered at machines, imple¬ ments, and tools of the newest kind ; or have asked questions regarding the experiments and investigations carried on in the schools. Thus they have been enabled to appreciate the importance of this kind of education. The schools have furthermore sent out invitations to business men and have ex¬ plained to them what things have an important bearing on practical business ; have published the results of experiments and investigations, have lent or distributed implements, machines, manufactured articles, specimens, seeds, etc., and have thus greatly assisted various branches of industry, or have exhibited to the public what has been manufactured in the school or been produced on the school farms. Thus the schools have endeavored both directly and indirectly to assist and promote all branches of industry. Further, the schools have sent out teachers, at the request of different bodies of business men, to deliver important lectures ; they have invited educators or business men of much learning and experience to deliver lectures which have been open to the public ; the teachers have taken the students to workshops, farms, banks, companies, or private stores, where they, have given practical lessons to students; and when they have found some things in these places open to improvement, they have kindly pointed them out to the people of the work¬ shops, etc. In this way, as time goes on, the schools and men of business will be a help to each other. AUXILIARY AGENCIES. Auxiliary agencies for promoting education are supported both by the General Government and local governments. The most important of these agencies are as follows : Libraries. — The Imperial Library, which is the only one estab¬ lished by the Government, was opened in 1872 and has kept pace with the progress of education in the country. It contains 437,414 volumes of Japanese and Chinese books and 85,473 volumes of foreign books, making a total of 522,887 volumes. The number of readers in one year, according to the latest returns, was 225,325, giving an average of 696.9 per day. The public and private libraries number about 700. They are scattered over various parts of the country and contribute much to the diffusion of knowledge. 768 EDUCATION REPOBT, 1915. Local governments and public or private schools affording a higher course of education also have their own libraries. Of these the most extensive and completely equipped is the library attached to the Tokyo Imperial University. This library contains 274,000 volumes in Chinese and Japanese and about 230,000 volumes of foreign books, making a total of 504,000 volumes. Museums. — The largest of the educational museums belongs to the depart¬ ment of education. As explained in the official report, the object is to collect and to display for public inspection various educational articles, together with books and pictures, obtained both at home and from abroad, in such a manner as shall best afford means for the improvement and development of education. The articles as at present collected and exhibited are those illustrating school architecture, school equipments, apparatus for teaching, and specimens of work done by pupils, etc. Together with the Educational Museum, there is a Museum for Popular Education. In this museum are collected and exhibited simple apparatus, specimens, models, pictures, photographs, etc., that relate to natural sciences, accompanied by explanations of their application, with the object of imparting useful knowledge to the public at large. In connection with this institution a public libary is provided with 25,000 volumes, besides magazines and newspa¬ pers. The number of visitors to this institution was about 150,000 during last fiscal year, among whom about 11,000 were readers in the library. The college of agriculture in the Tohoku Imperial University has a large museum admirably classified for the display of the products of the country for purposes of study, and also for illustrating the historical development of agricultural industries. While its main purpose is to serve the needs of students, it is open to the general public for a certain period each day, in order to diffuse a general knowledge of the productions of that section. There are also three imperial museums situated, respectively, at Tokyo, Kyoto, and Nara. In these museums exhibits are displayed principally of historical relics and specimens of the fine arts and of arts and industries, so arranged as to illustrate the changes that have taken place in both the fine and industrial arts. Educational societies and scientific associations. — The Imperial Educational Society, which was founded in Tokyo in 1883, is the most important organization of its class in Japan. The society pub¬ lishes a journal, maintains a popular library, lecture classes, and general conferences, and also confers honors upon persons of educa¬ tional merit. The department of education maintains a system of lecture insti¬ tutes or summer schools in the interests of teachers. These are gen¬ erally in charge of professors of some one of the universities and deal in the main with the subjects taught in the higher schools. The Imperial Academy has for its object the advancement of sci¬ ence and the encouragement of learning and culture ; it also serves as an organ of inquiry for the minister of education on all matters re- PUBLIC INSTRUCTION IN JAPAN. 709 luting to its specialties. The number of its members is fixed at 00. They are elected from the general body of candidates by the mem¬ bers of the respective departments, and are appointed by the Em¬ peror himself on the recommendation of the minister of education. Foreign scholars who have rendered distinguished service in the advancement of learning in this Empire may be appointed as honor¬ ary members. The science of meteorology is fostered through the agency of the Central Meteorological Observatory and its stations, and is supple¬ mented by local meteorological stations, which number at present 118. The latter are maintained out of the local budgets and con¬ trolled by the local governor under the supervision of the minister of education. Japan lias contributed to the interests of science throughout the world through the agency of the earthquake investigation commit¬ tee, the geodetic committee, the special observatory for the measure¬ ment of latitude, and the committee for the compilation of cata¬ logues of scientific literature. These are all Government institutions. Agencies for -promoting popular education. — Popular lectures are found to be the most efficacious means of reaching adults and young people who have passed the school age. The magic lantern and the cinematograph are widely used in connection with these lectures, and in aid of this work the department of education has a committee for examining books and pictures, magic-lantern slides, and cinemato¬ graph films. Instruction by correspondence is maintained by private profes¬ sional schools, the lessons relating chiefly to politics, law, and eco¬ nomics, though literature, language, mathematics, and the natural sciences are also taught by this means. Some of these schools hold periodical examinations for promotion, and to such of their corre¬ spondents as successfully pass the examination certificates of quali¬ fication are issued. EXTENSION or THE SYSTEM TO CHOSEN. The Government of Japan has developed a school system in Chosen modeled after its own system with adaptations to the native condi¬ tions. According to statistics for 1914, the total number of educa¬ tional institutions maintained in that Province was, for the J apanese, 286, with 1,169 teachers and an enrollment of 81,636 pupils. For Koreans the number of educational institutions was 1,729, with 7,119 teachers and 129,919 pupils. The annual expenditure for the Japa¬ nese schools was 928,086 yen ($464,000) and for the Korean institu¬ tions 2,193,116 yen ($1,096,000). 12084° — ed 1915 — vol 1 - 49 770 EDUCATION REPORT, 1915. The practical spirit which has characterized the development of education in Japan is equally marked by the work in Chosen. Par¬ ticular attention has been paid in that peninsula to the promotion of agriculture and the encouragement of afforestation, both of which are being systematically developed. ART EDUCATION. From the earliest times art has played a very important part in the religious, social, and industrial life of Japan, and naturally under the present conditions great attention is paid to art education. The administrative division to which this interest is committed is charged with preserving the specimens of ancient art and the general super¬ vision of the system of art education. In addition to maintaining the principles and methods which have distinguished the national sys¬ tem of art, provision has been made under the direction of the minister of education for introducing the principles and methods of European art. The Tokyo Fine Art School is the only institution of the kind maintained by the Government. It comprises at present eight courses of instruction, as follows : Japanese painting, European painting, sculpture, designing, engraving on metals, metal casting, lacquering, photomechanical printing, and the training course of teachers. The length of each course is five years, preparatory course included, while the last two courses extend over three years. Applicants for admission must be graduates of middle schools, and are admitted after an examination. Kyoto was formerly the captial of the Empire, and is still regarded as the center of fine arts. A school of painting was established in that city before the Government school existed. In 1908 the standard of the Kyoto school was raised, and it has since been known as the special school of painting. In addition to these two institutions, Japanese painters maintain art studios (kajuku), in which students practice under the guidance of great artists. Public interest in art works and art education is promoted by the Japanese Fine Art Association and by several associations for the promotion of industrial art, among them the Tokyo Metal Workers’ Association, the Tokyo Lacquer Ware Association, and the Tokyo Sculptors’ Association. In 1907 the first public exhibition of works of fine art was held under the auspices of the educational department, and a similar exhibition has been held in each succeeding year with ever increas¬ ing success. Provision for art education is completed by the Tokyo Academy of Music, which receives an annual endowment from the Government. The curriculum is divided into two courses, one for training pro¬ fessional musicians and the other for the purpose of training teachers PUBLIC INSTRUCTION IN JAPAN. 771 of music. The teachers of music in normal schools and girls' high schools are mostly graduates from the normal course of this academy. The music in the elementary schools improves steadily under the instruction of teachers who have profited by the special training. It is an interesting fact that the Tokyo Academy of Music was called into existence by the desire to introduce western music into the schools. There is no school, however, for teaching Japanese music. This art is preserved by the efforts of private music teachers. A very recent extension of art education is in the form of schools for actors and actresses, and at these native music is taught somewhat after the school system. Summarized statistics, 1912-13. Classes of schools. Number of schools. Instructors and teachers. Students. Graduates. Elementary schools . 25,673 57 158,601 348 7,037,430 2,669 27,653 1,093,515 354 Schools for blind and dumb . Normal schools . 86 1,619 124 11,268 241 Higher normal schools . * . 2 1,091 659 Higher normal schools for girls . 2 99 148 Special institutes for the training of teachers . 2 23 122 Middle schools . . 315 6,220 3,818 358 128,973 75, 128 19,246 16,585 1,775 Hieh schools for girls . 299 High schools . 8 6,537 8,946 27,048 6, 896 Imperial universities . 4 792 1,865 4,193 Special .schools. _ . . . 66 19 1,962 681 Special technical schools . 1,536 18,081 Technical schools, secondary and primary grades . 519 4,505 2,319 74,869 346,767 170 Technical continuation schools . * . 7,386 3 111.587 Institutes for the training of technical teachers. . . . 60 Miscellaneous schools . 2,333 7,498 148, 761 42,537 Total . 36,774 188,967 7,893,719 1,322,991 EXPENDITURES. The actual amount of ordinary expenditure for the department of education for the year 1912-13 was yen 9,481,047 ($4,740,000) ; the amount of extraordinary expenditure was yen 1,311,042 ($655,000), a total increase over the previous year of yen 343,758 ($172,000). Of the entire amount for ordinary expenditure, the imperial universities and their dependent institutions received yen 5,717,257 ($2,857,000) . The amount of ordinary expenditure for public schools of Prefec¬ tures, districts, cities, towns, and villages was yen 64,365,352, and of extraordinary expenditure, yen 16,502,240, the total being yen 80,867,- 592 ($40,484,000). Of this total expenditure, yen 11,392,740 were de¬ rived from tuition fees and other income for educational purposes; the balance was defrayed by prefectural taxes, local rates, district rates, city, town, and village taxes, and other sources of income. - fc . ■ ■ . ■ • • ■ ■ ■ INDEX A. Abbott, Edith, Education for social work. 345-369. Academic freedom, 157-167. Administration, school. See School ad¬ ministration. Africa, agricultural education, 304-305. Agricultural education, 295—316 ; Argen¬ tina, 658 ; Africa, 304—305 : foreign countries, 304-311 ; Ireland, 688. Agricultural schools, Brazil, enrollment, 656. Alabama, administration of rural schools, S3 ; compulsory school attendance. 12- 13 : county boards of education, 84—87 : school survey of Covington. Macon, and Morgan Counties, 442-446 : taxation for schools, proposed legislation, 8-9 ; teach¬ ers’ certificates, 18 ; training of teach¬ ers, 99. Alaska, instruction in home making, 366- 367 ; reindeer service, 638-639 : schools for natives, 635-637. Alberta, bilingual question, 645. Albright Art Gallery. Buffalo, work, 549. Algebra, requirements in elementary, 150. Allaben, M. C., Presbyterian Church (Northern), schools, 567—569. Allen, E. E., Education for the blind, 503-511. Allen, Mrs. J. S„ Schools of the Reformed Church in America, 578. Alpena. Mich., business management of schools, 51—52 : teachers' salaries. 57. American Association for the Advancement of Science, section for agriculture, 302 ; section L. meeting, 620. American Association of Agricultural Col¬ lege Editors, conference, 303. American Association of Home Economics, meeting, 342. American Farm Management Association, work, 303. American Federation of Labor, and voca¬ tional education. 253—255. American Institute of Instruction, meet¬ ing. 615-616. American Librarv Association, meeting, 533. American Museum of Natural History, New York City. 540—541. American School Hvgiene Association, meeting, 620-621. Anderson, Ind.. retardation, 76. Argentina, education, 657—660. Arizona, library legislation. 22. Arizona, University of, museum, 553. Arkansas, University of, gifts to medical department 21S. Arnot Art Gallery. Elmira. N. Y.. work. 548—549. Art education, 371-390, 770-771. Art museums, public, extension work. 546— 550. Asheville, N. C.. school board, new charter provisions, 48—49. Association of American Colleges, organi¬ zation. 155—157. Association of American Law Schools, meeting. 617-618. Association of American Universities, and classification of higher educational insti¬ tutions, 151-152. Association of Colleges and Preparatory Schools of the Middle States and Mary¬ land. meeting, 627-629. Association of Colleges and Secondary Schools of the Southern States, meeting, 622-623. Association of History Teachers of the Middle States and Maryland, meeting, 622. Association of Urban Universities, work, 45, 154—155. Associations, educational. See Educational associations. Athens, Ga., cooperative industrial courses, 71. Atlanta Medical College, See Emory Uni¬ versity. Attendance, school. See School attend¬ ance. Atypical children, psychological labora¬ tories for investigation. 40-41. Australia, agricultural education, 305-306. B. Backward children, education, 633. Baptist Church (North), schools, 570-573. Bowden, W. T., Vocational education, 221— 278. Beaver. Pa., departmental work. 60. Bequests to education, 153-154, 217-220. Bilingual question. See Canada, educa¬ tion. Blaine. Wash., school survey, 452. Blind, education, 503-511. Boards of education (citv), activities, 47—79. Boards of education (county), 6, 84r-87. Boards of education (State), centralizing control, 1-3, 82-83. Boise. Idaho, wider use of school plant. 72. Bolivia, education. 664—665. Boston, commercial education. 287—291. Boston University School of Medicine, gift, 219. Brazil, education, 655—657. Briggs, T. H., Secondary education, 113- 130. British India, education, 720—733. Buchner. E. F.. School surveys. 433—492. Buffalo, N. Y.. differentiated courses, 31-32. Buffalo Society of Natural Sciences, work, 545. Bureau of Education. See United States Bureau of Education. Bureau of Mines, instruction in first aid to injured, 363. Business management of schools. Alpena. Mich., 51-52. C. California, agriculture in high schools, 29S ; compulsory school attendance. 13— 14 : high schools, legislation. 11—12 ; kindergartens, legislation. 24 ; libraries, legislation. 22. 513 : State aid to high schools, 114^116 : teachers’ certificates, 18 ; training of teachers, 17 ; vocational education, 23. 238-239. California, University of. gift to medical department. 218 ; manual arts, 247 ; use of library, 523. California Academy of Sciences, San Fran¬ cisco, work, 545—546. 773 774 INDEX. Calvin, Henrietta W., Home economics, 317-343. Canada, agricultural education, 306-308 ; education, 643-648. Capen, S. P., Higher education, 131-167. Carnegie Foundation for the Advancement of Teaching, work, 605-607. Carnegie Institute, department of fine arts, Pittsburgh, work, 549. Catholic Educational Association, meeting, 619-620. Central America and Panama, education, 650-653. Central Association of Science and Mathe¬ matics Teachers, meeting, 623-624. Certificates, teachers. See Teachers’ cer¬ tificates. Charleston Museum, South Carolina, work, 544. Chautauquas and lecture courses, 111. Chicago, Ill., school survey, 453-460 ; vo¬ cational education, 269-270. Chicago Historical Society, work, 554-555. Children, employment, legislation, 25—26 ; health, 41-43 ; rights of, 632 ; supernor¬ mal, see Atypical children. Children’s Bureau. See Department of La¬ bor. Children’s Museum of Boston, work, 542. Chile, education, 655, 664, 678. China, education, 733-748. Chinese indemnity students, 747-748. Churches, educational work, 559-581. Cincinnati, Ohio, vocational conference, 266-267. Cincinnati, University of, medical school, gifts, 219. Cincinnati Society of Natural History, work, 544-545. City Art Museum, St. Louis, work, 550. City school systems, activities, 27-79. Civics, teaching, 118. Clewell, J. H., Schools under the direction of the Moravian Church in America, 576-577. Clubs, boys’ and girls’ agricultural, 312-314. Clubs, educational, Y. M. C. A., 586. Code commissions, 7. College Entrance Examination Board, reso¬ lutions, 149 ; unit weight in mathemat¬ ics, 150-151. College entrance requirements, 148-151, 629. College museums, condition, 550-554. Colleges and universities, art courses, 374- 389 ; progress, 131-167 ; women, stand¬ ardization, 626. See also Higher educa¬ tion ; Medical education ; Medical col¬ leges ; and Medical schools. Colombia, agricultural education, 308-309 ; education, 666-668. Colonial service, education for, 705—709. Colorado, county unit system, 89 ; survey of rural and village schools, 437-441. Colorado, University of, museum, 553. Colored students, home economics educa¬ tion, 340-341. Columbia University, medical school, gifts, 219. Colwell, N. P., Medical education, 185-220. Commercial education, 279-293, 658. Commissioner of education, Vermont, duties, 2. Compulsory school attendance, legislation, 12-14. Conference of Academies and High Schools in Relations with the University of Chicago, meeting, 624-625. Conference on the Education of Backward, Truant, Delinquent, and Dependent Chil¬ dren, meeting, 633. Congregational Church, educational work, 575-578. Connecticut, compulsory school attendance, 14 ; kindergarten legislation, 24 ; library legislation, 22, 514 ; manual and indus¬ trial training, 22 ; medical inspection of schools, 14 ; training teachers in service, 102-103 ; vocational education, 240-241. Consolidation of schools, 9-11, 90-91, 94-96. Continuation schools, course in home eco¬ nomics, 337—340 ; Norway, 697. See also Industrial education ; Vocational educa¬ tion. Convention of American Instructors of the Deaf, meeting, 500-501. - Conway, Ark., city school systems, 77-78. Costa Rica, education, 650, 652. County farm life schools, 108. County unit, legislation, 3-7 ; organization of schools, 87-89. Courses of study, agriculture, 300 ; city school systems, 59 ; commercial educa¬ tion, 290 ; cooperative industrial, 70—71 ; home economics, 328-329 ; kindergarten schools, 403 ; normal schools of Japan, 759 ; outline for junior high school, 63 ; rural school teachers, 97-98 ; secondary schools of Japan, 762 ; secondary schools, reorganization, 117-120. Courtis test, 34-35. Cubberley, E. P., and Gary duplicate plan, D. Dansville high school, New York, survey, 488-489. Dau, W. H. T., Lutheran parochial schools, 564-567. Deaf, educational progress, 493—501. Deffenbaugh, W. S., Education in the smaller cities, 47-79. Degrees, medicine, 205-206. Delaware, consolidated schools, 10, 95-96 ; improvement of schoolhouses for colored children, 15. Denominational schools, 559-581. Dental clinics, school children, 42. Dental inspection, Kansas, 15. Department of Agriculture, education in home making, 364 ; educational work, 311-316. Department of Commerce, home education, 365. Department of Labor, work of Children’s Bureau, 365. Department of superintendence (N. E. A.), meeting, 613-615. Departmental work, city school systems, 60. Detroit, Mich., standard tests and follow¬ up work, 35-36 ; vocational education, 273. Differentiated courses, Buffalo, N. Y., 31- 32. Dillard, J. H., on work of the John F. Slater fund, 609-610. Diplomas, acceptance by school systems, 18. E. Economy of time, provisions for, in high schools, 123-130. Ecuador, education, 666. Educational associations, Japan, 768-769 ; meetings, 611-634. Educational boards and foundations, 603- 611. Educational legislation, 1-26. Educational Museum of the St. Louis Pub¬ lic Schools, work, 545. Ehrlich, Prof., and the living law, 617-618. Elementary education, Japan, 751-757 ; Sweden, 694—695. Elementary schools, and kindergarten, 399- 401. Elyria, Ohio, retardation, 75. Emory University, gift to medical depart¬ ment, 219. Endowments, colleges and universities, 153- 154, 217-220. Engineers, business methods for, course, 277. England, education, 675-680. English language, unit requirements, 623. INDEX 775 Entrance requirements, medical schools, 213-216 ; normal schools. 183-184. See also College entrance requirements. Europe, agricultural schools. 311. Evans, 11. R., Educational boards, foun¬ dations, and associations, 603-634. Examinations, colleges and universities, 148-140, 628-629. Experimental psychology, work in Russia, 725-727. F. Fairbanks Museum of Natural Science, St. Johnsbury, Vt., work, 542. Farm-life schools. 108. Fay, E. A., Progress in the education of the deaf, 493-501. Federal aid, vocational education, 224. Feeble-mindedness, and rural schools, 430— 431. Finegan, T. E., on organization in the management of city schools of New York State, 50-51. Finlev, J. H., on consolidation of schools, 90-91. Florida, compulsory school attendance, 12-13 ; home economics, 23 ; medical in¬ spection of schools, 15 ; teachers' certifi¬ cates, 18 : training of teachers, 17. Foght. H. W., Rural education, 81-113. Foundations, educational, 603-611. France, education, 701-709. Full-time secretary, boards of education, 52. Funds, school. See School funds. G. Gardner, W. E., Educational work of the Protestant Episcopal Church, 579. Garrett Biblical Institute, museum, 552. Gary plan, status in New York City, 27-30. General Education Board, and medical education in China, 747 ; and scientific studv of Gary duplicate plan, 30 ; work, 603. General Federation of Women's Clubs, work of department of household economics, 369. Georgia, school boards, 47 ; school sur¬ vey of Rabun, Clayton, Taliaferro, and Bulloch Counties, 473—477 ; teachers’ salaries, 19. Georgia, University of, gift to medical de¬ partment, 219. Germany, education, 709-710. Girls, education in Japan, 761-762, 763. Gordon, Helen C., on kindergarten prob¬ lems, 402. Grade schools, city systems, better oppor¬ tunities for pupils, 1 39. Grades, readjustments above the sixth, city school systems, 30—34. Great Britain and Ireland, education. 675- 691. Greece, agricultural education, 308 : edu¬ cation, 719—720. Guatemala, education. 652. H. Hamilton, William, Education for the na¬ tives of Alaska, 635-639. Hammond. Ind., school survey, 483-484. Harvard University, medical school, be¬ quests, 219 : museums, 551. High school inspectors. 121-122. High schools, agricultural education, 298- 302 ; legislation. 11-12 : progress. 113- 130 ; rural, 107-108 ; six-year plan. 60- 64 : specific minimum requirements for standard classification. 122 : State aid, 114-115 ; statistics of enrollment. 65- 66 ; survey of San Antonio school sys¬ tem, 130 : teacher training, 98-100. 182- 183 ; township, 107. See also Junior high schools : Secondary education. Higher education, progress, 131-167. See also Colleges and universities ; Universi¬ ties. History, admission credits for colleges, 150 ; museums of, 554-555 ; teaching, 119-120. Hodge, G. B., Educational work in the Young Men’s Christian Associations, 583-601. Hogan, W. E., Schools of the Methodist Episcopal Church (South), 575-576. Holland, Mich., parent-teacher associations, 68. Home and school, cooperation, 68-69. Home and school gardens, 70. Home economics, progress, 317-343 ; schools, 39. Home education. 361-369. Home work, school credit for, 69—70. Honduras, education, 650, 651-652. Hood. W. R., Educational legislation in 1915, 1-26. Hygiene, educational. 409—431. I. Idaho, consolidation of districts, 10 ; high school legislation, 12 ; school term. 16. Illinois, kindergarten legislation, 24 ; li¬ brary legislation, 514 : teachers’ certifi¬ cates, 18 ; teachers’ pensions, 20 : town¬ ship high schools, 107. Illinois, University of, medical school, gift, 219 ; museums, 552. Illiteracy, Italy, statistics, 714—715 ; Uru¬ guay, 662-663. Immigrants, educational work of Y. M. C. A., 593 ; library service to, 527-531. Independence Hall. Philadelphia, lectures for children, 556. India. British. See British India. Indiana, consolidated schools, 95 : prac¬ tical arts in schools, 94 ; teachers’ sal¬ aries, 104 ; vocational education, 237— 238. Indiana University, conference on voca¬ tional education, 267 ; manual arts, 245- 246 ; medical school, gift. 219 : museum, 552-553 ; use of library. 523-524. Indians, 581 ; denominational schools, 579 ; Government schools, 640-642. Industrial education, city school systems, 78—79; cooperative courses, city * school systems, 70-71; legislation. 22—26: sur¬ veys, 259—263 : Venezuela, 669-670. See also Technical education : Vocational ed¬ ucation. International Congress on Education, meeting, 611—613. International Kindergarten Union, meet¬ ing, 391. Iowa, consolidated schools, 96 : extension service for rural teachers. 100—101 : li¬ brary legislation, 514 ; school gardens, 23-24 : survey of State-supported insti¬ tutions, 145. Iowa, University of, practice teaching, 181. Ireland, education, 687-691. Italy, education, 711-717. J. Jamestown. N. Dak., retardation, 76—77. Japan, education, 749-771. Jeanes fund, activities, 610. Jefferson Medical College, gift, 219. John D. Rockefeller fund. See General Education Board. John F. Slater fund, appropriations for education, 608—610. Johns Hopkins University, college for teachers. 157. Junior colleges, problems, 625 : recogni¬ tion. 152-153. 776 INDEX. Junior high schools, establishment, 123- 124 ; legislation, 12 ; Lewiston, Idaho, reorganization, 61-63 ; program of studies as outlined by C. D. Koch, 63- 64 ; Rochester, N. Y., 32-34. K. Kansas, free dental inspection, 15 ; high school legislation, 11-12 ; library legis¬ lation. 514—515 ; new rural-school law, 107-108 ; teachers’ certificates, 18 ; text¬ books for high schools, 25 ; training of teachers, 17. Kansas, University of, medical school, ap¬ propriation, 219 ; museum, 553. Kansas State Normal School, plans for social center buildings, 430. Kelley, C. F., Art education, 371-390. Kindergarten education, 391-407. Kindergarten training schools, 401-404. Kindergartens, city school systems, 66-68 ; legislation, 24. Knott, J. O., Educational work by churches and religious organizations, 559-581. Koch, C. D., on program of studies for a junior high school, 63-64. L. Labor unions and teachers, 46. Lafayette College, question of academic freedom, 158-161. Lake Mohonk Conference of Friends of the Indian and Other Dependent Peo¬ ples, meeting, 629-630. Lane, C. H., Agricultural education, 295- 316. Languages, instruction, 680. La tin- America, education, 308-309, 649- 678. Law, living, definition of the term, 617— 618. League of Teachers’ Associations, meet¬ ing, 617. Lectures, educational, Y. M. C. A., 585- 586, 587. Lectures for children, 556. Legislation, educational, 1-26, 405. Lewis, E. S., Educational work of the Methodist Episcopal Church, 574-575. Lewiston, Idaho, reorganization of schools, 61-63. Library activities, 22, 513-537, 767. Library instruction, 535—537. Lombard, Ellen C., Home education, 361- 369. Los Angeles, Cal., vocational education, 274. Louisiana, agriculture in high schools, 299 ; training of teachers, 99. Louisville, Ky., vocational education, 274— 275. Lutheran Church, parochial schools, 564- 567. Lyford, Carrie A., Home economics, 317- 343. M. McCormick, P. J., Roman Catholic parish schools, 560-564. Maine, agriculture in high schools, 299 ; child-labor legislation, 25 ; library leg¬ islation, 22, 515 ; school term, 16 ; teach¬ ers’ certificates, 18 ; vocational educa¬ tion, 242-244. Manitoba, bilingual question, 645. Mankato, Minn., vocational guidance in schools, 53-55. Mannington, W. Va., wider use of school plant, 73. Manual and industrial training, legisla¬ tion, 22-26 ; courses, 36-37. Marquette University, medical school, gift, 220. Massachusetts, agriculture in high schools, 299 ; higher education, legislation, 21 ; li¬ brary legislation, 515 ; manual and in¬ dustrial training, 22-23 ; vocational edu¬ cation, 227-229, 624. Mathematics, vocational, 624. Mauritius, agricultural education, 309. Mayo Foundation, work, 153-154. Medical College of the State of South Carolina, gift, 220. Medical colleges, statistics, 195r-205. Medical education, China, 747 ; progress, 185-220. Medical inspection of schools, legislation, 14-15 ; progress and statistics, 416-423 : Scotland, 684-686. Medical research work, 153-154. Medical schools, endowments, 217-220 ; en¬ trance requirements, 213-216 ; graduate, rules for classification, 209—210. Meritt, E. B., Denominational schools for Indians, 579-581. Methodist Episcopal Church, educational work, 574-575. Methodist Episcopal Church (South), edu¬ cational work, 575-576. Metropolitan Museum of Art, work, 548. Mexico, education, 649-650. Michigan, agriculture in high schools, 299 ; child-labor legislation, 26 ; junior high schools, legislation, 12 ; school hy¬ giene, 15 ; teachers’ certificates, 18. Michigan, University of, museum, 552. Military education, Argentina, 658. Milwaukee Public Museum, work, 545. Minneapolis, Minn., school survey, 480- 481 ; vocational education survey, 261- 262. Minneapolis Institute of Arts, work, 549- 550. Minnesota, consolidation of districts, 9- 10 ; industrial education, 23 ; library leg¬ islation, 515. Minnesota, University of, and Mayo be¬ quest, 153—154 ; manual arts department, 245 ; use of library, 524. Mission schools, Indians, 579—581. Missouri, consolidated schools, 95 ; library legislation, 515 ; survey of normal schools, 175 ; teachers’ certificates, 18 ; training of teachers, 17. Model schools, Oklahoma, 106-107 ; West Virginia, statistics, 181. Monahan, A. C., Agricultural education, 295-316. Montana, high-school legislation, 11 ; leg¬ islation affecting higher education, 147 ; library legislation, 515-516. Montana, University of, use of library, 524. Montclair, N. J., cooperative industrial courses, 71. Montessori demonstration school, 406. Moravian Church, educational work, 576- 577. Motion pictures, in extension service, 109- 110. Mount Pleasant, Pa., parent-teacher associ¬ ations, 68-69. Municipal universities, progress, 154—155. Museum of Fine Arts, Boston, work, 546. Museum of History, Science, and Art, Los Angeles, Cal., work, 546. Museum of Natural History, Springfield, Mass., work, 543. Museums, educational, Japan, 768. Museums, educational work, 539-557. Music, credit for home study, 626-627. Music Teachers’ National Association, meet¬ ing, 626-627. N. National Association for Pedagogical Studies, Italy, 715-717. National Association of Corporation Schools, work, 255—257. National Association of Dental Faculties, meeting, 629. INDEX. 777 National Association of Manufacturers, and industrial education, 257—258. National Association of School Accounting Officers, meeting, 616—617. National Association of State Universities, 625. National Commercial Teachers’ Federation, meeting, 627. National Conference Committee on Stand¬ ards of Colleges and Secondary Schools, resolutions regarding mathematics and history, 150. . National Congress of Mothers and Parent- Teacher Associations, work, 36S— 369. National Council of Education, meeting, 615. National Education Association, committee on vocational guidance, 252, 253 ; de¬ partment of superintendence, 613—615 ; general sessions, 611—613 ; library de¬ partment, 534 ; national council of edu¬ cation, meeting, 615. National Rural Teachers’ Reading Circle, work, 100. National Society for the Promotion of In¬ dustrial Education, work, 249—251. National university, plea for, 625. National Vocational Guidance Association, work, 251-252. Nearing, Scott, and academic freedom, 165— 167. Nebraska, agriculture in high schools, 299— 300 ; consolidation of districts for high school purposes, 11 ; county unit system, 5—7, 88 ; library legislation, 516 ; tax for university building, 147 ; training of teachers, 17. Nebraska, University of, hospital, gift, 219 ; museum, 553 ; practice teaching, 180-181. Nebraska State Normal School, course of study for rural teachers, 97-98. Negroes, education, 609—611. Neilsville, Wis., wider use of the school plant, 72. Neosho, Mo., reorganization of schools, 60. Nevada, consolidation of districts, 11 ; high-school legislation, 11 ; higher educa¬ tion, legislation, 21 ; kindergarten legis¬ lation, 24. New Hampshire, agriculture in high schools, 300 ; employment of children, 25 ; medi¬ cal inspection of schools, 15. New Haven, Conn., vocational education, 271-273. New Jersey, vocational education, 235—237. New Mexico, county as unit of taxation, 87-88 ; school term, 16 ; taxation for schools, 9 : teachers’ certificates, 18 ; training of teachers, 17 ; vocational edu¬ cation, 241-242. New Orleans, La., school survey, 441-442 ; survey of industries and mechanical oc¬ cupations, 262-263. New York, agriculture in high schools, 300- 301 ; compulsory vaccination, 15 ; library legislation, 516 : school legislation, 50 ; township unit of administration, 89—91 ; vocational education, 229—231. New York Botanical Garden, work, 541. New York City, Gary duplicate plan, 27—30 ; vocational education, 268—269. New York Medical College and Hospital for Women, gift, 219. New York State Museum, work, 555—556. New Zealand, agricultural education. 310. Newark Museum Association, New Jersey, work, 543-544. Newfoundland, statistics of public schools, 648. Newspapers, South America, 671—672. Newton, Kans., school credit for home work, 69-70. Nicaragua, education, 651. Normal schools, courses in home economics, 324^-326 ; instruction in school hygiene, 430-431 ; Japan, 759—760 ; legislation, 16—17 ; survey of, 172—175 ; training teachers for rural schools, 97-98. North Carolina, compulsory school attend¬ ance, 14; county farm-life schools, 108; high-school legislation, 11; kindergarten legislation, 24 ; library legislation, 516 ; survey of higher institutions, 146; teach¬ ers’ certificates, 18. North Carolina, University of, use of li¬ brary, 524. North Dakota, agriculture in high schools, 301 ; board of regents, powers and duties, 2-3 ; consolidated schools, 95 ; educa¬ tional survey, 143—144 ; higher educa¬ tion, legislation, 21 ; kindergarten legis¬ lation, 24 ; medical inspection of schools, 15 ; State board of education, 83 ; taxa¬ tion for schools, 9 ; textbook legislation, 24. North Dakota, University of, use of library, 524-525. Northwestern University Medical School, gift to, 219. Norway, education, 695-698. Nurses, schools, Venezuela, 670. O. Oakland, Cal., school survey, 489—490. Oakland Public Museum, California, work, 546. Office of Experiment Stations, educational work, 315—316. Office of Indian Affairs, instruction in home making, 364. Ogden, Utah, school survey, 481-483. Ohio, consolidation of districts, 10 ; county normal training schools, 181 ; county su¬ pervision, 6 ; teachers' salaries, 19 ; train¬ ing of teachers, 17, 171—172. Oklahoma, administration of rural schools, 88 ; consolidated schools, 96, 10-11 ; junior high schools, legislation, 12 ; model schools, 106-107 ; teachers’ cer¬ tificates, 18. Oklahoma, University of, use of library, 525. Ontario, bilingual question, 644—645. Orange County, Ya., school survey, 433- 434. Oregon, county educational board, 6-7 ; high-school legislation, 12 ; library legis¬ lation, 516 ; repeal of textbook law, 24 ; school standardization, 105—106 ; State board of education, 83—84 ; survey of higher institutions, 146 ; textbook legis¬ lation, 24 : trade schools, 23. Oregon, University of. medical school, State appropriation, 219 ; museum, 553-554 ; survey, 145—146 ; use of library, 525. P. Padelford, F. W., Schools of the Baptist Church (North), 570-573. Pan American Scientific Congress, and agri¬ culture, 303. Panama, education, 650, 653. Panama-Pacific Exposition, library exhibits, 531-532. Paraguay, agricultural education, 309 ; ed¬ ucation, 660. Parent-teacher organizations, 6S— 69. Park Museum, Providence, R. I., work, 542- 543. Parker, S. C.. Training of teachers, 169- 184. Parochial schools, Lutheran, 564-567 : Ro¬ man Catholic, 560-564. Parrish Art Museum, Southampton, Long Island, work, 547. Peabody College for Teachers, organization. 169-171. Pennsylvania, bureau of vocational train¬ ing, 23 ; child-labor legislation, 25-26 ; compulsory school attendance, 14 ; li¬ brary legislation, 516-517 : school code, 7 : training of teachers, 17 ; vocational education, 231-233. INDEX. 778 Pennsylvania, University of, gifts, 219 ; mu¬ seum, 551-552 ; and question of academic freedom, 165—167. Pennsylvania State College, school of mines, museum, 552. Peru, agricultural education, 309 ; educa¬ tion, 665—666. Phelps-Stokes fund, activities, 610—611. Philippine Islands, home education, 367. Pittsburgh, Pa., vocational education, 270— 271. Plainfield, N. J., wider use of school plant, 73. Play schools, 398. Porto Rico, agricultural conditions, 630 ; home education, 367. Portugal, education, 717-718. Practical arts, instruction, Scotland, 683. Practice teaching, cooperation with public schools, 179-180. Presbyterian Church (Northern), schools, 567-569. Presbyterian Church (Southern), educa¬ tional work, 569—570. Pre-vocational education, 37, 222-223. Private schools, negroes, 608—609. Prosser, C. A., appointment as director of William H. Dunwoody Industrial Insti¬ tute, 275. Protestant Episcopal Church, educational work, 579. Psychology, experimental, Russia, 724^725. Public library extension, 518. Public museum of the Staten Island Associ¬ ation of Arts and Sciences, work, 541- 542. Public schools, cooperation with civic au¬ thorities, 43 ; courses in home economics, 330-333. Pullman Free School for Manual Training, work, 277. Q. Quebec, bilingual question, 645. R. Rea, P. M., Educational work of American museums, 539—557. Reading circles, teachers’, 100. Reclamation Service, improving conditions in homes, 363. Reformatory system of training, criticism, 633. Reformed Church in America, schools, 578. Reindeer service, Alaska, 638—639. Religious education, 559—581, 646. Religious Education Association, meeting, 630-632. Religious educator, profession of, 630—631. Retardation, city school systems, 74-77. Rhode Island, and Smith-Lever Act. 23 ; child-labor legislation, 25 ; consolidation of districts, 10 ; medical inspection of schools, 15. Rhode Island School of Design, Providence, 547. Richmond, Ya., industrial education sur¬ vey, 259-261, 477-478. Rochester, N. Y., junior high-school plan, 32-34. Roman Catholic Church, parochial schools, 560—564. Rural and urban schools, distinction be¬ tween, Norway, 695-697. Rural education, 81—113. Rural schools, courses in home economics, 335-336 ; extension, 109-111 ; hygiene, 423-431 ; one-teacher, standardizing, 105- 107 ; Venezuela, 669. Russell Sage Foundation, activities, 607- 608. Russia, education, 721-727. S. St. Louis, Mo., vocational education, 271. Salaries, teachers’. See Teachers’ salaries. Salesmanship, education, 33, 275-276, 287- 288. San Antonio, Tex., school survey, 130, 484-488. San Francisco, Cal., school survey, 435-437. San Salvador, education, 650. Saskatchewan, bilingual question, 646. Scandinavian countries, education, 693-700. School administration, city systems, 60—66 ; legislation, 1-3 ; rural schools, 81-92. School and home, cooperation, 68-69. School attendance, compulsory, legislation, 12-14. School boards, city systems, activities, 47- 79. School credit for home work, 69-70. School day, longer, 126-127. School funds, 8-9. School gardens, city systems, 70, 79. Schoolhouses, sanitary conditions, legisla¬ tion, 15-16, 413-416. School hygiene, city systems, 41-A2 ; Den¬ mark, 698-699 ; legislation, 14-16 : prog¬ ress, 409—431. School laws, 1-26. School lunches, equipment and adminis¬ tration, 41 ; rural schools, 336-337. School officers, elective versus appointive, 93. School plant, wider use, city school systems, 72-74. School reports, fiscal statistics, 53. School savings banks, city school systems, 77-78. School supervision, rural schools, 92-94. School surveys, general review, 433-492 ; normal schools of Missouri and Wiscon¬ sin, 172-175 ; San Antonio, Tex., 130 ; South America, 654 ; Utah, 7 ; Wash¬ ington, 7. See also Industrial education surveys ; University surveys. School systems (city), activities, 27—79. School term, legislation, 16. Sciences, teaching in secondary schools, 118-119. Scientific museums, extension work, 540- 550. Scotland, education, 680-686. Seattle, Wash., school survey, 478. Secondary education, Japan, 760-763 ; progress, 113—130 ; Sweden, 695. Secondary schools, agricultural instruc¬ tion, 298-302 ; museums, 554 ; teacher training, 98-100. See also High schools. Seerley, H. H., on the Iowa plan of exten¬ sion service for teachers, 100—101. Sex segregation, high schools, 128-129. Six-and-six plan, city school systems, 60—64. Small, Willard S., Educational hygiene, 409-431. Smith, Anna T., Education in Canada, 643- 648. Smith College, museum, 551. Smith-Lever Act, 23 ; and home economics teaching. 341-342. Snedden, David, on elective versus ap¬ pointive educational officers, 93. Sniffin, W. W., on Italian education, 711- 717. Social centers, schools as, 44. Social guidance of pupils, high schools, 129— 130. Social work, education for, 345-369. Society for the Promotion of Engineering Education, meeting, 618-619. Society of College Teachers of Education, 621. South America, education, 653—678 ; news¬ papers, 671-672. South Bend, Ind., school survey, 461-466. South Carolina, compulsory school attend¬ ance, 12. INDEX. 779 South Dakota, compulsory school attend¬ ance, 14 : library legislation, 517. Southern Association of College Women, meeting, 626. Southern Conference for Education and In¬ dustry, and movement for better high- school libraries, 534—535 ; meeting, 633- 634. Spain, agricultural education, 310 ; educa¬ tion, 718-719. Springfield, Ill., school survey, 447-452. Springfield, Mass., schools as social cen¬ ters, 44. Standard tests, city schools, 34—36. Standardization of schools, 105-107, 122- 123. State boards of education. See Boards of education. State. State Historical Society of North Dakota, work, 555. State inspectors of high schools, 121-122. Subnormal children. See Atypical chil¬ dren. Summer schools, courses in home economics, 326-328 ; for elementary pupils, 39 ; kin¬ dergarten courses, 395-397. Superintendents, city schools, powers and duties, 55-56. Supervision, school. See School supervi¬ sion. Surveys, educational. See School surveys. Sweden, education, 693-695. Sweets, H. H., Schools of the Presbyterian Church in the United States (Southern), 569—570. Taxation for schools, 8—9, 11—12. Teacher-mother, agitation in New York City, 46. Teachers, and labor unions, 46 ; in service, extension courses, 184 ; rights and duties, 45-46. Teachers, training of, for education of the deaf, 493—495 ; for negro schools, 609 ; general review, 169—184 ; in service, 100— 103 ; Japan, 758-759 ; legislation, 16-17 ; for rural schools, 96-107 ; for vocational education, 247-249. Teachers’ certificates, increased profes¬ sional requirements, 177-179 ; legisla¬ tion, 18. Teachers College of New York City, and Columbia University, renewal of contract, 175-176. Teachers’ diplomas, acceptance, 18. Teachers’ institutes, activities, 59. Teachers’ salaries, city school systems, 56-59 ; Japan, 752 ; legislation, 19 ; rela¬ tion to preparation and length of tenure, 103-105. Technical education, Argentina, 658 ; Ire¬ land, 688—690; Japan, 766-767; Russia, 724—725. See also Industrial education. Tennessee, rural school development, 82 ; State board of education, powers and duties, 2. Tennessee Polytechnic Institute, provision for, 21. Term, school. See School term. Tests for efficiency, 34-36. Texas, agriculture in high schools, 3C1 ; administration of rural schools, 87 ; com¬ pulsory school attendance, 12—13 ; em¬ ployment of women and girls, 26 ; free textbooks, 24 ; higher education, legisla¬ tion, 21 ; library legislation, 22, 517—518 ; school survey of Bell, Collin, Fisher, Harris, and Nacogdoches Counties, 469— 473 ; standardization of high schools, 122 ; taxation for schools, 9. Texas, University of, medical department, gift, 220 ; use of library, 526. Textbooks, home economics. 330 ; legisla¬ tion, 24 ; South America, 654. Thompson, F. V., Commercial education, , 279-293. Thrift, teaching, and public schools, 43—44. Time allotment, Junior high schools, 64. Toledo Museum of Art, work, 549. Township-unit basis, 84. Trade schools, Venezuela, 669-670. Treasury Department, Public Health Serv¬ ice, 365. U. United farm women, how to organize clubs, 110-111. United States Bureau of Education, divi¬ sion of rural education, 111-112; inspec¬ tion of higher institutions, 146 ; promo¬ tion of home making, 362-363. United States National Museum, work, 555. Universities, Argentina, 657-660 ; Cana¬ dian, 646-648 ; China, 746 ; classification, 151-152 ; home economics, 322-324 ; Japan, 764-766; practical arts, 245-247 : Russia, 723-724 ; State-wide use of li¬ braries, 523-527 ; survey of State, 143- 145 ; Sweden, 695 ; urban, work, 45. See also Colleges and universities ; Higher education. University of Arizona. See Arizona, Uni¬ versity of. University of Arkansas. See Arkansas, University of. University of California. See California, University of. University of Cincinnati. See Cincinnati, University of. University of Colorado. See Colorado, Uni¬ versity of. University of Georgia. See Georgia, Uni¬ versity of. University of Illinois. See Illinois, Uni¬ versity of. University of Iowa. See Iowa, University of. University of Kansas. See Kansas, Uni¬ versity of. University of Michigan. See Michigan, University of. University of Minnesota. See Minnesota, University of. University of Montana. See Montana, Uni¬ versity of. University of Nebraska. See Nebraska, University of. University of North Carolina. See North Carolina, University of. University of North Dakota. See North Dakota, University of. University of Oklahoma. See Oklahoma, University of. University of Oregon. See Oregon, Uni¬ versity of. University of Pennsylvania. See Pennsyl¬ vania, University of. University of Texas. See Texas, Uni¬ versity of. University of Utah. See Utah, University of. University of Washington. See Washing¬ ton, University of. University of West Virginia. See West Virginia, University of. University of Wisconsin. See Wisconsin, University of. University of Wyoming. See Wyoming, University of. University surveys, and legislative action, 133-146. Upper Peninsula, Mich., school survev, 467- 469. Urban universities, progress, 154—155 ; work, 45. Uruguay, education, 660-663. Utah, administration of rural schools, 87 ; county unit system, 5 ; employment of children, 26 ; inspection of school build¬ ings, 16 ; library legislation, 518 ; school survey, 7 : State board of education, powers and duties, 3 ; teachers’ salaries, 19 780 INDEX. Utah, University of, and question of aca¬ demic freedom, 161-165. Utah State College of Agriculture, instruc¬ tion in rural sanitation, 430. V. Van Sickle, J. H., Education in the larger cities, 27-46. Vanderbilt University, medical school, gift, 220. Venezuela, education, 668-671. Vermont, agriculture in high schools, 301 ; reorganization of education, 134-135 ; rural school administration, 82-83 ; State board of education, powers and du¬ ties, 2. Vocational education, city school systems, 36-39 ; deaf children, 499-500 ; progress, 221-278. See also Industrial education ; Technical education. Vocational Education Association of the Middle West, work, 252. Vocational guidance, Mankato, Mich., 53— 55 ; progress, 263-265. Vocational training bureau, Pennsylvania, 23. W. Washington, library legislation, 22, 518 ; school survey, 7 ; survey of State-sup¬ ported higher institutions, 142-143 ; vo¬ cational education, 244—245. Washington, D. C., school buildings as social centers, 44. Washington, University of, use of library, 526. Washington State Normal School, depart¬ ment of health education, 430. Wausau, Wis., retardation, 75. Wellesley College, museum, 551. Wesleyan University, museum, 551. West Indies, agricultural education, 310- 311. West Virginia, agriculture in high schools, 301 ; consolidation of districts, 10 ; high- school legislation, 12 ; library legislation, 22 ; model schools, 181 ; school hygiene, 15—16 ; teachers’ certificates, 18 ; train¬ ing of teachers, 16 ; wider use of school plant, 73-74. West Virginia, University of, medical school, new building, 220. Westbrook, Me., cooperative industrial courses, 70-71. Western Gallery of Art, Kansas City, work, 550. Wider use of school plant, city school sys¬ tems, 72-74. Winchester, Almira M., Kindergarten edu¬ cation, 391-407. Wisconsin, agriculture in high schools, 301- 302 ; compulsory school attendance, 14 ; consolidation of districts, 10 ; county boards of education, 6, 91 ; industrial education, 23 ; library legislation, 518 ; normal school survey, 172-175 ; salaries of rural-school teachers, 19 ; State board of education, powers and duties, 2, 83 ; teachers’ salaries, 103—104 ; vocational education, 233-235 ; wider use of school plant, 72. Wisconsin, University of, manual arts, 246- 247 ; new high school, 171—172 ; survey, 135-142 ; use of library, 526. Wolcott, J. D., Library activities, 513-537. Woman’s Medical College of Pennsylvania, gift, 219. Women, colleges for, standardization, 626. Worcester Art Museum, Boston, work, 547. Wyoming, child-labor legislation, 26 ; high- school legislation, 11 ; library legislation, 22, 518 ; medical inspection of schools, 15. Wyoming, University of, use of library, o2b — o27. Y. Yale University School of Medicine, gifts, 219 Y. M. C. A., educational work, 583-601. O FALVEY MEMORIAL LIBRARY VILLANOVA UNIVERSITY DATE DUE Ill 3 9346 00027415 1 27415 27415 LI 11 -A3 U.S. Bureau of E&uc . Reoort of the Con1! 1915-1 j.tion. _ NAME