Villanova College VILLANOVA, PENNSYLVANIA LIBRARY L II! a-. . , A3 . ttiz. -x Accession ~ ^ E i [ Whole Number 526 REPORT OF THE Commissioner of Education FOR THE YEAR ENDED JUNE 30, 1912 VOLUME I m LONGER PROPERTY OF i national library of education I U.S. DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATION 400 MARYLAND AVENUE S.W. i WASHINGTON. D.C. 20202 I WASHINGTON GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE 1913 THE UNITED STATES BUREAU OF EDUCATION, Created as a Department March 2, 1867. Made an Office of the Interior Department July 1, 1869. COMMISSIONED. Henry Barnard, LL. D., Mg^h U, 1867 , to March 15 , 1870 . John Eato^, ?h, D.. LL. D., March 16 , 1870 , to August 5, 1886. Nathaniel H. R. Dawson, L. H. D., August 6 , 1886 ,* ft? September 3 , i###. William T. Harris, Ph. D., LL. D., September 12, 1889 , to June 30, 1906. Elmer Ellsworth Brown, Ph. D., LL. D., July 1, 1906, to June 30, 1911. Philander Priestley Claxton, Litt. D., July 8, 1911, to date . CONTENTS OF VOLUME I. Page. THE COMMISSIONER’S INTRODUCTION _ xv Chapter I. — Survey of Education,, 1911-12. Introductory - 1 I. Current criticisms of the public schools _ 2 The changing purpose of education _ 3 The uniformity protest - 4 The high school and the “ standard ” _ 4 The school’s wider activities - 5 The problem of organization _ 6 “ Too much ” or “ too little ” supervision ? - 6 Criticisms of curriculum — the three R’s argument _ 7 “ Subjects out of touch with life ” _ 8 Latin and the public high school - 9 Rigidity of the curriculum _ 9 “ Practical ” and “ cultural ” subjects _ 10 The quality of instruction — the teachers _ 10 Inadequacy of the supply of teachers - 11 Contradictory criticisms of methods _ 11 Examinations and home work - 12 Measuring the public schools by results - - - 13 Low attendance _ 13 Elimination of the “ average ” pupil - 13 Inaccuracy and the public school _ 14 Democracy and the public school - 15 II. Reconstructive programs _ 15 School inquiries - 16 Making known the schools’ needs _ 17 Formulation of standards and programs _ 18 Reorganizing the elementary and high school - 18 Prof. Hanus’s formulation - 19 III. Vocational education _ 21 Vocational guidance _ 24 IV. The Montessori method _ : _ 26 V. Teachers and the high cost of living _ 28 VI. Academic celebrations _ _ _ 32 Inauguration of President Hibben _ 32 President Meiklejohn, of Amherst _ 33 Other administrative changes _ 34 Academic anniversaries _ 35 New York State education building _ 36 VII. A national university _ 36 VIII. Benefactions _ _ _ _ _ 39 Distribution of the Peabody fund _ 39 Carnegie foundation for the advancement of teaching _ 39 General education board _ _ _ 39 Million-dollar endowments _ 40 Other benefactions announced _ 40 IX. International relations _ 43 New official arrangements _ 43 Regular exchanges _ 43 Other academic visitors _ 43 The Prussian exchanges _ 44 Other international visits _ 45 The cosmopolitan club movement in Germany _ 46 Association for the international exchange of students _ 46 The Rhodes scholarships _ 47 Chinese students and the revolution _ 48 hi IV CONTENTS OF VOLUME I. Chapter II. — Educational Legislation in 1912. Page. Legislative conditions in the several States - 49 Arizona _ — - . - 49 New Mexico - 49 Louisiana - 50 Kentucky - - - 50 New York _ 50 New Jersey - 50 Massachusetts - 51 Rhode Island _ 51 Virginia - - - 52 Georgia _ 52 Maryland - 53 South Carolina - 53 Mississippi _ 53 State boards and officers - 53 County boards and officers - 56 Municipal school boards - 58 School finance _ 59 Business methods _ 60 School bonds _ 61 School buildings - 63 Teachers - 64 Examination and certification - 64 Salaries and tenure - 64 Pensions - 65 Arizona _ 65 Virginia - 66 Maryland _ 67 New Jersey - - 67 New York _ 67 Local laws _ 67 Normal schools _ 68 Compulsory attendance - 68 Kentucky _ 68 Maryland _ 69 Child labor _ 70 Arizona _ 70 Maryland _ 70 Mississippi _ 70 Massachusetts - 71 New York _ 71 Messenger laws - 71 Transportation of pupils and consolidation of schools - 71 New Jersey _ 71 Kentucky _ 72 South Carolina - 72 Textbooks _ 73 Playgrounds _ 73 High schools _ 74 New Mexico _ 74 Arizona _ 75 Agricultural and industrial training _ 75 Laws for the “ rural uplift ” - 76 Schools of agriculture and the industries _ 77 Addendum _ 80 Higher educational institutions - 80 Professional schools ; professional practice - 81 Schools for special classes - 81 Welfare of children ; dependents and delinquents _ 81 Chapter III. — Higher Education. Currents of progress _ 83 Correlation of State-supported institutions _ 84 Central boards of control - 88 CONTENTS OF VOLUME I. V Page. Standard colleges and junior colleges - 97 Consolidation of institutions - ! _ 102 Competition and cooperation of colleges - 104 Correlation of universities and theological schools _ 107 New institutions - 110 Reed College, Portland, Oreg _ 110 George Peabody College for Teachers, Nashville, Tenn _ 113 Rice Institute of Liberal and Technical Learning, Houston, Tex _ 114 Education for journalism - 115 Training teachers for elementary schools - 119 Chapter IV. — City School Systems, 1911-12. Introduction - - - 125 I. Administration - 126 II. Reorganized school systems - - — 129 III. Professional investigations _ 132 IV. City superintendents - 136 V. The courses of study - 138 Simplification of the course of study _ 139 Shortened elementary courses _ 140 Departmental teaching in the grammar grades - 141 Differentiation in grammar-school courses - 142 European history in the elementary schools - 143 Moral training - 143 Time schedules - 145 VI. Industrial education - 145 VII. Kindergartens _ 148 VIII. Teachers’ salaries and pensions - 149 IX. High schools _ 152 Shorter courses _ 152 Junior and senior high schools _ 153 High-school fraternities - 156 X. Vacation schools _ 159 XI. The physical welfare of school children - 162 Medical inspection - 162 Open-air schools - - 1 62 School lunches - ; - 165 Sex instruction - 166 “ Quiet zones ” around schools - 169 XII. Miscellaneous activities - 1 - 170 School social centers - 170 Main facts - 170 School gardens - 170 School savings banks _ 172 Playgrounds _ 173 Chapter V. — Rural Education. The interest in rural school affairs bearing results _ Division of rural education in the Bureau of Education - Rural committee of the National Education Association _ State rural school commissions - ^ - x _ Iowa - North Dakota _ Wisconsin - State supervisors and inspectors of rural schools - County rural school supervisors - : - County rural school industrial supervisors _ State organizers of school improvement associations - - Boys’ and girls’ agricultural clubs - School credit for home industrial work _ Important legislation affecting rural education - Recent publications on rural education - 177 180 182 185 185 187 188 189 192 193 196 197 202 206 208 VI CONTENTS OF VOLUME I, Page. Progress in several States - - - _______ 212 Alabama - - - - — _ — 212 Colorado _ 213 Connecticut - - - - — - 213 Georgia - 213 Indiana - 214 Kentucky - 214 Maine - 216 Massachusetts - 217 Michigan - 217 Mississippi - 217 Missouri _ 219 North Carolina - 219 South Carolina - 220 Tennessee - - - - - 222 Washington - 222 West Virginia - 223 Wisconsin - 225 Chapter VI. — Roman Catholic Schools. Sources of information - 227 School organization _ 228 Diocesan school boards _ 229 Professional supervision _ 230 The extent of the school system _ v _ 231 Seminaries _ - _ 231 Colleges and academies - 231 Parochial schools _ 232 Orphan asylums - 232 Grand totals _ 232 Special schools _ 232 The high-school movement _ 233 The Catholic Educational Association - 236 Table 1. — Diocesan school boards and supervising officers _ 237 Table 2. — Enrollment in seminaries, colleges, and academies and in parochial schools in 1911 and 1912 _ 239 Chapter VII.- — Recent Movements in Negro Education. Public schools _ = _ 243 The work of the Jeanes fund _ 246 State rural supervisors _ 248 Farm demonstration work - 249 Teachers’ associations _ 250 The negro organization society of Virginia _ 250 Denominational boards and home-missions council _ 250 Negro schools and self-help in education _ 251 Progress in negro education in the public schools _ 251 Value of property used by colored schools _ 252 Expenditures for negro public schools - 252 Teachers’ salaries and certificates _ 253 Secondary and higher schools _ 254 Self-help in education _ 254 Conference of rural industrial schools for colored people in the South - 255 Chapter VIII. — Progress op the Movement for the Benefit of the Excep¬ tional Child, in the year 1912 _ 257 Chapter IX. — A Review of Agricultural Education in 1911-12. The graduate school of architecture _ 264 Agricultural colleges _ . _ 264 Instruction - 264 Extension service _ 266 CONTENTS OF VOLUME I. VII Page. Agriculture in high schools _ 267 Cooperation among farmers _ 272 The grange - 273 Agricultural fairs _ . _ 274 The farmers’ institutes _ 275 Women’s clubs _ 275 “Chautauquas ” - 275 Agricultural press _ 276 State legislation - 1 - 276 Indiana commission on industrial education _ 277 Chapter X. — Progress in Vocational Education. I. Progress in legislation _ 281 Legislation for 1912 - 281 Wisconsin _ 281 Massachusetts _ 281 The Page and Lever bills _ 282 Vocational legislation, 1913 - 282 Indiana _ 282 Pennsylvania _ 284 New Jersey _ 284 Connecticut _ 284 New York _ 285 Illinois _ 286 Washington _ 286 Massachusetts _ 286 Rhode Island - 286 II. Progress in public opinion _ 287 III. Progress in the recognition of principles and policies - 290 Teachers for boys’ work _ 294 IV. Progress in localities - : - 295 State commissions and studies _ - _ _ _ 295 Studies and investigations - 295 Schemes for the training of teachers - 295 Massachusetts _ 296 Wisconsin _ 296 New York _ 296 General _ _ _ 297 Chapter XI. — Typical Health-Teaching Agencies of the United States. Various national organizations and societies engaged in general health work _ 302 United States Public Health Service _ 302 American Public Health Association - 302 American Association for Labor Legislation - ! _ 303 American Association for the Advancement of Science - 304 American Civic Association - 304 National Conference of Charities and Correction - 305 National Woman’s Christian Temperance Union _ 306 National Congress of Mothers - 306 National Civic Federation on Dangerous and Unhealthful Industries _ 306 American Institute of Child Life - 307 American Society for the Study of Alcohol and Other Narcotics _ 308 National Housing Association _ _ _ 308 Playground and Recreation Association of America _ 309 Anticigarette League of America, Eastern Division _ 309 American Red Cross - 309 Committee of the American Medical Association for public-health education among women, and its affiliated organizations - 310 State boards of health _ 314 Municipal health associations, commissions, 'boards, etc _ 315 New York Association for Improving the Condition of the Poor _ 316 Caroline Rest and School for Mothers _ 317 Rochester Public Health Association _ 317 Visiting Nurse Association of Detroit _ 318 VIII CONTENTS OF VOLUME I. Municipal health associations, commissions, boards, etc. — Continued. Page. Visiting Nurse Society of Philadelphia - i _ .318 Providence Nursing Association - - - - - - - - 318 Milwaukee Child Welfare Commission - - - 318 Division of child hygiene of the department of health of the city of New York- 319 South End House Women’s Residence of Boston _ _ _ 320 Women’s Municipal League of Boston - 320 Infant Welfare Society of Chicago - 321 Infant Welfare Association of New Haven, Conn _ _ _ 322 New York Diet Kitchen Association - 322 Infant welfare department of Duluth Consistory, Scottish Rite Masons _ 323 Boston Chamber of Commerce - 323 Atlanta Chamber of Commerce _ _ 324 Social League of Middletown, Conn - 324 Bureau of industries and immigration of the department of labor of the State of New York - 325 Antituberculosis leagues, associations, and organizations _ 325 Cincinnati antituberculosis league - 325 Boston association for the relief and control of tuberculosis _ 325 Chicago Tuberculosis Institute - 326 St. Louis society for the relief and prevention of tuberculosis _ 327 San Francisco association for the study and prevention of tuberculosis _ 327 Texas antituberculosis association _ 328 Antituberculosis committee of 100, of Winston-Salem, N. C _ 328 Massachusetts hospital for consumptives - 329 California association for the study and prevention of tuberculosis _ 329 Antituberculosis league of Cleveland, Ohio _ 331 State charities aid association of New York _ _ 332 Societies for prevention of blindness - 334 Dental hygiene societies _ 336 Organizations for social purity and the teaching of sex hygiene - 337 American federation for sex hygiene _ 337 Seattle society of social and moral hygiene _ 339 Pennsylvania society for the prevention of social diseases - 339 California social hygiene society - 339 Social hygiene society of Portland, Oreg - 340 West Virginia society of social hygiene _ 340 Chicago society of social hygiene - 340 Los Angeles society of social hygiene - 341 World's purity federation - 341 School of eugenics, of Boston _ 341 Maryland society of social hygiene - 342 St. Louis society of social hygiene - 342 Connecticut society of social hygiene - 343 American vigilance association _ 343 State Board of Health of Indiana - 343 Detroit society for sex hygiene - 343 Spokane society for social and moral hygiene _ 344 Reed College - 344 Religious organizations engaged in health teaching _ 344 Presbyterian board of home missions _ _ 344 Methodist federation for social service - 344 Council of Jewish women _ 345 Sunday-school superintendents’ union of Boston and vicinity _ 345 International committee of young men’s Christian associations _ 346 Young women’s Christian association _ ' _ 348 Home and school leagues and associations _ 348 Home and school league of Philadelphia _ 348 Boston home and school associations _ 349 Chicago school-extension committee - • - 349 Societies devoted to the teaching of mental hygiene _ 350 National committee for mental hygiene _ 350 State charities aid association of New York _ 351 Health work of typical industrial concerns - 352 Joint board of sanitary control in the cloak, suit, and skirt industry of Greater New York _ 353 Associations for securing clean milk supply - 354 CONTENTS OF VOLUME I, IX Page. Special commissions, bureaus, etc., engaged in health teaching - - 355 Rockefeller sanitary commission for the eradication of hookworm disease- - 355 Bureau of municipal research - 356 Brooklyn institute of arts and sciences - - — - - 357 Health-education league - 357 College work in hygiene - — — - 357 Negro organizations for health teaching - 357 Chapter XII. — Purposes, Methods, and Results of the Parent-Teacher Cooperative Associations of the National Congress of Mothers. Founders of the congress - 359 Basis of organization - 359 Conventions - 359 Purposes of the congress - . — - — — - - - - 360 Departments _ 7 - - 360 Effects on children - — - — __1- - - - 363 Material results - . - - 363 The principal’s point of view - 364 County superintendents - : - - - - - 364 Initial work for organization _ _ — - 364 Working up interest - . - 365 Parents must do the work _ : - 366 Calling the meetings - : - 1 - 366 Inducements to attend _ 366 Suggested rules - - - - - - - - - 367 Frequency of meetings - 368 Subjects for discussion - 368 Suggested programs - 369 Evening meetings for fathers — — - - - - - . - 370 An inspiration - - - : - - - 371 What prominent educators think of the movement.. _ ; _ _ _ _ _ 371 Department of education in the congress - 373 The twentieth century child - 373 Chapter XIII. — Report of the Secretary of the National Education Associ¬ ation _ 375 Chapter XIV. — Recent Aspects of Library Development. Gifts and bequests to American libraries, 1912 - 379 Library buildings - 380 Largest American libraries - 380 Instruction in use of books and libraries in colleges and universities. - 380 Rural library extension - - . _ 384 County extension - 385 Township extension - 388 Traveling libraries - 389 Library service to foreigners - 397 Association proceedings - - . - 403 American library association - 403 American library institute _ 404 League of library commissions _ 404 Other important meetings - 405 Library positions - 405 Chapter XV. — Outlying Possessions and Dependent Peoples. Report on education in Alaska - 407 Method of administration - 407 Medical work - 408 Cooperation by public health service _ ! _ _ _ 408 The Hydaburg village - 409 The eruption of Katmai Volcano _ 409 Juneau conference _ _ _ _ _ 410 Recommendations - 410 List of persons in the Alaska school service (exclusive of teachers), 1911-12. 411 Statistics of teachers, school attendance, and length of term _ 412 X CONTENTS OF VOLUME I. Page. The Alaska reindeer service - - - 415 Statistics of the Alaska reindeer service _ 416 Indian education - 420 In the beginning - 420 Beginning of Governmental Indian education - 421 First congressional appropriation for Indian education _ 422 Governmental education takes on new life - 423 Kinds of Indian schools maintained by the Government - 423 Other schools educating Indians - 426 The schools of the Five Civilized Tribes - 426 Need of schools among the Navajos and Papagos - 426 Later progress of Indian education - 426 Education in the Philippine Islands, 1910—1912 - 428 American teachers - 429 Filipino teachers - 431 Office organization - 432 'Revision of the courses of study - 432 The Philippines and other tropical countries - 434 Buildings and sites - 434 Industrial instruction - — _ 435 School of household industries - 437 Various insular schools - 438 Athletics _ 439 Legislation enacted, 1910-11 - 440 Legislation, 1911-12 - 441 Educational statistics, Philippine Islands _ 441 Publications of the Philippine Bureau of Education _ 442 Hawaii - 442 Porto Rico - 444 Common schools _ 445 High schools - 446 Agricultural instruction - 447 Industrial work for boys _ 449 Sewing _ 450 Cooking _ 450 Musical instruction _ 450 Night schools - 451 Teachers’ conferences - 451 School buildings _ 451 Statistics _ 452 Canal Zone _ 454 American Samoa _ 455 Guam _ 456 ^ Chapter XVI. — Educational Activities in Canada. Introduction _ 459 Main features of the systems of public instruction _ 460 Current activities - 463 Training in manual arts and agriculture - 463 Commissions on industrial education _ 467 Higher education - 468 Chapter XVII. — Education in the Latin-American States. Introduction _ , _ _ 471 Mexico _ : _ 471 Central America _ 472 South American Republics _ 474 Argentina _ _ ^ _ _ 475 Brazil _ 477 Bolivia _ 479 Chile _ 480 Paraguay _ 481 Peru _ 481 Uruguay _ 482 Venezuela _ 484 CONTENTS OF VOLUME I. XI Chapter XVIII. — Great Britain and Ireland. Page. England and Wales - 487 System of public elementary schools _ 487 Current movements _ 488 School attendance - 488 Teachers _ 489 Welfare work and medical inspection _ 491 Function of the board of education _ 492 State of medical inspection - 493 Auxiliary agencies - 494 Provision of meals _ 495 Extension of medical service to juvenile workers _ 496 Provision for vocational training - 496 Agencies for rural uplift _ 498 Expanding scope of the State system - 499 Scotland _ : _ _ 500 Measures for prolonging school attendance _ 501 Supplementary classes - 501 Continuation classes _ _ _ 503 Welfare work - 505 Ireland - , - ^ _ _ _ 505 The rural uplift movement _ 507 ’ Department of agriculture and technical instruction - 508 Attendance at universities of Great Britain and Ireland at specified dates _ 510 Chapter XIX. — Education in the Kingdoms of Northern Europe. Scandinavian countries - 511 Denmark - 511 Danish rural schools - 512 Sweden - . - 515 Norway _ 515 Belgium - 516 The Netherlands - 519 Chapter XX. — Educational Movements in France and Switzerland. France - - - 521 Conspectus of the educational system - 521 School attendance - 522 Medical inspection - 523 The teaching service - 523 The Government versus teachers’ syndicates - 524 Measures in the interest of teachers - 526 Need of continuation schools - 526 Department of secondary education - 528 The new program - 528 Secondary education for girls - - - 532 Higher education - 533 Reorganization of medical studies - 534 Public education in Switzerland - . - 535 General survey - 535 Statistical summary - - 536 Continuation schools - 537 Expenditure for education - 538 Chapter XXI. — Education in Germany. I. German school reform - 539 II. The proposed Saxon school law - 541 III. The religious question - 546 IV. Continuation schools - 548 V. Education for citizenship - 554 VI. The teaching profession - 556 XII CONTENTS OF VOLUME I, Chapter XXII. — Education in Southern Europe. Page. Italy— - 559 Measures for extending primary instruction - 560 Education of emigrants - - - - — — _ 561 Instruction in Arabic - 563 Current legislation - 564 Educational activities in Spain - 564 Portugal - 567 Greece _ 567 Chief current interests - 568 Child-labor law - - 569 Turkey _ 569 System of public instruction - 569 Schools and colleges in Constantinople - 570 Missionary agencies - 575 Educational status of the Balkan Nations - 575 Bulgaria _ 576 Servia _ 576 Montenegro - 577 Roumania _ 577 Chapter XXIII. — Education in Russia. » Magnitude and complexity of the population - 579 Controlling authorities - 579 Primary-school law of 1864 - 580 Educational work of the third Duma - 581 Agencies for rural uplift - * - 583 Secondary and higher education - _ - 585 Technical schools _ 586 Appropriations for education in 1911 and 1912 - 587 Chapter XXIV. — Current Movements in Asia and Africa. Asia _ 589 Spread of modern influences _ 589 System of public instruction in Japan - 589 Imperial ordinance respecting education in Chosen - 593 India _ 594 System of education - 594 The present outlook - 595 Statistical summary - 596 Evidences of the efficiency of the system of public instruction - 598 The rural masses _ 599 Modern education in Africa _ 600 Algeria _ 600 Egypt - 600 The coast regions _ 600 Union of South Africa _ 601 Education commission for Cape Colony _ , _ 602 The colored people _ 604 Chapter XXV. — Education in Australia and New Zealand. Australia - 605 The systems of public education _ . _ 605 Current activities _ 607 New South Wales _ 608 . Victoria - 610 Western Australia _ 611 New Zealand educational system _ 613 Educational commission _ 614 CONTENTS OF VOLUME I. XIII Chapter XXVI. — Events oe International Interest. Page. International foundations - 617 Amerika-institut - 617 Carnegie endowment for international peace _ . _ 618 Continuation committee, world missionary conference _ , _ 620 University events - 620 Congress, of the universities of the British Empire _ 620 Anniversary of the University of Athens - 623 University at Frankfort on the Main _ 624 Hamburg University _ _ _ 624 New universities in Hungary - 624 University of Hongkong _ 625 New university for India - 625 South African university _ 625 University of Mexico - 626 Astronomers at Brazil _ 627 International celebrations and congresses - 627 Musical festival at Paris - 627 Fifteenth modern language conference - 628 Congresses at London - 628 Third international congress of American students - 629 First international congress on eugenics - 629 Convention of American teachers at Berlin _ 630 Fourth international congress for drawing and art instruction _ 630 Fifth international congress of mathematicians - 1 _ 630 Fourth international congress of the history of religions - 631 Second international moral education congress _ 632 Eighth international congress of applied chemistry _ 633 Fifth international congress of chambers of commerce and commercial and industrial associations - 633 Fifteenth international congress of hygiene and demography _ 633 Tenth international congress for the study of the history of art _ 634 Additional international congresses - 634 International educational and industrial exhibition _ 635 Index - 637 REPORT OF THE COMMISSIONER OF EDUCATION. Department of the Interior, Bureau of Education, Washington , April 29, 1913. Sir: Because of the lack of means for collecting statistics promptly, it* is still necessary for the Bureau of Education to publish in its annual report statistics for State school systems for one year back of the statistics pertaining to city schools, colleges, and other schools of higher and special learning. Therefore the Report of the Commis¬ sioner for 1912 gives figures of State school systems for the year ended June 30, 1911. An effort made last year to remedy this con¬ dition was not successful, but it is hoped conditions may be more favorable for another effort next year. Within the year ended June 30, 1911, the estimated increase in the number of children of school age in the United States was 505,614, while the reported increase in enrollment in the public schools was only 221,266, and the increase in the average daily attendance only 44,673. This apparent falling off in enrollment and daily attendance, as compared with the estimated increase in the number of children of school age, is no doubt due to inaccurate and incomplete returns. The figures for 1911 are probably more nearly correct than those for 1910. There is a constant improvement in the several States in methods of collecting and compiling the statistics on which this bureau must depend for the material for its summaries. In one State last year the reported enrollment and attendance were reduced by several thousands by more careful elimination of duplicate enrollments. The total number of teachers in the public elementary and high schools increased 10,396. This total increase was more than equaled by the increase in the number of female teachers. Of the teachers in the public elementary and high schools, 79.5 per cent were women and 20.5 per cent were men. There was an apparent decrease in the average length of school term from 157.5 days to 156.8 days. There was also an apparent decrease in the average salaries of teachers. Probably this apparent decrease in salaries was real. If so, it can be accounted for by the fact that, while the increase in total expenditure was only $20,576,595, the increase in the total value of property reported was $121,688,218. Many new schoolhouses were built in city and country, and the new houses are much better and more costly than the older ones. Only XV XVI EDUCATION KEPOKT, 1912. about 60 per cent of the total expenditures of school funds is for salaries of teachers. For the year ended June 30, 1912, the number of public and private high schools reporting was 1,058 more than the number reported for the previous year; an increase of 8.6 per cent. The number of high- school pupils reported was 131,501 more than for the previous year; an increase of 11.8 per cent. The number of high-school graduates was 19,214 more than for the previous year; an increase of 14 per cent. This increase in attendance in the high schools and in the number of graduates is very gratifying, and is sufficient answer to the statement frequently made that fewer children enter the high schools than formerly, and that the proportion of those who graduate is con¬ stantly decreasing. On the contrary, the growth of the high schools, and especially of the public high schools, in the last decade is prob¬ ably the most notable thing in our school system. Better economic conditions and the recognition of the need for more education than can be acquired in the elementary schools by children who have not yet reached the period of adolescence both contribute to this. Nearly one-fourth of the children of this generation in the United States, and something more than one-fourth of the native-born white children, now get some education in high schools. The number of high-school teachers increased something more than 12 per cent. Of the total number of high-school teachers, 44 per cent were men, 56 per cent women. Not all institutions calling themselves colleges or universities are listed as such in this report. Many of them do little or no work above the high-school grade; some do little above the grade of the elementary school. In the 596 colleges listed for the year ended June 30, 1912, there were 198,453 undergraduate and graduate stu¬ dents, and 63,815 in the preparatory classes. This is an increase of 8 per cent in the number of undergraduate and graduate students, and of 6 per cent in the number of students in preparatory classes. Probably the increase in the number of students in preparatory classes in colleges is due to the raising of standards and of entrance requirements; but it is hard to understand why, with the rapid increase in the number of high schools, colleges should much longer burden themselves with large numbers of immature students doing work that could be done much better and at much less expense in the high schools. The number of baccalaureate degrees conferred was 22,354, and the number of graduate degrees, 5,226; a decrease of 1 per cent in baccalaureate degrees, and an increase of 10 per cent in graduate degrees. Of the baccalaureate degrees, 58 per cent were conferred on men, 42 per cent on women. Of the graduate degrees, 83.4 per cent were conferred on men, 16.6 per cent on women. The number of professors and instructors in colleges and universities THE COMMISSIONER'S INTRODUCTION. XVII increased 6.3 per cent. Of the total number of professors and instructors, 80.2 per cent were men, 19.8 women. The value of property owned by universities and colleges increased from some¬ thing more than 367 million dollars to a little more than 409 million dollars. Endowment funds increased from nearly 300 millions to more than 350 millions, and the total of working incomes from 81 millions to 90 millions. The figures in this paragraph do not include departments of theology, law, medicine, etc. These are included with the professional schools in the next paragraph. The number of professional schools reporting, including profes¬ sional schools and departments in universities and colleges, was 564, a decrease of 20. This decrease is due to the consolidation of small professional schools, the absorption of small schools by larger schools, and the tendency of colleges and universities to discontinue or unload the professional schools and departments which they find burdensome and which they are unable to maintain adequately. All this is in response to the demand which the public is beginning to make for better professional preparation. This demand applies *at present more to medicine than to other professions, but it will soon extend to them all. It is not so important that we have a large number of professional schools as it is that those we do have shall be adequately supported and do genuine work. We are beginning to look with suspicion on colleges which, with very small incomes, attempt to sup¬ port large numbers of professional schools or departments; and profes¬ sional schools established and maintained for personal profit do not flourish as they once did. Though the number of professional schools was less than for the year before, there was an increase of 1.3 per cent in the number of students reported, an increase of 5.3 per cent in the number of graduates, and an increase of 1.8 in the number of pro¬ fessors and instructors. Substantial increase is shown in value of property, endowment funds, and working incomes. The number of normal schools reporting decreased from 288 to 277. This decrease was probably due to the disappearance of some private normal schools and a change in the classification of others. Within the last few years there has been a large increase in the number of county normal schools and of normal classes in high schools, but these are not listed in this report. The reports show an increase of 7 per cent in the number of normal school pupils enrolled, and of 10 per cent in the number of graduates; an increase of 3.3 per cent in the number of teachers, and an increase of 5.3 per cent in the total of incomes. Of the total number of normal school students, 23.7 per cent were men, 76.3 per cent women. Of the graduates, 14 per cent were men, 86 per cent women. The total number of graduates, 18,278, was large enough to supply less than 25 per cent of the demand for new teachers in the elementary schools of the country. 77236° — ed 1912 — vol 1 - 2 XVIII EDUCATION REPORT, 1912. If all these graduates had begun teaching in the fall after their graduation, there would still have been 60,000 vacancies or more to be filled by young teachers who had not had the education and pro¬ fessional training represented by graduation from a normal school. This lack of preparation of teachers is one of the greatest evils of our school systems. In no other country that pretends to provide an opportunity for universal education is the condition in this respect so bad as in the United States. This condition must be remedied, or the schools must continue to be much less efficient than they should be. The State or country that assumes the responsibility of educating its children at public expense, and in schools under public control, must assume the corresponding responsibility of preparing at public expense a sufficient number of teachers, and must refuse to license persons not having sufficient native ability, education, and training to use to good advantage the time and money of the children. It is unwise and unjust to give to one school supported by the taxes of the people and attended by children that they may be prepared for life, for making a living, and for the duties and responsibilities of citizenship, a well-educated and well-trained teacher, and to give at the same time to another school supported by the taxes of the people and attended by children that they may be prepared for life, for making a living, and for the duties and responsibilities of citizen¬ ship, a teacher without education, training, or experience. We must have more normal schools of a high grade, and they must be content to confine their efforts more to the high task of giving adequate preparation to a sufficient number of young men and women to supply teachers for the elementary schools. In most States, at least, the duty of preparing teachers for the high schools should be left to schools or departments of education in colleges and universities. For the year ended June 30, 1912, 569 summer schools reported to this office, an increase of 90 over the year before. Since the year 1911 was the first year in which statistics for summer schools were collected, it is quite certain that the increase in the number reporting does not indicate that there was a like increase in the actual number of such schools. The summer schools have come to be a large part of our educational equipment, and an important agency for the further preparation of teachers in the elementary and secondary schools. A very large majority of their students are teachers who have taught one or more years; some of them many years. It is worthy of note that of the 142,217 students reported, 32.8 per cent were men, a larger proportion of men than is found among the stu¬ dents of the normal schools or among the teachers in service. The average annual term of the schools in most of the States, and in the country as a whole, is still too short. Less than 157 days for all the schools, it varies from little more than 100 days in several States to a maximum of 193 days in Rhode Island. The average THE COMMISSIONER'S INTRODUCTION. XIX length of term in the rural schools is still shorter, being less than 140 days for the country as a whole, and less than 100 days in some of the States. This is much less than in many other countries. In most countries of western Europe both city and country children have 200 days or more of schooling in the year. In Australia the schools of city and country alike are in session 45 weeks, something more than 210 days after all holidays are counted out. In Porto Rico the schools are in session 9 months — 185 days, not counting holidays. The same is true of the rural schools of the Philippine Islands. The average number of days in which children of school age attended school was, in 1911, for the whole country, only 81.1. This varied from 42.5 days in South Carolina, 42.6 days in New Mexico, and 45.8 days in Louisiana to 105.8 days in Iowa, 106.4 days in Massachu¬ setts, 107.4 days in Utah, and 120.4 days in the District of Columbia. At this rate the average number of days of schooling for each child in the 13 years included in the school age varies from 552.5 days in South Carolina, 553.8 days in New Mexico, and 595.4 days in Louisiana to 1,375.4 days in Iowa, 1,383.2 days in Massachusetts, 1,396.2 days in Utah, and 1,565.2 days in the District of Columbia; the average for the country at large being 1,054.3 days, or 5.27 years of 200 days each. Of course there are many schools in each State with an annual term below the average, and in each State there are many children who attend much less than the average for all children of that State, but the average even in the best States is far too low. It is not sufficient to enable the children to obtain the instruction and training necessary to fit them for life in an industrial, political, social, and religious democracy. Surely an annual school term of 180 days, and an average attend¬ ance of 90 per cent of this time by all the children between the ages of 6 and 16, a total of 1,620 days, can not be considered more than is necessary to prepare children for life and citizenship. The following tables show, on the one side, the average number of days the schools were open in each of the States in 1910-11, and the average number of days of schooling each child will get in each of the States at the rate of attendance for that year; and, on the other side, the number of days to be added in each State to make an average term of 180 days, and the necessary increase in attendance to make an average of 1,620 days for each child. In the report for the year ended June 30, 1911, I called attention to the fact that there were, according to the Federal Census of 1910, more than five and one-half millions of people in the United States over 10 years of age unable to read and write. At the time that report was written separate statistics on illiteracy of children from 10 to 20 years old were not available. The figures now available show that, with an increase of nearly 3,000,000 in the population included within these ages between the census years 1900 and 1910, Table showing the average length of school term in days in each of the several States in 1910-11, and the number of days that must be added to make an average term of 180 days. 185. 0 165. 0 186.9 92.8 SOUTH CAROLINA. 87.2 104.1 NORTH CAROLINA. 75.9 113.9 ARKANSAS. 66. 1 115.0 NEW MEXICO. 65.0 115.2 ALABAMA. 64.8 116.2 FLORIDA. 63.8 120.0 MISSISSIPPI. 60. 0 130.0 OKLAHOMA. 50.0 131.5 VIRGINIA. 48.5 131.8 KENTUCKY. 48.2 133.0 TENNESSEE. 47.0 135.0 WEST VIRGINIA. 45.0 135.1 TEXAS. 44.9 135.2 LOUISIANA. 44.8 135.5 ARIZONA. 44.5 138. 0 OREGON. 42.0 140.0 IDAHO. * 40.0 140.9 WYOMING. 39.1 145.3 NEVADA. 34.7 147.0 INDIANA. 33.0 151.0 NORTH DAKOTA. 29.0 151.4 GEORGIA. 28.6 152. 0 SOUTH DAKOTA. 28.0 155.4 MISSOURI. 24.6 156.0 COLORADO. 24.0 156.0 KANSAS. 24.0 156.9 MONTANA. 23. 1 159.0 UTAH. 21.0 160.0 VERMONT. 20. 0 161.3 MINNESOTA. 18.7 163.8 MAINE. 16.2 165.5 OHIO. 14.5 168.5 NEW HAMPSHIRE. 11. 5 168.6 NEBRASKA. 11.4 170.0 MICHIGAN. 10.0 170.4 PENNSYLVANIA. 9.6 171.0 ILLINOIS. 9.0 172.0 IOWA. 8.0 172.3 WASHINGTON. 7.7 172.5 DELAWARE. 7.5 173.6 CALIFORNIA. 6.4 179. 6 WISCONSIN. 0.4 180.5 DISTRICT OF COLUMBIA. 183.0 NEW JERSEY. 184.9 CONNECTICUT. MARYLAND. MASSACHUSETTS. NEW YORE. + 194.0 RHODE ISLAND. XX Table showing the average number of days of schooling for each child in the several States on the basis of attendance for 1910-11, and the number of days of increase attendance of 90 ages of 6 and 16. 553 necessary to give On average of 1,620 days, or an average per cent of 180 days each year by each child between the SOUTH CAROLINA. 1067 554 NEW MEXICO. 1066 585 ALABAMA. 1035 595 LOUISIANA. 1025 647 NORTH CAROLINA. 973 668 ARIZONA. 952 686 MISSISSIPPI. 934 697 KENTUCKY. 923 697 FLORIDA. 923 710 VIRGINIA. 910 750 ARKANSAS. 870 764 TEXAS. 856 813 OKLAHOMA. 807 818 GEORGIA. 802 912 WEST VIRGINIA. 708 941 TENNESSEE. 679 954 NEVADA. 666 978 SOUTH DAKOTA. 642 993 DELAWARE. 627 1, 015 MARYLAND. 605 1, 042 NORTH DAKOTA. 578 1,087 MONTANA. 533 1,108 WYOMING. 512 1, 109 NEW HAMPSHIRE. 511 1,132 MISSOURI. 488 1,135 IDAHO. 485 1,158 PENNSYLVANIA. 462 1,177 INDIANA. 443 1,187 WISCONSIN. 433 1,188 OREGON. 432 1,191 MINNESOTA. 429 1,217 OHIO. 403 1,221 RHODE ISLAND. 399 1, 223 COLORADO. 397 1, 234 ILLINOIS. 386 1, 275 NEW JERSEY. 345 1,281 MICHIGAN. 339 1,283 NEW YORK. 337 1,313 KANSAS. 307 1, 316 NEBRASKA. 304 1, 338 VERMONT. 282 1, 340 MAINE. 280 1,356 WASHINGTON. 264 1,360 CONNECTICUT. 260 1, 375 _ IOWA. 245 1,377 CALIFORNIA. 243 1, 383 MASSACHUSETTS. 237 1,396 UTAH. 224 1, 565 _ DISTRICT OF COLUMBIA. _ 55 XXI XXII EDUCATION REPORT, 1912. there was a decrease of more than 350,000 in the number of illiterates. The per cent of illiterates in this class of the population was 7.6 in 1900 and 4.7 in 1910. These figures are so important, as showing the results of the constant war against illiteracy, that they are given here for all of the States. For the Southern States they are given for white and colored separately. It will be seen that the reduction of illiteracy among both white and colored children in the Southern States is remarkable and gratifying. The comparatively small reduc¬ tion in some of the North Atlantic States is due to the large influx of foreigners from countries in eastern and southern Europe, in which the per cent of illiteracy is very large. A finer analysis of the figures compiled by the Census Bureau shows that the per cent of illiterates in this class of the population is three times as large in rural districts as in the cities and towns. It also shows that for both white and colored the illiteracy is about 50 per cent greater for boys than for girls, and that the lowest per cent of illiteracy is found among the native-born children of foreign-born parents. This last fact is very reassuring. The eagerness of the illiterate immigrant that his chil¬ dren shall obtain the education necessary to fit them for life in then- new home means much for the prosperity of the country and for the safety of our democratic institutions. Illiteracy of the 'population 10 to 20 years of age in 1900 and 1910. 1910 1900 . States. Total population Illiterate. Total population Illiterate. 10 to 20 years of age. Number. Per cent. 10 to 20 years of age. Number. Per cent. United States . 20,025,365 946, 152 4.7 17,167,817 1,299,543 7.6 North Atlantic Division . 5, 185, 646 107,099 2.1 4,198,164 95,168 2.3 North Central Division . 6, 428, 669 56,501 .9 5,940,636 75,430 1.3 South Atlantic Division . 2,934,280 313,392 10.7 2,619,376 478,105 18.3 South Central Division . 4,190,245 436,429 10.4 3,594,999 622,563 17.3 Western Division . 1,286,525 ' 32, 731 2.5 814,642 28,277 3.5 North Atlantic Division: Maine . 142, 430 2,907 2.0 135,817 4, 740 3.5 New Hampshire . 82, 078 1,511 1.8 75, 431 2,914 3.9 Vermont . 68,739 677 1.0 66, 768 1,401 2.1 Massachusetts . 646,530 12,133 1.9 521,049 11,370 2.2 Rhode Island . 109, 840 3,436 3.1 84,366 3,368 4.0 Connecticut . 218, 203 4,807 2.2 170,927 4,320 2.5 New York . 1,816, 525 38,100 2.1 1,423,042 30,595 2.1 New Jersey . 516,585 12,604 2.4 376, 198 8,625 2.3 Pennsylvania . 1,584,716 30,924 2.0 1,344,566 27,835 2.1 North Central Division: Ohio . 966,141 8, 446 .9 902,531 7,832 .9 Indiana . . . . 567,313 3,481 .6 570,437 5,785 1.0 Illinois . 1,183,061 12,936 1.1 1,046,145 12,811 1.2 Michigan . 579,343 4,678 .8 526,216 6,402 1.2 Wisconsin . 534,911 3,798 .7 479,533 5,317 1.1 Minnesota . 473,555 3,356 .7 395,543 3,852 1.0 Iowa . 492, 970 2,189 .4 511,228 2,511 .5 Missouri . 725,386 10, 848 1.5 734,494 24,242 3.3 North Dakota . 128,434 2,120 1.7 70,587 1,865 2.6 South Dakota . 131,090 1,073 .8 95,116 1,155 1.2 Nebraska . 272,366 1,482 .5 253,586 1,267 .5 Kansas . 374,099 2, 094 .6 355,220 2,391 .7 xxin THE COMMISSIONER'S INTRODUCTION. Illiteracy of the 'population 10 to 20 years of age in 1900 and 1910 — Continued. 1910 1900 States. Total population Illiterate. Total population Illiterate. 10 to 20 years of age. Number. Per cent. 10 to 20 years of age. Number. Per cent. South Atlantic Division: Delaware . . . 42, 751 1,223 2.9 40,196 2,261 5.6 Maryland . . 282, 223 9,056 3.2 270, 281 15,343 5.7 District of Columbia . 59, 179 613 1.0 53,560 1,424 2.7 Virginia . 494,292 46,831 9.5 464,143 74, 780 16.1 West Virginia . 280,504 11,367 4.1 234, 782 15, 405 6.6 North Carolina . 552, 986 59, 271 10.7 490, 462 105, 004 21.4 South Carolina . 399, 157 76,113 19.1 366,510 112,256 30.6 Georgia . 651,346 91,901 14.1 572, 201 132, 795 23.2 Florida . 171,842 17,017 9.9 127, 241 18,837 14.8 South Central Division: Kentucky . . 539,434 36,156 6.7 524,768 49,874 9.5 Tennessee . 526, 103 42,274 8.0 515, 676 75,458 14.6 Alabama . 526,505 86, 437 16.4 476,528 133,584 28.0 Mississippi . . 453,286 65,116 14.4 410,098 95,464 23.3 Louisiana . 403,303 100,293 24.9 346, 412 117,654 34.0 Texas . 961,329 64,245 6.7 783, 279 75, 804 9.7 Arkansas.. . 386, 269 29,954 7.8 341,954 51,460 15.0 Oklahoma . 394,016 11,954 3.0 196,284 23,265 11.9 Western Division: Montana . 66,793 1,505 2.3 41,117 1,177 2.9 Wyoming . 25,544 351 1.4 17,551 335 1.9 Colorado . 155, 773 2,487 1.6 103,254 2,304 2.2 New Mexico . 73,201 9,514 13.0 42,911 9,518 22.2 Arizona . 39, 717 7,146 18.0 24,869 6,243 25.1 Utah . 84,934 850 1.0 68,385 631 .9 Nevada . 11,656 718 6.2 7,777 734 9.4 Idaho . 68,337 532 .8 34,589 543 1.6 Washington . 214,535 1,659 .8 101,822 1,146 1.1 Oregon . 130, 120 942 .7 89,291 631 .7 California . 415,915 7,027 1.7 283,076 5,015 1.8 Illiteracy of the white and of the negro population 10 to 20 years of age , in the South in 1900 and 1910. 1900 1910 White. Negro. White. Negro. States. Popula¬ Illiterates. Popula¬ Illiterates. Popula¬ Illiterates. Popula¬ Illiterates. tion 10 to 20. Num¬ ber. Per ct. tion 10 to 20. Num¬ ber. Per ct. tion 10 to 20. Num¬ ber. Per ct. tion 10 to 20. Num¬ ber. Per ct. South Atlantic Div. 1,621,893 147, 035 9.1 995,531 330,331 33.2 1,869,885 95,141 5.1 1,061,995 217, 644 20.4 South Central Div. . 2, 465,917 236, 346 9.6 1,110,505 381,530 34.4 2, 992, 747 170,815 5. 7 1,176,836 262, 759 22.3 S. Atlantic Div.: Delaware . 32, 891 883 2.7 7,301 1,377 18.8 35,301 580 1.6 7,446 643 8.6 Maryland . 212, 897 4,880 2.3 57,360 10,456 18.2 229,589 3,281 1.4 52, 592 5,768 11.0 District of Co¬ lumbia . 34,865 141 .4 18,571 1,281 6.9 41,231 191 .5 17,894 417 2.3 Virginia . 286, 486 25,445 8.9 177, 493 49,316 27.8 322, 158 18,047 5.6 171,979 28, 746 16.7 West Virginia. . 224, 351 13,515 6.0 10,420 1,890 18.1 266, 982 10, 067 3.8 13,501 1,297 9.6 North Carolina. 318, 058 49, 616 15.6 170, 922 54, 775 32.0 366, 603 26, 151 7.1 184, 407 32,594 17.7 South Carolina. 143, 749 19, 504 13.6 222, 732 92,743 41.6 165, 426 14,243 8.6 233,645 61,853 26.5 Georgia . 297, 957 28, 431 4, 610 9.5 274, 225 104,360 38.1 341,870 18, 239 5.3 309,444 73,656 24.0 Florida . 70, 639 6.5 56,507 14, 133 25.0 100,725 4,342 4.3 71,087 12,670 17.8 S. Central Div.: Kentucky . 453, 495 387, 748 37, 356 42,366 8.2 71,232 127, 903 12,505 33,081 17. 6 478, 438 29,905 24, 270 6.3 60, 921 6, 218 17,988 10.2 Tennessee . 10.9 25.9 407, 227 6.0 118,814 15.1 Alabama . 255, 890 33,796 13.3 220,577 99,748 45.2 295,511 21,092 7.1 230, 757 65,263 28.3 Mississippi . 164, 840 11,120 6.7 244, 631 83,867 34.3 190, 694 6, 780 3.6 262,249 58,116 22.2 Louisiana . 178,235 30, 680 17.2 168,006 86,850 51.7 224,500 27,002 12.0 178,528 73,119 41.0 Texas . 616, 126 42, 152 23, 434 6.8 166, 997 33,579 20.1 782,348 42, 660 5.5 178, 732 21,521 12.0 Arkansas . 245, 193 9.6 96, 741 28,024 29.0 273, 418 12,051 4.4 112, 727 17, 893 15.9 Oklahoma . 164, 390 15, 442 9.4 14, 418 3,876 26.8 340, 611 7,055 2.1 34, 108 2,641 7.7 XXIV EDUCATION REPORT, 1912. The gradual reduction of illiteracy is shown very effectively by a comparison of the per cents of illiteracy in the population between different age periods in 1900 and 1910. They are more interesting than any baseball or football score, and more thrilling than the reports of the battles of a great war. These figures show that the illiteracy of the negro population, and of the whole population, from 10 to 15 years of age, is less than one-third the illiteracy of thi& class of the population 65 years of age and over, and that the illiteracy of the white population from 10 to 15 years of age is less than one-fifth the illiteracy of this class of the population 65 years of age and over. The schools of 40 years ago are responsible for the condition of the population over 65 years old. The schools of the last decade are responsible for the condition of the population between the ages of 10 and 15 years. Percentage of illiteracy in different age groups. 65 years and over. 45-65. 35-45. 25-35. 20-25. 15-20. 10-15. Total . 14.5 10.7 8.1 7.3 6.9 4.9 4.1 White . 9.4 6.7 5.4 5.2 4.6 2.8 1.8 Colored . 74.5 52.7 27.7 24.4 23.9 20.3 18. 9 Again, the effectiveness of the schools in reducing illiteracy is shown by the figures for illiteracy in the total population in the five census years from 1870 to 1910, inclusive: Percentage of illiteracy in certain census years. Years. In total population. Among native-born whites. Among foreign-born whites. Among negroes. 1870 . 20.0 10.8 14.4 79.9 1880 . 17.0 8.7 12.0 70.0 1890 . 13.3 6.2 13. 1 56.8 1900 . 10.7 4.6 12.9 44.5 1910 . 7.7 3.0 12.8 30.5 For foreign-born whites, despite the large influx from countries in which more than half the people are illiterate, the per cent of illiterates has decreased. Without the public schools the illiteracy of foreign-born whites would have very rapidly increased and their children would have been almost totally illiterate. For negroes, despite their rapid nat¬ ural increase and the fact that they belong to a race almost totally illiterate through all the centuries of the past, the illiteracy has rap¬ idly decreased. THE COMMISSIONER'S INTRODUCTION. XXV It is easily understood that these figures do not show fully the effect of the public schools. The decrease in per cent in illiteracy depends on two factors. The education of children of school age and the dying off of illiterate adults. Despite all the crudities and all the difficulties attendant on the task unprecedented for magnitude, method, and purpose, the public schools have probably accomplished more for the good of humanity within the 40 years than has ever been accomplished by any other agency in a like number of years. A careful study of the several chapters of this report will show that there was much activity in the field of education in all parts of this country and throughout the world, and that some real progress was made within the year. The field of education has become so large, the work so differentiated, and the problems so complex that it is much more difficult than it once was to bring together in one report any complete account of progress for a definite period. No attempt has been made to include in this report a survey of progress in all parts of the field, nor to discuss more than a few of the most impor¬ tant agencies. Within the year the public schools were criticized freely in the pub¬ lic press, at public meetings, and elsewhere. Much of this criticism was intelligent and constructive. Some of it was unintelligent, un¬ sympathetic, and destructive. Some of it was very superficial, and some only of the irritating, gadfly type. Like all other public institutions, the public schools are subject to the freest possible criticism, and any criticism however unintelligent and unsympa¬ thetic, if it only be free, must result in final good. The criticism which began several years ago, and seemed to reach its climax within the year for which the report is made, led to a general investigation of organization, methods, and results. Some of these investigations were conducted by officers and teachers in the schools investigated; some by parents and citizens in the towns and cities ; others by com¬ missions of experts selected for this purpose. The findings have been discussed freely in the press, and debated in the meetings of educa¬ tional associations and elsewhere. It is interesting and instructive to note that, within the current year, there has been a rapid cessation of criticism, a restoration of confidence in the schools, and a larger amount of constructive discussion in the press and at public meetings. As noted in other chapters of this report, there has been a large extension of vocational education and a more persistent effort to adapt the work of the schools to the needs of modern life, both in urban and rural communities. Progress has also been made in the coordination of schools of different kinds and grades. In several States, efforts more or less successful have been made to coordinate the institutions of higher learning, so as to eliminate waste through overlapping and unnecessary rivalry. A large number of colleges XXVI EDUCATION REPORT, 1912. have increased and made more definite their requirements for admis¬ sion and for graduation. The sentiment for the establishment of junior colleges which will not grant degrees, and in which only two years of college work will be given, seems to be growing. More or less successful attempts have been made in different parts of the country for a better adjustment of the work of the colleges and high schools, so that the colleges may leave to the high schools their legitimate work and may use their funds wholly for college work. The Bureau of Education has had some opportunity to assist in this. That education, however differentiated and complex, is one thing, not many, seems to be better understood than it has been for many years. This is probably the most important symptom of all. Respectfully submitted. P. P. Claxton, Commissioner. The Secretary of the Interior. CHAPTER I. SURVEY OF EDUCATION DURING 1911-12. By W. Carson Ryan, Jr., Editorial Division, Bureau of Education. CONTENTS. Introductory. I. Current criticisms of the public schools : The changing purpose of education ; the uniformity protest; the high school and the standard; the school’s wider activities ; the problem of organization ; “ too much ” or “ too little ” super¬ vision? Criticisms of curriculum; the three R’s argument; subjects out of touch with life ; Latin and the public high school ; rigidity of the curriculum ; “ prac¬ tical ” and “ cultural ” subjects ; the quality of instruction ; the teachers ; inadequacy of the supply of teachers ; contradictory criticisms of methods ; examinations and home work ; measuring the public schools by results ; low attendance ; elimination of the “ average ” pupil ; inaccuracy and the public school ; democracy and the public school. II. Reconstructive programs : School inquiries ; making known the school’s needs ; formulation of standards and programs ; reorganizing the elementary and high schools ; Prof. Hanus’s formulation. III. Vocational education : Present status ; objections to present tendencies of the movement ; vocational guidance. IV. The Montessori method : Attitude of American school men ; Montessori and Froebel ; adaptability to American practice. V. Teachers and the high cost of living : Measurement of the increased cost of living ; cities investigated ; persons dependent upon teachers for support ; home owner¬ ship ; property of teachers ; savings of teachers during 1911 ; life insurance ; residence and amount paid for board and room by unmarried teachers ; average salaries and other sources of income of teachers ; teachers’ expenditures ; teach¬ ers’ salaries and salaries of other municipal employees. VI. Academic celebrations : Inauguration of President Hibben ; President Meiklejohn, of Amherst ; other administrative changes ; academic anniversaries — Mount Holyoke, etc. ; New York State education building. VII. A national university : Discussion by Presidents James, Van Hise, Baker, and Thompson at N. E. A. meeting, July, 1912. VIII. Benefactions : Carnegie foundation for advancement of teaching ; General education board ; million-dollar endowments ; other benefactions announced. IX. International relations : New official arrangements ; regular exchanges ; other aca¬ demic visitors ; the Prussian exchange ; various international visits ; the cosmo¬ politan club movement in Germany ; association for the international exchange of students ; the Rhodes scholarships ; Chinese students and the revolution. INTRODUCTORY. The year has been distinctly one of advance. For the most part,, it has been marked by substantial practical achievement, rather than by any signal development of educational theory. There is, on the one hand, the record of routine progress in education, whereby cer- w 1 2 EDUCATION REPORT, 1912. tain sections of the country are rapidly overtaking others that have had a temporary lead ; the gradual elimination of illiteracy where it has persisted most stubbornly ; pronounced improvement in the work of getting all the children into the schools; the extension of the amount of educational opportunities in terms of length of school year and period of compulsory schooling; broadening the provisions of State education to include higher education ; the constant betterment in teaching standards ; the. slow but certain transformation of the rural schools to make them adequate for rural life; increased ex¬ penditures for suitable buildings and grounds ; the steady rise in col¬ lege and professional standards, together with a greater uniformity in requirements and results in higher institutions. These are the fundamental lines of progress in routine efficiency. On the other hand, there has been relatively little new educational theory. Most of the new things are no longer new. Medical in¬ spection and general health supervision ; mental measurements ; vocational training; vocational guidance; school gardening; social centers; provision for exceptional children; and the many projects for closer cooperation between school and home — it is no longer a question of the advisability of these things, but of their extension in practice from isolated localities to larger educational units. In the present period of readjustment in public education, one of the most important results of recently developed theories has been to arouse lively discussion and criticism of existing school conditions as related to the new demands. I. CURRENT CRITICISMS OF THE PUBLIC SCHOOLS. Public education of the present time is subjected to searching criti¬ cism with respect to purpose, organization, administration, curricu¬ lum. teaching methods, and results. Particularly during the past year there has developed a literature of educational criticism that needs to be studied. Contrary to popular impression, this literature has been produced almost entirely by educators and not by laymen. School men themselves are likely to be the severest critics of the weaknesses of the schools, perhaps because they know what public education has accomplished and can accomplish, and are impatient that the schools do not progress uniformly in accordance with their ideals. Thus Francis G. Blair, State superintendent of public in¬ struction of Illinois, says: What we are doing in public education to-day is at least 25 years behind what we think we ought to be doing. . . . When we turn our faces to look upon educational things as they really are and see the little circumscribed school grounds, the ill-constructed school buildings, ill-lighted, ill-ventilated, ill- suited to the life and work of millions of children ; when we see the narrow, constricted courses of study, the short terms of school ; when we look into the SURVEY OF EDUCATION, 1911-12. 3 schoolrooms and see the work done in so many instances by immature, ill-pre¬ pared, incompetent teachers — when we see all this a chill of disappointment, amounting almost to discouragement, comes over us, and we break forth into the question: Why is it that this great instrument of public education is so unresponsive to the theory and the thought of those who know the most about what it should be? Why is it that this great wagon of the common school is not more closely hitched to the star of educational progress? In the criticism that has come to a climax in the past year, there is much that is based on the best thought of our time ; there is much that is the direct result of the discoveries of modern science ; there is much that is backed by years of practical experience in the school¬ room and in the administrator’s office; and there is naturally much that represents mere guesswork, misunderstanding, or even ignorance. Good and bad, significant and trivial, this mass of educational criti¬ cism is an indispensable guide to the progress of public education. THE CHANGING PURPOSE OF EDUCATION. It is apparent at a glance that much of the criticism of the public schools to-day is due to a marked change in the purpose of public education. Thus the charge of a curriculum “ behind the times,” and the demand for vocational subjects, represent no mere call for different school subjects as such, but a complete transformation in the idea of what the public schools should do. When public education was first introduced in this country it represented an extension of the educational facilities already at hand to wider circles of the popula¬ tion. It was no time to consider whether the type of education that had served to make cultured gentlemen of those who had wealth and leisure was equally adaptable to the work of educating “ all the chil¬ dren of all the people.” The early public-school men were concerned with the task of extending the benefits of education, not with chang¬ ing it. They believed in it; they were themselves the product of it. They saw the vital need for enlightenment, and they knew of but one type of education to produce it. They used that type. No one can criticize these men or their purpose; they did well a work the full significance of which we are only too prone to forget ; but the conditions of American life have changed radically in the past hundred years, and the whole basis of educational purpose has shifted to meet changing needs. Most of the criticism of the year will be found to come, on the one hand, from those who feel that the schools are still teaching the children of all the people by a process that was never designed for that end; and on the other hand from those who fear that education has entered upon dangerous paths, wherein the older cherished heritage is neglected. Those who criti¬ cize the bookish curriculum of the public school, whether elementary or high school, are really striving for what they conceive to be the 4 EDUCATION REPORT, 1912. changed purpose of public education: To reach all the children of all the people with the kind of training that will make them not merely intelligent in respect to things that are in books, but will equip them directly for the kind of life, economic and social, which they will lead when they leave school; while those who oppose the innovations do so because they do not concede this broader, though apparently more specialized, purpose. Thus the validity of much of the educational criticism of the year will be admitted or not ac¬ cording to the belief or nonbelief in a changed purpose for the schools. THE UNIFORMITY PROTEST. One criticism found prominently in the discussion of the year is directly attributable to this idea of changed purpose — that the schools attempt a uniformity that is undesirable; that they try to teach all the children the kind of things once designed for the few who intended to enter college. The uniformity charge is thus summed up by Dr. A. C. Perry, in his Problems of the Elementary School : Into the same school, into the same classroom, we thrust those pupils to whom we wish to extend the opportunity of seeking a liberal education, and also those others, in the substantial majority, upon whom we are placing the duty of securing that minimum of instruction consistent with proper usefulness in a Republic. We place these two groups of pupils, with such divergent in¬ terests, in the same classroom, under the guidance of the same teacher, and put them through the same curriculum, and then wonder at the confessed fail¬ ure of the public school to prepare great numbers of its pupils for life. THE HIGH SCHOOL AND THE “ STANDARD.” Growing out of the argument against uniformity is the protest against arbitrary standards in the high school, by which pupils are rejected if they do not meet the requirements in certain traditional subjects, Latin and algebra, for instance. If the high school, like the rest of the system, is for all the children, says the critic of this type, then it can not eliminate those who do not come up to algebra-Latin standards, but must meet their demands. In modern education it is the boy or girl, and not the subject, that is the determining basis of school method. William Hughes Mearns states the case against uniform standards in the high school as follows : If the aim of the public high school is to turn out the largest percentage of perfect products, then every indolent, weak, ill-informed, or slow-witted youngster lowers the average and should be got rid of. Such should go into the junk heap as imperfect parts of machinery. Everyone sympathizes with such an aim in a medical school. There the greater the elimination of the unfit the greater will the community be served. The object of the college of medicine is not to assist some young person to get a better footing in life, but rather to discover and train the greatest medical efficiency. Dental schools, SURVEY OF EDUCATION, 1911-12. 5 law schools, engineering schools have small excuse for keeping half-equipped students ; and particularly is it incumbent upon training schools for teachers to hold a high and inflexible standard * * *. But the object of the public high school is not primarily to turn out an ex¬ ample of skill; its fundamental achievement is to bring young people a step or two nearer efficient manhood or womanhood, to insure for the next genera¬ tion a healthier, better-thinking citizenship, to give youth a better training for his later daily work — in short, to make intelligent beings a little more intelligent * * *. Some high schools are managed like a track team instead of a gymnasium class. A good track team consists of record breakers, and only the possible point winners are taken care of; a good gymnasium class consists of all sorts and conditions of physical aptitude and inaptitude, and the weak are prescribed for with even more care than the strong. The chap that can not jump 6 feet, or run 100 yards in J1 seconds, or hurl a shot so many meters is useless to a track team. Who would eliminate these fellows from the gymnasium hour or the period of organized play? The track-team high schools have nothing but dismissal for those who do not qualify according to the arbitrary standard. Every mother has a standard of health for the family toward which she is daily and nightly striving ; but she doesn’t .asphyxiate all members that do not measure up.1 THE school’s WIDER ACTIVITIES. A frequent criticism from conservative sources is that the school is entering fields in which it does not belong. This appears to be a criticism based on the changed purpose of education, and in so far as it refers to the attempts to relate the schools more definitely to life it will be found true of the more progressive communities. The criti¬ cism is usually expressed with regard to the work of medical inspec¬ tion, dental clinics, etc. In this respect it must be said that the school is really only in line with the evident trend of the tames, which allows government to interfere to a greater extent than heretofore with freedom of the individual, when the larger demands of society make such interference desirable. It is doubtful if the schools have even gone so far in this particular as the spirit of the times would permit. The community is concerned with getting for its schools the best possible educational material, and is therefore begin¬ ning to insist upon the most thorough health supervision as a prelimi¬ nary requirement of public education. For the same reason, the school in its wider social purpose is intensely interested in eugenics and euthenics, to the end that the children may begin their educa¬ tional opportunities under as uniformly favorable conditions as possible. Those who resent the interference of government in the daily lives of the citizens will similarly resent the enlarged activity of the schools ; no more and no less. 1 “ The high school and the standard.” The Independent, Aug. 29, 1912, p. 482. 6 EDUCATION REPORT, 1912. THE PROBLEM OF ORGANIZATION. When it comes to the organization of our system of education, it may be said that educators are much more critical than outsiders. Among modem thinkers on school organization there is almost unanimous agreement that the present arrangement involves the waste of precious time and energy. Four criticisms of organization are: (1) That the period of elementary education is too long; (2) that the school year is too short; (3) that there is not the proper correlation between the elementary and the high school; (4) that classes are too large. These criticisms are mainly historical, and the conditions in their most objectionable form survive only where public opinion is not strong enough to better them. The length of the time devoted to elementary education in the United States is longer by several years than that of other countries. The American system postpones sec¬ ondary education past the proper period of boyhood or girlhood, with the result, on the one hand, that it accustoms children to an educa¬ tional attitude they should have outgrown, and, on the other hand, that it shuts off many boys and girls from any work of secondary quality. This is a criticism repeatedly made by foreign observers of American schools. The shortness of the school term in the United States also amazes foreign observers, since in other countries, Ger¬ many, for instance, 10 months is the regular term. The problem of correlation between elementary and -high school has passed from the stage of discussion to practical experimentation, and will accord¬ ingly be treated later. The size of classes is a general complaint, not confined to the United States, and is based on the feeling that the personal relation* between teacher and pupil emphasized in modern education requires small classes. “ TOO MUCH ” OR “ TOO LITTLE ” SUPERVISION ? The question of supervision is one about which there is wide di¬ vergence of opinion. On the one hand we are met with the cry of too much supervision — ■“ we are supervised to death,” say some of the teachers in city schools. But the educators who know conditions, and foreign observers particularly, make the opposite criticism — that there is not supervision enough, particularly in the rural districts. They attribute this to the lack of centralized educational authority within the States. Localities that have the means provide machinery of supervision that sometimes exceeds what is desirable, while other communities without the means or inclination for well -developed school systems allow their schools to go without the supervision that would insure efficiency. Thus the question of too little or too SURVEY OF EDUCATION, 1911-12. 7 much supervision is a matter of locality. It may be true that super¬ vision has sometimes gone so far in the city as to crush out the in¬ dividuality of teachers, but the harm thus done can not compare with the damage done by the neglect of providing country schools with sufficient good management and supervision to make and keep them efficient. CRITICISMS OF CURRICULUM - THE THREE r’s ARGUMENT. The great bulk of the educational criticism is directed at the cur¬ riculum, and here the criticisms are most contradictory, because here is where the changing purpose of the school shows itself most clearly. On one side we hear that there are “ too many subjects,” “ too many fads and frills,” and hence neglect of the u three R’s.” This is a favorite charge with those who forget their own schooling or remem¬ ber it with a glow of reminiscent sentiment. The critics who utter this sort of criticism seldom agree on exactly what are the u fads and frills,” but they invariably hark back to a golden past when the so- called “ fundamentals,” reading, writing, and arithmetic, were taught in such a way as never to be forgotten. Regardless of whether the enrichment of the curriculum has been wholly beneficial or not, the trouble with this retrospective three R’s argument is, as Dr. Gregory says, “ that it isn’t so.” Those who use it do not seem to realize that the question of quality of results by the . old and the new schools is not a question of guesswork, but one that has been answered by plain comparisons of fact. The Springfield tests of a few years ago demonstrated that despite the enrichment of the curriculum the three R’s are better taught to-day than they were 50 or 60 years ago. In view of the tendency to revive the three R’s argument, it seems worth while to recall briefly what the Springfield tests were and what they revealed. In 1890 there were discovered in the attic of the high-school build¬ ing in Springfield, Mass., several old sets of examination questions that had been written in the fall of 1846. They consisted of printed questions in geography and arithmetic with answers written on the printed sheets, and written tests in spelling and penmanship. Two of these tests were later (1905) given to 245 ninth-grade pupils in the Springfield schools, and the results were carefully compared with the results of the tests of 1846. The following is the comparison : Spelling : 1846. loos. Number of pupils who took tests _ 85 245 Average per cent correct _ 40. 6 51. 2 Arithmetic : Number of pupils who took tests Average per cent correct _ 77236°— ed 1912— vol 1 - 3 79 29.4 245' 65, 5 8 EDUCATION REPORT, 1912. Of the class of 1846, only 16 of the 85 pupils stood as high in spell¬ ing as 70 per cent, the present “ passing ” mark in most schools. Three pupils had no words spelled correctly; nine had only one right; while 24, or more than one-fourth of the entire class, mis¬ spelled 17 or more words. Comparisons of the geography and penmanship were even more conclusive evidence of the superiority of the pupils of 1905 over those of 1846. In commenting upon the results of these tests, Dr. Gregory says: TRe system of to-day is immeasurably ahead of the school system of the past. The growth has been steady. Whatever may be said against the “ enrichment ” of the course of study, its “ frills and fads,” the contention that the essentials, so called, have suffered, in comparison with the past, falls flat. It does not follow that these essentials are taught as well as they should be yet. Perhaps they should have advanced more but for the “ frills and fads ” aforesaid. This is an open question. But no argument to that effect can be based on the superiority of the schools of the past. That is not an open question. “ SUBJECTS OUT OF TOUCH WITH LIFE.” In the present literature of criticism the tendency is not to attack the curriculum because of the newer things that have come in to en¬ rich child life, but because of the persistence in it of subjects for which our age has no need, to the partial exclusion of subjects for which there is a genuine social demand. The general criticism all along the line is that the subjects are out of touch with life. The quarrel is not with arithmetic, for instance, as a school subject, but with what is likely to be taught as arithmetic — operations and meth¬ ods the utility of which ceases when school is out. Dr. Leonard P. Ayres tells of having been called upon to examine the eighth-grade arithmetic textbooks iq a New England city. From the book in use he made up an examination, which he persuaded a number of success¬ ful business and professional men to try. These were men earning from three to fifteen thousand dollars a year. None of them passed the examination. The highest mark recorded was 25 per cent. There was one problem in paper buying that seemed particularly trouble¬ some. Two of the men who took the examination were directly en¬ gaged in publishing work, and purchased many tons of paper every year. Both failed on the paper question, and both gave the same excuse : “ They had known how to do that when they left school, but having had no use for it since, they had forgotten it.” They further explained that the terms used in the paper problem had not been in use in the trade for the last 50 years. There is an interesting epilogue to this story. Dr. Ayres gave the same arithmetic examination to his 15-year-old office girl, just from the eighth grade. She received 75 per cent on the examination. 9 SURVEY OF EDUCATION, 1911-12. LATIN AND THE FUBLIC HIGH SCHOOL. Thus the elementary school curriculum is subjected to the general criticism that the subjects are not in substance sufficiently in touch with the life of to-day, and that they are usually taught without suffi¬ cient u correlation ” to each other. In the. case of the high school this criticism goes further and condemns certain subjects as utterly out of place in any curriculum, at least as prescribed subjects. Latin is the chief object of attack in this connection. It is unnecessary to review the historical reasons which have led to the retention of Latin, except to note that here again we have the case of the changing pur¬ pose not fully recognized. For purely practical reasons, Latin was formerly the center about which instruction revolved. It was ac¬ tually and not artificially the sine qua non of education. Few claim it is now. The high schools were originally not designed as institu¬ tions to train all the children of all the people for different tasks in life, but to furnish what was then considered educationally neces¬ sary to those who desired it. The State demand for education did not include the high school. As soon as public opinion began to con¬ sider it the function of the State to carry the child through the addi¬ tional years of secondary schooling, not as a privilege for the in¬ dividual, but as a State duty, then the obsoleteness of Latin as a school subject became apparent. Whatever its cultural value for the individual, the current educational criticism considers Latin as dis¬ tinctly unnecessary in a people’s- school, and a relatively strong group of critics would reject it entirely. RIGIDITY OF THE CURRICULUM. It is not merely that the subjects are in content not adapted to cur¬ rent demands, but they are not fluid enough ; the curriculum tends to be too rigid. This is the real reason for the complaint about mul¬ tiplicity of subjects. Many educators point out that if the new things that are desirable can be worked in with others, there can be no complaint of overcrowding. Thus school gardening need not usurp the place of arithmetic, but may be of real value in bringing arithmetic down to life. Other subjects can be so treated as to vital¬ ize the so-called traditional subjects. As one writer expresses it: You can not put a 10-year-old boy in a shop school, but you can bring him into close touch with the shop, the factory,, the ship, the hank, with commerce, and with the whole world of business before you have changed his course of study at all. Why is not snch a treatment of the child the logical preparation for industrial education? Why should we wait until a boy is 14 years old be¬ fore we wake him up to the fact that he is living in a real world ? 10 EDUCATION REPORT, 1912. PRACTICAL ” AND “ CULTURAL ” SUBJECTS. The problem of curriculum at the present time is often stated as the question of “ practical or cultural.” Theoretically, of course, all subjects are, or ought to be, both vocational and cultural. Every subject, however remotely connected with real life, is expected to help the pupil in his future, or it would not be in the curriculum. It is really not a question of excluding certain subjects because they are not vocational and adding others because they are ; it is really the problem of emphasis — of using those subjects which will provide the greatest benefit to the individual combined with the greatest useful¬ ness to society. It is not that educators fail to appreciate the “ prac¬ tical ” as well as the cultural values of Latin, but they feel that there are other subjects more immediately necessary for the public welfare that are not only practical, but “ cultural,” in the best sense. In this connection it is felt by many critics of public education that what is needed is emphasis upon the “ cultural ” value of the so-called prac¬ tical subjects. The merely book-taught boy has much to learn, from a purely cultural standpoint, of the boy who knows how to use his hands. What manual training was intended to do, and did not, something in the modern school must sooner or later accomplish — - achieve genuine sentiment in behalf of all labor, whether of head or hands. Judged by comparison with other nations, and by consideration of the needs of American life, it is only recording an acknowledged fact to say that the public-school curriculum in the United States is still considerably behind in its provision for vocational subjects. There is no question of this in the minds of careful critics of public educa¬ tion ; but there is decided difference of opinion as to how far down in the grades the deliberate vocational training shall go and to what extent it shall affect the present school subjects. There is a very real danger, manifest in some quarters, to develop practical subjects at the expense of necessary preliminary training; but so far the need is decidedly for more, rather than less, vocational training in the pub¬ lic schools. THE QUALITY OF INSTRUCTION - THE TEACHERS. It is an interesting tribute to the teachers of the United States that there is so little general criticism of them on the part of the public. In this respect the public is more generous toward the profession than are many of its own members. Thus Prof. Miinsterburg says: It is the greatest defect of tlie American school life that too many teachers are standing before their pupils with a knowledge which has been crammed the night before and lacks a background of serious, thorough study. * * * The teacher must be primarily a person of broad general education.1 1 Vocation and Learning, 3912. SURVEY OE EDUCATION, 1911-12. 11 INADEQUACY OF THE SUPPLY OF TEACHERS. The usual criticism is rather of the inadequacy of the supply of teachers than of the inefficiency of the individuals, though of course there is a direct relation between the two. The teaching standard is unquestionably lower in many parts of the United States than in certain other countries, for a number of reasons that need not be entered into here. It is seldom recognized how inadequate the supply of teachers for American schools really is. There were last year about 25,000 graduates of teacher-training cqurses in colleges, normal schools, and high schools in the United States. It is found by the Bureau of Education that the average length of employment is less than five years. With a total teaching force of about 450,000, this, means that not more than 1 in 5 of the teachers actually employed is professionally trained, even on a minimum basis. In one Western State, by no means the lowest in educational facilities, only about one-half the teachers in the schools have even a high-school educa¬ tion, and there are many parts of the United States where the aver¬ age education of the teachers is not above seventh grade. In discussing the inadequacy of teacher training in the United States it must always be borne in mind that for various historical reasons the sense of public responsibility in the matter of education has developed unequally in different sections of the country. Stand¬ ards of the teaching profession are much higher in some States than in others, and in most States the cities are far ahead of the country districts in adequate salaries and other conditions requisite for an efficient teaching force. It is simply that the State, in its eagerness to allov/ the maximum of local self-government, has been reluctant to insist upon education as a State function. The first step in educa¬ tional progresses recognition by the State of its direct school obliga¬ tions; once these are recognized in the form of ample financial sup¬ port where such has hitherto been withheld, the public-school system of a particular section will improve sufficiently to make the national showing for education more nearly what it should be. CONTRADICTORY CRITICISMS OF METHODS. A number' of miscellaneous criticisms are advanced in respect to the quality of instruction, many of them contradictory. We hear on one hand that “ methods are machinelike,” or they are K inelastic,” while on the other hand they are held to be slipshod. This, like the question of supervision and of school efficiency generally, is mainly a matter of geography. Both extremes will be found, but at the present stage of education the net results of excessive method are infinitesimal compared to the results of the lack of it. 12 EDUCATION REPORT, 1912. In the same way we hear on one side that methods are u too easy,” and on the other that they are “ too hard.” The graduates of the schools of a generation or two ago are apt to complain that the pupils of to-day have too easy and pleasant a time; they are almost unani¬ mous in declaring that u we had to work when we went to school.” Discounting, as with the three R’s argument, the element of fond reminiscence involved in this type of criticism, it is nevertheless true that the methods of to-day are somewhat less harsh and unbending than those of the past. Any teacher or parent who yearns to return to the methods and discipline of our forefathers is specifically re¬ ferred to first-hand accounts of early nineteenth century schools in New York or Philadelphia. The delver into the past will almost be willing to believe that childhood is a modern discovery. The charge that the methods of to-day are too hard has, however, occasionally been justified in certain instances, where a craze for efficiency on the part of the school, coupled with the personal ambitions of a parent, sometimes lead to the imposition of tasks beyond the child’s physical endurance. EXAMINATIONS AND HOME WORK. Two other criticisms are put forward so often that they should be mentioned here; they deal with examinations and home work. Making due allowance for the sentimentality that often enters into a discussion of these two subjects, it should be said that there is considerable educational authority against the persistence of the old-fashioned examination, especially in so far as it is designed to test memory only. There is also a marked tendency to move away from the strict adherence to written examinations as the final test of school work. This tendency has worked recently particularly in aid of the problem of the articulation of high school and college. For some time many American colleges, especially in the West, have been accepting accredited high-school graduates without examination. Two years ago Harvard took a step which, while retaining the exami¬ nation principle, recognized largely the previous work of the student. During the current year Yale and Princeton have also formulated plans with the same end in view — that of assigning some more satis¬ factory standard of measurement than a mere examination on formal subjects. In the public-school system this tendency shows itself in the gradual elimination of the examination bar between the highest elementary grade and the high school. As long as the high school was merely a special privilege to a favored few it was felt that some sort of admission test was necessary, but with the extension of the high school into becoming an integral part of the State-provided education of every child, whatever justification there was for dis¬ crimination is considered to have vanished. SURVEY OF EDUCATION, 1911-12. 13 With regard to u home work,” considerable difference of opinion still exists among American schoolmen. Home work for young children is rightly censured on the ground of health, and there is some disposition in the current criticism of the year to carry the same argument into the high school — that home study too often means work at night under unhygienic conditions or sacrifice of daylight hours that should be spent in the open air. So far as the high school is concerned, this opinion does not yet find very general acceptance. MEASURING THE PUBLIC SCHOOLS BY RESULTS. An institution is ultimately measured by its results, or what are taken to be its results, and the American public school has always had more or less criticism based on this principle. The present year has been no exception. Although measurement of results in educa¬ tion is obviously a complicated problem, one or two things can be very definitely measured with the means at hand, pending the evolve- ment of scientific standards. Thus we can measure the extent to which educational opportunities are availed of, and within certain limitations we can infer from this the relative success of systems of public education. LOW ATTENDANCE. Low attendance records are a measure both of the efficiency of the school system and of the school methods. An efficient school sys¬ tem compels the child to go to school at least until a certain age de¬ termined by the State. When it is necessary to report that six States still have no compulsory attendance laws and a number of others have laws which apply only partially, the school system of a large part of our Nation is at once condemned, not for its efficiency so far as it exists, but for its efficiency as measured by the very important standard of what the State is able to require. To some extent, however, low attendance is also a criticism of educational methods. The pupils are likely to find a way to come to school if convinced of the vital nature of the instruction offered them. One of the most severe indictments of the too-academic char¬ acter of public-school education is the prejudice that it has engen¬ dered in the minds of those who saw no relation between school and life. It is difficult to estimate how much of the unwillingness of legislators to appropriate money for education has been due to the feeling that the instruction for which they were asked to pay was somehow unrelated to the life their children were going to lead. ELIMINATION OF THE AVERAGE ” PUPIL. The premature dropping out of pupils from school has received in¬ creased attention during the year as an index of educational progress, or lack of progress. The modern demand for vocationalizing the 14 EDUCATION REPORT, 1912. curriculum owes its force mainly to the proved fact that a larger proportion of pupils drop out of school than can possibly be ac¬ counted for on the ground of economic pressure. The average boy leaves school because study of the bookish sort has ceased to make any appeal to him. The current criticism tends to regard this aver¬ age boy as the real problem of public education. It views his elimi¬ nation as a distinct social loss, and seeks to devise ways and means to give him more than he has, not merely for his individual benefit, but for the larger benefit of society. ?- INACCURACY AND THE PUBLIC SCHOOL. So much for results that can be measured in externals. There is another set of criticisms of results that can not be so readily meas¬ ured, though science is rapidly learning how. Measuring intelligence has been indulged in impressionistically without much regard for the scientific possibilities. Notwithstanding the remarkable advances of the science of mental measurements, it is far from coming into its own in the present state of public enlightenment. In the meantime the year has seen many of the measurements not based on scientific tests. Thus business men complain of the product of the elementary school as it comes to them, and college teachers complain of the in¬ accurate work of the high-school students. In so far as this criti¬ cism is based on comparisons between what the schools do now and what they used to do, there is, as has been shown in connection with the Springfield tests, no justification for the idea that the pupils of the old time were better at the fundamental branches than they are to-day. Quite the contrary. There is also the fact, which tends to affect this particular judgment from business men, that the mentally alert are nowadays much more likely to continue their schooling than to enter business at an early age; so that this criticism is fre¬ quently based on the less creditable products of the public schools. There is a disposition in the educational criticism of the year to charge the inaccuracy complained of by business men and others to influences peculiar to American life that have survived despite the opposing work of education. D. O. S. Lowell, of the Eoxbury Latin School, after analyzing certain peculiar traits of American life, declares that because of them u average boys and girls believe it is enough to half learn a lesson, to half know a principle, to half ex¬ plain a problem, to half understand an explanation or assignment.” It should be said, however, that there is some criticism, especially foreign, that attributes this inaccuracy, together with other unde¬ sirable characteristics, to our educational system. The Germans re¬ port a lack of thoroughness in our school work, particularly in the secondary schools; English critics carry the judgment a step further, SURVEY OP EDUCATION, 1911-12. 15 and declare that the graduates of our colleges “ lack power to think.” Many of them admit, however, that our task is different from any¬ thing that has been attempted elsewhere, and they are usually quite ready to grant that our way may be necessarily different. DEMOCRACY AND THE PUBLIC SCHOOL. There is one criticism of the results of education in this country that affects so particularly the social aspects of it that it must not be passed over. It is charged that the public school inculcates dis¬ taste for labor — by which is usually meant physical labor. William Hawley Smith tells of the high-school teacher who, when asked whether her girl students “ would be willing to marry men who got their hands dirty from work,” replied indignantly : “ W ell, I should hope not; I hope we’ve taught them better than that.” Part of this attitude is due to the phenomenon of social rise regularly observed in this country, and critics who profess to discover undemocratic tendencies in the public-school system, more particularly in the high school, are met with the assertion that this is but one of the inevitable results of social readjustment. It is pointed out that wherever the public purpose of education is not fully understood, the idea prevails quite generally that a rise in the social scale means less work on the part of the individual so rising. In this respect the best justification for such subjects as school gardening, woodworking, and other indus¬ trial branches ought to be that they will aid in the more complete recognition of the dignity and importance of every kind of human labor. The charge of lack of democracy is directed usually at the high school, and is less frequent than usual in the educational criticism of the year. Indeed, one critic who is severest in denouncing the weaknesses of the public schools thus pays his tribute to their work in furthering democracy: All criticisms regarding tlie faults of tlie public schools, either as they have been or as they now are, should be tempered and modified, and in large measure excused, by our acknowledgment of the inestimable blessing they have already proved themselves to be as makers of democracy. All their past and present shortcomings are as nothing when compared with the great results they have yielded, on the lines of good-fellowship and love, amongst all classes of people. There is not one who reads these lines who can not verify the truth of this in his or her own life. Think of the men and women in all ranks of life whom you now hold in high esteem because of the knowledge of them that you gained in the public school. II. RECONSTRUCTIVE PROGRAMS. To what extent is American education attempting to meet con¬ structively the current educational criticism? To a surprisingly 16 EDUCATION REPORT, 1912. large extent and in the following ways: (1) By a noteworthy open- mindedness toward new ideas and new plans; (2) by numerous school investigations, designed to test actual conditions with respect >to general efficiency and up-to-dateness; (3) by opening wide the avenues of information, so that the people may have accurate knowl¬ edge of the work of education as it is carried on in their schools; (4) by nationalizing local experience and thereby formulating stand¬ ards for public-school systems based on the best obtainable educa¬ tional theory and practice; (5) by constructive programs on the part of practical school administrators intended to keep school sys¬ tems as completely as possible up to the community’s altered stand¬ ards and shifting demands. SCHOOL INQUIRIES. The voluminous literature of criticism by educators is sufficient indication of their alertness to new ideas, American educators are disposed to put their educational theories and practice to every con¬ ceivable test and change their methods whenever necessary. Hence the remarkable number of school surveys, investigations, and inquiries that have characterized the past year, almost without exception owing their inspiration as well as execution to schoolmen. These inquiries are noted for the relentlessness with which they lay bare weaknesses and advertise deficiencies. The more professional the character of the investigation, the more severe the strictures seem likely to be. Yet schoolmen welcome such investigations and frequently seek them for their own community. The National Council of Education has recently been asked by a committee of representative schoolmen to constitute a commission on school efficiency that shall be “ representa¬ tive of the most significant scholarship and of the best administrative practice known to our profession,” for the purpose of making it easier to carry on school inquiries. In addition to aiding in the work of deriving scales of measurement and furnishing expert advice with respect to the nature and scope of school surveys and inquiries — It should offer to members of our profession engaged in administrative work the opportunity to secure a scientific investigation of their systems of schools under the direction of professional experts. As the situation is at present, we have the anomaly which permits a politician, an interested book-publishing company, or a personal enemy of the chief administrative officer of a school system to attempt to secure the removal of such an officer without any adequate measure of the efficiency of the school system or the accomplishment of the man whose work is called in question. The establishment of a body of pro¬ fessional experts would in time render such action impossible.1 1 See Education Bulletin, 1918, No. 13. SURVEY OF EDUCATION, 1911-12. MAKING KNOWN THE SCHOOLS7 NEEDS. 17 Not only do schoolmen of to-day show conspicuously their desire to have their work carefully scrutinized by competent judges, but they wish above all to give ample publicity to the work they are doing with the public school. They seek to acquaint the public with the needs and problems of education as a vital public concern. This attitude on the part of schoolmen is but one of the many signs of the vigorous sentiment for closer contact than ever before between the work of the schools and the work of life. It is an essential part of the educational policy of progressive communities to-day to relate the schools so closely to sound public needs that the schools will become the immediate concern of all the citizens, instead of a sacred institu¬ tion to be viewed from afar. The intimacy that must replace the aloofness of the past is well expressed by William IT. Allen, director of the Bureau of Municipal Research, of New York City, who, speak¬ ing from the point of view of an observer standing between the schools and the public, states the lines of attack by which a com¬ munity must learn its unmet educational needs : 1. By democratizing the purpose of the schools. 2. By demanding that the public be continuously informed regarding school work. 3. By making it easy for newspapers to report what the schools do and need. 4. By denying that the schools are better than the health department, police department, tax assessor, or the politics with which school children must learn to cope. Schools are weakened, not helped, by being separated from the main currents of community life and by being protected against problems which play upon and educate the child before going to school and after its few short yeaaas at school. 5. By encouraging school-teachers, principals, superintendents, and commis¬ sioners to tell currently what they want, what they need, what they dislike, and where they fail. This means adequate comparative statements; first, by super¬ visory officers for schools within each community, and then by county and State superintendents, by the United States Commissioner of Education, and by national comparing agencies such as the Russell Sage Foundation. Having given up the fiction that there is something sacred about school curriculum, school policy, or schoolmen, there will at once become available a vast amount of testimony, interest, and constructive suggestion on the part of those who best see the unmet school needs, namely, the men and women who are meeting the children and are therefore better able to solve the problems of curriculum, man¬ agement, and health. This will follow, not precede, the establishment of definite and continuous tests for the efficiency of school trustees and of the mayors who appoint them or the public which elects them. In this connection there are a number of national agencies whose work during the past year has been of conspicuous value in gaining wider publicity for educational problems. By focusing attention upon the problem of high school and college, the Carnegie Founda¬ tion has aided materially in raising the standards of both types of 18 EDUCATION REPORT, 1912. institution, and the results of this work have been especially notable during the past year. The recent comparative description of the school systems in the 48 States, as worked out by the Russell Sage Foundation, is another of the things that help in this movement to make the real needs of the public schools known. Such nationalizing of public knowledge of education is of very real value in raising the efficiency level of public education. FORMULATION OF STANDARDS AND PROGRAMS. The actual formulation of standards and the making of practical programs has been particularly noticeable during the year under review. These represent definite attempts to adjust education to changed social demands. Thus Supt. Randall J. Condon, formerly of Providence, is reported to have outlined for the schools of that city a statement of desiderata that would doubtless be accepted by many school superintendents of advanced ideas : The full conservation of the health of the children. The introduction of manual training and home economics into the elementary schools. Adequate provision for all children who are mentally and physically defective, the tubercular, the lame, the blind, the deaf, and the feeble-minded. The development of industrial education under trade and continuation schools and part time cooperation courses that shall connect directly with the leading industries and occupations of the city. A distinct modification of the plan of grammar-school instruction along industrial lines for the over-age, slow, and indifferent pupils who will not go beyond the grammar schools. An extension of the home school to all sections of the city, educating girls directly for the home and for their future duties and responsibilities as wives and mothers. An extension of the kindergarten to all sections of the city. The maintaining of summer schools for children who need or wish to take advantage of such opportunities. The opening of the schools as social centers, for the use of all the people in any direction that makes for social and civic betterment. A continual and distinct recognition and conservation of the interests of the pupils who can remain longer in school and who are likely to pursue their studies beyond the high school. REORGANIZING THE ELEMENTARY AND HIGH SCHOOL. This program refers only in a general way to the elimination of waste by means of reorganizing the elementary and high schools. Many attempts have recently been made to solve this problem in actual practice, some of them notably successful. Prof. Calvin O. Davis, of the University of Michigan, has summed up the discussion and experimentation in this field by a statement of four distinct SURVEY OF EDUCATION, 1911-12. 19 methods of reorganization, any one of which, he believes, will solve the problem. These four methods are : 1. Continue the external form of the school as it is to-day, but introduce into the seventh and eighth grades the principles now obtaining in the administra¬ tion of the high school. This would leave the elementary school outwardly in much the same condition as to-day. A modified form of departmental teaching would be provided, an enriched curriculum, a closer approach to the idea of student responsibility, and a better promotional system. 2. Bring the seventh and eighth grades into the high-school building and or¬ ganize and administer all work above the sixth grade as a unit, both respecting external form and internal operation. This plan merely takes the seventh and eighth grades out of their present setting and merges them with the present high school. They thereby are brought fully under the principles dominating secondary education. Departmental teaching, limited election of studies, scientific methods of instruction, a freer spirit of regulation and control, all are henceforth to be the birthright of the seventh and eighth grade students as they are at present of the four upper grades. 3. Make a complete differentiation of schools and subject matter from the very beginning of the seventh grade. This plan implies a differentiation of schools and of subject matter and in buildings at the very outset. From the sixth grade the ways diverge. All work beyond this is organized in separate and distinct schools by themselves. In its complete organization there will be seven distinct types of schools, the number varying with local conditions. These several general types are: (a) College preparatory school, (&) manual train¬ ing school, (c) high school of practical arts for girls, (cl) high school of com¬ merce, (e) the business school, (/) the trade school for boys, (g) the trade school for girls. 4. Group the seventh, eighth, and ninth grades by themselves as a junior high school, and the tenth, eleventh, and twelfth grades by themselves as a senior high school. This method is adaptable to large cities where separate buildings and separate control may be had. PROF, IT anus’s FORMULATION. One of the most ambitious attempts yet made to set up a program of achievement for American education is that of Prof. Planus, head of the New York City school inquiry. Recognizing at the outset of his work the absence of standards by which to measure school sys¬ tems, he undertakes to formulate them. Since his formulation is not only based on a reliable personal judgment and wide comparative opportunities, but is accepted almost completely by a large committee of coworkers in the inquiry, it may be taken as fairly representative of the advanced educational thought of to-day as to what schools ought to be and do. The literature of contemporary educational theory is so scattered that a summation of this sort, applied by an acknowledged authority as the criterion for an existing school sys¬ tem, forms an important document in progress.1 It is therefore given below: 1. Public education should train efficient citizens — men and women who recog¬ nize and appreciate the common interests of our democratic society and are 1 Report of the Nev/ York City school inquiry : Introductions and conclusions. 20 EDUCATION REPORT, 1&12. able to promote their progressive development. These interests are spiritual (intellectual, moral, aesthetic), hygienic, economic, civic. 2. Public education should strive gradually to emancipate each pupil from external restraint and guidance, and thus render him self-directing — intel¬ lectually, morally, and physically stable, alert, vigorous, and active. Together with the instruction public education offers, it should therefore insist through¬ out on discipline that is wise, kindly, and firm, including appropriate punish¬ ment when it is needed — a discipline that insists on progressive conformity of conduct to insight, including habits of steady application and reasonable achievement. 3. Public education should endeavor to prepare each pupil to make the best use of his leisure, as well as of his working hours. Satisfactory diversions and good recreative habits are important for both the individual and society. With¬ out disparaging harmless diversions and amusements, public education should therefore strive to develop an appreciation of, and a demand for, the serious pleasures our civilization affords. 4. Public education should strive to render each pupil economically intelligent and efficient. It should direct each pupil’s attention to a vocation to which he may reasonably aspire ; that is, every pupil should be led gradually to realize that a suitable vocation, accessible to him and adapted to him, is indispensable to a useful and happy life. As he approaches the end of his school career, whatever his age may be, he should come to see that his vocation will be not only the means of satisfying his personal wants and ambitions, but, because it is the chief means of establishing significant relations between himself and his fellow men, it is also the source of such public service as he is capable of and may be called upon to render. Public education should, therefore, provide for the development of vocational purposes based on vocational enlightenment (vocational guidance) ; and it should offer each pupil appropriate training for the vocation of his choice. Schools must therefore be so constituted as to provide adequately : (u) The means of appropriate and, so far as possible, complete general development (self-discovery, and self-realization, and preparation for general social service for every pupil) ; and Co) Various kinds of vocational training adapted to the needs, tastes, and future callings of all pupils who pass at once from school to their life work ; and for those who wish to improve themselves after they have gone to work (preparation for specific social service, i. e., for usefulness). They must therefore provide : 1. The elements of general culture, comprising — (а) A satisfactory command of the school arts — the three IT'S. (б) An insight into, appreciation of, and power to deal with (1) the recorded ideals and experience of the race; and (2) all worthy interests of contemporary life so far as they can be rendered interesting, intelligible, and accessible to chil¬ dren and youth of school age; that is to say, the school program (program of studies ) must cover ( a ) The school arts — reading, writing, and arithmetic ; ( 5 ) language and literature (modern and ancient) ; (c) history, government, and economics; (d) art (pictorial and plastic art, constructive art, and music) ; ( e ) mathematics; (/) natural science; ( g ) manual arts and domestic arts; ( h ) physical education, including iDhysical training and athletics; ( i ) vocational guidance; in — I. Kindergartens. II. Elementary schools, with differentiated upper grades, and well articu¬ lated with the SURVEY OF EDUCATION, 1911-12. 21 III, High schools, having as wide a range of electives (administered under wise guidance) as possible. 2. Vocational training (training for specific social service) at the upper end of the elementary school in industrial and commercial schools, whether called secondary schools or not, in — (a) Day vocational schools for normal pupils over 14 years of age, whether they have completed, an eight years’ elementary school course or not, and who will not go to a high school. (&) Day cooperative and continuation schools (vocational) for pupils 14 to 18 years of age who can not afford or will not take the time to attend a day vocational school. tc) Evening continuation schools, vocational and nonvocational, for pupils over 18 years of age who are at work during the daytime. (d) Vocational high schools — vocational, schools of secondary grade. (1) High schools of commerce. (2) High schools of practical arts (technical high schools). (3) Agricultural high schools. Or well-organized separate departments of (1), (2), and (3) for vocational instruction in. general high schools. But the American people are not satisfied with schools for normal children only. They acknowledge their obligation to do all that can be done for excep¬ tional children as well; hence they provide also schools or classes for (a) cripples, (5) anemic and tubercular children, (c) incorrigibles and truants, (d) blind children, (e) deaf children, (/) mentally defective children. IIL VOCATIONAL EDUCATION.1 The movement for vocational training in the public schools is now at a crisis in this country. With the vocational principle fully acknowledged, with more or less complete systems of vocational education in operation in a half dozen States and in numerous cities, and. with constant demands from all sources for the extension of vocational training, the movement is not yet making the headway in practice that it should. There is a sort of opposition, very often unexpressed, that does not appear to be due so much to the fear of emphasis upon the u practical at the expense of the “ cultural ?r as to a feeling that certain features of the vocational propaganda seem to involve a form of social cleavage that is alien to the funda¬ mental purpose of American education and American life. This objection is not at all against the principle of vocational training; indeed, the staunchest advocates of industrial training are among those who appear to feel this element of distrust. Whether this feeling is expressed or not, it plainly exists, and is at present clearly retarding the progress of the vocational movement with schoolmen and: with the public generally. The real difficulty seems to be that pioneers in the movement, having become saturated with the foreign experience from their close study of it, are inclined to try to force this foreign, specifically 1 For a detailed report of progress during the year, see ch. 10. 22 EDUCATION REPORT, 1912. German, practice upon American schools without sufficient effort to adjust it to American conditions. Many educators feel that they are asked to adopt a foreign system because of its proved industrial efficiency, regardless of the different social conditions in the United States. They feel that we must above all avoid the idea of separate schools for industrial training, since that sort of differentiation is bound to lead, if not to an undesirable social separation in itself, at least to the belief that some such separation is contemplated. This is the real objection on the part of many vocational advocates to the “ dual system ” as proposed in several States. There is clearly something to be said on both sides of the question, but this one objec¬ tion seems almost fatal. Those who object most strongly to the idea of separate schools, industrial high schools as distinct from “ regular ” high schools, for instance, point out that they tend to separate the population into groups with differing social interests just at the time when common social aims should be emphasized. The objectors say: The imperative need for vocational training for these boys and girls must not blind us to the danger of so introducing it as to separate those who are going into the trades from those who are going into the professions or business. It is pointed out that the localities where industrial training is working out most successfully are those where the boys and girls who take the industrial course at no point lose touch Avith the other students. Thus, in Fitchburg the first year of high-school work is the same for all students, those who are going into the trades as well as those Avho are not. Thereafter the boys taking the cooperative course work one week in the shops, the next in school. They may have different instructors, but they remain in and of the high school ; they never lose their identity with the school. Rightly or wrongly, the American is instinctively repelled by any diversification of edu¬ cational aims that results in widely differentiated strata of society. He feels that separation of pupils in different schools involves dis¬ crimination. He not only demands equality of opportunity in edu¬ cation, but a certain fundamental similarity of education, experience, and actual intercourse up to young manhood and womanhood, to insure like aims and ideals in the vrider democracy of which the school is at once a model and a part. It is instinctively felt that if boys and girls from different Irving groups get together in. the public high school they will be much more likely to get together in life. Any movement for vocational education, therefore, which even ap¬ pears to ignore this spirit, is apt to run the risk of being accused of interference with the school’s duty toward democracy. It would hardly be fair to give so much attention to this rather unformulated objection if it Avere not that the vocational principle is SURVEY OF EDUCATION, 1911-12. 2S so important for the advancement of the schools. For the same reason it is believed that only good can come from calling attention to another objection that is raised in some of the comment of the year — that the vocational appeal is to selfish instincts, and that there¬ fore care must be taken lest it work real injury to the spirit of social service that is at the basis of modern education. Thus Mr. George H. Martin, in discussing conjointly the play movement and the voca¬ tional movement, says : It may seem strange, but it is true that the two latest movements in educa¬ tion — the play movement and the vocational movement — while undoubtedly, on the whole, beneficent, make the work of the high school harder in meeting what I have called the supreme obligation. Each of these movements serves to strengthen one of two tendencies fatal to the spirit of social service. The play movement tends to promote a frivolous spirit, and the vocational movement tends to promote a selfish spirit. These movements, as worked out in practice, appeal to the love of pleasure1 and love of gain of the individual. They are primarily unsocial in their motive. They throw upon the high school the added burden of showing to the student that the better body produced by better play and the greater productive efficiency- produced by industrial training make him a better instrument for the service of society. Somewhat the same idea is expressed by a less sympathetic critic,, who, taking as his text “America’s Public Schools are Meant to* Make Citizens,” declares: The trend to-day of nearly all State or municipal school systems is determined by the supposedly unquestionable principle that the children must be “ taught what they will need after they get out of school.” Opinions differ in different communities about what pupils will “need” in after life; some towns think it dancing and music, others carpentry and cooking. But all insist on being thus. “ practical ” — with an eye either to commercial or to social success, according to local temper. The vice of this calculation is not at all in adding manual training and industrial features to the public-school curriculum — they ought to be added wherever there is room for them — but in debasing the ideal of the school from a public purpose, large and social, to a personal purpose small and selfish. The cry for “ practical education ” is, unconsciously no doubt but perilously none the less, a cry for success-making schools in the place of nation-building schools — and that is simply one more guise for the everthreatening usurpa¬ tion of materialism where the hopes of the higher man and the nobler race demand idealism.1 On the other hand, a distinctly hopeful sign for the vocational movement is the prevailing tendency to recognize it in its larger aspects, not as merely industrial training, but as preparation for life in every field of endeavor. In this respect it is a valuable part of the tendency to connect more closely school and life. The fact that the vocational movement has outgrown the merely industrial or trade education stage is indicated by the tendency 1 The Continent, vol. 43, No. 31, p. 1065, Aug. 1, 1912. 77236°— ed 1912— vol 1 4 24 EDUCATION REPORT, 1912. to apply the principle to the rural districts in the form of agricultural instruction. Nowhere could vocational training be better justified than in rural schools. In the cities vocational training may be viewed as an answer to the well-defined demand for better advantages for the boy or girl who does not take to books, or for better trained workers in the trades and in the homes; but vocational education in the rural districts ought to mean the reclaiming of a civilization. Proper emphasis of the vocational principle with respect to agricul¬ ture and related interests in the rural schools is already aiding notably in the upbuilding of the country. At this stage of the vocational movement, when the problem has become essentially that of applying accepted principles, and many States are considering legislation for State systems of vocational training, one of the most useful things is a platform of workable statements based on the sum total of available experience. Such a program, admittedly tentative, has been drawn up by the National Society for the Promotion of Industrial Education, and is given elsewhere in this report. Like the Hanus formulation on page 9, it is worthy of special attention as a representation of current demands in a reliable and authoritative form. VOCATIONAL GUIDANCE. Closely related to the vocational education movement is that of vocational guidance. Speaking generally, vocational guidance, in the sense of directing children into occupations, is by no means a new thing; it is merely the attempt to systematize a process that has always been practiced more or less informally. The peculiarly com¬ plicated character of modern industry and the increasing peril of blind-alley employments have led to the demand for systematic selection of workers for jobs and jobs for workers. Vocational train¬ ing is meant to provide boys and girls with the kind of training necessary to increase their efficiency in human society; vocational guidance is to direct these future workers into employments not only adapted to their particular abilities, but advantageous for the individual’s future and the welfare of the community. The voca¬ tional guidance movement has gained considerable momentum since the establishment of the Boston vocation bureau in 1909, even though it may still be, as some one has said, “ little more than a body of good intentions without any clarified plan.” One of the most significant reports yet made on the subject is that of the Vocational Guidance Survey of New York City.1 This survey was inaugurated under the auspices of a joint committee 1 See 14th Ann. Kept, of the City Supt. of Schools, App. G, p. 385. SUEVEY OE EDUCATION, 1911-12. 25 of the Junior League and the Public Education Association. It was organized for the purpose of studying the actual situation in New York City of children leaving school to go to work, in the hope of determining what vocational guidance should mean to the public schools of the city. The method was to examine intensively a small group of children in different school districts, and to relate the results closely to the larger group — the 19,000 children who took out employment certificates in Manhattan in 1911. The investi¬ gators studied the reasons for leaving school, and found them much more complicated than is usually imagined. In the first place, they found that “ economic pressure ” accounted for but 30 per cent of those leaving school to go to work. The others left for a variety of reasons, of which apathy on the part of the parents was the most conspicuous. Some chilren felt too big for school; many passively took it for granted that 14 was the appropriate age to leave ; “ more of them suddenly wanted to work , they wanted the activity of it, the responsibility of it; they felt the approach of maturity, and wanted to earn money and begin to take part in the real life of the world,” A study of the children after they had gone to work left the in¬ vestigators with a feeling of skepticism about the desirability of “ guiding children into vocations.” They found that in most in¬ stances the children had not found work which meant anything to them, and that there was — an unformulated, unconscious feeling of protest against tlie lack of individual attention and training, against tlie military discipline and explicable tasks. The demand for a job “ where you can learn ” had become insistent. The result was that the u Vocational Guidance Survey” voluntarily changed itself into the “ Vocational Education Survey.” The rea¬ sons which led to this action are indicated in the following conclu¬ sions, drawn by Miss Alice P. Barrows, director of the survey : (1) A system of vocational guidance which would mean finding jobs for chil¬ dren under 16 would be not only futile but dangerously near exploitation, how¬ ever well meant the intention might be. The facts showed, broadly speaking, that there are no jobs for children under 16 which they ought to take. (2) It is useless to attempt to guide children into “vocations” before we have more information. Neither the Vocational Guidance Survey nor any other organization has adequate information at present about the demand for work¬ ers or the opportunities for and conditions of work and training in the 20 largest industries, not to mention the legion minor ones. (3) What the children want is vocational training. The kernel of truth in this popular movement for vocational guidance is the need of vocational train¬ ing for children. Vocational guidance should mean guidance for training, not guidance for jobs. Hence, under present conditions the interests of public- school children can best be served, not by the establishment of a vocation bureau, but by the development of voeational training. 26 EDUCATION REPORT, 1912. (4) Certain questions must be answered if the development of vocational train¬ ing in this country is to be sound. There have been profound revolutionary changes in industry. * * * A study of the facts of industry is, therefore, the only sound basis for discovering what types of industrial training — whether prevocational schools, vocational schools, continuation schools, or half-time work in school and shop — are practicable and desirable for children between 14 and 16 and .16 and 18 years of age. IV. THE MONTESSORI METHOD. The continued interest in the Montessori method of educating young children is significant of the open-minded disposition of American school men. Even in the face of more or less unfavorable reports brought by later investigators of the Italian schools where Madame Montessori’s methods are in operation, there is an inclina¬ tion if not to accept the plan, at least to. examine, it sympathetically with a view to enriching our own educational practice. Thus Dr. Holmes, one of the first in this country to become acquainted with the Montessori work, and perfectly cognizant of certain manifest diffi¬ culties in transplanting the- system, still believes “ that we do well to adopt a cordial, even a credulous, attitude ” toward it, on the ground that it is both suggestive and promising for the future, even if in details it may be disappointing. Dr. Holmes sums up the character¬ istic features of the Montessori system as follows: First and most important, an organization and equipment which make it possible to dispense absolutely with the artificial restraints commonly imposed in the schools and to grant children a freedom they could not have even in their own homes. Second, a plan of instruction and management which dispenses with formal class teaching and substitutes for it the individual guidance of the child’s own efforts to learn. Third, a series of activities and a set of materials and apparatus especially designed to develop children’s bodies and minds systematically, and the didactic objects, originated by Dr. Montessori or taken over from Seguin and others, for sense training and physical development. Fourth, a daily program which includes a large variety of social enterprises in which the children are trained for the duties of practical life and to which they may turn at almost any time if they tire of the didactic- materials or the other formal wTork. Under this last category comes the hygienic care of the children themselves, which includes careful medical inspection and also anthropometric measurements for both scientific and corrective purposes. Dr. Holmes emphasizes particularly the organization and environ¬ ment. A Montessori school is, indeed, he says, a “ house of child¬ hood.” It is a Republic, in which the children are free citizens. It is this condition which permits and favors the real Montessori method, the method of free individual auto-education. He says: The fundamental difference between a Montessori school and an ordinary public school of whatever grade is that in the Montessori school there is no teaching as we ordinarily understand the term; that is, children are not 27 SURVEY OF EDUCATION, 1911-12. gathered in groups at set times and made to go through set activities. There is no lack of discipline in a Montessori school; the order is excellent, for it is the order of busy, happy, mutually respectful, intensely purposive little men and women. But there is no constraint and repression. The children come and go practically at will, so long as they stay within bounds and do not dis¬ turb their fellows. In short, the order is like the order of a home or a club, not like the order of a barracks, a inan-of-war, a prison, or a school. Kindergartners are particularly interested in the possible develop¬ ments of the Montessori system, and the Montessori theories have been prominently before the kindergarten meetings of the year. In comparing Froebelian and Montessori methods in a talk before one of these meetings recently, Prof. Earl Barnes attempted to place Montessori historically. Wilderspin, Froebel, Seguin, Montessori, is his order. He shows that Dr. Montessori has taken Seguin’s idea and applied it to normal children. He then makes the follow¬ ing comparison of the striking differences as they appear to him : Froebel’s method grew out of the study of life as an ideal whole; Montessori’s out of a study of backward children. One rests in concepts; the other on a base of sense impressions. One reaches toward ultimate ideals of thought and feeling through symbolic types; the other offers systematic series of exer¬ cises as preparatory for the more immediate future. One keeps its exercises related to reality through play as in the occupations; the other draws its materials from real life, but teaches them as abstractions, as in buttoning and lacing. One provides amply for the future years, but lacks exact discipline for to-morrow; the other prepares for to-morrow, but lacks a vision of the future years.1 Prof. Barnes believes that the Idnder'gartSh might well absorb most of the Montessori system and be much the stronger for it. He sees a certain kindergarten weakness on the side of sense training,, and thinks that the Seguin exercises, as adapted by Dr. Montessori, “ would add definiteness to security of content.” The question, What is there in the Montessori system that we in America can wisely utilize in the education of our children during the kindergarten age? was more critically answered at the Philadel¬ phia meeting by William Heard Kilpatrick. Though agreeingthat — in the matter of scientific attitude, in the doctrine of real individual liberty, and in the insistence upon concrete life experience, the kindergarten in general and the conservative kindergarten in particular can learn something of dis¬ tinct value from the Montessori system — he frankly declares it his opinion that — in point of richness of material, in the matter of play and games, in the fuller utilization of social cooperation, of the imagination and of invention, Madame Montessori has much to learn from our better American practice. 1 International Kindergarten Union, Philadelphia Round Table. (See Kindergarten Review, Apr., 1913. 28 EDUCATION REPORT, 1912. And again: We have in this country a body of educational theory superior to Froebel and Montessori alike. If the school practice of this early age were brought thoroughly in line with the best that America otherwise knows, we should henceforth need to hear but little of Froebel and less of Montessori. Little can be reported of the Montessori method in actual prac¬ tice in this country beyond the palpable facts of propaganda and discussion. It appears to be surviving the suspicion of commer¬ cialism, and, as the foregoing discussion shows, is receiving serious consideration from American educators. The attempt lias already been made in a number of cities to put the method into practice, but it is entirely too early to measure results; even those who are making the attempt are as yet unwilling to give a definite opinion of its success. If it does nothing else, the Montessori work will be considered valuable for its influence in attracting increased public attention to the educational problems of early childhood; and in this respect its influence is apt to be quite as great in the home as in the school. The limitations of its adaptability for school use in the United States are carefully stated by Dr. Holmes, who is inclined to be the most sympathetic of the observers of the method. After indicating that in his opinion the Montessori method u will make schools less narrow and less narrowing, homes richer in opportunities for de¬ velopment,” he continues : But American homes can not themselves become Montessori schools, for, although it may be profitable for a good many homes to have the didactic apparatus at hand, no home can give its children all the freedom and the at¬ tention they would get in a “ House of Childhood * * Nor will most American homes be found willing to give up to houses of childhood so many educational functions as the homes of San Lorenzo have been willing to sur¬ render. The children of San Lorenzo have profited by that surrender; so would the children of any tenement section of our cities; so, for a time at least, would the children of most American homes, even those of the well-to-do ; but except where poverty constrains both father and mother to constant labor and consequent neglect of their children, it is surely better for the parents, and thus, in the long run, better for the children, to keep within the home as many educational rights and obligations as they can. America will not look kindly upon Dr. Montessori’s plan to communize completely the great duty of developing persons. We are far from the day in which our economic and social system will permit most parents to undertake their proper portion of that supreme task with the necessary leisure, intelligence, and devotion; but to give it over to schools is not the final solution of the problem. This means that the very heart of the Montessori scheme can not be in¬ cluded in our use of it. V. TEACHERS AND THE HIGH COST OF LIVING. In view of the rapidly increasing demands made upon the public schools it is rather disheartening to consider the economic status of those upon whom educational efficiency ultimately depends — the SURVEY OF EDUCATION, 1911-12. 29 teachers. The problem of teachers’ salaries is by no means a new one, but it has seldom been shown how serious the whole matter is in its larger social aspects. Teachers, like all those on fixed salaries, have felt the increased cost of living to a greater degree than other workers, and in a way that means serious social loss, since the effi¬ ciency of all producing classes of the population is so directly affected by the process of education. The whole problem is presented with a solid background of reliable economic fact in the current report of the committee on “ teachers’ salaries and the high cost of living,” of the National Education Association. The report is based on an investigation of five American cities in different sections of the country. Especially significant in the find¬ ings are the lowered standards that inevitably follow increased cost of living without adequate salary advance; the lessened social effi¬ ciency of a group of workers unable to save for old age; and the danger of a condition which discourages marriage and the raising of a family. The report brings out these points clearly and unmistak¬ ably. The scope of the committee’s report will be seen from the summary below: MEASUREMENT OE THE INCREASED COST OF LIVING. The United States Bureau of Labor found that in 1911 wholesale prices were 44.1 per cent higher than in 1897. Measured by wholesale prices a teacher whose salary had remained fixed at $1,000 since 1897 would have had no greater purchasing power in 1911 than $.898.76 possessed in the earlier year. The increase of wholesale prices has, of course, been reflected to a greater or less degree in retail prices generally. In the case of 15 staple articles of food the Bureau of Labor finds that from 1896 to 1911 retail prices increased 50.2 per cent. Figures for the first six months of 1912 show that the upward flight of retail food prices, which was temporarily arrested in 1911, has begun again with increased rapidity. In June, 1912, retail food prices were 61.7 per cent higher than the average for 1896. CITIES INVESTIGATED. The communities chosen— Cincinnati, Hamilton, Denver, Atlanta, and New Haven — represent four distinct geographical sections of the country. In the dis¬ cussion of the topics considered in Part II of the report, numerous comparisons are drawn between these communities with regard to such matters as age, sex, educational training, experience, salaries, etc., of teachers. PERSONS DEPENDENT UPON TEACHERS FOR SUPPORT. It is frequently asserted that the salaries of men teachers are fixed with reference to the burden of a family, actual or prospective. To what extent are unmarried women teachers burdened with the support of others? On this question detailed data are presented for Denver. Of the 286 women grade teachers of that city 157, or 59 per cent, had others dependent upon them. The average salary of the unincumbered teacher of this group is 30 EDUCATION EEPORT, 1912. $8S5.53, while the average amount of salary of those -who are supporting others is $567.84 per person supported. Of the 30 single woman teachers in the high schools of Denver, 14 support themselves only and 16 have others dependent upon them for support. These 16 support 7 persons entirely and 19 persons partially. The 25 married men teaching in the high schools of the same city support entirely 103 persons (including themselves), and 15 persons partially. Working out the cost of such support on the basis of adults only, it is shown that the 14 married women of this group with no others dependent upon them have an average from salary of $1,211.83 to meet their own needs exclusively; the 16 unmarried women with others dependent upon them have an average from salary of $801.03 to spend for each adult person, including themselves; while the married men have an average from salary of $413.49 for the equivalent of each adult person, including themselves. That the proportion of unmarried women teachers supporting others is large and the burden of such support heavy is shown for all cities and teaching groups by one of the tables in this section of the report. A single citation will illustrate the nature of this material. Of the 434 unmarried women grade teachers in Cincinnati 264, or 60.8 per cent, are supporting others, as follows: 28 male and 34 female minor dependents, of whom 16 are totally and 46 partially supported; and 91 male and 303 female adult dependents, of whom 199 are totally and 195 partially supported. Other tables show the extent to which this burden increases with advanced years. HOME OWNERSHIP. The percentage of married men teachers in the cities studied who own their homes is 57.3. How this varies in different localities is indicated by tables of teaching groups and cities. PROPERTY OF TEACHERS. Unmarried women grade teachers in the five cities report an average value of all property, real and personal, of $1,091.94. In one city the average for teachers of this group and sex is less than half of this amount. Similar averages are presented for all teaching groups by cities. A table showing the number of teachers reporting property holdings of various specified amounts also brings out the large number who have not succeeded in acquiring any property. Thus among unmarried women grade teachers the percentages reporting no property are as follows: Under 25 years of age, 67.07 per cent; 25 to 30 years of age, 52.83 per cent; 30 to 35 years of age, 38.88 per cent; 35 to 40 years of age, 30.87 per cent; 40 to 45 years of age, 29.19 per cent; 45 to 50 years of age, 20.21 per cent; 50 to 55 years of age, 21.43 per cent; 55 to 60 years of age, 14.28 per cent; over 60 years of age, 19.05 per cent. While the decrease in the proportion of the propertyless thus shown is gratifying, still the percentage of those even in the higher age groups who have acquired no> property is alarmingly large. A detailed study of single women grade teachers over 50 years of age shows that in Cincinnati only 5 out of 66 and in Denver only 9 out of 42 such teachers have property in excess of $5,000, which is probably the lowest possible amount upon which they could retire at their own expense. This in spite of the fact that the two cities referred to pay by far the best salaries to this group of teachers. Similar figures for other groups of teachers make clear the necessities for teachers’ pensions. SURVEY OF EDUCATION, 1911-12. 31 Out of 1,600 teachers of all ranks in the five cities studied only 13 were foynd to he worth over $15,000. A detailed examination of these cases shows that nearly all owe their good , fortune to sources outside their salaries as teachers. The common observation that teaching is not a money-making pur¬ suit would seem to be more than confirmed by the results of this investigation. SAVINGS OF TEACHERS DURING 1911. In round numbers, unmarried women grade teachers in the five cities with average salaries of from $550 to $900, saved from salaries in 1911 an average of from $30 to $90. The larger percentages saved, as salaries are advanced, indi¬ cate a provident spirit. In Cincinnati and Hamilton, however, slightly more than one-third, in New Haven and Denver more than two-fifths, and in Atlanta very nearly two-thirds of the women grade teachers reported no savings in 1911. The relation between this unsatisfactory condition and low salaries is developed in the accompanying tables. Even among teachers of longer experi¬ ence and higher rank the proportion of nonsavers is large. Nor can the amounts laid aside by those who report savings for the year be considered satisfactory. Under existing conditions it is clear that the great majority of teachers are so situated that they can not save enough from salaries to enable them to retire at their own expense. LIFE INSURANCE. The moral obligation resting upon married men teachers to insure their lives is recognized by a large majority of them. In Cincinnati and Denver only 13 out of 138 married men teachers are uninsured. The average amount of insur¬ ance carried, however, is far from adequate. Even combining insurance with property owned, only 4 out of the 138 married men teachers referred to above would, if they were to die now, leave estates aggregating over 10 times the aver¬ age salary they are now receiving. Nearly two-thirds of them would leave estates amounting to less than five times their average salaries. Death of the breadwinner in the majority of such cases would inevitably mean a sharp reduction in the standard of living of the survivors. RESIDENCE AND AMOUNT PAID FOR BOARD AND ROOM BY UNMARRIED TEACHERS. Rate of board differs materially in the different cities. In Denver the average weekly commercial rate paid for board and room by women grade teachers is $7.15 ; in New Haven, $5.42 ; in Hamilton, $5.15 ; and in Atlanta, $4.90. This section of the report indicates the advantage generally enjoyed by teachers living with parents or other relatives. The percentage of unmarried teachers not living with parents or other relatives is a rough index of the ex tent to which cities draw their teachers from outside localities. Wide differ¬ ences in this regard are noted. In all five of the cities, 28.75 per cent of unmarried teachers are living apart from parents or other relatives. As age advances a constantly increasing percentage of unmarried women grade teachers are found living apart from parents or other relatives. AVERAGE SALARIES AND OTHER SOURCES OF INCOME OF TEACHERS. The purpose of this section of the report is to ascertain the amount of the earnings and other income of teachers in addition to their salaries. Particular importance attaches to the earnings derived from extra teaching or other out¬ side work, although interest on savings, etc., and income from property is also considered. More than half of all the teachers in the five cities belong to groups 32 EDUCATION REPORT, 1912. adding less than 21 per cent, and nearly 90 per cent belong to groups adding less than 5 per cent to their salaries from extra teaching or other outside work. In practice, therefore, the opportunities open to teachers to supplement their salaries in this way are not very largely productive. Men enjoy very great advantages over women teachers in this respect. An outline showing the sources of the teacher’s outside income is also presented. The overwhelming predomin¬ ance in this list of sedentary clerical and indoor forms of work is a very dis¬ quieting feature of the situation. TEACHERS’ EXPENDITURES. In general the investigation showed that teachers spend more for rent and clothing than workingmen. This would indicate the pressure of higher com¬ munity demands upon teachers. They also spend more than workingmen for life insurance, religious purposes, charity, amusement and vacations, and care of health. Grouping the following five items: (1^ Dues of teachers’ clubs; (2) educational books; (3) fees for institutes, lectures, normal courses, sum¬ mer schools, etc.; (4) contributions to school activities; and (5) transportation costs due to attendance upon institutes, meetings of State and national educa¬ tion associations, etc., it is shown that the expenditures of the married men teachers above referred to in meeting these directly professional demands upon their funds amount to from 1.16 to 6.94 per cent of their total expenditures. Seventy unmarried women teachers report expenditures of from 1.07 to 5.14 in meeting these demands. In both cases the burden is heaviest upon teachers with smaller incomes. Board, room rent, and clothing in the case of these 70 unmarried women teachers account for from 57.69 to 78.50 per cent of their total expenditures. In general it is the smaller incomes which show the higher percentages for these three purposes. It is evident that where so large a pro¬ portion of teachers’ salaries is claimed for the elementary necessities of food, shelter, and clothing scant margin is left for vacations, care of health, self- improvement, and provision for the future. TEACHERS’ SALARIES AND SALARIES OF OTHER MUNICIPAL EMPLOYEES. A detailed comparison between the salaries of teachers of all ranks and the salaries of other municipal employees in Cincinnati, Denver, Atlanta, and New Haven shows that in all four of these cities the compensation of grade teachers is not only less than that of many groups of skilled manual workers, but also, in numerous cases, lower than that of common or unskilled labor. It is also noteworthy that the highest salaries obtainable in the school service beneath that of superintendent (e. g., by principals of high schools, supervisors, prin¬ cipals of larger schools, etc.) are much lower than the salaries paid to heads of departments and many of their subordinates in the city’s service. VI. ACADEMIC CELEBRATIONS. INAUGURATION OF PRESIDENT HIBBEN. The inauguration of the Rev. John Greer Hibben as president of Princeton University took place on May 11, 1912, following his elec¬ tion by the board of trustees in January. The President of the United States and the chief justice of the Supreme Court were guests of honor. In his address Dr. Hibben described the ideal university as consisting of two phases — a phase in which every effort is directed SURVEY OF EDUCATION, 1911-12. 33 to the attainment of freedom, and a progressive phase of develop¬ ment in which the freedom gained in the earlier stages finds for itself varied pursuits and pleasures in the fields of knowledge. Speaking of the doctrine of prescribed and elective college studies, Dr. Hibben declared : In Princeton we have very positive convictions on this point. We believe that the teaching body of a university should select a consistent group of required studies for the express purpose of developing in the student to the highest degree of efficiency the full powers of his intellectual life. We believe that it is absolutely necessary to have a certain schooling in preparation for the re¬ sponsibilities of freedom ; and that the hit-and-miss choice of an immature mind in new and strange surroundings, the blind groping for truth by the process of trial and error, form a poor propaedeutic to the serious tasks of free investigation, of original thought, and of practical efficiency. Dr. Hibben, in his address, spoke enthusiastically of the results of the preceptorial method of instruction in force at Princeton, as well as of the promising future of the new graduate college. PRESIDENT MEIIvDE JOHN, OF AMHERST. President Hibben had been Stewart professor of logic before his election to the presidency. Another teacher of logic and philosophy was called to high administrative duties when Alexander Meiklejohn, formerly dean of Brown University, was inaugurated president of Amherst College, October 16, 1912. President Meiklejohn’s induc¬ tion into office was the occasion of an unusually brilliant gathering of distinguished delegates representing universities, colleges, and learned institutions. President Meiklejohn devoted his address to a consideration of the ideals of the college teacher, emphasizing par¬ ticularly the aim of the liberal college as opposed to the technical or professional school. “ The college,” he said, “ is primarily not a place of the body, nor of the feelings, nor even of the will ; it is, first of all, a place df the mind.” Against this intellectual interpretation of the college our teachers find two sets of hostile forces constantly at work. Outside the walls there are the practical demands of a busy commercial and social scheme ; within the college there are the trivial and sentimental and irrational misunderstandings of its own friends. * * * As against the immediate practical demands from without, the issue is clear and decisive. College teachers know that the world must have trained work¬ men, skilled operatives, clever buyers and sellers, efficient directors, resourceful manufacturers, able lawyers, ministers, physicians, and teachers. But it is equally true that in order to do its own work, the liberal college must leave the special and technical training for these trades and professions to be done in other schools and by other methods. * * * One may safely say on behalf of our college teachers, that their instruction is intended to be radically different from that given in the technical school or even in the professional school. Both these institutions are practical in a sense which the college, as an intellectual institution, is not. In the technical 34 ^EDUCATION REPORT, 1912. school the pupil is taught how to do some one of the mechanical operations which contribute to human welfare. He is trained to print, to weave, to farm, to build ; and for the most part he is trained to do these things by practice rather than by theory. His possession when he leaves the school is not a stock of ideas, of scientific principles, but a measure of skill, a collection of rules of thumb. His primary function as a tradesman is not to understand but to do, and in doing what is needed he is following directions which have first been thought out by others and are now practiced by him. The technical school intends to furnish training which, in the sense in which we use the term, is not intellectual but practical. And elsewhere he adds : In the technical school pupils are prepared for a specific work and are kept for the most part on the plane of perceptual action, doing work which others understand. In the professional school, students are properly within the realm of ideas and principles, but they are still limited to a specific human interest with which alone their understanding is concerned. But the college is called liberal as against both of these because the instruction is dominated by no special interest, is limited to no single human task, but is intended to take human activity as a whole, to understand human endeavors not in their isola¬ tion but in their relations to one another and to the total experience which we call the life of our people. And just as we believe that the building of ships has become more successful as men have come to a knowledge of the principles involved in their construction; just as the practice of medicine has become more successful as we have come to a knowledge of the human body, of the conditions within it and the influences without ; just so the teacher in the liberal college believes that life as a total enterprise, life as it presents itself to each one of us in his carreer as an individual — human living — will be more successful in so far as men come to understand it and to know it as they attempt to carry it on. To give boys an intellectual grasp on human experience — this it seems to me is the teacher's conception of the chief function of the liberal college. OTHER ADMINISTRATIVE CHANGES. Among other inaugurations during 1912 were that of Stratton D. Brooks, formerly superintendent of schools of Boston, as president of the University of Oklahoma, which occurred October 21; and that of Charles H. Keyes as president of the new Skidmore School of Arts at Saratoga Springs, N. Y., in August. Worthy of special mention is the appointment of Talcott Williams as director of the new Pultizer School of Journalism of Columbia University. There have been a large number of changes in executives on the part of institutions of college grade during the year, and at the present time an abnormally large number are without permanent .heads. A partial list of institutions of college grade where changes in the executive office have recently been made is given herewith, the name of the present executive being placed after the institution: University of Alabama, George H. Denny; Georgetown University, Rev. Alphonsus J. Dordon; Howard University, Rev. S. M. New- man; New Hampshire College of Agriculture and Mechanic Arts. SURVEY OE EDUCATION, 1911-12. 35 Edward T. Fairchild; De Pauw University, George R. Grose; Iowa State College, Raymond A. Pearson; Pomona College, James A. Blaisdell ; Hamline University, Rev. Samuel F. Kerfoot; University of Montana, Edwin B. Craighead; University of Wyoming, C. A. Duniway; University of Porto Rico, E. M. Bainter; Washington and Lee University. Henry Louis Smith; Mississippi Agricultural and Mechanical College, G. R. Hightower; University of New Mexico, Rev. David R. Boyd; Davidson College, W. J. Martin; United States Military Academy, Col. C. P. Townslev. ACADEMIC A N NT VERS ARIES . Mount Holyoke celebrated the seven ty-fifth anniversary of its founding in October, 1912. Most of the leading colleges in the United States were represented by delegates, as well as 14 foreign institutions. President Mary Emma Woolley and Elizabeth Storrs Mead, president of the college from 1890 to 1900, welcomed the dele¬ gates, guests, and alumnse. The new memorial gateway was dedicated on the second day of the festivities. At the auditorium exercises President Hadley, of Yale, spoke on “ Our colleges and their -ethical problems.” President Thomas, of Bryn Mawr, in an address on “ The future of woman’s higher education,” presented the cause of the woman seeker after education and the obstacles in her path. Among other things, she said : Women have almost won the right to study what and where they please. They have to-day almost equal opportunities for study. But they have not yet won the rewards of study. They are still shut out from the ^incentives to scholarship. Over one-half of all women college graduates teach, one-third of all graduate students in the United States are women fitting themselves for higher teaching. Yet even in the lower public schools the most responsible and highly-paid positions are reserved for men, and in the women’s colleges only may women compete with men for full professorships. In all coeducational colleges and universities the number of women holding even subordinate teach¬ ing positions is jealously limited. Presidents of coeducational universities have sometimes told me that they would gladly advance women scholars were it not for the opposition of men teaching in the same departments. Even in a women’s college like Bryn Mawr there is a steady, although I be¬ lieve almost unconscious, pressure exerted by some of the men on our faculty to prevent the appointment of women to vacant professorships. The world of scholarship and research has been a man’s world. Men mistrust women’s ability to breathe in this keener air. And in a sense they are right. Very few women — or men — can maintain scholarly research and enthusiastic teaching throughout a lifetime without living salaries or honorable recognition. Colleges for women, few and poorly endowed as they are, offer the only rewards for women scholars. President Burton, of Smith College; Miss Pendleton, recently in¬ augurated president of Wellesley; and President Taylor, of Vassar, discussed other phases of the problem of college education. 36 EDUCATION REPORT, 1912. The University of Michigan also celebrated its seventy-fifth anni¬ versary in 1912 with significant ceremonies. Among secondary institutions a celebration of note was the one hundred and twenty-fifth aniversary of the founding of Erasmus Hall High School, Brooklyn, N. Y., and the dedication of the new building. This school, now one of the New York City public high schools, is the oldest existing institution chartered by the New York State regents. Atkinson Academy, in Atkinson, N. H., one of the first coeducational institutions in the United States, and one of the oldest of the New England secondaiy schools, also celebrated* its one hundred and twenty-fifth aniversary. NEW YORK STATE EDUCATION BUILDING. The dedication of the State Education Building, at Albany, should be placed among the notable educational events of the year. Guests were present from all over the world to witness the ceremonies by which New York State dedicated a magnificant specimen of American architecture to the exclusive purposes of public education. The idea behind the project is thus stated in the official announce¬ ment : To find the inception of the idea of the New York State education building one must look back to the unification of educational interests of the State in 1904. Bringing together under one organization two State education depart¬ ments which had become radically separated was an epochal achievement. It was felt that there ought to be a monument to this singular accomplishment, and that nothing would be more appropriate than a great State building which would indicate to the State and to the entire world the interest which New York maintains in both popular and higher education. The State of Illinois has recently appropriated money for a State education building, and Indiana’s Centennial Commission is to — formulate plans for the celebration of the centennial of the admission of Indiana into the Union by the erection of a State building and its dedication in 1916, to be known as the Indiana educational building. VII. A NATIONAL UNIVERSITY. The plan for a national university at the capital, first proposed in the early days of the Republic, and recently revived, was discussed at the Chicago meeting of the National Education Association by sev¬ eral prominent representatives of higher education. President James, of the University of Illinois, opened the discus¬ sion with an argument based on the conception of education as a na¬ tional function. After showing that the organization which he rep¬ resented, the national association of State university presidents, had repeated!}" indorsed the project of a national university, he laid down SUKVEY OF EDUCATION, 1911-12. 37 several propositions that seemed to him fundamental: (1) That in a free Commonwealth education is essentially a national function; (2) that this country can not solve its educational problems in the large until it recognizes that education is the business of the Nation, and that pecuniary .assistance for its support in a large way shall come through the organs of the Nation as a unit; (3) that we shall make vastly greater progress if we can get national attention concentrated upon our educational problems year after year as one of the funda¬ mental issues going to the very heart of national life. With these propositions as a basis he strongly upheld the idea of a national university. He said: I mean by a national university an institution sufficiently like the ordinary institutions with which you are all acquainted to be thoroughly familiar to you : a teaching and training as well as an investigating institution, manned with the best men in all departments in which the human intellect has exercised itself, drawn from the entire world, equipped with all that money can provide, for the purpose of stimulating and increasing our interest in the world of the spirit and the world of sense about us. Such an institution would not injure, but benefit every private and every State university. By its superior support, by its superior prestige, by its greater wealth, it would strike the popular imagination of this country in such a way as to give to the university idea itself an enormous impetus, the reflex effect of which would show itself in the increasing prosperity and develop¬ ment of every private and State institution. President Van Hise, of the University of Wisconsin, discussing “A national university a national asset: An instrumentality for ad¬ vanced research,” advocated a different kind of institution. To his mind there was no necessity for a university of the type which ex¬ isted elsewhere, no need of an additional university like the great endowed and State institutions of the country. He declared : One who advocates a national university at Washington with the idea that it shall he a larger Harvard, Yale, Columbia, Cornell, or Chicago, a larger Michi¬ gan, Illinois, Wisconsin, Minnesota, or California, will fail in his advocacy, because be can not give to Congress a satisfactory reason for the expenditure of public funds for another university of a kind of which there is a sufficient number. He emphasized the fact that it is the research material in existence at Washington which justifies the demand for a national university. The real aim of those advocating a national university, he said, should be to make available for the advancement of knowledge the unpar¬ alleled facilities of Washington to graduate students. He cited a long list of institutions and bureaus at Washington where valuable research material exists. He showed that because of the demand for immediate results, for routine work, these materials, rich as they 38 EDUCATION REPORT, 1912. are, “ from the larger point of view of the advancement of science are in large measure neglected.” He therefore proposed : (1) That the unapproached wealth of books and materials at Washington for research be made available to advanced students of the country having the baccalaureate degree and one year of graduate work or its equivalent. (2) That the scientific staff at Washington be authorized as part of its official duties to give a limited amount of instruction. (3) That an administrative division be established, the duties of which shall be to make the facilities of Washington known and to guide students to them. If desirable, this division may be made a part of the National Bureau of Education. (4) That a student completing his work for a doctorate at Washington be granted his degree from the institution from which he came. (5) That existing universities cooperate in this work with the departments at Washington. In urging “A national university as related to democracy,” Presi¬ dent Baker, of the University of Colorado, expressed himself as distinctly favorable to the idea. He said : In Germany higher education is related to the State ; in America the problem is far more difficult — to relate it to democracy. A few educated men at the head of affairs can value science and culture; pure democracy, in its formative stages, may be shortsighted, fail to see its own true goal, and even be suspicious of attaining it * * *. If we are to gain the respect of older civilizations, we must show that democracy is not superficial ; that it has a high ideal of govern¬ ment ; that it can be fertile in scholarship, and especially in appreciation of its value and service. The “ glory that was Greece ” will never be ours unless our ideal is built of spiritual elements that have given leading nations their place in history. If we have a boasted new form of State and society — the body — we must see to it that we have also the new humanism and the new ideal¬ ism — the soul. If we have a unique civilization, if we have a peculiar mission, then let us have an unequaled center of learning at the very heart of our national life, adequate to reveal that life to ourselves and to the world. Proceeding to a discussion of ways and means, President Thomson, of Ohio State University, took up the question from the practical viewpoint of getting something done. He showed how little appeal the cause of education tended to make to Congress as compared with other causes. He thought that the first fundamental problem^ there¬ fore, was to get into the national consciousness a true conception of the value of a great national graduate institution that should utilize for educational purposes the resources of the Government already accumulated and increasing every year. A second problem was to secure a consensus of intelligent opinion as to the general scope and purpose of such a university. A third step would be to agree upon a bill that should include a comprehensive plan of operation, followed by a campaign of education which would convince Congress of the far-reaching importance of the national-university idea. SURVEY OF EDUCATION, 1011-12. vxn. BENEFACTIONS. 39 DISTRIBUTION OF THE PEABODY FUND. Private benefactions to American education approximated $25,- 000,000 during the academic year 1911-12. This amount represents simply the amounts actually reported as paid. Many other gifts have been announced, some of the more significant of which will be found summarized below. The last of the Peabody Educational Fund, originally created in 1867, was allotted for distribution during the year. Particularly noteworthy among the final gifts is that of $500,000 to the George Peabody College for Teachers at Nashville, contingent upon the raising of a million dollars by November 1, 1913. In their announce¬ ment the Peabody trustees explain the great work which they believe Peabody College is destined to accomplish, and incidentally pay a merited tribute to the efforts of the South in behalf of education : The Southern States, with a courage and self-sacrifice rarely if ever equaled, are devoting every year from 35 to 40 per cent of the total amounts raised by them by taxation to the education of both races, wisely recognizing that this is their best hope for the future. Disbursements from income of the Peabody Education Fund had amounted to over $3,500,000 on September 30, 1911. With the ulti¬ mate disposal of the principal in 1913, this fund will have yielded for educational purposes more than $5,500,000. CARNEGIE FOUNDATION FOR THE ADVANCEMENT OF TEACHING. Mr. Carnegie transferred a million dollars to the trustees of the foundation in December, 1911, 'and a similar sum in May, 1912, bringing the total of benefactions up to $13,000,000. With accrued interest the total endowment amounted to nearly $14,000,000 at the close of the year ending September 30, 1912. The trustees reported an income of $676,486.56 for the year. They expended $634,496.89, of which $441,984.64 was for retiring allowances and pensions in the case of accepted institutions, $128,438.39 for similar payments to indi¬ viduals, $36,949.31 for expenses of administration, and $27,124.55 for educational investigation and publication. GENERAL EDUCATION BOARD. At the meeting in May, 1912, the General Education Board authorized the contingent distribution of $700,000 among five col¬ leges : $250,000 to the George Peabody College for Teachers, at Nashville, for the establishment of the Seaman A. Knapp School of Country Life; $100,000 to Beloit College, in Wisconsin; $100,000 to 77236°— ed 1912— vol 1 - 5 40 EDUCATION REPORT, 1912. Coe College, at Cedar Rapids, Iowa; $50,000 to Macalester Col¬ lege, at St. Paul, Minn. ; and $200,000 to the University of Rochester, at Rochester, X. Y. Except in the case of Peabody College, where the gift is made part of the million dollars to be raised, the grants were contingent upon the raising by the institutions of a like amount. In addition to these sums, $210,000 was set aside for three purposes: For demonstration work in agriculture in the Southern States, for professorships of secondary education in the State universities of the South, and for negro education. Other conditional gifts by the board were: Allegheny College, $50,000 'toward $200,000; Lake Forest College, $50,000 toward $400,000; Whitman College, $125,000 toward $500,000. MILLION -DOLLAR ENDOWMENTS. The extent to which endowment and income estimates for higher institutions have risen in recent years is interestingly indicated in current budgets. The income of many institutions of higher learning is now at a figure that would have been considered a substantial en¬ dowment but a few years ago. The College of Physicians and Sur¬ geons, affiliated with Columbia University, seeks an endowment of $7,000,000. Princeton University desires a further endowment of $4,000,000 in order to provide additional income to meet the present annual deficit in the budget. The alumni of the University of Penn¬ sylvania suggest $10,000,000 as the goal of their efforts. These are typical. A number of institutions, aside from those usually considered among the wealthy institutions of the country, are engaged in raising one million dollar funds. The following institutions have either completed or are attempting, to complete such a fund: Brown University (the second within a short time) ; Trinity College, Hart¬ ford; Trinity College, Durham, N. C. ; Western Reserve University, Cleveland; Goucher College, Baltimore; and Smith College, North¬ ampton, Mass. OTHER BENEFACTIONS ANNOUNCED. Other notable contributions to education, available or provided for, are reported as follows : Albion College, $100,000. Beloit College, $50,000 from Mrs. Rufus H. Sage, of Chicago, to endow a chair in English. Caldwell College, Kentucky, $100,000, raised by trustees and alumnae. LTni versify of California, $500,000, from the late Mrs. James K. Sather, of Oakland, for building and endowment, including a cam¬ panile and chimes (this is a final statement of various sums sepa¬ rately announced) ; bequest of E. Y. Cowell, $750,000 for gymnasium, SURVEY OF EDUCATION, 1911-12. 41 athletic field, etc. (not available for seven years) ; $100,000 from Mrs. Carrie M. Jones, to endow scholarships for young men. Catholic University of America, $500,000 from the Knights of Columbus. Chicago University, from Julius Rosenwald, $250,000 for woman’s gymnasium and buildings of geological, geographical, and classical departments (conditional upon the raising of twice the amount by the friends of the university). Colorado College, $100,000 from Mrs. A. D. Juillard, for a new gymnasium, memorial to her father. Columbia University, $100,000 for cancer research, from August W. Openhym, of New York (in addition to the Crocker bequest for a similar work amounting to $1,500,000) ; $50,000 for engineering research in memory of William R. Peters, jr. Hamilton College, anonymous gift of $100,000 for new library. Harvard University, $1,800,000 for freshman dormitories to be built this year; Mrs. Russell Sage to donate a new freshman dormi¬ tory to be called Standish Hall; $125,000 for a professorship of banking, from E. C. Converse, of Neyv York; $1,000,000 from P. A. B. Widener, of Philadelphia, for the new library building, a memorial to H. E. Widener, a Titanic victim ; $100,000 from Dr. Arthur T. Cabot, the university to be the ultimate beneficiary of his estate, valued at $500,000 ; the university also ultimately to receive $500,000 from the Morris Loeb estate, to be used for the advancement of physics and chemistry. Holy Cross College, $100,000 building (Beavan Hall), from Bishop Beavan and priests of the Springfield diocese. Johns Hopkins, $220,000 from James B. Brady for a hospital. Massachusetts Institute of Technology, $2,500,000 from an anony¬ mous donor, to be used for the development of the institute at the Cambridge site. University of Michigan, $200,000 from Regent Hill. Middlebury College, $200,000 fund. Mount Holyoke, fund of $552,000 raised by Alumnae Association in honor of the seventy-fifth anniversarj7. University of Nevada, $150,000 from Clarence H. Mackay and Mrs. John W. Mackay for the School of Mines. New York City College, $75,000 to $100,000 from Adolph Lewisohn for a stadium, the city having provided the land. New York University, .$90,000 from Mrs. John S. Kennedy, for the Cornelius Baker Hall of Philosophy. Northwestern University, $250,000 from James A. Patten for the study of tuberculosis and its prevention. Oberlin College, $500,000 raised “ by friends of the college.” 42 EDUCATION REPORT, 1912. Peabody College for Teachers, $100,000 from J. P. Morgan. University of Pennsylvania, $80,000 by bequest of Mrs. Lucy Wharton Drexel ; $65,000 from a committee of the alumni, the begin¬ ning of a fund to be used in establishing scholarships and in making it possible to keep at Pennsylvania professors who might be offered larger salaries elsewhere. Princeton University, $300,000 for the Graduate College, in addi¬ tion to the $500,000 previously given. University of Rochester, $500,000 from George Eastman. Transylvania University, $250,000, of which $50,000 was from the General Education Board. Trinity College, Hartford, $200,000 from J. P. Morgan for library and administration building. Villanova College, $100,000 for new building, from Bernard R. Corr, of Philadelphia. Whitman College, $200,000 from several donors. Worcester Polytechnic Institute, $50,000 from Mrs. H. D. Brown. Yale University, actual benefactions about $1,000,000 for the year ; university is made residuary legatee of the estate of Dr. Francis Bacon, valued at several hundred thousand dollars, fund to be used in the undergraduate department for the benefit of needy students; similar fund of about $400,000, known as the McPherson fund; $75,000 from A. C. Dunham for a school of electrical engineering; $500,000 to $600,000 from Henry O. and Mary F. Hotchkiss, bequest for Sheffield Scientific School; from C. D. Borden, $250,000 without restriction. Another large educational bequest that has recently become avail¬ able is that of the late R. Y. Carson, of Philadelphia, amounting to $6,000,000, to be used for the Carson College for Orphan Girls. The accounts of the executors of the will of the late John S. Ken¬ nedy, whose death occurred in 1909, show that the following amounts have been paid out in bequests for educational purposes : Presbyterian Board of Aid for Colleges and Academies, $1,661,031 ; Columbia Uni¬ versity, $1,984,013; Yew York University, $829,634; Robert College, Constantinople, Turkey, $1,552,994 ; Charities Organization for School of Philanthropy, $829,245. In addition to these amounts the Yew York Public Library received $2,340,554 from the Kennedy estate, and the Metropolitan Museum. of Art $2,493,622. The foregoing is by no means intended as a complete list of all announced benefactions to American education, or even those of a certain size. It is worthy of note that many institutions receive gifts of comparatively small amount in themselves that in the aggregate make considerable sums. A statistical summary of receipts from private benefactions is given in Volume II, page 298, of this report. SURVEY OF EDUCATION, 1911-12. IX. INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS. 43 NEW OFFICIAL ARRANGEMENTS. International interchange in the field of education continues to ex¬ pand rapidly. Among newer professorial exchanges should be men¬ tioned that between the Universities of Chicago and Paris, to begin in the fall of 1913, and to take place in alternate years. At the University of Wisconsin, Eugen Kiihnemann, well known in this country for two previous visits on an exchange basis, held the first appointment to the new Carl Schurz professorship. In Holland funds have been raised for the establishment at Columbia University, New York City, of a Queen Wilhelmina professorship of Dutch his¬ tory, literature, and language. The Japanese interchange, under the Carnegie Peace Foundation, began auspiciously with the visit of Dr. Xitobe, president of the First Higher College of Tolyyo, who spent about six weeks at each of the following American institutions of learning: Brown University, Columbia University, Johns Hopkins, University of Virginia, University of Illinois, and University of Minnesota.1 REGULAR EXCHANGES. Among regular exchange professors on existing foundations the following are to be reported for the year 1912-13 : Kaiser Wilhelm professor at Columbia, Felix Krueger, professor of experimental psychology in the University of Halle ; Theodore Roosevelt professor at Berlin, William M. Sloane, Seth Low professor of history in Co¬ lumbia University; French visiting professor at Colunlbia, Henri Bergson, professor of philosophy m the University of Paris; Ger¬ man exchange professor at Harvard, Rudolph Eucken, professor of philology at the University of Jena; French exchange professor, Emile Legouis, professor of English at the Sorbonne-; Harvard ex¬ change professor at Berlin, Dr. Charles S. Minot, of the medical school ; Plarvard exchange at Paris, Prof G. G. Wilson, of the depart¬ ment of government. OTHER ACADEMIC VISITORS. Apart from the regular exchanges, there have been many impor¬ tant academic visitors from abroad during the past year. Julius Petersen, of the University of Basel, is professor of German lit¬ erature at Yale University for the academic year 1912-13. Prof. Jacques Hadamard, of the College de France, gave instruction in mathematics' at Columbia in the autumn of 1911. Prof. Ludwig 1 See p. 619 of this report. 44 EDUCATION REPORT, 1912. Sinzheimer, of the University of Munich, a prominent German econo¬ mist, comes to the University of Wisconsin for the second semester of 1912-13; while Prof. Richard T. Ely, of Wisconsin, goes to the University of London. Prof. Gilbert Murray came over from Eng¬ land to aid in the revival of Greek as a school and college study, in which Amherst College is taking a leading part. Dr. Guenther Jacoby, of the University of Greifswald, spent several months* in¬ specting departments of philosophy and psychology in American universities. The Germanistic Society of New York has been instrumental in bringing a number of prominent German scholars and literary men to this country, among them Dr. R. W. Drechsler, of the Amerika- Institut, Berlin; Prof. Erich von Dryghlski, of the University of Munich; and Prof. Edward Engel, of Berlin. Prof. Wilhelm Pas- kowski, who, as head of the bureau of information at the University of Berlin comes in contact with many Americans who go to Germany for study, was in this country in the spring of 1912 and made a tour that included many of the important centers of learning in the United States. A distinguished group of foreign scholars was. present at the for¬ mal opening of Rice Institute, including: Prof. Rafael Altamira y Crevea, of Madrid, Spain ; Prof. Hugo de Vries, of Amsterdam, Hol¬ land; Prof. Emile Borel, of Paris, France; Prof. Sir Henry Jones, of Glasgow, Scotland ; Prof. Sir William Ramsay, of London, England ; and Prof. Vito Volterra, of Rome, Italy. A tour of peculiar interest to Americans was that of Prof. Caspar Rene Gregory, of the University of Leipzig, said to be the only American scholar holding a regular professorship in a German uni¬ versity. As the guest of Chicago University and other institutions Prof. Gregory made an extended lecturing tour in the United States and Canada. THE PRUSSIAN EXCHANGES. Influential as these professorial visits between the United States and other nations may be they can hardly be any more so than the exchange of teachers between Prussia and the United States which takes place every year under the auspices of the Carnegie Foundation for the Advancement of Teaching*. Both in this country and in Prussia the exchange teachers are given an unusual opportunity to see at first hand the educational conditions. For the year 1912-13 10 American teachers have been assigned to Prussian schools and T Prussian teachers to American schools and colleges. The American teachers, together with the institution from which they come, their subjects, and their assignments in Germany, are as follows : SURVEY OF EDUCATION, 1911-12. 45 M. F. Beeson, Meridian College, Meridian, Miss. (English), Vic¬ toria Gymnasium, Potsdam; E. M. Briggs, University of Kansas, Lawrence, Kans. (Latin and German), Spandau; P. E. Bryan, Rox- bury Tutoring School, New Haven, Conn. (English), Bismarck- Oberrealschule, Stettin; E. G. Fischer, Michigan Agricultural College, East Lansing, Mich. (English and modern languages), assignment not announced; J. A. Lee, High School, Malden, Mass. (English and modern languages), Realgymnasium, 'Stettin; S. A. Leonard, State Normal School, Milwaukee, 'Wis. (English), Oberrealschule, Danzig; Kemp Malone, Technological High School, Atlanta, Ga. (English and German), Realgymnasium, Erfurt; J, W. Norman, Lloward College, Birmingham, Ala. (mathematics, Latin, and Greek), Oberrealschule, Potsdam ; T. E. Steckel, Tome School for Boys, Port Deposit, Md. (modern languages), Kaiser Wilhelm Realgymnasium, Berlin; W. B. Stephens, Holderness School, Plymouth, N. H. (Ger¬ man and sciences), Gymnasium and Realgymnasium, Kolberg. The Prussian teachers, with their assignments to the United States, are as follows: Anton Applemann, Munster (modern languages), Boston High Schools, Boston, Mass. ; Erwin Gseli, Siemens Oberreal¬ schule, Charlottenburg (modern languages), Worcester Academy, Worcester, Mass. ; Karl Guntermann, Kgl. Gymnasium, Husum (English and history), Philips’ Exeter Academy, Exeter, N. H. ; Heinrich Keidel, Kgl. Berger-Oberrealschule, Posen (German and history), University of Wisconsin, Madison, Wis.; Wilhelm Kopas, Realprogymnasium, Gnadenfrei (English, French, and religion), Tome School for Boys, Port Deposit, Md. ; Otto Michael, Hohenzol- lernschule, Schoneberg (modern languages), Horace Mann School, New York City ; Max Muller, Kgl. Gymnasium and Realgymnasium, Thorn (English and French), Philips Academy, Andover, Mass. OTHER INTERNATIONAL VISITS. In the summer of 1912 a party of 350 American teachers toured Germany under the auspices of the German- American Teachers’ As¬ sociation. Prof. H. H. Fick, of Cincinnati, headed the party. At the meeting in Berlin the speakers were: Dr. Busse, of New York, on “The teaching of German in the United States Director Jospeh Winter, of New York, on “ The future of the German language in the United States ” ; and Prof. Emil Cramer, of Cincinnati, on “ Co¬ educational schooling in America.” ♦Forty foreign geographers, guests of the American Geographical Society of New York on its sixtieth anniversary, paid a visit to this country in the late summer and fall of 1912, spending two months in travel through different sections of the United States. In connection with the Seventh International Congress of Hygiene and Demog¬ raphy, held in Washington in September, 1912, many distinguished 46 EDUCATION REPOET, 1912. foreign scientists and educators, who came over for the sessions of the congress, took the opportunity to visit American educational institutions. At the Congress of Associated British Universities, in London, during the past summer, the following guests from the United States wTere present by special invitation: Dr. George E. McLean, formerly president of Iowa State College; President Frank L. McVey, of the University of North Dakota ; Hon. Andrew S. Draper, commissioner of education for New York State ; and Dr. Kendric C. Babcock, of the United States Bureau of Education. The United States will be the meeting place of at least two world congresses of educational import in 1913. The Fourth International Congress of School Hygiene is to be held at Buffalo, N. Y., in August, 1913, and the Eighth International Congress of Students (Corda Fratres) will be held at Cornell University, Ithaca, N. Y., during the same month. THE COSMOPOLITAN CLUB MOVEMENT IN GERMANY. In speaking of the international movement in Germany, which has assumed large proportions during the past year, Edwin D. Mead, of the World Peace Foundation, calls attention to a new develop¬ ment growing out of the cosmopolitan clubs: He writes : The exchange professorships at Berlin, the international influence of such men as Prof. Lamprecht and Prof. Ostwald at Leipzig, and the rapid extension throughout all Germany of the new Society for Vdlkerverstandigung, inspired and controlled largely by professors in the various universities, have undoubt¬ edly done much to affect the thought and feeling of the great student body ; but it is really a young American scholar, Dr, George W. Nasmyth of Cornell Uni¬ versity, carrying on his higher studies in Germany, who has given the direct impulse leading to the organization in several universities of international clubs like those already existing in some 30 of our own American universities. Young Nasmyth was the leading spirit in the great Cosmopolitan Club at Cornell, which now has 300 members ; and carrying his enthusiasm to Germany, he prompted the organization of an international club among the Berlin students, which quickly attained a menfbership of 200. Similar clubs have been established through his initiative in Leipzig, Munich, and Gottingen ; and recently there was held in Gottingen a general convention of students from all of these clubs to discuss the various aspects of the international movement and perfect plans for larger activities in the German universities, in several other of which efforts looking to the formation of international clubs are already under way. ASSOCIATION FOR THE INTERNATIONAL EXCHANGE OF STUDENTS. The Association for the International Exchange of Students, an organization designed to aid students in one country who wish to study in another, held its first conference in London, June 27-29, 1912. This conference was devoted to a report and discussion of the three years’ preliminary work that has been done. Among Ameri- SURVEY OF EDUCATION , 1911-12. 47 can representatives present at the conference were: B. F. Kurtz, California; F. L. McVey, North Dakota; E. B. Greene, Illinois; Capt. Horgarrd and Prof. D. C. Jackson, of Massachusetts Institute of Technology; Prof. T. W. Edmondson, of New York. The Ameri¬ can Government was represented by William Phillips, of the Ameri¬ can embassy. The Bureau of Education was represented, by Dr. K. C. Babcock. Many American universities are cooperating in the plan. At the conference emphasis was placed on the idea that the students to be aided by these tours are those really anxious to work ; “idlers and globe-trotters disguised as students are weeded out at once*” it was announced. Lord Strathcona is president of the asso¬ ciation and Hon. Herbert W. Crees the honorary secretary.1 THE RHODES SCHOLARSHIPS. The year 1912 marked the tenth anniversary of the Rhodes Scholar¬ ship Foundation. The book by Prof. Parkin, who is in active charge of the administration of the trust, shows that the exchange has not yet passed the experimental stage. Particularly in respect to the United States, the scholarships are still of somewhat uncertain status. What Prof. Parkin says on this subject is of distinct interest to Americans : The problem of devising a satisfactory system, generally applicable for the election of scholars, has presented greater difficulties in the United States than elsewhere. The reasons for this are various. For one thing, the 48 States and Territories to which the scholarships are assigned, differ greatly in the de¬ gree and completeness of their educational organization. In a few States the universities can stand comparison in endowment, equipment, number of students or professors, and range of intellectual interest with the best of the Old World ; in others the agricultural college or technical institution is only beginning to be developed into a State university with broader teaching aims. In some an admirable system of elementary schools leads up to the university; in others it is still difficult to get the thorough preliminary training necessary for real university work. A further complication is introduced by the extraordinary number of col¬ legiate and university institutions which have the power to grant degrees, and do this on standards and courses so various as almost to defy reliable compari¬ son between the scholars they turn out * . * *, In a few States the development of higher education is still largely under political control, and is subject to political influences. In one case a State election swept away, as the result of a party victory, the whole committee of selection, consisting of the leading educational men of the State. Under such circumstances, the only course open to the trust was to take the selection of the scholars into its own hands until the conditions were radically changed. With regard to the athletic provision, which Cecil Rhodes made one of the features of his bequest, Prof. Parkin says : Certain well-defined conditions have made it difficult to apply in some com¬ munities the athletic tests suggested by Rhodes, if at the same time due regard 1 Address : Caxton House, Westminster, London S. V/., England. 48 EDUCATION REPORT, 1912. is paid to other essential interests of tlie scholarship scheme. In the univer¬ sities and colleges of the United States athletics have become a highly special¬ ized side of student life. Instead of thousands of men taking an active part in the college sports, as is the case at Oxford and Cambridge, or the hundreds of boys with whom it is compulsory in the great English public schools, the interest of the games is concentrated upon a very limited number of men who compose the college teams. The pressure brought upon these teams to maintain the athletic reputation of their institutions is very great, and success is pursued with an energy very unfavorable to other work and in something closely akin to the professional spirit. I have been constantly told by educational authorities in the United States that college athletics were not favorable to the production of the all-round man whom Rhodes evidently had in his mind. In a less degree circumstances somewhat similar are met with in some of the colonial com¬ munities. CHINESE STUDENTS AND THE REVOLUTION. An interesting light on the development of international student relations is shown by the following statement of the former minister from ‘China : Most of the leaders of the revolution either received their education or got their ideas of republicanism from America. Dr. Sun, the originator of the revo¬ lution, got much inspiration from the United States, where he sojourned so many years and where he found not only complete safety, but sympathetic encouragement, while a price was on his head. The Hon. Mr. Tang Shao-yi, our great peace commissioner, was one of the 120 young men who first came to America some 30 years ago. The Hon. Dr. Wu Ting-Fang, at the age of 78, who is well known in America, is often called a Yankee. Then we find in the revolutionary government at Nanking the Hon. Dr. Chin-Tao Chen, minister of finance, and the Hon. Chung-Hui Wang, minister of foreign affairs, who are graduates of •Yale. And so down the list are a large number of American- educated students in the Revolution. That is not all. In the assembly it was also the American-returned student who held the rudder. The first chairman of that representative body, for instance, was the Hon. Mr. Chao S. Bok, a gradu¬ ate of New York University ; and the vice chairman, who was also the ablest speaker of the House, was the Hon. Mr. Chengting Wang, another graduate of Yale. Then there were scores of others from American universities, such as Harvard, Chicago, Wisconsin, Illinois, and California, who played important parts in the revolution. In the Provinces as well we find the American-edu¬ cated students in every center of activity, with their sleeves rolled up to their elbows, working in true Yankee style. The handful of young men who received their education from America have already shown the Chinese people, and the world as well, what they have learned from their colleges. What is more significant is that which may be ex¬ pected hereafter from the hundreds and hundreds of Chinese young men now founds in every important educational institution in the whole United States. For it is in America that we have the largest number of students in any single foreign country outside of Japan ; and it is also here that the young Chinese learn the American push and the business spirit. They always remember their universities and colleges with gratitude. These memories have done them good, , and in return they have done credit to their alma mater.1 , 1 Ching-Chun Wang. China’s Revolution and Its Effect. N. Amer. Rev., Feb., 1913, pp. 200-201. CHAPTER II. EDUCATIONAL LEGISLATION IN 1912. By James C. Boykin, Editor, Bureau of Education. Contents. — Legislative conditions in the several States. — State hoards and officers. — County boards and officers. — Municipal school boards. — School finances. — Business methods. — School boards. — School buildings.— Teachers: Examination and certification; salaries and tenure; pensions. — Normal schools. — Compulsory attendance. — Child labor. — Transportation and consolidation. — Textbooks. — Play grounds. — High schools.— Agricultural and industrial training: Laws for the rural uplift; schools of agriculture and the industries. — Addendum: Higher educational institutions; professional schools; professional practice; schools for special classes; welfare of children; dependents and delinquents. LEGISLATIVE CONDITIONS IN THE SEVERAL STATES. The legislatures of 13 States were in session during the year 1911-12, namely, Arizona, Georgia, Kentucky, Louisiana, Mary¬ land, Massachusetts, Mississippi, New Jersey, New Mexico, New York, Rhode Island, South Carolina, and Virginia. In but few of them were the enactments of more than passing importance. In Arizona and New Mexico the sessions were the first since the admis¬ sion of those States to the Union, and the legislation in them covered a wide field; although the Territorial laws continue in effect after admission until repealed or superseded, many considerations demand that each State upon assuming the political toga virilis shall overhaul and furbish its code. Arizona. — In Arizona an extra session was added to the regular legislative term in order to accomplish all that was desired. Prac¬ tically an entirely new educational code was enacted in a single bill; and in addition a stringent child-labor law was adopted, and a free textbook law and a pension law were enacted that are remarkable for their simplicity and originality. New Mexico . — The legal achievements of New Mexico were not so comprehensive as those of Arizona, but they were numerous and valuable nevertheless. The provision of a reserve fund, following the requirements of the State constitution, was, under the circum¬ stances, an act of real statesmanship. The purpose of the fund is to equalize school privileges throughout the State, and the means by which that end is accomplished is, worthy' of more than passing notice. The situation Tfieih will be diseiisshd more fully on a sub¬ sequent page. 49 50 EDUCATION DEPORT, 1912. Louisiana is the only State other than Arizona in which a general law was passed amounting to a comprehensive revision. Appar¬ ently it was primarily for the purpose of consolidating and simpli¬ fying existing laws, and that result was well accomplished. But it did a great deal more. It abolished several State boards of an auxiliary character, centering their functions in the State board of education; it increased the dignity and responsibility of the parish school boards; it gave New Orleans a new plan of school govern¬ ment; it introduced the budget system of finance; and, most important of all, it provided a thorough and well-considered system of teachers’ examinations and certificates under State authority. Kentucky. — In Kentucky at least as much was accomplished as in any other of the older States, and the activity of the legislative com¬ mittee of the State educational association must be credited with a large share of the responsibility for the result. This committee was constituted in June, 1910, and proceeded actively to investigate the needs of the school system. A series of excellent suggestions was prepared and submitted to the two convocations of county superin¬ tendents in 1911. After full discussion and mature deliberation a report was presented to the full meeting of the association in June, 1911, and it was unanimously adopted. Unquestionably it repre¬ sented the sense of the teaching profession in the State, and its influence is unmistakably visible in the bills that finally passed. New York. — The situation in New York in 1912 was in marked contrast to that of the two previous sessions. In 1910 the “ educa¬ tion law” was revised throughout in connection with the general revision of the code. The result was not wholly satisfactory to the officers of the State education department, and in response to their wishes another revision was enacted in 1911. The work was thor¬ oughly and carefully done, and, the same officers with the same policies being in charge, little was desired of the legislature of 1912. New Jersey. — In New Jerse}r, too, unusual productiveness in 1911 was followed by a decrease in the number of important bills passed in 1912. In this case, however, there was no lack of activity, and the reduced output did not result from the prevalence of serenity and quiet. A series of laws passed in 1911 provided a reorganization of the State board of education, and in effect a complete readjustment of the relations between the State and the local school authorities. A far greater degree of centralization was contemplated, and in order to attract a man of the highest type to administer the new system a salary was provided for the new State commissioner of education which is greater than any Other1 'school officer in the United States receives. ‘ v' UUY/’ „ Unexpected difficulties were encountered dn the accomplishment of some of the Veferms that were conceded to be desirable, and natu- EDUCATIONAL LEGISLATION IN 1912. 51 rally there was strong opposition to some of the changes in organiza¬ tion. Naturally, too, the following session of the legislature, that of 1912, was marked by strenuous attempts to undo, at least in part, the work of its predecessor. In one particular the attempts were successful, and the provision for uniform examinations for graduation from the grammar school was so changed as to be unrecognizable. In other respects, however, there was no lessening of centralization, and the new law relating to county superintendents seems in reality to strengthen the authority of the State. Massachusetts. — A number of useful bills were passed by the Massa¬ chusetts General Court, but none of them was of striking character. The incident that excited most interest outside the State was in con¬ nection with the appropriations for the Massachusetts Agricultural College. In his inaugural address the governor discussed the relation of the State to higher education, and spoke with gratification of the excellent character of the universities and colleges under private control in the State. These, in his opinion, make it unnecessary to maintain a university at State expense, as most of the other States do; but he recommended the establishment of a system of State scholarships, and suggested the annual appropriation of $50,000 in order to maintain 400 of them. Subsequently a bill was presented to him after passing both houses, in which $250,000 was appropriated for the development of the agricultural college. He declined to sign the measure, and returned it with a special message in which he reiterated his views concerning scholarships. He held that expansion of that institution would be equivalent to the establishment of a State university, contrary to sound policy. He expressed the belief that the agricultural college should devote all its energies and its appropriations to agriculture, and that instruction in the liberal arts should be left to established private institutions. His arguments, however, did not prevail, and the bill was passed over the veto. Rhode Island. — Little that concerned the schools took place in the Legislature of Rhode Island in 1912. There is some relation, of course, between the extent of a State and the volume of its legisla¬ tion, and Rhode Island and Delaware would not be expected to be as prolific in laws as New York and Texas. The demands of individual communities with diverse interests necessitate many local laws, or laws that are essentially local in their application, though expressed in general terms; and naturally from many minds come many ideas. Other things being equal, therefore, a half million people may be expected to continue satisfied with a given condition of affairs longer than 5,000,000 people would be. But diversity of interests and the law of probability based on numbers are not the only factors that determine the relative number and extent of legal changes. A more 52 EDUCATION REPORT, 1912. important factor is the length of tenure in administrative offices, and most important of all are habit and tradition. A State superin¬ tendent elected for a two years’ term is in office during only one session of the State legislature. He feels either that the time is too short for him to do more than to continue in the ways of his prede¬ cessor, whether good or bad; or else he realizes that he must do a great deal, now or never., to impress his individuality upon the school system, and incidentally to justify his own reelection. The latter course is attempted oftener than the former; human nature is con¬ stituted that way. The result is inevitable. Laws are urged, and often enacted, which are not based upon mature experience and consideration; and the next superintendent will have the opportu¬ nity of recommending the necessary amendment or repeal. Unde¬ niably this process serves to keep many legislatures busy; and that is the least of its evils. Rhode Island is preserved from periodical changes due to this * cause, but the paucity of its educational legislation is due more to the customary manner of drafting laws and to the traditions of the people. The laws that are passed are usually brief, and general in their terms. The State board of education or the local school com¬ mittees are permitted to supply the details. Changes in those details may be made with little formality tG suit changing conditions, and the result is a system that is markedly elastic and effective. Virginia. — In Virginia the new laws for education were few and unimportant. There was no lack of friendliness on the part of the legislators, but there seemed to be no need of radical amendments. Perhaps the most important act was that relating to taxation upon the rolling stock of railroad corporations. By that law 75 per cent of the receipts of such taxes is apportioned to the districts through which the roads respectively pass. This will add materially to the income of some rural districts. In the remaining States, namely, Maryland, South Carolina, Geor¬ gia, and Mississippi, laws were enacted in great number and variety. Some of them were of considerable importance, but nearly all were of local application only. To such extent does the habit of special legislation prevail in those States that one who considers only the general laws included in the published codes fails to gain a correct understanding of the educational situation. Georgia. — The ease with which local laws may be secured in Georgia obviates the need of general legislation in most eases. If a good idea is advanced and finds favor in a eertain community, that -community may readily, as a rule, secure legislative consent to its adoption, and need not disturb other communities in doing so. There are over 80 districts organized under laws of their own choosing, and nearly every modem idea in constructing a separate school system may be EDUCATIONAL LEGISLATION IN 1912. 53 found in some one or more of the special laws of the State. Many of the organizations are excellently constituted, and constant improve¬ ment is manifest throughout the State as good ideas prove their worth in practice. Four counties have been organized as units, each under a special law, one having been added to the number in 1912. Maryland. — In Maryland there are numerous local laws, but they do not take the form of separate district organization as in Georgia. Outside of Baltimore city, the county plan of organization prevails throughout the State, and this plan is not disturbed. But it is com¬ mon for individual counties to be excepted from general laws, and for special laws to be passed affecting single counties. Some of them even instruct county officers as to their action in certain particulars which are ordinarily left to local determination. In addition to numerous local provisions three laws were enacted that were of general interest. The first was a comprehensive child labor law, extending fourfold the statute previously in force; the second was a well-drawn compulsory attendance law, applying to Baltimore and to those counties whose school commissioners adopt it, six counties being excepted; and the third was an appropriation of $909,000 at once and $50,000 annually for a school of technology in connection with Johns Hopkins University. South Carolina. — The final distribution of the fund of the abandoned State dispensary system was an event of interest in the legislative session of 1912. The act in favor of consolidation of schools and transportation of pupils marks a distinct advance; and the change of the date upon which new county superintendents assume their duties has a significance and importance not apparent on its face. Mississippi. — Thre e general measures were urged by the State superintendent of public education, and all were enacted, namely, (1) authorizing transportation of pupils at public expense; (2) em¬ powering county boards of supervisors to issue bonds for the erec¬ tion of school buildings in rural communities, and to levy taxes to provide fuel, etc.; and (3) making additional appropriations for agricultural high schools. All these lav/s will be discussed in a subsequent paragraph. STATE BOARDS AND OFFICERS. The composition and duties of State boards of education present a constantly recurring problem. No matter how constituted, it is difficult for any set of men, meeting at intervals of about three months, to keep in touch with the details of a complicated and exten¬ sive system of schools, and to act effectively at practically a moment’s notice upon highly technical matters. The difficulty is vastly increased when the board is expected to perform purely executive functions. If the members convene in a perfunctory way and merely 54 EDUCATION REPORT, 1912. follow the recommendations of the superintendent, the feeling is apt to prevail that they are useless. If, on the contrary, they assert their authority and venture to dictate to the trained educator in the office of State superintendent, who is in constant contact with the schools and is far more familiar with their needs than the board members could possibly be, they are almost certain to arouse antago¬ nism and create friction. The situation is usually far more delicate for State boards than for local boards, because the latter are in closer touch with the schools under them and they have more direct power over the superintendents whom they employ. Whatever the cause, it is a fact that the State board is a part of the educational machinery which it is difficult to adjust and keep in adjustment. There are few States in which suggestions for change are not made from high quarters with considerable frequency, and that, too, without regard to the type of board that prevails. For example, the superintendent of public education of Louisiana desires to exchange the board appointed by the governor of that State for one whose members shall be elected by the people;1 the governor of Kentucky proposes 2 to supplant the ex officio board of Kentucky with one whose members shall be in part laymen and in part profes¬ sional educators, most of them to be appointed by the governor. It is by no means uncommon to note the demand in one State for a certain type of organization, when some other State is moving at the same time to “ reorganize a board of substantially the type desired by the first. Several instances of reorganization were reported in 1911, but no radical changes were made in 1912, unless the Arizona board may be considered changed because it is different from the former Terri¬ torial board. As it is now constituted it consists of the governor, the State superintendent, the president of the State university, the principals of the two State normal schools, and a city superintendent, a high-school principal, and a county superintendent appointed by the governor. In Louisiana, notwithstanding the superintendent’s suggestion, no change was made in the manner of selection, but one member was added because of the increased number of congressional districts, one being appointed from each district. The terms of appointed mem¬ bers in New Mexico were reduced from five to four years, and the reverse of the process was enacted in Rhode Island, for in that State the terms were fixed at five years, with the provision that the terms of one-fifth the members should expire each year. . An important change was made in Louisiana in abolishing the State textbook commission, the State board of examiners, and the 1 In his Annual Report for 1910-11, p. 45. 2 In his message to the legislature, 1912. EDUCATIONAL LEGISLATION IN 1912. 55 State board of institute managers. The functions of all of these' boards were transferred to the State board of education. Undoubt¬ edly the change will make for simplicity and for directness in han¬ dling public business. The actual work in each case was necessarily done by subordinates; and the board of education can furnish direc¬ tion for all of them and thus avoid the multiplication of boards and the consequent diversity of ideas. The board of education will employ “ an examining comniitee” and a State director of institutes, and no substantial change of method is necessarily implied by dis¬ continuing the superfluous organizations. The State superintendent . — While there is frequent discussion of the proper constitution and functions of the State boards of educa¬ tion, there is never any doubt of the value of the work of the State superintendent. The importance of the office constantly increases- New duties and responsibilities are steadily added, and larger sala¬ ries are offered to attract and hold men of the caliber to make the position in fact as well as in name the head of the State educational system. But it is still unfortunately true that in many cases the superintendents of the large cities and the heads of all the important institutions in a State receive considerably higher salaries and have far more certain tenure than the man who is nominally their official superior. A still more anomalous condition appears in several States in. which supervisors of elementary schools, of rural schools, or of high schools, named by the State superintendent and presumably acting under his direction, receive several hundred dollars annually more than the State superintendent. Their salaries, however, are not paid, by the several States, but by the General Education Board. Such anomalies must soon disappear. The tendencies are all in the direction of increasing the dignity, responsibility, and salary of the State superintendent. The legislation of 1912 contained many instances in point. For example: The commissioner of education of Massachusetts was authorized (ch. 80, Feb. 12) to approve bills for expenditures from funds placed under the direction of the board of education. The State commissioner of education of New Jersey now appoints all the county superintendents of that State (ch. 367). He is charged with the administration of the law (ch. 336) providing higher educa¬ tion for the blind at State expense. He was also directed (ch. 152, Mar. 25) to determine and certify to the educational qualifications of applicants for admission to medical colleges. The State superintendent of public instruction of Virginia was charged with similar duties (ch. 237, Mar. 13) in connection with medical colleges. 77236° — ed 1912 — vol 1 - 6 56 EDUCATION REPORT, 1912, In Kentucky it was enacted (ch. 13, 1912) that the State superin¬ tendent of public instruction shall act as special State inspector and examiner of all schools in the State which receiye public funds; for this service he shall receive $1,500 in addition to his present salary; he shall appoint two assistants at $1,000 each per annum, with their expenses of travel; he shall be allowed also $2,000 additional for clerk hire. In a vague and general way the superintendent probably had already the power given to him by this law, but it is now definite and specific, and the additional help will enable him to perform his duties in an effective manner not possible hitherto. And the $1,500 added to his salary will prove to be a difference that is very real. COUNTY BOARDS AND OFFICERS. Legislative activity in behalf of county superintendents proceeds at an even greater rate than for State superintendents. There is need for it. In few States is the recognition accorded to this office commensurate with its importance; but the prospect is continually brightening. The action of the New Jersey Legislature in fixing the salaries of all county superintendents at $3,000 (ch. 367, Apr. 2) is the most encouraging event of the year in this connection. Yet that salary is no more than is necessary to hold men of sufficient ability to do the work acceptably. That city is poor indeed which does not pay its superintendent as much. High-school principals often receive more, and New York City pays that salary to its elementary-school principals. The problems of the county superintendent are as per¬ plexing and his need of ability and maturity is surely as great as any of these. Furthermore, the physical difficulties with which the county superintendent must contend are incomparably greater than those which any city official ordinarily meets. The county superintendent in New Jersey is in reality a State officer, since he is appointed by the State commissioner of education and his salary is paid from the State treasury. He must, however, have been a resident of the county at least three years. This provision was clearly inserted to retain the local element in the control of the schools and to avert the possibility that a nonresident commissioner might fill the State with nonresident superintendents not in sympa¬ thy with local views and needs. It is probably not difficult to find men in any county of New Jersey who are worth $3,000 as superin¬ tendents. Nevertheless, it is contrary to the principle that is con¬ stantly gaining favor, that the best man available should be selected for every position regardless of boundary lines.1 Next to New Jersey, Kentucky has taken the most commendable step of the year in relation to county superintendents. It was enacted (ch. 117, Mar. 18) that to be eligible to the office candidates must 1 By a later law county superintendents may be chosen from any part of the State. EDUCATIONAL LEGISLATION IN 1912. 57 hold a State diploma or certificate, or else must be personally exam¬ ined at the State capital before the election, the examination being equivalent to that for a State teacher’s certificate. Superintendents shall devote their entire time and attention to the duties of the office, and their salaries shall be not less than $600 nor more than $2,500. Assistants may be provided in the discretion of county boards of education. Kentucky’s minimum seems pitifully small as compared with New Jersey’s $3,000, but the rate of advance was no greater in the one State than in the other, and the difference means even more to the southern than to the eastern State. Arizona, too, provided substantial increases for her county super¬ intendents, and according to the new schedule (ch. 93, May 21) two will receive $2,400, two $2,000, and two $1,800. Only two will receive less than $1,000. Assistants are provided for some of them, and traveling expenses are allowed to all. In South Carolina several special laws extended the terms of officers of certain counties from two to four years. An act (No. 388, Feb. 20) applicable to all but 19 counties provided that the terms of all superintendents should begin July 1. Such laws as these, none of them applicable to the entire State, have in the aggregate greatly improved the conditions of supervision in South Carolina in the past few years. The last-mentioned law, simple though it seems, is expected to be especially beneficial. In effect, the old law, under which the super¬ intendent’s term began January 1, practically barred teachers from the superintendency. For them election to that office meant idleness for a half year before the beginning of supervisory work, and for another half year after the completion of the term. They could not accept a teaching position pending the assumption of the superin¬ tendency, and they could not find one vacant in the middle of the school year upon leaving the county office. It is said that teachers refused, therefore, to offer themselves as candidates for the work in which their services were especially desired. A different attitude on their part is expected in the future. In Georgia it was enacted (Laws 1912, p. 180) that the terms of all county superintendents shall begin simultaneously January 1, 1913, and continue four years. Evidently the difficulties experienced in the neighboring State are not feared in Georgia, for it may be presumed that a mid-summer date might have been specified if it had been considered desirable. The parish school boards in Louisiana appear (Act No. 214) to have gained authority at the expense of the parish superintendents. The changes, however, do not seem to have been intended to deprive the superintendent of his legitimate functions, but rather to relieve him of certain nonprofessional duties and to make the county board a 58 EDUCATION REPORT, 1912. more active factor in school affairs. The board upon its own initia¬ tive now fixes the number and salaries of teachers; repairs, equips, and furnishes buildings; sells property, etc. All these formerly required the recommendation of the superintendent. Nomination of teachers is still the duty of the superintendent, but by a vote of two- thirds of the full membership the board may elect a teacher without the nomination of the superintendent. Furthermore, the superin¬ tendent himself may be removed by a two-thirds vote of the board, that power having been transferred to them from the State board of education. MUNICIPAL SCHOOL BOARDS. The time is rapidly passing for city boards of education whose members are elected as representatives of the several wards. When it is considered that few legislatures were in session, an unusually large number of city boards were reconstructed during 1912. In only two of them was the local-representative plan retained. New Orleans afforded the most conspicuous instance of reorganiza¬ tion. Formerly the board of school directors of that city consisted of 17 members, 1 elected by the voters of each of the wards of the city. By the new law (Act No. 214) the number is reduced to 5, and they are elected from the city at large for terms of four years. Three members constitute a quorum. The boards of the four Kentucky cities of the second class — namely, Lexington, Covington, Newport, and Paducah — were reorganized by the same act (ch. 137). The plan adopted for Louisville in 1910 is closely followed. A board of education is provided for each city, consisting of five members elected from the city at large. A super¬ intendent will be elected first for a two-year term, and if reelected it will be for four years. He may be removed for cause by a vote of three members of the board, and he may be dismissed at any time by a vote of four members. A business director will handle the material affairs of the schools and will act also as secretary of the board. The tax for schools must be not less than 3 mills. The citizens of Salem, Mass., were permitted (ch. 559) to determine by ballot whether to retain their old charter or to choose one of two new forms of government, the first consisting of a mayor and a council of seven members, and the principal feature of the second being a commission of five members. The school provisions were the same in both the new forms; they were characterized by a school committee of five, elected at large. Similarly, the question of the composition of the school committee was presented (ch. 341) to the qualified voters of New Bedford, Mass. The proposal contemplated a school committee consisting of the EDUCATIONAL LEGISLATION IN 1912. 59 mayor and six elected members. If the act is adopted, the school committee will have entire control of the school buildings and grounds, an important change in that city. With. certain exceptions, city boards of education in New Jersey will in future be appointed by the several mayors, and they will con¬ sist of five members each in cities of fewer than 45,000 inhabitants and of nine members in larger cities. New Mexico also provided for small city boards, and it was enacted (ch. 43) that the board of education of each incorporated city shall consist of five members elected at large. Formerly the members of all such boards were elected as ward representatives. Providence and Woonsocket, R. I., are the two cities in which the old method of selection is retained in new laws. In the former city (ch, 863) three members will be elected from each ward, and in the latter, two will be elected from each of four districts. A number of small cities and towns in Georgia received new school charters in 1912, and a great variety of forms of organization were represented. One county, Clarke, with Athens as its capital, was organized as a single district. SCHOOL FINANCE. No other feature of legislation affords a more interesting study than the appropriation bills and related measures. In them the charac-' teristics of the several States appear conspicuously; they tell the story of progress in terms that leave no doubt, for one may be sure that he sees there the bare facts, not an expression of hope. They are not by any means prosaic reading when their full significance is appreciated, when they are studied from year to year, when each State is compared with the others. Pathos may be often seen ill-con¬ cealed in stilted legal phraseology; and sometimes bits of grim humor appear, which may or may not have been so intended by the legis¬ lators. The appropriation bills of 1912 contain even more than their share of interesting provisions, and the temptation is strong to dwell upon them at greater length than the limits of this paj>er will permit. The final act of South Carolina’s effort to control the liquor traffic by handling it herself is written in the law (No. 566) ordering the dis¬ tribution within 30 days of the last money remaining in the dispen¬ sary fund. The history of the experiment is as exciting as a French romance, but the end was placid to a degree: The schools received 63 cents per pupil. In Maryland it was provided (ch. 113) that before the proceeds of the State school tax are apportioned, $4,000 per annum shall be withheld and delivered to the Garrett County school board. The reasons are set forth at length : Garrett is the largest county in the 60 EDUCATION REPOET, 1912. State; mountain ridges divide the population, and render school facili¬ ties more expensive than in other counties; the tax rate required to maintain schools for 7-J months is therefore unduly great. So the other counties generously contribute to her aid before receiving their own share. In other forms the same thing is done in many other States. The dispensary money in South Carolina, just mentioned, will be used in part for a similar purpose. The provision of a reserve fund in the constitution of New Mexico, and the legislation of 1912 (ch. 51) following its requirements, have been already mentioned briefly. The conditions of New Mexico are well known; the population is small and scattered; a large proportion of the inhabitants are Indians or of Mexican descent, and many of them speak Spanish exclusively; large areas are practically rainless, and the possibilities of agricul¬ ture are limited. Educational progress is therefore attended with unusual difficulty. In 1910 there was no school hi 84 districts; 6 others had only one month of school, and 258 had two or three months. The average for the Territory was 4J months. The need of effective aid for weak districts is therefore imperative, and the provision made is more generous than any other State has seen fit to allow. Perhaps it is more than will be needed. One-half the entire current school fund, consisting of the receipts from a State tax of 1 J mills and the income from the permanent fund, is set aside as a reserve fund. It is dis¬ tributed according to their needs to those districts which can not maintain school for 5 months with the maximum tax of 15 mills. The maximum to be allowed to any schoolroom is $300, allowing 1 room to each 50 children, or fraction thereof, in a district. Mississippi also has appropriated a fund of $5,000 annually (ch. 5) to be used in aid of weak districts which are unable to maintain school for 4 months. It is not practicable to present in a paper like this an analysis of the regular appropriations, profitable though it would be. It may be said, however, that increases are general all along the line. Higher institutions in many States have fared particularly well. In no case has a lack of friendliness to educational interests been reported. BUSINESS METHODS. Laws constantly appear forbidding public officers to contract debts in excess of then resources. Several of them were enacted in 1912. They have a good effect to be sure, but it is ordinarily very difficult to enforce the penalties provided, in South Carolina, for example, notwithstanding the prohibition in the law (sec. 1777), 342 of the 1,916 districts in the State reported deficits aggregating $64,590. EDUCATIONAL LEGISLATION IN 1912. 61 In Arizona and Kentucky new restrictions were imposed upon the administrators of certain State educational institutions, but the restrictions of Arizona were in effect nullified by the provision that the appropriations may be exceeded if necessary to provide food and clothing for inmates. This is, of course, a beneficent qualification; its only weakness is that a wise treasurer or trustee, if his funds are short, will be careful to spend his cash for other purposes which he considers necessary, and postpone his bills for food and raiment to a more convenient day. The Louisiana Legislature approached the matter from a different direction and prescribed the budget system for all school organiza¬ tions (Act No. 214). The budget of revenues shall in no case include any sum which is not reasonably certain to be received, and the budget of expenditures shall never exceed the budget of revenues. The budget of expenditures shall show anticipated expenditures in detail, and no item of indebtedness not included in the budget shall be paid by the treasurer under penalty of personal liability, enforce¬ able by any taxpayer before any court of justice. No provision is made for a revision of the budget during the year, except in relation to receipts from, unexpected or contingent sources not included in the original budget. This system has manifest advantages, but perhaps it will be modified in practice, either with or without formal legisla¬ tive sanction, so that sums not required for certain items may be applied to unforeseen contingencies. SCHOOL BONDS. As usual, a large proportion of the legislation of 1912 was in rela¬ tion to school district bonds. Much of it was of the petty character that the bond issues demand to an extraordinary extent. Nothing else in the field of school administration presents so many perplex¬ ities and causes so many aggravating controversies as the issue and sale of bonds. These evidences of debt exist as negotiable securities for the life of a generation, and they are usually sold and resold many times before the day of final redemption. A thousand contingencies arise during the life of a series to affect their status. The officers who issued them are almost invariably dead or out of office from some other cause before the bonds mature, and the issuing district itself may have been reorganized out of existence in the meantime. It is essential, therefore, that every minute detail of the lav/ be observed in order that payment may be assured beyond the. possibility of a doubt. Otherwise the “securities’’ are not secure, and they are without value in the market. A law authorizing any bond issue is always drawn with care, and all the steps of procedure are set forth as clearly as possible. Never¬ theless, the probability of error on the part of some one is very great, 62 EDUCATION REPORT, 1912. for not all school officers are trained in the minutiae of the law and of finance. If not observed and corrected in time, an error, apparently trivial though it may he, usually causes a series of vexatious delays or controversies, frequently leading to the courts or requiring addi¬ tional legislation. The practice prevails in North Carolina and Virginia of lending certain moneys of the State permanent fund to school districts under proper conditions. That plan seems to be an excellent one. It avoids the pitfalls that surround the sale of bonds in open market, and in a most effective way it simplifies the problems of financing schoolhouse construction. There is never a question of the validity of a loan, and there is no doubt of the sufficiency of the security, for the State board of education is in a position to control both sides of each transaction if necessary. The plan may be commended for wider adoption. The use of bonds as an aid to schoolhouse construction is a recent development in the Southern States. Even yet there is no legal authority for such action in Florida, and in other States the provisions are very inadequate. The reason for this is to be found in the manner in which the public school system developed in that section. In the beginning of the public school systems the States frequently subsi¬ dized private schools, and that practice, which still exists in some of the States,1 often avoided the necessity of building at public expense. The districts were not accustomed to provide schoolhouses by tax¬ ation, and naturally did not feel the need of bond issues in the earlier stages of their development. In recent years, however, all the devices of school administration have been utilized more freely in the South, and the advantages of distributing capital expenditures over a series of years have been generally realized. In Georgia “ local tax districts” were authorized (No. 537, p. 176) to issue bonds, if approved by a majority of the qualified voters. The Mississippi Legislature went still further and authorized (ch. 159) county boards of supervisors to raise money on bonds for building schoolhouses in rural districts. Another provision of the latter law affords an interesting side light upon the customs of many parts of the South. It permits county supervisors to levy a tax in any district, when requested to do so by the majority of taxpayers thereof, for the purpose of providing fuel and paying incidental expenses. It has been customary in the past to raise money for such purposes by collecting an incidental fee from each pupil, and a long step in advance is indicated by this law, even 1 In Maryland the act of Apr. 11, 1912 (eh. 583), authorized the county school commissioners of Frederick County to pay $250 annually to the Sisters of Charity of St. Euphemia’s School for educating colored chil¬ dren. In Georgia, in 1911, the schools were operated 140 days; the “free term” was 114 days (40th An. Kept. Dept, of Education, 1911). EDUCATIONAL LEGISLATION IN 1912. 63 if its terms do not presage general adoption. It will probably be many years before the incidental fee is entirely a thing of the past in the South. SCHOOL BUILDINGS. Satisfactory laws for issuing bonds must necessarily wait on com¬ plete provision for local taxation. This is still a desideratum in some of the Southern States, but the energy with which the problem is attacked promises early improvement. State funds may ordinarily be used for teachers’ salaries only; it is expected that buildings and material equipment shall be furnished by local action. The degree of effectiveness of local tax laws, there¬ fore, is shown most clearly in the condition of the schoolhouses. And it is in this that the rural schools show their greatest deficiency. State appropriations to aid local boards in building and improving houses have proved to be a stimulus of great value. The experience of Alabama with an annual appropriation of $67,000 was discussed in the Annual Report of 1911. A similar favorable result for a like appropriation is reported from South Carolina. The sum of $20,000 was made available in February, 1912, and the entire amount was exhausted by the middle of April. Nearly all the buildings for which State aid was given, 89 in number, were in country districts, and none of them wrould have constructed without that stimulus. Never¬ theless, the amount contributed by patrons and local trustees was 14 tunes as much as the State appropriations.1 A novel addition to the machinery of school administration is reported from Kentucky. By the act of March 11, 1912 (ch. 30), upon the application of 250 householders in any county, the county judge must appoint a u building school commission” of four mem¬ bers. This commission shall direct the construction and equipment of all schoolhouses erected in the county. All matters relating to the purchase or condemnation of sites are confided to them, and they will handle all moneys received from the sale of school bonds. Plans for buildings, however, must be approved by the county board of education, and title to property is vested in that body. The movement for wider use of schoolhouses continues to progress. Kentucky is the latest State to authorize such use of buildings, and the act of March 13, 1912 (ch. 67), opens the doors to lawful assem¬ blages of educational, religious, agricultural, political, civic, or social bodies. The existing law to similar effect in Massachusetts was broadened (ch. 320) to permit the collection of admission fees. In every instance the means of egress must be approved by an inspector of public buildings before any schoolroom or hall may be used for such assemblages. 1 44th An. Rep. State Supt. of Education of South Carolina.. 1912, p. 27. 64 EDUCATION REPORT, 1912. TEACHERS. EXAMINATION AND CERTIFICATION. State systems of certification were provided in the two general school lav/s passed during 1912, namely, in Arizona (ch. 77) and in Louisiana (No. 214). The methods are substantially similar in both. Question papers are prepared by a committee of examiners and sent to the county superintendents, who conduct the examinations and return the papers to the State examining committee. Those per¬ sons grade the papers, and all certificates are issued by State author¬ ity and are valid throughout the entire State. This is the plan which experience has shown to be the most effective; it has been adopted in all the States in which there has been serious legislation upon the subject within recent years. Formerly examinations were conducted in Louisiana by “ parish examiners/’ and certificates were good only in the county of issue, unless the papers were examined and the certificates indorsed by the proper officers of another county. In addition to the parish cer¬ tificates, there was a series of State certificates conducted by the State board of examiners. The new law of Louisiana upon the subject (No. 214) does not specify the subjects of examination for the several grades of certifi¬ cates, but directs the State board of education to determine them. It is unusual to give this power formally to the State board, but it is nevertheless a proper provision, since it tends to elasticity and there¬ fore to good administration. In reality it adds nothing to power already given, for the nature of the questions asked and the manner of rating actually determine the worth of any certificate, notwith¬ standing the lists of subjects incorporated in the laws. SALARIES AND TENURE. It is not often that a maximum is fixed for teachers’ salaries, but that has been done in Kentucky for rural elementary schools. Chap¬ ter 117, Laws of 1912, provides that not over $70 a month and not less than $35 shall be paid for Such service, and that the amount paid shall be based on and regulated by the qualifications of the teacher and the number of children in attendance in proportion to the school population. Regulations by which salaries shall be graded must be promulgated by the State board of education. Ail this has the aspect of novelty, and it will be interesting to observe the operation of the lav/. No appropriation is provided by which salaries may be raised to comply v/ith the regulations if local funds are not sufficient, but there is a clause authorizing county boards to combine State and county funds. It is not clear whether that affects the salary question; but it is a fact that State funds may EDUCATIONAL LEGISLATION IN 1912. 65 be used for teachers only. It will be remembered that in Pennsyl¬ vania, and perhaps in other States, a minimum salary is fixed and a State fund is used to maintain that minimum. Several laws were enacted in Maryland providing minimum sal¬ aries in individual counties, and in all cases the amount specified was from $100 to $150 greater than the prescribed minimum for the entire State. All these laws provided that the county boards of commissioners shall levy additional taxes to cover the expense. Another law (ch. 138), general in its application (excepting Garrett County), reduced the number of pupils necessary to bring a school within the minimum salary provisions; now every white teacher of a school whose average attendance is 10 (instead of 15) or more shall receive at least $300 per annum. The climate of Arizona is well known to be favorable to persons afflicted with tuberculosis, and many teachers are included in the number of persons so affected who have gone to Arizona in search of health. Naturally, some of them have found places in the public schools. This, however, will no longer be permitted, and the law of March 16 (ch. 37) forbids the payment of salary to any person suffering with that disease. Periodical physical examinations are required at the discretion of the school board. In relation to tenure of position, the paragraph concerning New Orleans, La. (Act No. 214), is the only new law of general interest that appeared during 1912. It provides that all teachers now in service shall be regarded as permanent employees, and none of them shall be removed except on written charges of immorality, neglect of duty, incompetency, malfeasance, or nonfeasance, of which he has been found guilty after investigation and report according to the regulations of the board of directors. Marriage of a female teacher, however, at once vacates her position. Appointments hi the future shall be for one year, but after three years7 satisfactory service the appointment shall be permanent. PENSIONS. Arizona. — To the new State of Arizona must be accorded the dis¬ tinction of having a retirement law (ch. 95) that is by far the best in the United States, It is best, first, because it provides a reason¬ ably adequate annuity, namely, $600 a year; second, because it does not reduce salaries under the fiction of “assessments,” but provides that all annuities shall be paid direct from State funds; third, because it is State wide hi operation and avoids all controversies concerning the place of service and the proportion of individual pensions -which certain districts should pay; fourth, because there is no complicated administrative machinery, the control of the entire matter being hi the hands of the State board of education and the 66 EDUCATION REPORT, 1912. superintendent of public instruction; and, fifth, because its sim¬ plicity and the absence of restrictions permit its application to any deserving case. Practically the only limitation is that the annuitant shall have served 25 years in the public schools of Arizona; all the rest is in the discretion of the State board of education. No other law possesses all these good points in combination. In Rhode Island and Maryland the principles of State control and direct payments by the State are observed, but in neither State is the annuity so nearly adequate and in neither is such large discretion given to the administrative board. In any system and under any plan of retirement the judgment of some officer or of some board must finally decide who shall retire and when. Uniform policies are desirable hi this, and the State board of education is the body upon which such decisions should logically rest. Many existing laws provide that after a given number of years of service any teacher shall be retired upon his own application. Per¬ haps such a clause would improve the Arizona law. On the con¬ trary, it may be said that many teachers are still able to render valuable service after 40 years’ experience, and in such case the inter¬ est of the State should prevail over the wish of the individual. In any event, the board that decides fairly a disability case after 25 years’ service may be trusted to decide as fairly upon the application of one who has served 15 years longer.1 The Arizona statute requires that each claim for quarterly pension shall be approved by the superintendent of public instruction before payment. This is clearly for the purpose of guarding against pos¬ sible imposition by persons retired for disability. All such laws must make some provision for the removal from the rolls of pensioners who have recovered from then* former disability; and the State superintendent or the State board of education is presumably the proper authority to control the matter. Between the two there is little difference, inasmuch as the superintendent is the right hand of the board. Virginia. — This matter arose hi Virginia also during 1912, and it was enacted (ch. 329) that either the State board of education or the State board of health may examine a disability pensioner at any time, and shall examine each one at intervals of three years. If either board decides that disability no longer exists, the pension shall cease. There is no reason why the board of health should not 1 A letter from Hon. C. O. Case, State superintendent of Arizona, dated Apr. 9, 1913, contains the fol¬ lowing: “The hoard of education at its meeting Sept. 7, 1912, granted the application of Misses M. A. Tyrrell, Mary E. Post, and Sue H. Summers to he placed upon the retired list after service of more than 25 years in the public schools of Arizona. “An age limit of 60 or 65 years was urged by some of the legislators, but as the matter of retiring a teacher after the 25 years’ service is optional with the board, it is not expected that any will be retired as long as their services are valuable to the State. “Only the three applications have been made^eacli being a worthy subject for a position.” EDUCATIONAL LEGISLATION IN 1912. 67 be asked for advice in such cases, and it would not be amiss, per¬ haps, to give to that board positive duties in making examinations desired by the board of education; but the alternative provisions of the Virginia law can not be expected to prove satisfactory. In effect, since either board may examine, neither must. Presumably a working agreement will be made by the two boards; otherwise the law must be amended to prevent duplicating examinations in some cases and omitting them in others. Maryland. — The Maryland retirement lav/ was amended hi 1912 (ch. 135) so as to give the State board of education more direct con¬ trol and a wider discretion in its administration. The board is authorized to waive the age limit of 60 years in extraordinary cases; and pensions in future will be paid by the treasurer of the board instead of by the State treasurer. New Jersey. — Two pension systems have been established by laws of New Jersey and exist side by side. Both are State wide, but neither is properly a State system. One is based upon the assessment plan, with only nominal aid from the State treasury, although public officers are on the managing board; the other is purely local, each district being required to retire teachers on half pay after 35 years’ service, 20 of which must have been in the district. It is significant that the latter system is rapidly developing. Formerly retirement depended on the application of the beneficiary, but by the act of March 13, 1912 (ch. 58), the local boards of education may retire eligible teachers without application. It is not to be expected that the two systems will continue indefi¬ nitely, and it remains to be seen what form the inevitable consoli¬ dation will assume. It may be that a general State pension system is presaged by the act of April 1, 1912 (ch. 323), providing for the retirement on half pay of officers and employees of penal and reforma¬ tory institutions. This development would be an easy transition from the present conditions. New Yorlc. — The New York law relating to pensions for teachers in State institutions was amended in 1912 (ch. 293), making it decidedly more favorable to its beneficiaries. The former age limits, namely, 70 years for retirement on application and 65 years on recom¬ mendation of a board of trustees, were removed. Service in teachers’ institutes may count toward the 30 years’ service required, and it is no longer necessary that 10 years’ service shall immediately precede an application for retirement. Furthermore, the maximum allow¬ ance is fixed at $1,000 per annum for teachers as well as for principals. Local lavjs. — In addition to these laws of general application, retirement funds based principally upon assessments were established for Baltimore County, Md. (ch. 83), Alleghany County, Md (ch. 463), Louisville, Ky. (ch. 129). All were drawn along familiar lines. 68 EDUCATION REPOET, 1912. A little out of the ordinary course of events, however, were the Maryland law (ch. 818) directing the county commissioners of Balti¬ more County to pay to Blanch Paxton Baldwin, “ an afflicted ex¬ public school-teacher,” an annual pension of $200, and the law of the same State (ch. 45) authorizing the school commissioners of Washington County to pay Amanda Barr a pension of $200 per annum. The preamble of the latter act explains that the beneficiary was a faithful teacher for 35 years, and was during that time totally disabled. She has been incapacitated for work since 1909. NORMAL SCHOOLS. No new normal school was established in 1912, and excepting the usual appropriations, which seemed to be a little more generous than usual, there is little to record of legislation concerning them. The New Jersey Legislature did pass a bill (ch. 369) establishing an addi¬ tional normal school, but failed to follow the act with an appropriation, and the act was necessarily a nullity. An appropriation of $126,500 was made (ch. 26) for the new normal college at Hattiesburg, Miss., and the institution should begin under favorable auspices. Further preparations were made for the removal of the Maryland State Normal School from its old site in Baltimore. The building commission was directed to sell the property of the school at La Fayette and Carrollton Avenues and to use the proceeds in the construction of buildings upon the new site. It was also authorized to raise $600,000 by the sale of bonds for the same purpose. In Massachusetts the normal schools received more than their usual share of attention. In addition to several bills of local importance relating to individual schools, a general act (ch. 79) was passed con¬ cerning the business aff airs of all of them. Criticism has been directed in the past to the manner in which accounts were kept in some of the institutions, and in order to produce uniformity it was enacted that receipts from pupils for board and from all other sources shall be paid monthly into the treasury of the Commonwealth. All claims for ser¬ vices and bills for food and supplies shall be audited and paid as other claims against the State are paid. This means, of course, that ah the financial transactions of the normal schools shall be handled in Boston. The old question of whether it is the duty of the State to train teachers for service in cities again arose in Massachusetts, and the State board of education was directed to investigate and report whether the Boston Normal School should be transferred to the State. COMPULSORY ATTENDANCE. Kentucky.— One of the important features of the report of the legislative committee of the Kentucky Educational Association was its insistence upon u an efficient compulsory education law.” In this EDUCATIONAL LEGISLATION IN 1912. 69 respect different laws have governed the cities of the several classes and the common school districts. The acts relating to the munici¬ palities have been improved from time to time, and seem to be reasonably effective; but in the rural districts there could hai7e been little of compulsion that was worthy of the name Even il the machinery of enforcement had been of the modern type, the com¬ pulsory term was too short to be of much value — only eight weeks. The agitation initiated by the committee resulted in the passage of a law (eh. 96) requiring that attendance shall continue each year during the entire session of the public schools, but under it the com¬ pulsory period is from 7 to 12 years of age, instead of from 7 to 14 as before. Teachers are required to report to the district trustee promptly and regularly the names of parents who fail to send their children to school; and the school trustee shall prosecute the offend¬ ing parents in the county court. It remains to be seen whether this law will prove altogether “effi¬ cient,” but it is a great improvement over the old statute, and the teachers’ committee may count its passage as a distinct achievement. The principle of State- wide compulsion has been recognized, and it may be confidently expected that its application in detail will be made more and more effective as the years add experience in its operation. Maryland . — Another " border State” attacked the same problem in an entirely different way (Md. Laws 1912, ch. 173). Maryland is no more ready for a full measure of compulsion than Kentucky, but the Maryland constitution does not prohibit local laws upon general subjects, as the constitutions of Western States generally do, and it is possible there to enact stringent laws applying to ■com¬ munities which desire them, exempting communities which desire exemption. The difference between the two types of organization are well shown in the new compulsory laws of the two States mentioned. The Kentucky law is very moderate in its terms, but it applies to all the counties in the State; the Maryland law, on the contrary, is much stronger, but it applies immediately to Baltimore city only , exempts six counties outright, and is left optional with all the other counties. Adoption, however, will mean real enforcement, for attendance officers must be employed and no halfway measures will be tolerated; the law has a businesslike ring that argues well for its effectiveness. Four counties had actually put the law in operation before Novem¬ ber, 1912, and two others were planning to enforce it in 1913. The matter was still under consideration in five counties, three had not considered it at all, and three had decided adversely.1 1 Letter from Mr. B. X. Purdum, assistant State superintendent, dated Feb. 5, 1913. 70 EDUCATION REPORT, 1912. CHILD LABOR. Arizona. — When Arizona has become a manufacturing State like Massachusetts, a mining State like Colorado, and an agricultural State like Missouri, she will still be able to boast a child-labor law that meets every requirement of her complex civilization, and she need not amend her present law in the meantime. The act of May 13, 1912 (ch. 32), bears in every paragraph evidence not only of legal acumen, but of a thorough knowledge of the enactments of other States; it avoids the weaknesses and adopts the strong points of all of them; the occupations permitted or prohibited at the several ages are graded with the utmost nicety and with rare judgment, although many of them may not be seen in Arizona within the life of this generation; its methods of enforcement are ideal; the penalties are well adjusted to the gravity of each offense; and without hesi¬ tation or reservation it may be said that the newest State in the Union has a law to govern the employment of its children that is at least the equal of that of any other State in the Union. In short, Arizona enacted the “ uniform child-labor bill” advocated by the National Child Labor Committee. It only remains to enforce it. Exactly 37 children under 16 years of age were employed in the industries of the Territory of Arizona in 1909.1 Maryland. — An equally comprehensive statute, that is practically all new, w~as enacted in Maryland (ch. 731, Apr. 11). It was appar¬ ently homemade, but it, too, shows clearly the influence of the Child Labor Committee, and well it might, for the work of that organiza¬ tion is worthy of the highest commendation. One must go back to the days of Mrs. Mary H. Hunt in her prime to find a parallel to the extent and effectiveness of its legislative activity. Like the Arizona law, the Maryland statute is ahead of the times, for it presupposes conditions in relation to compulsory school attend¬ ance that exist in only a few counties; but it is none the worse for that, and it may be instrumental in bringing about a wider extension of the attendance law. It may even be so enforced as to be in a measure a compulsory attendance law of itself. It is plainly the intent of the legislature to make it a real law and not a mere ornament to the statute books, for the appropriation for enforcement was increased from $8,000 to $12,000. Mississippi. — The southern legislatures are more amenable to arguments for child-labor legislation than for compulsory attend¬ ance. In this history repeats itself, for the same was. true of New England in the early days. A law wras enacted in Mississippi (ch. 165, Mar. 16) that is excellent in many of its provisions, although it will probably be less effective in operation than it would be if special Census Report on Manufactures, 1909, Vol. IX, p. 40. EDUCATIONAL LEGISLATION IN 1912. 71 officers were provided for its enforcement. Nevertheless, it indi¬ cates an awakening public sentiment that will undoubtedly develop with the increase of manufacturing. Mississippi, however, is still essentially an agricultural State, not¬ withstanding the boll weevil and the discouraging condition of the sugar market. The largest city in the State had fewer than 25,000 inhabitants in 1910, and only four others had more than 10,000. There are few child-employing industries in the State; 14 establish¬ ments manufacturing cotton goods, and 11 canneries, constitute nearly the entire list. The child-labor problem can not, therefore, be rated as of transcendent importance, and the law that was passed must be deemed a reasonable response to the demand that existed. Massachusetts. — In the States that really have a child-labor problem the laws have developed, as a rule, to the point of effectiveness, and the legislation in them in 1912 was generally of supplemental char¬ acter. Perhaps the most significant of the new enactments was the Massachusetts law (ch. 706) providing for a commission to fix the minimum wages of women and minors. It was provided also (ch. 96) that seats shall be furnished for women and children employed in manufacturing, mechanical, and mercantile establishments. New York. — The legal hours of labor for minors employed in factories in New York were reduced (ch. 538) as follows; For males under 18 years of age and females under 21, maximum, 54 (instead of 60 hours per week, 9 (instead of 10) hours per day. Females undei 21 shall not work before 6 a. in., nor after 9 p. m. It was also enacted (ch. 333) that every child who applies for an employment certificate shall be examined by a medical officer of the local board of health to determine the fitness of the applicant for the work he intends to do. Messenger laws. — In the cities of South Carolina which contain more than 5,000 inhabitants it is now unlawful to employ any child under 14 as a messenger, or to employ any minor under 18 in that capacity between 10 p. m. and 5 a. m. (ch. 405). In Rhode Island no minor under 21 may be similarly employed during the same hours (ch. 814). The laws of Arizona and Maryland, already dis¬ cussed in this section, include “messenger clauses” as a matter of course, similar in their purport to those of South Carolina and Rhode Island. TRANSPORTATION OF PUPILS AND CONSOLIDATION OF SCHOOLS. New Jersey. — What seems to be the most effective arrangement yet devised for handling the matter of transportation is included in chapter 141 of the Acts of New Jersey, 1912. It will be remembered that at least three-fourths of all the money expended for public education in that State passes through the State 77236°— ED 1912— VOL 1 - 7 72 EDUCATION REPORT, 1912. treasury. A county tax, uniform over the entire State, provides the smews of the system. It is called the 11 State tax” and is paid into the State treasury and, although it is sent back to the counties from which it came, it is subject to apportionment by the county superin¬ tendent, who is really a*State agent. The new law provides that 75 per cent of the cost of all transpor¬ tation of pupils shall be paid from the “ State funds,” and the neces¬ sary amount shall be withheld by the county superintendent before making the apportionment to the districts. The entire matter will be under the control of the county superintendent, for he must approve the necessity, cost, and method in every case. In effect, therefore, transportation in New Jersey is a State and not a local matter. Under the direction of such highly qualified men as county superintendents are required to be; with favorable conditions of population; with level country and good roads; and with no lack of money for every proper purpose, it may be confidently expected that there will be developed in New Jersey a system of transportation without an equal in the country. It is difficult to imagine any important factor that is lacking for complete success. Kentucky. — An adverse court decision in Kentucky was the cause of the complete cessation for a time of all transportation of pupils at public expense in that State. No constitutional objection was raised to the practice, but it was held that no action had been taken by the legislature that could be construed as authorizing any expenditure of public money for the purchase of wagons or for pupil transportation. The objection was speedily met, and the act signed March 18, 1912 (ch. 117), left no doubt of the intention of the lawmakers. County boards of education were authorized to consolidate districts, and to submit to the voters thereof the question of levying additional tax for the purposes of transportation. It was provided that any funds available for local expenses might be used for transportation, whether specifically so stated or not. South Carolina.— Ail act to provide for consolidated and graded schools (No. 497), which became a law on February 26, 1912, proved to be immediately beneficial and stimulating. By its terms any strictly rural district may receive from the State $300 per annum if it maintains a well-housed and well-equipped school with 3 or more certificated teachers and at least 75 pupils enrolled. A district simi¬ larly equipped as to building and furniture, but with only 2 teachers and 50 pupils enrolled, may receive as State aid $200 per annum. The State fund may in any case be used for transportation if the county superintendent approves the arrangements. The total appropriation for this purpose was $15,000, and it was apportioned almost immediately. Fifty-eight communities in 20 EDUCATIONAL LEGISLATION IN 1912. 73 counties shared in benefits, and it was necessary to decline 42 other applications. The State superintendent is highly gratified at the re¬ sult and desires at least $40,000 for the same purpose in 1913. 1 Like results have followed a similar appropriation in Virginia, and the allotment for rural schools of 2, 3, and 4 rooms was increased in 1912 from $25,000 to $75,000 per annum. TEXTBOOKS. Men unfamiliar with the practices of others in handling long-stand¬ ing problems, when confronted with those problems sometimes devise surprisingly direct means for attaining results that had previously been reached only through complicated processes. An instance of this has been cited in the teachers’ pension law of Arizona, a State whose officers were without experience in the practical conduct of pension administration. Another instance equally striking may be found in the free textbook law (ch. 72, May 18, 1912) of the same State. In a few concise paragraphs the whole knotty problem of textbook supply is solved at a stroke. The simplicity of the thing is such that one wonders after it is done why it had never been done before. The State board of education adopts a series of books for the entire State and buys them; the county superintendent orders from the board what his estimates show that his county will need, and he supplies the district trustees, who in turn supply the pupils. Payment is made from the State school fund before apportionment, and the books remain the property of the State. What could be more simple? There is no question of the prices to be paid by districts or pupils, no requirements for supply depots, no need of stern penalties for failure to use adopted books, no difficulty in enforcing the State course of study — none of those complications which produce almost endless chapters of laws every year. If free books are the proper policy, and if State uniformity is desirable, then Arizona has the ideal system. PLAYGROUNDS. The idea of directed play has so far received attention princi¬ pally in those States in which the school systems have reached a stage of advancement which makes it possible to devote time and money to matters of the second order of importance. In the South the elemental needs still hold attention. More comfortable build¬ ings must be constructed ; more trained teachers must be secured ; a longer school term”8 must be provided; the negro must be more ade¬ quately instructed. All these require earnest work and money — a great deal more than the present resources furnish — and playgrounds must wait their turn. Besides, southern cities as a rule are not Report 1911-12, p. 25. 74 EDUCATION REPORT, 1912. compactly built ; in most of them there is no lack of vacant space for play, and the country is “ the open country,” indeed. It is not surprising, therefore, to find that in the year under con¬ sideration all legislation for playgrounds was confined to the States of the East. None of the laws was of especial importance, for nearly all of them were supplemental in character. In Massachusetts, towns of over 5,000 inhabitants were authorized to vote to maintain one or more public playgrounds and to acquire land for the same (ch. 223) ; in New Jersey the mayors of certain cities were empowered to ap¬ point municipal playground commissioners without reference to or confirmation by the respective city councils; in Rhode Island the city council of Providence was authorized to provide for a board of commissioners to manage the playgrounds of the city. All these laws are of the sort that come from time to time after an idea is well rooted. They are for extension and improvement of detail rather than for original establishment. On the other hand, in Maryland, a “ border State,” which as a whole is like the South in its sentiment and like the North in its prosperity, formal recognition was given to the playground movement by the provision that land may be con¬ demned for playgrounds or for other school purposes, as well as for building sites. The maximum area that may be condemned for a school was fixed at 5 acres instead of 1 acre (ch. 532). HIGH SCHOOLS. New Mexico. — Except in New Mexico and Arizona there was no general legislation of importance in 1912 in behalf of high schools of the standard type. The New Mexico law (ch. 57) is of more than usual interest, for it is unique in some of its provisions. It contem¬ plates the establishment of a county high school in any county of more than 5,000 inhabitants, upon the approval of the majority of the electors of the county. The control of each school is vested in the board of directors of the district in which the high school is located, but the county superintendent is an ex officio member. That board may levy a special tax not exceeding 2 mills upon all the property in the county and must use the receipts thereof only for the maintenance and operation of the county high school. The site and building must be furnished by the district. All children of the county who have completed the eighth grade may attend gratis. The course of study of every county high school must include manual training, domestic science, the elements of agriculture, and com¬ mercial science. More than one county high school may be established in a county, and in that case the receipts from the special tax must be appor- EDUCATIONAL LEGISLATION IN 1912. 75 tinned between the schools on the basis of the number of pupils who attended at least half the regular sessions of the previous year. Arizona. — The Arizona high-school law has little in common with that of New Mexico. In Arizona the district, not the county, is the unit. Any district with 200 pupils or more in average attendance may establish a high school, and two or more districts may unite for the purpose. The course of study must in each case be approved by the State board of education, and the qualifications for promotion from the eighth grade to the high school must be prescribed by the same body. AGRICULTURAL AND INDUSTRIAL TRAINING. It is indicative of current thought that the topic which occupied the attention of legislators in 1912 more than any other was voca¬ tional training, in the form of either agriculture, the mechanical in¬ dustries, or domestic economy. The “ commercial branches,” which received so much attention a few years ago, are rarely mentioned in recent laws, although they do appear occasionally as a further evidence that the typical American course is the resultant of many forces applied in the form of widespread u movements,” each of which has exerted a permanent influence. To trace these movements is to study the history of American education. In a measure they seem to recur in cycles, taking, per¬ haps, a different form at every appearance. While each is in the ascendant it fairly monopolizes the discussions in gatherings of teachers, fills the educational journals, and affects legislation both directly and indirectly. Education after the manner of Fellenberg at Hofwyl was a leading topic in the early years of the nineteenth century. The monitorial system of Bell and Lancaster followed hard upon its heels, and was the vogue for many years. Gymnastics held sway at the beginning of the second quarter of the century, and was followed in turn by manual labor schools, grading, physiology and hygiene, professional supervision, training of teachers, light gym¬ nastics of the Dio Lewis sort. During the Civil War, naturally, no study was pursued so zealously as military drill. Afterward came agricultural colleges, compulsory attendance, com¬ mercial education, the kindergarten, temperance instruction, Swedish gymnastics, manual training, nature study, Herbartianism, educa¬ tional psychology, and many others. All were “ fads ” in the begin¬ ning, but nearly all became substantial realities in their permanent impress upon the country’s schools. With us to-day in full vigor are vocational training in its several forms, and the Montessori method. 76 EDUCATION REPORT, 1912. Agriculture has had its turn at least as often as any other subject. It was the principal feature in the schools of the Fellenberg type; it was the favorite pursuit in the manual labor schools, which were, in fact, inspired by Fellenberg’s ideas; it was the prime purpose of the institutions established under the Morrill Act in imitation of the Michigan Agricultural College ; and it now dominates the vocational education movement to such an extent that it is usually considered a thing apart. No branch is vocational to a greater degree than agri¬ culture; the same considerations apply equally in the advocacy of training in agriculture and of training in the mechanic arts. Yet the agricultural side of vocational training shows such preponder¬ ance that in popular use the term u vocational ” is usually applied to the mechanical industries alone. For the sake of convenience, agri¬ culture is ordinarily treated as a matter entirely distinct from voca¬ tional education. LAWS FOR THE “ RURAL UPLIFT.” Agriculture in the schools is but a part of the general “ rural uplift” movement, the manifestations of which are of common knowledge. It is interesting to note how that movement affected legislation in 1912, and how the general interest in the conditions of farming communities has brought forth measures for their amelio¬ ration. The most comprehensive action was taken in Maryland, where the legislature provided for a commission, to be known as the “Maryland Country Life Commission,” to investigate the prob¬ lems of country life and to suggest policies and legislation for the benefit of farmers (ch. 742). In this the Maryland Legislature followed the example of President Roosevelt in constituting the “ country life commission,” whose deliberations attracted so much attention a few years ago. No other investigation of like scope was initiated in 1912, but a number of specific laws were passed which tended to accomplish the ends desired in Maryland. In Louisiana the “ police juries ” of the several parishes were authorized to maintain experimental farms, and also to appropriate money for demonstration work in cooper¬ ation with the representatives of the United States Department of Agriculture. In Massachusetts an appropriation was made to enable incorporated agricultural societies to offer prizes to children under 18 years of age for excellence of animals or crops grown, for stock judging, etc. The United Agricultural Board of Virginia, which was consti¬ tuted in 1910, was reorganized in 1912 (ch. 153). This boaTd: is charged with the duty of directing the “ farm demonstration work ” of the State, and it was originally composed of 11 members, 9 of EDUCATIONAL LEGISLATION IN 1912. 77 whom were State officers and members of State boards of Virginia, and 2 representatives of the United States Department of Agri¬ culture. The number was reduced by the act of 1912 to 4, namely, the governor of Virginia, the State superintendent of public instruc¬ tion, the general director of demonstration work of the United States Department of Agriculture, and the Virginia director of the demon¬ stration work of the United States Department of Agriculture. The former law contemplated a division of the work between several State authorities, but all of it is now concentrated in the single board of small membership. Clearly the new law is in the interest of simplicity and effectiveness. The board will control or direct the expenditure of all funds available for farm demonstrations con¬ tributed by the State, the several counties thereof, the Department of Agriculture, and the General Education Board. An interesting outcome of the increased attention to rural affairs is the development of a rural police system in a number of the States, similar to the Canadian mounted police and the Mexican rurales. Such organizations were provided in 1912 in New Mexico and in South Carolina. Although the system is not yet State wide in the latter case, many of the counties are included. SCHOOLS OF AGRICULTURE AND THE INDUSTRIES. In relation to schools of agriculture and the industries, there was marked activity in 1912, and important measures were passed in every legislature that was in session. New schools of secondary grade were specifically provided in Massachusetts (Bristol County and Essex County), New York (on Long Island), Maryland (Caro¬ line County). In other States, of which Virginia is an example, increased appropriations resulted in new schools that were not indi¬ vidually named in the law. Existing schools of this type were strengthened by largely increased appropriations, especially in Georgia, Massachusetts, and Mississippi. Massachusetts is impelled by the variety of her industries con¬ stantly to increase the variety of her vocational institutions. The educational officers and legislators are vigilant in recognizing each new demand as it appears, but it is often the pressure from the rear that forces Massachusetts to the front in nearly all lines of educa¬ tional endeavor. The people have learned to put in the schools what they wish to appear in the State; better than the people of any other State in the Union they have learned the relation between education and life. In that is the explanation of the high standing of the school system of the State. A new instance of characteristic enterprise appears in Resolution No. 16, directing the State board of education to investigate the advisability and cost of establishing 78 EDUCATION REPORT, 1912. and maintaining a State school for designing, modeling, and manu¬ facturing silverware and jewelry. It is probable, therefore, that the prestige of priority in special schools, conspicuously established by the normal schools, art schools, and textile schools of Massachusetts will be maintained in a new class of institutions. Rhode Island. — The New Jersey plan of paying from the State treasury half the cost of industrial training has found favor in Rhode Island. By the act of May 3, 1912 (ch. 845), any town which main¬ tains day or evening classes for vocational industrial education, in¬ cluding instruction in agriculture and training in mechanic and other industrial arts, may receive from the State a sum equal to half the expenditure for the same. In addition, any town maintaining instruction in manual training and household arts may receive from the State one-half the cost of the apparatus purchased. New Mexico. — The requirement of industrial subjects in the high schools of New Mexico was mentioned in a preceding section. In addition, the State board of education was authorized (ch. 52) to prescribe a course of study in industrial education for all public schools, to include domestic science, manual training, and agriculture. The board was authorized also to include industrial training in the institute manual, and to require all teachers attending institutes and summer schools to pass an examination in one or more branches of industrial education. It was evidently expected that the State board would promptly act upon the authority granted it, for the same law directed — not authorized — the State superintendent of public instruction to appoint a State director of industrial education and to prescribe his duties. A, salary of $1,000 per annum was provided for this officer^ to be paid from the State treasury; and in addition a fee ranging from $20 to $30 must be paid to him by each county which he visits for purposes of instruction. His traveling expenses will be paid by the State. Arizona. — In this State vocational training was the subject of a separate law (ch. 45). Like many other new school laws of that State, the provisions are well conceived and well stated. An}7 high school properly located and well equipped for instruction in agricul¬ ture, mining, manual training, domestic science, or other vocational pursuits may be designated by the State board of education to main¬ tain such courses. Half the cost, not exceeding $2,500 in any one case, will be borne by the State. Mississippi. — No less than 11 laws wTere enacted in Mississippi in 1912 relating to county agricultural high schools. Several of them related to individual institutions or to the temporary use of funds raised for such schools pending establishment, but 2 of them were of great value to all the schools as a class. By the first, counties were authorized (ch. 150) to issue bonds for the purpose of raising money EDUCATIONAL LEGISLATION IN 1912. 79 to establish agricultural high schools. By the second, the State appropriation was increased from $1,500 to $2,000 per annum to each school in which the number of boarding pupils exceeds 30, and to $2,500 to each school in which there are more than 40 such pupils. Undoubtedly these two statutes will largely increase the extent and efficiency of agricultural instruction in Mississippi. South Carolina, — One of the earliest incidents in the history of agricultural education in America was the bequest of Dr. John de la Howe, a native of Hanover, who left the bulk of his estate for the endowment of a farm school “ for educating, boarding, and clothing twelve poor boys and twelve poor girls of Abbeville district.” Five, hundred acres of arable land, 1,000 acres of forest, and an endowment of $42,000 were left to the institution. It was stated in Barnard’s Journal of Education1 that the school was put into actual operation in 1817, at Lethe, in Abbeville County ; and the possession of farm, stock, and implements in 1854 was mentioned. If the school was established as stated by Barnard it was not con¬ tinued, for an act of the South Carolina Legislature (No. 572, Feb. 25, 1912) authorized the trustees of the estate to institute legal pro¬ ceedings to determine their right to establish scholarships in Clem- son Agricultural College and in Winthrop Normal and Industrial College. The preamble of the act states that it is impracticable liter¬ ally to carry out the terms of the will. If the courts authorize that disposition of the funds, 12 scholarships will be established for poor boys at Clemson and 12 for poor girls at Winthrop. Thus, apparently, will end the career of “ the first Fellenberg school in America.” Louisiana. — The transformation of the “ Southern University,” an institution for colored students located at New Orleans, was provided by Act No. 118. It is stated that the school has not been in satis¬ factory condition, and its complete reorganization is contemplated by the law mentioned. The newly constituted board of trustees is directed to sell the property of the institution in and near New Orleans and to purchase other property and erect new buildings in the rural section of the State. The purpose of the' school will be henceforth to train colored teachers of industrial and agricultural subjects. A model school of agriculture and the industries, com¬ prising at least eight grades, will be maintained in connection with the institution. All the teachers and employees must be negroes. There appears to be some question as to the constitutionality of this law. The matter is in the hands of the courts at the time of this writing, and the contemplated changes have not been made. Kentucky. — “ The pressing demand for agricultural instruction and instruction in domestic science ” is cited as the reason for an additional appropriation of $50,000 per annum to the State Agri- iVol. 15, p. 232. 80 EDUCATION REPORT, 1912. cultural College, of $35,000 to the Eastern State Normal School, and of $25,000 to the Western State Normal School (ch. 32). The need of such instruction was held to be so urgent that an emergency was declared, and the appropriation was made available immediately after the approval of the governor. Another act (ch. 103) appropriates $2,000 annually to the Ken¬ tucky Normal and Industrial Institute for Colored Persons, “ for training students in useful trades.” No previous appropriation had been made for this purpose. ADDENDUM. In addition to the laws discussed in the foregoing pages, the follow¬ ing measures were enacted in 1912 : HIGHER EDUCATIONAL INSTITUTIONS. Arizona. — Awards to each county one scholarship paying $150 per annum to be used by holder for tuition, room, and board at University of Arizona (ch. 24). Board of regents of said university shall consist of a president and 7 members (instead of 3) ; governor and superintendent of public instruction shall be ex officio members (ch. 40). Maryland. — Appropriates $600,000 at once and $50,000 annually to establish a department of applied science and advanced technology at Johns Hopkins University ; said university shall maintain 129 free-tuition scholarships ; one scholarship for each county shall provide tuition and living expenses (ch. 90). State board of education may prepare and publish annually a list of approved colleges and universities, and shall determine the standards for said approval (ch. 169). Appropriates $5,000 annually to Blue Ridge College; said institution shall maintain one free scholarship for each senatorial district of the State (ch. 229). Constituting a commission to investigate conditions and possibilities of Maryland Agricultural College (Joint Res. No. 7). Massachusetts. — State scholarships at Massachusetts Institute of Technology may be divided (ch. 168). Petitions relating to granting degrees shall be filed with the State board of education, which shall transmit the same to the general court with recommendations (ch. 481). Massachusetts Agricultural College may sell to its professors, to college associations, or to fraternities sites for buildings, conditioned upon right of the college to repurchase at option of trustees. Mississippi. — Governor and State superintendent of education shall be ex officio members of the board of trustees of the university and colleges of Mis¬ sissippi (ch. 169). Members of board of trustees of university and State col¬ leges shall be appointed from the State at large (instead of two from each supreme court district) ; omits former provision as to occupation of members (ch. 170). Forbidding fraternities, sororities, and secret orders in all State institutions (ch. 177). New Jersey. — No school or institution of learning shall confer any degree until the terms and conditions of the same shall be approved by the State board of education (ch. 315). EDUCATIONAL LEGISLATION IN 1912. 81 Rhode Island. — In cooperation with Brown University, the State board of education may provide postgraduate courses at said university in principles and practice of education, for the purpose of training superintendents and principals and teachers of high schools; appropriates $5,000 for scholarships (ch. 839). South Carolina. — Beneficiary students at State colleges are released from the obligation to teach if they become ministers (no. 338). One or two schol¬ arships in Winthrop College from each county shall be reserved for applicants from rural communities (no 389). Similar provision in relation to scholar¬ ships at Clemson Agricultural and Mechanical College (no. 390). Establish¬ ing 51 additional scholarships at Clemson College, to be awarded as prizes for meritorious agricultural achievement; value $100 each per annum for board, etc. (no. 391). Virginia. — State cadets at the Virginia Military Institute are relieved of the obligation to teach if they serve an enlistment in the National Guard of Vir¬ ginia, or if they serve two years as engineers of the State highway commis¬ sion (ch. 94). PROFESSIONAL SCHOOLS; PROFESSIONAL PRACTICE. Kentucky. — Providing specific regulations for the practice of dentistry (ch. 95). New York. — Medical schools shall not matriculate conditionally students who are deficient in academic preparation (ch. 141). Virginia. — Revising and strengthening the laws regulating the practice of medicine and surgery; materially raises standards (ch. 237). SCHOOLS FOR SPECIAL CLASSES. Arizona. — The State board of education may provide care and maintenance of blind children under school age when parents are unable to care for them (ch. 9, spl. sess.). Kentucky. — Name of Kentucky Institute for Deaf Mutes changed to Kentucky School for the Deaf; status changed from an eleemosynary to an educational institution ( ch. 71 ) . New Jersey. — Medical inspectors shall report to board of health every pupil who is mentally deficient or who suffers from epilepsy; all such persons shall be deemed to be under the guardianship of the commissioner of charities and corrections (ch. 182). Higher education is provided for the blind at State expense at any college, university, or technical school of the State (ch. 336). New York. — The State commissioner of education may extend the term of State pupils at certain institutions for the blind so as to include three years additional for a higher course of studies (ch. 223). WELFARE OF CHILDREN ; DEPENDENTS AND DELINQUENTS. Arizona. — Any parent who fails to provide for his minor child or children -shall be guilty of felony (ch. 64). Punishment of persons guilty of contribut¬ ing to the dependency or delinquency of children (ch. 18, spl. sess.). The superior courts of the several counties shall have exclusive jurisdiction in all matters relating to dependent and delinquent children ( ch. 63, spl. sess. ) . Kentucky. — Creating a parental home and school in Jefferson County (ch. 106). 82 EDUCATION REPORT, 1912. Maryland. — Women physicians shall make the required examinations of women and children in station houses in Baltimore (ch. 733). Massachusetts. — The governor shall appoint a commission of three to investi¬ gate and report on the support of dependent children of widowed mothers (Res., ch. 82). Neio Jersey. — No person shall furnish tobacco in any form to any minor under 18 (ch. 133). Causing or contributing to the delinquency of a child is a misdemeanor (ch. 163). Any county of the first class may establish a parental school; special attention shall be given to industrial training and agriculture (ch. 327). Creating a juvenile court in each county of the first class (ch. 353). New York. — Any incorrigible child may be transferred from one institution to another better suited to care for him (ch. 169). South Carolina. — The State Industrial School for Boys shall be supported directly by the State, instead of by the counties in proportion to the number of inmates from each (no. 298). The probate court of each county may assume care and custody of any neglected or incorrigible child (no. 429). Yirginia. — The State board of charities and corrections shall inspect and supervise all persons and corporations engaged in placing dependent children in homes and institutions (ch. 309). CHAPTER III. HIGHER EDUCATION. By Ivendric Charles Babcock, Chief of the Division of Higher Education, Bureau of Education. During the year covered by this report several currents of progress have gained strength and significance in that section of higher educa¬ tion concerned with graduate, collegiate, and technological courses, in contrast with secondary education on the one hand and profes¬ sional education on the other. Many privately endowed institutions have increased in resources and in power to serve. Plans for im¬ proved standards of admission and graduation have multiplied and gone into full effect. Th$ control exercised by States over higher and professional education within their limits has expanded in many places, and in no place diminished. In practically every State in which a legislature met in 1912 larger funds than in the preceding year were devoted to higher education. In several States the move¬ ment for better coordination of State-supported institutions took more definite form. That many States have been wasting money and losing efficiency through unwholesome and unsystematic development of their educational systems — or lack of system — has changed from a vague feeling to a positive judgment in favor of readjustment and reformation. The method of attack upon this problem of coordination of the State’s agencies of higher education has varied according to the acuteness of the need of the State, the zeal of the reformer, and political exigencies in the State. Education commissions,- to study the conditions of higher education and to make reports and con¬ structive recommendations, have recently been at work in Virginia, North Dakota, and Vermont, under official appointment, and in Colo¬ rado as a committee of the Colorado Teachers’ Association. The Iowa State Board of Education has undertaken a radical readjust¬ ment or redistribution of functions among the three institutions under its control. The central boards of education in Mississippi and Oklahoma have undergone reorganization by legislative action, for reasons seemingly not altogether determined by educational consid¬ erations. Renewed discussions of institutional coordination have appeared in Montana, Washington, and Maryland. In several States the normal schools have continued to press for larger scope and power to confer regular bachelors’ degrees. The 83 84 EDUCATION REPORT, 1912. junior-college idea has gained ground, and several new organizations doing college work of the first two years have been created. CORRELATION OF STATE-SUPPORTED INSTITUTIONS. In IT States the universities comprise all of the State- supported higher educational work, with the exception of that done in the normal schools; in 9 States there is no State university, but a State agricultural and mechanical college; in 12 States there are both a university and an agricultural and mechanical college; and in 9 States there are three or more State-supported and State- controlled institutions. Seven States make appropriations in aid of privately endowed institutions, over which the State exercises no real control. While there are obvious advantages in having some of the work done by institutions in certain States distributed so that their special work may be in close contact with the interests which they serve, as in the location of the Michigan College of Mines and the Missouri School of Mines in the mining districts of those States, the disad¬ vantages in the newer and poorer and more thinly populated States are well expressed by a prominent member of the faculty of an in¬ stitution in one of these States : The disadvantages of the system are duplication of work, diffusion of energy, insufficient financial support for any institution, the preponderance of local opinion and requirements, and consequent inadequacy in view of the educational requirements of the day. The waste due to duplication of faculty, equipment, and buiMings is frequently overestimated. While it may be temporarily notice¬ able in weak, new Commonwealths, which have distributed their in¬ stitutions, the permanence of this defect in a given State system will depend largely upon the rapidity of the growth of population and the upward reach of the work undertaken. The work done at the present time by the three higher institutions supported by the State of Michigan, and the two supported by the State of Indiana, would not greatly gain in efficiency if it were all combined in each State in one place and under one management, while the economies would be confined to a few administrative salaries saved in the process of centralization. There is no loss of economy or of efficiency in carry¬ ing on in different places the work of the first year, or the first two years, of a liberal arts course or of courses preliminary to or funda¬ mental to technological work, provided always that the faculty and the equipment of buildings, laboratories, libraries, etc., for the work of these two years are fully utilized. If there are 400 freshmen to be instructed, and if it is assumed that they are organized into 20 sections of 20 students each, in English, mathematics, physics, and chemistry, they would require space, instructors, many duplicate HIGHER EDUCATION. 85 pieces of apparatus, and duplicate reference books, all of which might advantageously be distributed among four or five places in¬ stead of concentrated in one place. If to these be added correspond¬ ing groups of sophomores, and the combination be constituted as a junior college, its demands in the way of administration, instruction, and living accommodations may be met in several localities quite as well as in one. It is when specialized and technological work is begun in the second or third year of the usual course, when the services of high- salaried men and enormously expensive equipment are required, that the waste and inefficiency of plant inevitably appears. If investiga¬ tion and research be carried on in an engineering experiment station like that maintained by the University of Illinois, the danger of duplication reaches its maximum. The popular demand for clear differentiation of function then rightly makes itself heard, a demand which is based not merely upon present conditions, but upon proba¬ bilities of future development. The problem thus presented in several States is well illustrated by the State of Montana, which supports engineering work in three institutions. In the following table the first figures in each column represent the registration of engineering students by classes; the second figures in each column represent the total collegiate registra¬ tion by classes: Engineering and other students in Montana. 1909-10 1910-11 1911-12 Income, 1911-12. Institutions. Engi¬ neering. Total. Engi¬ neering. Total. Engi¬ neering. Total. University of Montana: Seniors . . . 2 31 7 33 5 29 Juniors . . . . 10 31 8 32 4 26 Sophomores . 7 38 7 34 8 45 Freshmen . . 12 47 36 87 19 91 31 147 58 186 36 191 $118,640 Montana State College of Agriculture and Mechanic Arts: Seniors . 13 28 12 26 5 22 Juniors . 15 38 12 32 12 33 Sophomores . 10 37 18 47 10 37 Freshmen . . . . 25 65 14 42 24 81 63 168 56 147 51 173 228,432 Montana State School of Mines: Seniors 3 11 13 Juniors . 10 12 8 Sophomores . . 14 9 8 Freshmen . 13 15 11 40 47 40 Special . 10 12 14 50 59 54 33,482 Total engineering students . 144 173 141 Total seniors and juniors . 53 62 47 86 EDUCATION REPORT, 1912. In these three institutions 18 persons are employed in engineering of some kind, as professors, instructors, or assistants, excluding teachers of chemistry, physics, mathematics, English, and modern languages, who would be wholly concerned with the instruction of freshmen and sophomores. The total number of students in the senior and junior group in 1911-12 was 47 ; if the sophomores be added, to include with certainty all those who are pursuing really technological courses, presumably under the instruction of the 18 persons just mentioned, the total for the three institutions would be 73. The merging of these three small groups of engineering students might give a body sufficiently large to insure enthusiasm, momentum, healthy competition within classes, and that professional spirit so highly important in training engineers to meet the exacting demands of the present and future. Not the least of the advantages of unifying the work in engineer¬ ing would be the increase of the salary scale of instructors thus made possible. The head of every technological institution in the country knows all too well the difficulty of attracting and holding highly trained and experienced men for the work of instruction as compared with the more active and more remunerative work in the world of commerce and industry. Except in rare and exceptional instances, the offer of a good salary is the first item in negotiations between a president or dean and a successful practicing engineer, and in a general way it can not be denied that the better the salary paid, the abler and more inspiring will be the man secured. In yet another group of States, institutions have been permitted to develop many parallel courses leading to corresponding degrees, with little or no attempt to correlate the work. In some of these, in highly specialized courses like mining engineering and forestry, there is small prospect of gathering from the tributary territory more than enough students, in competition with older, richer, and more famous schools, to insure both impetus and inspiration to the work. In the State of Washington, both the university and the State college give courses in liberal arts, civil engineering, mechanical engineering, elec¬ trical engineering, mining engineering, forestry, and pharmacy. The failure of the State college to publish a classified list of its stu¬ dents makes a detailed comparison such as that just given for Mon¬ tana impossible without a study of the records of the institution. If the question of State control were to be dropped and a study made on a regional rather than a State basis, it would be necessary to note that 10 miles away from the State College of Washington, just across the State boundary, is the University of Idaho, which also gives courses in liberal arts, engineering (including mining engineering), agriculture, and forestry. HIGHEE EDUCATION. 87 In the State of Oregon a similar condition exists in regard to the University of Oregon and the Oregon Agricultural College. By the act of March 17^ 1909', the legislature provided for a board of five members called the 44 board of higher curricula.” This board is ap¬ pointed by the governor for a term of five years, the term of office of one member expiring each year; the board receives no salaries or fees other than actual expenses. Its powers are thus defined : Tlie exclusive purpose and object of the board of higher curricula shall be to determine what courses of study or departments, if any, shall be duplicated in the higher institutions in Oregon; to determine and define the courses of study in departments to be offered and conducted by each such institution. The board is required to visit institutions, and is empowered to direct the elimination of duplicated work from any institution. At a meeting in April, 1910, this board made the following orders: 1. The departments of mechanical and mining engineering shall be confined to- the State agricultural college. 2. In view of the fact that strong departments in civil engineering and elec¬ trical engineering are now established in the State agricultural college and the university, these departments shall continue to be a part of both institutions. 3. The school of education, as such, shall be confined to the University of Ore¬ gon ; but this rule shall not be construed against the maintenance by the State agricultural college of a department of industrial pedagogy and the provision by this institution for such work in connection therewith or related thereto as may be necessary in training persons to teach industrial subjects in the common and high schools, in accordance with the provisions of the Nelson amendment of 1901 to the Morrill Act of 1890. The department of economics and sociology and the school of com¬ merce at the university and the course in commerce at the State agri¬ cultural college were continued. Having practically authorized the continuation of existing conditions, the board ordered that — 6. No new school, department, or course may be established in either the State agricultural college or the University of Oregon until the plan of such school,, department, or course shall have been submitted to this board and have received its approval. Since the exact meaning of the words 44 school,” 44 department,” and 44 course ” here used was not defined, there is considerable doubt as to> the effectiveness of this order. Twenty-two States, in the organization of their agencies for higher education, adopted in the beginning the policy of distributing them geographically, each one independent in its organization and ambi¬ tions. Whatever may have been the original motives, it is the general agreement of wise and progressive leaders of higher education in the States at the present time that there is distinct advantage in com¬ bining in one institution the colleges of liberal arts and sciences and all the professional schools, including colleges of engineering and agriculture, thus forming a single university for a given State. The 77236° — ej> 1912— vol 1 - 8 88 EDUCATION REPOST, 1912. arguments for separate institutions are less strong now, when each State is developing the work of its separate institutions on a college level, than they were 40 years ago, when the work of the land-grant colleges, for example, was chiefly that of the secondary school or work definitely directed to vocational ends. The distribution and subdivision of what should be a unified func¬ tion of the State as a wdiole has led inevitably in most cases to waste, duplication, undesirable competition for appropriations, and cam¬ paigning for students in order to get more appropriations. Not the least of the disturbing effects of this condition has been a confu¬ sion as to the standards which each institution should maintain, not merely with relation to the other parts of the higher educational system, but with reference to the secondary schools as well. Small reason exists for a State to continue indefinitely the attempt to build up a strong high school in every good-sized town or county and at the same time to subsidize colleges which receive large num¬ bers of their students from the first, second, or third year of the high school to continue secondary work in the college. The need for readjustment is very real, and the possibility of ac¬ tually uniting different institutions is too remote to be considered. Idealism must yield to practical procedure. During the past 10 years many experiments have been tried in the endeavor to remedy some of the admitted defects of the system now operated in many States. This process of experimentation has gone on without very clear con¬ ception of the educational and administrative problems involved, and certainly without the much desired divorcing of educational policies from political considerations. There can be no mistake in believing that the people of several of the Commonwealths have definitely decided that wTaste, overlapping, and unwholesome com¬ petition shall cease. Whether the desired end shall be reached by the establishment of central boards of control, by organized cooperation, and concessions on the part of existing institutions and their govern¬ ing bodies, remains to be seen. CENTRAL BOARDS OF CONTROL. One of the first States to attempt centralization of control of State institutions was South Dakota. Under the laws of 1896 and 1903 a board of regents of education, consisting of 5 members appointed for 6 years, with compensation of $1,000 a year, was placed in control of the university at Vermilion, the State college of agricul¬ ture and mechanic arts at Brookings, the school of mines at Rapid City, and three normal schools. Up to the present time little seems to have been accomplished in the way of readjustment and delimita¬ tion of function among the 6 institutions. HIGHER EDUCATION. 89 In 1901 the State of Minnesota created a board of control for the management of charitable and penal institutions, but the law was framed in such a way as to give the board financial control over educational institutions without abolishing; the board of regents of the university. The university sought release in 1903 from this double-headed government, but failed. The intolerable condition created by the act of 1901 was remedied by the exemption of the university from the board of control, save in the matters of placing insurance, the purchase of fuel, and the erection of new buildings. In all other matters the board of regents has full control. A separate board of 9 members has jurisdiction over all the normal schools of the State. By an act of 1905 the State of Florida abolished 6 institutions of higher education of uncertain grade, together with their boards; and a new board of control of 5 members, appointed by the governor for 4 years and serving without compensation, was created and given charge of a new University of Florida, a new Florida State College for Women, the Agricultural and Mechanical College for Negroes, the colored normal school, and the institution for the blind, deaf, and dumb. By the new law the complete management and control of these institutions was vested in the new board, but a section of the law provided that the board of control — shall act in conjunction with, but at all times under and subject to the con¬ trol and supervision of, the State board of education, the latter consisting of the governor, secretary of state, attorney general, State treasurer, and State superintendent of public instruction. It should be noted that the board of education, which has power over the general interests of the State, has only one officer who can be considered as representing primarily such interests. The rela¬ tions of the two boards have been on the whole amicable and co¬ operative, though in at leas!? two instances the fact of two boards has complicated the administration of the university. The Florida board has seemed to work more effectively and harmoniously than the boards in any other State having such central boards. The president of the university reports that under no circumstances would the institutions u go back to independent boards and their scrambles at each meeting of the legislature for support of their respective institutions.” Fie states further that the new law has “ unified our higher educational scheme. It has resulted in a more perfect and better understood relation between the high schools and the colleges, and our entire education system has been quickened and stimulated.” He recognizes, however, the possibility of trouble aris¬ ing from friction between the two boards. The rivalries of the three State institutions in Iowa — the university, the college of agriculture and mechanic arts, and the State teachers’ 90 EDUCATION REPORT, 1912. college — reached a climax in 1909 when the legislature, influenced in some measure by the success of a board of control of charitable in¬ stitutions of the State, passed a law creating a State board of educa¬ tion, consisting of 9 members appointed by the governor with the consent of the senate for a term of 6 years, to be paid a moderate per diem compensation. This board has full control of all three in¬ stitutions. It is assisted in its management of them by a finance committee of 3 outside its own membership, each of which receives a salary of $3,500 and expenses. While the board has endeavored in its management of the institutions to discriminate between gov¬ ernment and administration, to put an end so far as possible to rivalry, and to reduce duplication to a minimum, both its personnel end its procedure have been subject to a running fire of unfriendly criticism, which was specially vigorous after its announcement in October, 1912, of a scheme of somewhat radical redistribution of functions among the three institutions. It can scarcely be said that the experiment in Iowa is wholly or permanently successful. On the other hand, it should be said that institutions which had so long had a free hand and free field for their energies throughout the State and before the legislature could hardly be welded into a unified and cordially cooperative group in the single space of three years. Some of the difficulties of institutional correlation in Montana have already been described in an earlier section of this chapter. To remedy these the State passed a law in 1909 under which a board of education of 11 members was created. Eight of these were ap¬ pointed by the governor and senate, for terms of 4 years, without compensation other than traveling expenses, and 3 were ex officio members, the governor, State superintendent, and attorney general. Under this board were placed all the higher educational institutions of the State : The university at Missoula, the agricultural college at Bozeman, the school of mines at Butte* and the State normal college at Dillon, together with two charitable institutions and the State reform school. Supplementing this board at each institution was an executive board of 3 members appointed by the governor and the State board for terms of 4 years. Of each executive board the president of the institution concerned Avas an ex officio member. These subordinate boards were given immediate control of finances, subject to the supervision and control of the State board of education, which is in turn subject in financial matters to a third board, the State board of examiners, consisting of the governor, superintendent of public instruction, and the attorney general. If the Florida com¬ bination of two boards contains large possibilities of friction or of disagreements which would block progress, these difficulties are. greatly increased by the complexity of Montana’s threefold board system. No results appear to have come from efforts to remedy over- HIGHER EDUCATION. 91 lapping and duplication among Montana’s institutions. Possibly not all of this lack should be attributed to the board alone. The presi¬ dent of the university, in his annual report for 1912 to the State board of education, stated: Nothing has been more impressive than the defects in the system of divided institutions and their government in Montana. * * * That this division pro¬ duces weaknesses of rivalry and waste of duplication, without real compen¬ sating advantages by separation, is recognized by many thoughtful men. En¬ couraged by such men, including many prominent in public life and several of this State board, I undertook a public discussion of this situation to see whether Montana would repair her great educational mistake before institutions were highly developed. No practical response was made by educational authorities or by the legislature. Instead, a measure was enacted into law introducing a more complicated system, giving final authority through financial control over higher education to a board of three political officers, not one of whom need be or is likely to be nominated or elected by reason of any special qualification to be an educational trustee. * * * Consolidation or even administrative unification of Montana’s higher institutions seems to be a dream, not to be realized because of the strength of the forces of localism. West Virginia was another State which entered in 1909 upon a scheme of centralized government for its State-supported institutions. A State board of regents of 5 members, including the State super¬ intendent of public instruction, appointed by the governor and senate for a term of 4 }^ears and receiving compensation of $1,000 a year and expenses, has control of the university, 2 branch preparatory schools, 6 normal schools, and 2 colored institutes. This board deals only with educational matters. Alongside it is a board of control of 3 members, appointed by the governor and senate, receiving a salary of $5,000 per year. This board has full charge of the chari¬ table and penal institutions and of financial or business control of the educational institutions. On request of the board of control the two boards meet together. While this dual system violates the funda¬ mental principle of unified authority and responsibility, the two boards have up to the present time worked together harmoniously and the State superintendent, declares that “ there has been great saving to the State.” In 1908, the year after the admission of Oklahoma to the Union, the university, which then had its own board of regents, suffered a sweeping change of administration and faculty. The facts con¬ nected with this revolution have been widely discussed and need not be rehearsed at length here. In February, 1911, the State created a board of education consisting of 6 appointed members and the superintendent of public instruction, who was president of the board. The superintendent was the only member of the board receiving a salary other than a per diem allowance. The board of education was charged with the supervision of the common-school system and the 92 EDUCATION REPORT, 1912. work of the State textbook commission, and in addition governed the University of Oklahoma, the School of Mines, the Industrial Institute and College for Girls, the Agricultural and Normal Uni¬ versity for Negroes, 6 normal schools, 2 university preparatory schools, 4 schools for defectives, a State school for orphan children, the colored orphanage, and the reform school. The Agricultural and Mechanical College, however, was continued under the separate control of the State board of agriculture. The board was organized in April, 1911, and almost immediately began to make sweeping changes in the personnel of the faculties of the university and other schools under its control. New heads were appointed in six institutions and a large proportion of the members of their faculties were removed or transferred. Because of a dis¬ agreement between the board and the governor in regard to a book adoption, the governor in June, 1912, removed certain members of the board and appointed others to fill their places. Through an in¬ junction of the institution these new members were not permitted to serve. In December the governor called the State senate in extra session. The Senate refused to confirm the new appointees. The governor then appointed a temporary board. The State of Mississippi has had two central boards within two years. In 1910 a board of eight trustees appointed by the governor succeeded the separate independent boards of the University of Mississippi at Oxford, the Agricultural and Mechanical College at Starkville, the Industrial Institute and College at Columbus, and the Agricultural College for Negroes. The term of office was made six years, with per diem compensation and payment of ail expenses. In addition to geographical distribution by supreme court districts, the board was obliged to have in its membership one farmer, one lawyer, and one builder, architect, or factory man. Various influ¬ ences prompted the abolition of this board of 1910 and the creation of a new board under a law of 1912. It is of course too soon to judge the working of the new scheme in Mississippi bejmnd saying that its tenure and procedure are distinctly uncertain. The president of one of the State institutions stated the matter tersely, saying: “A central board as an abstract proposition is good; as a practical proposition, bad.” In summarizing an excellent discussion on central boards of con¬ trol, presented to the National Association of State Universities, at its meeting in 1911, President C. R. Van Hise, of the University of Wisconsin, said: If there were no overlapping’ of the work of higher educational institutions in any of the States, the movement for central boards of control would probably have little strength. Where concentration of the higher educational efforts of a State is still possible, at least so far as the university, the agricultural col- HIGHEE EDUCATION. 93 lege, and the school of mines are concerned, this should be the line of endeavor of the educational leaders. There can be no question that in the new States where subdivision has been recently inaugurated the advantages would be im¬ measurable if concentration were possible; and this I do not hesitate to assert, even if to accomplish this would involve the total destruction of the physical plants from which the higher educational work is withdrawn. Usually, how¬ ever, this would not be necessary, for with the movement for trade schools and the necessity for normal schools such plants could be used for these lines of effort, or, if not for them, for some other public purpose, * * * In those States where overlapping of function does exist and it is not practi¬ cable to solve the problem by concentration, it is certain that the movement for central boards will have- an ever-increasing strength, unless there is rational cooperation of educational effort and reduction of overlapping to a minimum. The advantage of each large educational institution having a separate board is obvious. The experience of hundreds of years in this country, both \vith endowed and tax-supported institutions, shows that a nonpaid board of some¬ where between 7 and 20 in number is the best method of governing an educa¬ tions institution. * * * If separate boards are to exist, where the institutions overlap they must cooperate. Of the methods which have been proposed for cooperation, those begun in Kansas and in Oregon are clearly the most hopeful. * * * My conclusions are as follows : 1. In those States in which there are two or more higher educational insti¬ tutions aside from the normal schools, these should be consolidated, if this be practicable; or in some of the Southern States the institutions for the whites and those for the blacks, respectively, should be consolidated. 2. Where consolidation is not practicable, each of the important educational institutions or groups of institutions of the same kind should have its own governing board. In this matter the experience of hundreds of years of all the educational institutions of the first rank should not be disregarded. 3. Where the higher educational institutions of a State overlap, in order to retain independent governing boards it w7ill be necessary to have sharp delimi¬ tation of scopes, which reduces overlapping to a minimum, and cooperation in financial requests to the legislature. These may be accomplished through a commission composed of representatives of each of the institutional boards, or by a higher board composed of members not belonging to the institutional boards and having full authority in the respects mentioned, but leaving the government of each institution to its independent board. 4. In the case of overlapping institutions, if cooperation be not successful, central boards are inevitable. Of the types of existing central boards, that of Iowa is probably the best, in that it holds to the established principle of a nonpaid board of moderate size for the government of educational institu¬ tions, and thus in a measure at least retains the advantages of independent governing boards. The agitation over duplication in Kansas led in 1911 to the pas¬ sage of a bill creating a board of control, to be composed of three members receiving $2,500 each, with provision for the election, out¬ side of the board, of an educational expert to act as secretary at the same salary. Before acting upon the bill the governor took counsel by telegraph with many university administrators, and received re¬ plies from more than 20 of them. Almost without exception these 94 EDUCATION REPORT, 1912. men advised against the measure, and the governor vetoed the so- called Keene bill. Before doing so, however, he prevailed upon the three existing boards to organize voluntarily into a commission on higher education, of which the governor should be chairman and the State superintendent of public instruction secretary. This extra- legal body has therefore served as a coordinating force in the State of Kansas, and through its committees on business management, on effi¬ ciency, and on coordination has been working toward a solution of the difficulties existing in the State. No measures of importance looking toward improvement, coordination, and economies have yet gone into effect as a result of the action of this commission. At best it may be looked upon as a hopeful experiment by which each in¬ stitution may preserve its individuality and at the same time be released from danger of encroachment from other State-supported institutions, and feel assurance of adequate and equitable provisions by the State for its support and enlargement. Investigations relating particularly to the problem of better econ¬ omy, supervision, and correlation of State-supported institutions have recently been made or are now in progress in several States, through official commissions. In others the investigation is made through an extra-legal commission or committee, as in Colorado, where the committee was created by the Colorado State Teachers’ Association. These educational commissions are not to be confused with bodies having similar names in Wisconsin, Illinois, Indiana, Pennsylvania, South Carolina, Idaho, and Delaware, which have been created to deal with the general subject of public elementary and secondary education, industrial agricultural education, school law, etc. The State of Virginia created in 1910 the Education Commission of Virginia, composed of seven persons appointed by the governor, four of whom must be experienced educators — whose duty it shall be, after investigation, to devise suitable and systematic methods for the maintenance, management, and expansion of these institu¬ tions, according to the needs of each of them and with reference to a definite and harmonious educational system. The commission when organized included the speaker of the house of delegates, the State superintendent of public instruction, the presi¬ dent of the University of Virginia, and representatives of the privately endowed colleges, normal schools, and medical schools. Before transmitting its careful and comprehensive final report to the governor in 1912 a detailed survey of the situation in Virginia was made by the commission itself. A tentative report on a mill tax for the State educational system as a whole was presented in October, 1910. In 1911, at the request of the commission, special HIGHER EDUCATION. 95 reports were presented by a representative of the Garnegie Founda¬ tion for the Advancement of Teaching and by the specialist in higher education in the Bureau of Education, both of whom made personal investigation of the State’s institutions of higher education. The final report of the commission dealt with present conditions, with needed definitions of function, with apportionment of fields of work, with the question of State support for higher education for women, with professional education, and with the mill tax as a means of support. This report caused a very vigorous and even heated dis¬ cussion, and in the end the legislature failed to take action on the recommendations of the commission. The temporary education commission of North Dakota was created by an act of legislature in 1911, to study the educational system both in the United States and elsewhere, and to present a report which might — form the basis for the unifying and systematizing of the educational system of the State, and thereby provide for the removal of unnecessary duplication of courses in the institutions of the State, as well as to suggest such legislation as will tend to prevent any unseemly competition among the institutions for appropriation, and to prepare a bill embodying its recommendations. The commission consisted of seven members, including the lieu¬ tenant governor, the superintendent of public instruction, and the presidents of three institutions. It was given $1,000 for necessary expenses. A report was presented to the governor and legislature under date of December 27, 1912, in which the commission accepted as a satisfactory basis for the development of the educational system of the State the provisions of a memorandum prepared by the Bureau of Education, in reply to a questionnaire submitted by the commission discussing u a State system of education, ideally outlined and oper¬ ated.” The report of the commission favors one board for the normal schools, but separate boards for the university and the agricultural college, the coordination of secondary and special schools under a common board, and the development of the principle of the mill tax. The appendix to the report contains an important group of “ views of authorities,” 51 in number, submitted in response to a question¬ naire sent out by the commission. In addition to making provision for the board of higher curricula, mentioned in another paragraph, the State of Oregon passed a law in 1911, after correspondence with the United States Commissioner of Education, which regulates the certification of teachers by the State. Section 15 of this law provides that — certificates shall be issued to graduates from standard colleges or universities who have completed 120 semester hours, including 15 semester hours in education. 96 EDUCATION REPORT, 1912. By section 17 it was determined that — a standard college, university, or normal scliool is one that shall be standardized by the United States Bureau of Education, of Washington, D. C. In case of the failure of said bureau to prepare a list of standardized colleges, universities, and normal schools, or to pass upon the standard of any college, university, or normal school of Oregon, a board for such standardization composed of [seven members, ex officio presidents, superintendents, etc., is provided]. The Bureau of Education accepted the invitation to assist the State of Oregon in this task of standardization of the higher educa¬ tional institutions of that State. The specialist in higher education in the bureau was sent to Oregon late in 1911, and personalty visited all of the institutions conferring degrees, in order to gain first-hand information regarding their administration, support, equipment, faculty, and standards. His report to the State superintendent of public instruction indicated that the University of Oregon, Pacific University, and Willamette University were to be considered as meet¬ ing the requirements of a standard college or university, according to the State law. The report indicated also the essentials in which seven other institutions fell short of meeting the requirements of a standard college, and pointed out in brief some steps which might be taken to remedy the deficiency. Five other institutions which had not as yet offered full four-year courses leading to regular degrees were not officially examined and reported upon. In a region like the Columbia and Willamette Valleys, notable for their recent educational progress, each year is certain to produce some change in the status of colleges and universities, and the judg¬ ment expressed in this report will need to be revised frequently, so that no injustice shall be done to the colleges, on the one hand, or to the high schools employing their graduates, on the other hand. Any discussion of schemes of coordination or correlation of State institutions would be incomplete without reference to the experience of Michigan, Indiana, and Ohio. Michigan maintains an agricul¬ tural college, a school of mines, and a State normal college, entirety dissociated from the University of Michigan. The status of the university is fixed by the constitution. Under the broad-minded leadership of President Angell, a working scheme of cooperation was elaborated and has been followed for many years. The institutions have not developed the main body of their courses on the same level, and therefore the understanding has not necessarily taken a definite and positive form. The State of Indiana maintains two universities, Indiana Uni¬ versity and Purdue University. After long years of more or less vigorous and unwholesome rivalry, in the last instance over the con¬ trol of medical education, these institutions reached, through their presidents, a clear and cordial agreement to delimit their separate HIGHER EDUCATION. 97 fields in such a way as to prevent undesirable duplication of work, so long as the present good understanding continues. The State of Ohio has effected some degree of correlation of its three State-supported and State-controlled universities, at Columbus, Athens, and Oxford, through direct limitation of their functions by the legislature itself. An act of 1906, incorporated in the general code of 1910, reads : Inasmuch as it is deemed desirable for this State to determine its policy in regard to the support of institutions of higher learning, and further desirable that it adopt a distinct and fixed policy in regard to universities and colleges for all time to come, so that the policy of the State with reference to the Ohio State University, the Miami University, and the Ohio University shall be deter¬ mined and made definite, and to the end that the State may build up one university worthy of it, as now begun at the Ohio State University, and also to fix such a policy as will provide support for the Miami and Ohio Universities as colleges of liberal arts, but not to include technical or graduate instruction, aside from the usual graduate work for the degree of master of arts, and to determine definitely for all time that the Miami University and the Ohio University shall be no greater charge on the State so far as university purposes are concerned than herein provided for; therefore this subdivision of this chapter is passed to set forth the policy, to wit: That in the future no repre¬ sentative of the Miami University or of the Ohio University or of the Ohio State University shall violate or attempt to violate this policy herein enacted into law as a policy for the support of higher education and as a guide for future general assemblies of the State of Ohio. In furtherance of this policy, each of these institutions receives from the State the proceeds of a mill tax proportioned to its needs. A somewhat similar result has been reached by the State of Washington through the act of March 13, 1911, creating separate funds for the university, State college, and the three normal schools, which are the proceeds of a continuing mill tax, varying for each institution. In order to secure an equitable revision of the rates fixed by the statute of 1911, it is provided that — after January 1, 1916, it shall be the duty of the governor, upon the request of the president of any of the institutions of higher learning, to appoint a com¬ mission of five members to investigate reasons for changing the levy herein provided for, and to report to him in time for action, if any is necessary, by the legislature of 1917. STANDARD COLLEGES AND JUNIOR COLLEGES. Notwithstanding innumerable efforts to give a definition of a college, the word still remains almost as hard to define as “ gentle¬ man. To deny that the term is fully applicable to any institution calling itself a college is to offer serious affront to individuals con¬ nected with the institution, to all who hold its degrees, and to all their friends. Yet definition, or at least exact discussion, is abso- 98 EDUCATION REPORT, 1912. lutely necessary if an institution is to deal honestly with the great public to whom it appeals and with the students whom it receives into its classes. Self-hypnotism or self-deception is not at all un¬ common among institutions wdiich have taken a high and honorable name at their beginning and have struggled through long years to reach a status worthy of the name. While they have exercised the degree-granting power as an incident in their commendable en¬ deavor to furnish education to a community or a clientele, and while their numerous sons and daughters have risen up to bless their alma mater, there is no disguising the fact that the degrees granted repre¬ sent in reality a debased educational currency. For example, one State institution having more than a thousand students never had as much as 4 units for admission requirements before 1912 ; in other words, it had not required for admission the equivalent of one year of an ordinary high school. Yet for years this institution has con¬ ferred the following degrees upon students who have completed the four years of work based upon the requirements just stated: Bachelor of science in agriculture, in civil and mining engineering, electrical engineering, mechanical engineering, and textile engineering, and in the school of industrial education. During the same period, degrees similar to these have been conferred by such standard institutions as Cornell University, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, and the University of Wisconsin only when a student had completed a full four-year high-school course preliminary to the regular four years of college work. If one turns from the group of State-supported institutions repre¬ sented by the one just mentioned to a group of privately supported institutions, the same difficultj^ arises in justifying the use of the term “ college,” complicated by lack of that assured support which has enabled the State institutions to develop with such unparalleled rapidity. Scores of these privately organized “ universities ” and “ colleges ” have disappeared during the westward march of popu¬ lation ; still others have come to a recognition of the futility of try¬ ing to do four years of reputable college work with resources wholly inadequate for two years. As a result of this long experience of certain institutions with income insufficient to justify the pretentious names assumed in the beginning, and as a result also of the unequal competition between the weaker private schools and the group of institutions wdiich are beneficiaries of generous and awakened Commonwealths, the discus¬ sion of the scheme for junior colleges is gaining notable momentum. A study of the reports presented to the Bureau of Education for 1910-11 showrs that there are in the United States 281 colleges with a working income less than $50,000, exclusive of gifts for endowment HIGHEB EDUCATION. 99 or increase of plant. Of these, 39 have less than $10,000 of an¬ nual income; 76 between $10,000 and $19,999; 75 between $20,000 and $29,999; and 91 between $30,000 and $49,999. In the matter of endowment the showing of the same institutions is equally significant. Out of 581, 187 had no endowment ; 70 have less than $50,000; 115 have less than $100,000 ; 197 have less than $200,000. In these calcu¬ lations are included 47 Roman Catholic institutions, which make no report of endowments, and whose estimates of income do not repre* sent a figure exactly comparable with those of other institutions, for the reason that the teachers are not salaried and their services are not payable from income of endowment or from fees. Among the minimum requirements now commonly recognized as necessary for a standard college is an unincumbered income-produc¬ ing endowment of at least $200,000. In the State of New York an institution must have at least $500,000 of property. The acceptance of this minimum has stimulated numerous small colleges to undertake campaigns for increased endowment, and many of them have suc¬ ceeded in bringing up their endowments to the minimum figure. But even this minimum is not a guaranty that the college will maintain itself on an approved level in competition with its richer and more vigorous rivals for patronage and support. In a notable address delivered in 1900 the late President William R. Harper, of the University of Chicago, discussed the prospects of a small college and declared his firm conviction — - that a large number, perhaps even a majority, of the colleges now attempting to do the four years of preparatory course and the four years of college work will be satisfied to limit their work to the six years which would include the pre¬ paratory training and the first year of college life. The motives to this change will be found in its economy, and in the possibility of doing thorough and sat¬ isfactory work, where to-day such work is impossible. There are at least 200 colleges in the United States in which this change would be desirable. These institutions have a preparatory school, as -well as a college course. The number of students in the preparatory school is perhaps 150. In the freshman and sophomore classes they have 30 to 40 students, and in the junior and senior classes 20 to 30. The annual income of these institu¬ tions is restricted for the most part to the fees of the students, and will aver¬ age from all sources, let us say, eight to ten thousand dollars. In order to keep up the name of the college, the income is made to cover the expenses of eight years — that is, the preparatory and the collegiate departments. It is evi¬ dent that * * * the work of the junior and senior college years can be done only in a superficial way, because the library and laboratory facilities are meager, the range of instruction is very narrow, and a single instructor is often required to teach in three or four subjects. President Harper estimated that 20 or 25 per cent of the chartered colleges of the United States “ are doing work of a character only a little removed from that of an academy.” In such cases, he insisted 100 EDUCATION REPORT, 1912. that the term “ college ” had been misappropriated. These institu¬ tions, he said — will yield to tlie inevitable and one by one take a place in tbe system of educa tional work which is in one sense lower and in another sense higher. It is surely a higher thing to do honest and thorough work in a lower field than to fall short of such work in a higher field. In the years which have elapsed since this great educational states¬ man uttered these words, the movement for the readjustment of the name and organization of institutions to fit more exactly their real purposes and practices, and for the organization of junior colleges or the reorganization of old institutions on substantially a junior- college basis, has gone on slowly but with sure step. The name has here and there been changed so as to describe more exactly the func¬ tion of the institution. Lincoln University. Illinois, became Lincoln College in 1001 ; Lawrence University became Lawrence College in 1908 ; Lake Forest University continues as the corporate name, but since 1902, by action of the trustees, the institution has been called Lake Forest College, the alliance with certain professional schools in Chicago being severed in the same year; the College of the Pacific succeeds the University of the Pacific; Carleton College (Missouri) resumes its legal name of Carleton Institute. The Methodist Episcopal Church South, through its educational commission, has for some years presented a tabulation of its educa¬ tional institutions in three groups: (1) Universities, colleges (A), colleges (B), totaling 22; (2) unclassified institutions, in nearly every case calling themselves colleges and universities, numbering 30 ; (3) academies (A), academies (B), and junior colleges, totaling 49. The junior colleges thus enumerated number 12 in the report for 1911, and are located as follows — 9 in Texas, 1 in Oregon, 1 in Georgia, and 1 in North Carolina. The board explains the use of the term in a footnote: Under the htw of our church, committing the basis of the classification of our institutions to the educational commission, it is not the province of the board of education to create a new group of institutions. However, the insti¬ tutions numbered 38 to 49, doing a grade of work above that of the secondary school, but giving no academic degrees, describe themselves as junior colleges. Probably the chief difference between these junior colleges and many of the institutions in group 2, unclassified institutions, lies in the fact that the latter give degrees, while the former do not. The superintendent of public instruction of the State of Missouri reports 15 of the institutions which are ordinarily listed as colleges in that State as being junior colleges, and doubts if three or four of these are entitled to so high a rank as junior college. Among the institutions which give college work but no degrees, as reported to this office, are Keynolds College and Fairmont College, HIGHER EDUCATION. 101 Texas; Caldwell College and Hamilton College, Kentucky ; Glen¬ dale College and Urbana University,. Ohio. Several States make an approach to the junior-college problem along one of two lines. The first of these is discussed in the para¬ graph dealing with schools for the training of teachers. One of the most notable examples is that of Wisconsin, which has authorized its normal schools to give two years and no more of college work, thus in effect making the college departments of the normal schools just so many State-supported junior colleges having a special mis¬ sion. The other approach is through junior-college organization in connection with local high schools. In Illinois: such junior-college work has been carried on for more than 10 years by the township high school in the city of Joliet, whose principal writes regarding the progress of the work: We began with five or six students with rather more serious attitude than the average student. The number has slowly grown until now we have 52 doing this fifth or sixth year’s work. Not everyone who takes this work in¬ tends to go to a higher institution of learning, but every year for 10 years has seen from one to six enter college with advanced credit ranging from 20 hours to 50 hours. Thirty hours of such credit is considered a full college year. The number whose parents seem to approve of their remaining In the local high school for an additional year’s work . is increasing. * * * From , the carefully chosen faculty of 53 people, we would intrust to do this work of col¬ legiate grade only four or five. The Lane Technical High School and the Crane Technical High School, in the city of Chicago, also carry on junior-college work which is recognized by the University of Illinois. The work in the Lane school was authorized by the board of education in 1911, and 50 pupils are now registered, but none have yet completed the full two years’ course. The State of California provided by law (Mar. 1, 1907) for the organization of junior colleges in connection with high schools. The law provides: Tbe board of trustees of any city, district, union, joint union, or county frigli school may prescribe postgraduate courses of study for the graduates of such high school or other high schools, which courses of study shall approxi¬ mate the studies prescribed in the first two years of university courses. The first city to organize such a junior college was Fresno. Three teachers were secured, and in the first year work was done in agricul¬ ture, as well as in the ordinary freshman subjects, with an average attendance of 12 or 13. Other similar junior colleges have been organized in connection with two city high schools in Los Angeles, the Hollywood High School, and the Santa Barbara High School. By law the course in these junior colleges is closely coordinated with that of the university, though they have aimed rather to supply the needs of students who could go no further than to fit students for transfer to college or professional work in the universities. 102 EDUCATION REPORT, 1912. Along with this process should be noted the tendency of institu¬ tions still retaining the name university to discontinue professional departments which entail ever-increasing demands upon the treasury of the university, as the requirements of professional education, notably in medicine, are raised year by year. They are thus enabled to devote their services and strength to the limited field with renewed effectiveness. Hamline University (1907), University of Denver (1911), and Drake University (1913) are illustrative of the transfer of the medical departments to the State university; Ohio Wesleyan University relinquished its medical school to Western Deserve Uni¬ versity. The University of the South discontinued both the law school and its medical school in 1909-10, after nearly 20 years of experimentation with them. Nor have the privately endowed institu¬ tions been alone in this matter of restriction of the work of profes¬ sional schools. The University of Missouri suspended, temporarily at least, the work of the last two years of the medical school on account of inadequate clinical facilities; the University of North Carolina gave up in 1909 the last two years of its medical school, which it had maintained since 1902 in Raleigh on an unsatisfactory footing; and the University of Mississippi experimented briefly and unsuccess¬ fully with a second two years of its medical course at Vicksburg, and now has but the first two years at Oxford. CONSOLIDATION OF INSTITUTIONS. The merger of two or more institutions now and then takes place. In 1868 two Presbyterian colleges of the antebellum period were united as Greenville and Tusculum College, located at Tusculum, Tenn. Fifteen miles away was Washington College, doing practi¬ cally the same work. To secure economy and eliminate rivalry a union was effected in 1908, after several unsuccessful attempts had been made. Under the name of Washington and Tusculum College, the academic, agricultural, and industrial work was to be carried on at Washington and the college work and domestic science at Tusculum. It was a case of coalescence, however, rather than a real union, since, in 1912, the colleges were separated by a court decree. In 1889 Carson College, for young men, and Newman College, for young women, two institutions in Tennessee, united to form a coedu¬ cational college, since known as Carson and Newman College. Two Kansas universities were combined in 1903 to form one college. Lane University, of Lecompton, founded in 1867, and Campbell University, at Holton, founded in 1882, were united at Holton. A more striking example of this procedure is to be found in the consolidation of Centre College and the .Central University of Ken- HIGHER EDUCATION. 103 tucky, under the name of Central University of Kentucky. By agreement made in July, 1901, and amended in November, 1907, Central University as a college at Richmond ceased to exist, and the institutions originally known as Centre College, the Central Univer¬ sity of Kentucky, the Hospital College of Medicine, and the Louis¬ ville College of Dentistry, located at Louisville, constituted the new university. Later the college of medicine was united with three other medical schools of Louisville and ceased to be a part of Central University. The latest and most noteworthy merger was the union of Scio College and Mount Union College, Ohio, under the general direction of the Methodist Episcopal Church. At the time of the merger Scio College had 64 college students and 130 preparatory students, $5,500 of endowment, property valued at about $65,000, and a total working income of $6,550. Mount Union had 127 college students and 97 preparatory students, endowment of $316,000, property valued at $200,000, and a total working income of about $23,000. The fact that these institutions were within 50 miles of each other, appealed to like constituencies, and were affiliated with the same great church,, probably facilitated the union thus happily accomplished. The process of alternating consolidation and expansion of institu¬ tions has been carried on with varying measures of success through¬ out the advancing West and in the re-created South. A resolute- attack upon the problems of ignorance and indifference has not always succeeded. The failure of one method has prompted a second,, a third, and even a fourth attempt, illustrating the various elusive,, elastic, accommodating qualities of the name u university.” Many institutions have disappeared altogether, while others, after pro¬ longed struggle and self-sacrifice, have achieved permanence and admirable vigor. Like the ship in Kipling’s story, they have found themselves and have started with fine equipment and adequate sup¬ port upon their long journey of service. Not infrequently a notable- achievement or success stands out all the more prominently because- of the long wrestling with poverty and adverse circumstances which has preceded it. Only occasionally nowadays does one find a small or middle-sized college taking the name of university; even Harvard, Columbia, and Princeton did not take their present names until a comparatively recent date. An illustration of the reversal of the program described- in the preceding paragraphs is found in the change of the name of Santa Clara College (California) to University of Santa Clara in 1912: The university now possesses the following constituent colleges: The college of philosophy and letters; the college of general science; the institute of law: the college of engineering, embracing civil, mechanical, and electrical engineer- 772360— ed 1912— vol 1 - 9 104 EDUCATION REPORT, 1912. ing; tlie college of architecture; the school of pedagogy; and the premedical course. * * * In order that Santa Clara may widen her scope as a first-class edu¬ cational institution, funds are necessary. Santa Clara stands in imperative need of an endowment. Other instances of this sort of change of name are the incorporation of Union College (New York), as the undergraduate department, with the observatory and three professional schools in Albany, as Union University in 1873, and the change of the name of the State College of Agriculture and Mechanic Arts of Maine, in 1897, by an act of the legislature of that State, to the University of Maine. The State university in South Carolina has the unique distinction of being a university for the third time. Chartered as South Carolina Col¬ lege in 1801, and reverting to that name twice since, it was made the University of South Carolina in 1865, 1887. and 1906, by legislative acts of reorganization. COMPETITION AND COOPERATION OF COLLEGES. The problem of efficiency, economy, and essential honesty in the administration of colleges and universities is no longer one for solu¬ tion merely by individual institutions according to their necessities or the wisdom of their heads. Just as the aroused public sentiment in the States is demanding wider correlation of State-supported insti¬ tutions to the end that public higher education shall be harmonious and progressive, so the common sentiment of the great body of the supporters of Christian churches, disregarding more or less the hard lines of denominationalism, is demanding of the organized agencies for promoting Christian education a wise and statesmanlike cooperation. The great aim is the upbuilding of colleges, universi¬ ties, and specialized schools in which the principles of religion and morality shall be safeguarded, emphasized, and vitalized. Coordi¬ nate with, or running through, the intellectual and social training of the student, the development of a strong and active Christian faith is and must remain among the primary functions exercised by this group of institutions. The period of overzealous competition among denominations for advantage of position and priority in the centers of population in the W est and the farther West witnessed the multiplication of weak churches in thousands of localities, until the lyimber of church organi¬ zations and church buildings in some of the frontier towns became almost a joke. Likewise each denomination, honorably ambitious for its progress, felt obligated to plant colleges along the route of expan¬ sion, often quite regardless of similar establishments of other churches. The cheap, bare, unattractive church structures were matched with HIGHER EDUCATION. 105 the cheap, ill- constructed, pathetically inadequate buildings of the “ college ” or u university,” whose supporters labored with true mis¬ sionary enthusiasm, backed by an infinite hope of support and in¬ dorsement. In each section certain colleges were bound to survive and to reach a position of power and influence, as centers both of liberal culture and of religious truth. The doctrine of the survival of the fittest applied with inexorable steadiness, and the history of higher education in the West is full of the stories of the wrecks of these enterprises. In the State of Illinois probably not more than 50 per cent of the institutions chartered or organized are now in existence. Admirably as the history of Ohio or Kansas would illustrate this sort of development, the Willamette Valley in Oregon will serve still better. There, in an area 120 miles long and 50 miles wide, in a State having a total population of 675,000, are found 12 colleges, including the State university, the agricultural and mechanical col¬ lege, and one clearly undenominational college; the rest represent 9 denominations, while a tenth denomination has organized a junior college in another part of the State. One of these colleges, which belongs to a great church, was first opened nearly 50 years ago, yet last year its total registration of college students was only about 20. Two other colleges, representing, respectively, the radical and conservative wing of a church whose total membership in the whole United States is slightly over 300,000, are located in the same little village — ^ The Brick College ” and the u College on the HilL” In one of the colleges ” in this region, nearly a half century old, all the work, in classroom, laboratory, and museum, in physics, chem¬ istry, biology, and geology, is carried on by one man in a single room not more than 16 feet square. Out of this condition sprang up in the last year a unique move¬ ment to combine colleges. The United Evangelical Church, the United Brethren Church, and the Church of the Evangelical Asso¬ ciation combined in the creation of a commission for the purpose of formulating plans for the prosecution of their educational work on the Pacific coast. In the u Declaration of federation,” which was unanimously adopted, the commission states: We recognize the 'wisdom of combining our forces to conserve the1 'largest degree of interest and. efficiency of our educational work on the Pacific coast. * * * We do hereby severally and together declare ourselves unqualifiedly in favor of the federation of our work on the Pacific coast, and the organization of one college which shall he the successor to the two collegiate institutions hitherto maintained at Philomath and Dallas, respectively, and which shall be owned and controlled by the three churches represented on this commission. * * * We favor the consummation of this federation not later than September 1, 1M3. 106 EDUCATION REPORT, 1912. The name of this institution for the time being shall be “ The Federated College of Oregon ” ; and in the event some individual will give $100,000 for the endowment fund to the federated college, it may bear the name of the donor. The development in southern California is much more recent and in a region noted for its population and wealth and for the ex¬ cellent educational lineage of its people, yet in an area not more than TO miles by 25 miles are 8 institutions, representing in reality though not nominally, 6 churches. There is, besides, one large State normal school. In certain of the newer States, like Oklahoma, the State lias pre¬ empted so thoroughly and so promptly the field of secondary and higher education that the development of competition among denominations lias been somewhat retarded, as it has been in States like Minnesota and North Dakota. The State of Oklahoma supports an agricultural and mechanical college, and also, under the direction of the State board of education, the University of Oklahoma, the School of Mines, the college for women, 6 normal schools, and a normal and industrial university for colored students. To provide institutions in which the training of moral character and the inculcation of the principles of the Christian religion shall be specially emphasized, five denominations have undertaken to plant colleges and academies. Three colleges have been accorded definite recognition, while 8, calling themselves colleges or universities, have not gone much be¬ yond the secondary-school stage. The work of the Reformed Church was confined to Cordell Academy; after several years of unsuccess¬ ful effort, the academy building was turned over to the Presbyterian Church, which succeeded no better and relinquished the task. Obviously, conditions such as these in southern California and Oklahoma are not very satisfactory to the denominations concerned. Shrewd, experienced, forcible, farsighted leaders of the great Prot¬ estant denominations have recognized this waste of energy and the hopelessness of the outlook for some of the colleges in their care. The cause of Christian education to which they are all devoted suffers from divided efforts, from low and uncertain standards, from the general weakness of multiplying agencies, and from the mis- location of institutions. Obviously, too, the cause of Christian education for the future would be better promoted by insuring concentration of support on a limited number of carefully chosen institutions, rather than by indefinitely nursing along struggling rivals ill-fitted by every characteristic except earnestness and denom¬ inational loyalty to compete with the immeasurably stronger, aggres¬ sive State institutions. The purpose of the Council of Church Boards of Education, the outgrowth of the recognition of such conditions as those just de- HIGHER EDUCATION. 107 scribed, was discussed in the last annual Report of the Commissioner of Education, pages 55-58. The first meeting looking toward its formation took the form of a conference of the secretaries of the boards of education of certain churches, which was held in New York, February 18, 1911. The churches represented were the Metho¬ dist Episcopal, the Methodist Episcopal South, Congregational, Pres¬ byterian, and Lutheran. At another meeting representatives of the Friends Church and of the General Education Board were present. A third conference was held in Philadelphia January 17, 1912. The membership of the council includes, besides those just mentioned, representatives of the following churches : Disciples of Christ, United Brethren, Reformed, Presbyterian Church South, and Chris¬ tian, making a total of 18 men representing 11 churches. CORRELATION OF UNIVERSITIES AND THEOLOGICAL SCHOOLS. Squarely in line with this cooperative movement among the church boards of education is the effort made to unify the work of prepar¬ ing religious and social workers. Separate and isolated theological schools have struggled in certain sections to obtain both support and students. Social developments of recent years have laid stress upon the need of social and institutional workers, in addition to the reg¬ ular clergy. There wTas organized in 1910 in Nashville, Tenn., the American Interchurch College for Religious and Social Workers. On its directory were representatives of the Methodist Episcopal Church South, the Methodist Episcopal Church, the Presbyterian Church, and the Congregational Church. A part of the fixed policy of the interchurch college is to establish and main¬ tain a close affiliation with Vanderbilt University and with the George Peabody College for Teachers, so that the entire resources of the three institutions may be made available for all students. Another phase of the cooperative movement is found in the happy and economic relation established between certain great universities and special denominational schools in their vicinity. The relation between Columbia University and neighboring theological seminaries is peculiarly close and cordial. Union Theological Seminary and the General Theological Seminary are both represented in the uni¬ versity council, and students are reciprocally admitted to certain lectures in regular or special courses without tuition fee. Similar reciprocal arrangements exist with other theological seminaries in the vicinity of New York — Jewish Theological Seminary, Drew Theo¬ logical Seminary, St. Joseph’s Theological Seminary, New Bruns¬ wick Theological Seminary, and the German Theological Seminary, 108 EDUCATION EEPOET, 1912. though the distance of some of these precludes the frequent exchange carried on between the university and the Union, the General, and the Jewish Seminary. Around Harvard University, and in intimate relation with its divinity school, three theological institutions have grouped them¬ selves. The Episcopal Theological School was the first, receiving its charter in 1867. Though there is no official connection between the two institutions, Harvard offers to the students 'of the theological school, in addition to opportunities to take regular courses, the free use of its library and gymnasium, and the theological students may become members of the Harvard Athletic Association, including membership in the boat clubs and admission to athletic contests. The Stillman Infirmary, of Harvard, is also open to them. The relation between Andover Theological Seminary and Harvard University is much more intimate. Andover Seminary occupied its palatial new buildings adjacent to the Harvard Divinity School in 1911, and the agreement for interchange of faculty and of students, perfected in 1908, became fully effective. Tire libraries of the two institutions, known now as the Anclover-Harvard Theological Library, containing more than 100,000 volumes, are housed in the new Andover Seminary building. Students may receive the whole of their instruction from Andover teachers, or may divide their work between the seminary and the university. If the student wishes to take the Harvard degree, he may fulfill the statutory requirement of w residence at the university at least one year ” while in residence at Andover Seminary. The dormitories and boarding accommoda¬ tions of Harvard University are open to Andover students on the same terms as to university students. Also adjacent to Harvard University is the New Church Theo¬ logical School, which was moved to its present location in 1889, and the same privileges are extended by the university to the students of this theological school as to the others. The Newton Theological Institution, at Newton Center, might also be added to this list, since its distance from Harvard is not so great as to preclude the regis¬ tration of its students for a limited number of university courses. Around the University of Pennsylvania are three seminaries, whose students may take advantage of the opportunities for undergraduate or graduate work offered by the university. The Divinity School of the Protestant Episcopal Church encourages the combination course, and students arh allowed to add to their studies at the uni¬ versity branches of study belonging to the junior year in the divinity school ; thus industrious students may complete the course prescribed for this year by the time they have graduated from the university. HIGHER EDUCATION. 109 The Crozer Theological Seminary of the Baptist Church has a similar working’ arrangement with the university. In this- case — the privilege of elective work in the University of Pennsylvania is regarded as a reward for tlieir collegiate preparation for a theological course and as an opportunity for investigation of subjects not usually provided for in a theological curriculum. In order that this privilege may minister to the best discipline, both in the seminary and in the university, the number of university electives that may be taken during a three years’ residence in the seminary is limited to the number required for the degree of master of arts from the university. These electives in the graduate school of the university are open only to seminary students who hold degrees granted by colleges or universities whose degrees are recognized by the university. The University of Cincinnati maintains reciprocal relations with two theological institutions in its vicinity, which are described as follows in its catalogue for 1911-12 : Arrangements have been made with the Hebrew Union College and with Pane Theological Seminary whereby students of these institutions who are pursuing a course in the University of Cincinnati may be allowed to count work in Hebrew taken in these institutions for the degree of bachelor of arts, to the amount of two hours a week throughout the freshman and sophomore years, and three hours a week throughout the junior and senior years, for the Hebrew Union College, and three hours per week for three years in Lane Theological Seminary, provided such work is regularly entered upon the election schedules of the University. * * * Courses in Hebrew taken in Lane Seminary and in the Hebrew Union Col¬ lege by graduates of recognized colleges and universities may count to the extent of 12 hours for the master of arts degree. At Berkeley, Cal., on the other side of the continent, is found a similar grouping of theological schools about the University of California. In this case several of the schools have been recently moved to the neighborhood of the university, or have been newly created in that vicinity, for the purpose of close affiliation with the university. Within a few minutes’ walk of the campus are the Pacific Theological Seminary of the Congregational Church, the Berkeley Bible Seminary of the Christian Church, the Pacific Unitarian School for the Ministry, and the Pacific Coast Baptist Theological Union. Not only do these institutions avail themselves of the oppor¬ tunities offered by the university, but they recognize the advantage of interchange with each other. The last institution announces that — by a system of free cooperation it is able to avail itself of the values of any of the courses of the Pacific Theological Seminary (Congregational), and of the Berkeley Bible Seminary (Disciple), and of the courses in the University of California. * * * The faculty urge students, even if they are college graduates, to take s$me courses in the university. If a student is not prepared in Greek, that too can he had in the university. It is evidently wise economy to use these university courses rather than to provide them ourselves, at great expense. 110 EDUCATION REPORT, 1912. To San Francisco, less than an hour away from the university, the Protestant Episcopal Church has removed its Church Divinity School of the Pacific, from San Mateo, where it was founded in 1893. It also announces that — there will be opportunity to arrange for special courses in advanced study at the California universities when desired. The Ryder Divinity School of the Universalis! Church, hitherto located at Galesburg, in connection with Lombard College, was last year removed to Chicago and is now affiliated with the divinity school of the University of Chicago. A similar removal has been under consideration by the Meadville Theological Seminary (Unitarian), Meadville, Pa. Already there are seven theological schools in Chi¬ cago and its suburbs. Three of them are organically related to uni¬ versities. Besides the two just mentioned is the Garrett Biblical Institute of the Methodist Episcopal Church, which includes special seminaries for Norwegian-Danish and for Swedish students. This institute occupies, under a long lease, a portion of the campus of Northwestern University, of which it is, to all intents and purposes the theological department or school. The catalogue of Northwest¬ ern University devotes a section to these theological schools, and states the conditions of interchange of credits for advanced degrees. At Eugene, Oreg., the Bible University of the Christian Church has been built on land almost adjoining the campus of the University of Oregon, and interchange of students and college credits takes place. Recent announcements are made of a plan of cooperation with each other and of affiliation Avith McGill University, of Montreal, Canada, entered into by four theological colleges of Montreal, repre¬ senting the Congregational, Presbyterian, Wesleyan, and diocesan or¬ ganizations. It is worthy of note in this connection that the insti¬ tutions in Canada are following an English model as well as an American, since the theological schools of various sects have been affiliated with municipal universities in Manchester and Bristol. The University of Bristol, notwithstanding that it is supported by both municipal and imperial subsidy, accepts the work of these affiliated schools and grants degrees in divinity along with other ordinary degrees. Three such degrees were granted in 1912. NEW INSTITUTIONS. Among the institutions recently created, two stand out significantly for the deliberation, courage, and originality which have charac¬ terized the plans for their organization — Reed College, Portland, Oreg., and Rice Institute, at Houston, Tex. Scarcely a single region in the country could be named where there is* urgent need for a HIGHER EDUCATION. Ill college or university with the aims and methods of the average insti¬ tution of this class. One chartered college, more or less, does not shift the center of gravity or point of interest in higher education in such great States as Texas and Oregon. But when a college like Simmons College, of Boston, or an institution like Tuskegee Normal and Industrial Institute, for negroes, makes a new attack upon a problem of education, forging new machinery for turning to educa¬ tional account existing material hitherto unused, or when it deals with its raw material in a new way, the experiment gains nation¬ wide attention. So in the last two years Reed College and Rice Institute, both highly endowed, have opened their doors to students. Both are prepared to put into execution most carefully matured plans for high-power educational service. Reed College is the first institution established by the trustees of (he Reed Institute. Created under the wills of Mr. and Mrs. Simeon G. Reed, who gave property valued at about $3,000,000, this college starts with an income of approximately $100,000. Exercising their broad discretionary powers, the trustees decided, after most careful study of the needs of Portland and vicinity, and after counseling with the experts of the General Education Board, to establish a college of liberal arts and scienees; but to differentiate it by its administration, rather than by its organization, from other colleges of liberal arts. Its declaration of purpose, made in a bulletin of March, 1911, reads: It will attempt to do only as much as it can reasonably be expected to do with its annual income as well as such work is done anywhere. Accordingly, it will not overburden its instructors, allow its enrollment to increase more rapidly than its resources, or trust any of its teaching to temporary underpaid assistants whose interests do not center in their students. It aims to appoint and retain only those who are devoted to their students, who love their teaching above all else, who know how to teach and can not but inspire, and whose whole life is imbued with the professional spirt. Reed College unquestionably stands for personalized education, for the impartation of the best thought and impulses of the race to the worthiest young men and women obtainable. Requiring as an indispensable qualification for admission the completion of a four-year high-school course of standard grade, it proceeds with refreshing deliberation and frankness to sift and sort the candidates offering themselves, so that waste of time and effort upon ill-traiped, ill-advised, and ill-disposed intrants shall be reduced to a minimum. The college does not bind itself, however, to admit all students who present the necessary scholarship certificates and the ordinary certificates of good character. Earnest effort will be made to learn the temperament, habits, and purposes of each candidate for admission, as well as his total record in and out of school. For the first class, at least, the president expects to have a personal interview with each prospective student, and to take as much time 112 EDUCATION REPORT, 1912. as may be necessary to form a judgment of bis fitness to profit by the offerings of Heed College. * * * No students will be admitted on condition. As this is a departure from the prevailing practice of American colleges it needs some explanation. To a majority of candidates our colleges virtually say: “According to our pro¬ fessed standards you are not prepared to undertake college work. Although the secondary-school opportunities are greater than ever before, although the wider range of admission subjects makes failure every year less excusable, yet you have failed to present our minimum requirements. Nevertheless, we admit you with conditions, allow you to try to do college work in the same class with those who are prepared, and in addition we require you to make up your deficiencies in secondary-school work.” The effect of this policy is to hamper the work of those secondary-school teachers who are trying to promote and sustain intellectual effort ; for the prospective college student interprets this leniency as a guaranty of admission, despite superficiality or deficiency of preparation. He is thus prepared for further evasion of work after he gains admission to college. The first application of this method of admission, by which not merely anils checked, counted, and proportioned are the things need¬ ful, but in which the fiber, purpose, and spirit of the student are weighty considerations, was marked by a notable firmness and self- restraint. Out of 263 students who applied for admission to the first class in September, 1911, all but 50 were declined ; some because they would have been conditioned or special students ; others because they seemed to lack the desired earnestness or purposefulness. All applicants for advanced standing were in like manner refused. One very significant test of the wisdom of a method of admission of freshmen lies in the percentage of students regularly completing within the year the freshman work for which their admission creden¬ tial is supposed to be an evidence of fitness. In place of the “ mor¬ tality ” of 20 per cent, of which some institutions speak without shame and even boastingly, Reed College eliminated three because of poor scholarship, and advised two to transfer to other institutions more allied with their interests. The students thus constituting the first freshman class (26 men and 24 women) did not enter upon a course necessarily four years’ long, for the catalogue expressly states that the requirements for a degree can not be stated in terms of years of residence, since the quality of work enters into account, as well as the number of courses, semester by semester. During 1911-12, with only the freshman class, the college had, besides the president and director of music, 3 professors and 2 instructors. In 1912-13 a new freshman class of 80 was admitted; with two classes, the faculty consists of the president, the librarian, 9 full professors, and 3 instructors. Two professors and an in¬ structor are on leave of absence, and will enter upon their duties in September, 1913. The average salary for all persons teaching during 1912-13 is $2,385; the ratio of instructors to students is fixed at 1 to 10. HIGHEK EDUCATION. 113 The transformation of the Peabody Normal School of Nashville, TeniL, into the George Peabody College for Teachers is worthy to rank with the organization of Reed College and Rice Institute as an event of primary significance in the recent development of higher education. The Peabody Normal College was supported from 1875 to .1911 by the Peabody Education Fund. The trustees of that fund deckled to make a final distribution and voted to appropriate $1,000,- 000 for the organization of the new George Peabody College for Teachers. This action was concurrent with gifts to the new institu¬ tion from the city, county, and State, amounting to $500,000, together with 16 acres of land and the buildings of the University of Nashville, approximately $250,000 in value. A further offer of $500,000 is made contingent upon the raising of $1,000,000 by the college prior to November, 1913. Toward this latter sum the General Education Board has contributed $250,000 for the endowment of the* Seaman A. Knapp School of Country Life, as a memorial of the uniquely con¬ structive work of Dr. Knapp in energizing in the rural South the forces for economic and social betterment. Thus is assured for the South a central teachers college for the higher education of teachers, designed to supplement and reenforce the State normal schools of the section. Its strategic location on a beautiful site adjoining the campus of Vanderbilt University, with which it has established cordial relations; its measurably adequate equipment and endowment ; and its freedom to work out its plans for direct usefulness to the elementary and high schools of the South place it alongside the Teachers College of Columbia University, New York, the University of Chicago, and the University of California in its opportunities for wide specialized service. What the Teachers College of Columbia University has been and is for the Eastern and Middle States, with their complicated problems of urban and. foreign populations, that the new George Peabody College aims to be for the great South and Southwest, a region where 80 per cent of the population contributes its children to the rural and village schools. These schools in their present development — or lack ox development — stand in critical need of trained educational leaders, such as the new college aims to prepare, men and women at once sympathetic, patient, enlightened, and resourceful, who can undertake the constructive reformation of the present rural school, which has been aptly charac¬ terized as “ only a poorly equipped and poorly taught city school located in the country,” so that it shall become a vital force through¬ out the whole section, binding the interests and aspirations of the youth to their communities and at the same time giving them ideals and appreciations which link them indissolubly to the higher life of Ibe State and Nation. 114 EDUCATION REPORT, 1912. The Rice Institute of Liberal and Technical Learning was opened to students in 1912, in Houston, Tex., and formally dedicated in October, during an academic festival notable for dignity, lavishness of entertainment, and distinction of foreign guests invited to par¬ ticipate in the elaborate program of addresses and papers. The original gifts or bequest of William Marsh Rice, by whose will the institute wTas to be located at Houston, Tex., and devoted to the advancement of letters, science, and arts, have increased under the prudent management of the board of trustees in amount and income- producing power until the present resources of the institute are estimated at approximately $10,000,000. Relieved by its imperial revenues from the necessity of an immediate showing in number of students and in the u results ” too often impatiently demanded from tax-supported institutions, Rice Institute has taken four years for the formulation of definite plans for building and development. Unhurried, and with many sagacious counselors, it has begun its work in a new and rapidly developing country by first building a group of strikingly beautiful buildings on a great campus of 300 acres near the city of Houston. In the words of President E. O. Lovett, in his formal dedicatory address : The very problems pressing for solution in the development of its environ¬ ment seemed to call for a school of science, pure and applied, of the highest grade, looking in its educational program quite as much to investigation as to in¬ struction. Accordingly, and in the spirit of the founder’s dedication of the institute, it was proposed that the new institution should enter upon a univer¬ sity program beginning at the science end. As regards the letters end of the threefold dedication, it was proposed to characterize the institution as one both of liberal and technical learning, and to realize this larger characterization as rapidly as circumstances might permit. With respect to the art end, it was proposed to take architecture seriously in the preparation of its plans and to see to it that the physical setting of the institute be one of great beauty as well as of more immediate utility. Rarely if ever in recent years, with the exception of the brief period which saw the organization of the University of Chicago and the Leland Stanford Junior University, has a single three years seen the beginnings of work in three such richly endowed institu¬ tions as Reed College, Rice Institute, and the George Peabody Col¬ lege for Teachers. Each one is set in a wide field of service; each is independent of hampering traditions and entangling alliances; each is to be worthily housed at its beginnings ; each has in present command of its destinies men of unusual experience and vision and courage; and to them the whole group of higher educational insti¬ tutions, even the oldest and greatest, may look for light and lead¬ ing in the solution of their common problems. HIGHER EDUCATION. 115 EDUCATION FOR JOURNALISM. The opening of the new School of Journalism of Columbia Uni¬ versity in September, 1912, was. an event in higher education com¬ parable with the founding of the new institutions already discussed. The original gift for founding this school was made by Joseph Pulitzer, owner of the New York World, who gave to the university in 1903 $1,000,000 for the purpose of establishing a school of journal¬ ism, which at that time was practically without precedent. By the terms of agreements made between the donor and the university in 1903-4, the definite organization of the school was not to be pro¬ ceeded with until the donor exercised his right to nominate an ad¬ visory board, a board to be composed of “the foremost journalists and editors possessing expert knowledge on the subject.” Mr. Pulitzer chose not to exercise his right to appoint such a board during his lifetime, and the stipulations of the agreement did not become effective until after his death in 1911. By his will a second gift of $1,000,000 was provided for, contingent upon the successful carrying out of the purposes of the original agreement for a term of three years, failing which the million dollars was to be given to Harvard University. Following the death of Mr. Pulitzer, the advisory board was ap¬ pointed, consisting of the president of the university, Mr. Balph Pulitzer, and the most distinguished men in American journalism, representing four New York newspapers — The World, The Sun, The Times, and The Tribune — the Boston Globe, Brooklyn Eagle, Phila¬ delphia Press, Chicago Daily News, St. Louis Post-Despatch, and the .Springfield Bepubiican, and the Associated Press. The school has registered during its first year 55 regular students, the fourth-year class being made up entirely of persons already holding collegiate degrees. This great gift, and the organization of this new school of journal¬ ism, is indicative of the momentum acquired by the movement among colleges and universities for the development of professional or semi- professional courses in journalism, and also of the strength of a prac¬ tical idealism generated in the very center of a ;nost practical, most strenuous, profession and business. The aim of such courses, as an¬ nounced by Columbia University — is to assist and attract to the journalistic profession young men of character and ability, and to helj) those already engaged in the profession to acquire the highest moral and intellectual training. It will be the object of the school to make better journalists, who will make better newspapers, which will better serve the public. While a college training can not make a journalist, it can help to make broader and bigger the man who has the capacity for a success- 116 EDUCATION REPORT, 1912. fui career as a journalist, who shall practice with high mind and public spirit, coupled with strong business acumen, the “art of timely and effective presentation in print.” The last decade has seen a marked change in the recognition by newspaper men themselves of the value of thorough training for the profession. If the old college training was looked upon by the elder journalists, like Horace Greeley, as a positive hindrance, there can be no question that such a princely gift as that of Mr. Pulitzer is an index of the changed sentiment of the journalistic world. His own conception of conditions in his profession and of the principles underlying their improvement through reduction of waste of time, material, energy, and life itself were expressed in a notable article in the North American Beview in May, 1904: The “ shop ” idea is one that used to prevail in the law and in medicine. Legal studies began by copying bills of cost for the country lawyer; medical training by sweeping out a doctor’s office. Now it is recognized that better • results are obtained by starting with a systematic equipment in a professional school. The lawyer learns nothing at college except the theory of the law. its principles, and some precedents. When he receives his diploma he is quite unprepared to practice. Nor does the doctor learn to practice at the medical school. He learns only principles, theories, rules, the experience of others — the foundation of his profession. After leaving college he must work in the hospitals to acquire the art of practically applying his knowledge. In journalism at present the newspaper offices are the hospitals, but the students come to them knowing nothing of principles or theories. The news¬ paper hospital is extremely accommodating. It furnishes the patients for its young men to practice on, puts dissecting knives into the hands of beginners who do not know an artery from a vermiform appendix, and pays them for the blunders by which they gradually teach themselves their profession. We may sympathize with the students in their industrious efforts at self-education, but may we not also sympathize with the unfortunate editor who has to work with such incompetent instruments? Speaking of this change, President Butler, of Columbia, says: The plan which was greeted with respectful incredulity then (1903) is wel¬ comed with generous enthusiasm now. Much of this change of sentiment is due to a clearer understanding of what Mr. Pulitzer had in mind and of what he hoped to achieve by his great benefaction. It was plainly bis wish and purpose to do what lay in his power to dignify and elevate the standards and to extend the influence to that calling to which he had so successfully devoted his life. He believed that this could best be accomplished by a university training school, placed side by side with successful training schools for the so-called learned professions and in the same academic association. He wTas not afraid of adding knowledge to practical experience, nor did he hesitate to prefer prac¬ tical experience based upon knowledge and training to one which was without that secure foundation. (An. Rep., 1912, p. 44.) lYhile this gift of Mr. Pulitzer has been lying fallow, as it were, the provisions made for direct instruction in journalistic principles HIGHER EDUCATION. 117 and methods have been extended throughout the country. Both endowed and State-supported institutions have organized courses of varying length and breadth leading in some cases to such a degree as bachelor of science in journalism in a school with a separate organization as a school or department, having a faculty and equip¬ ment of its own. Twenty-six universities and colleges now offer courses in journalism, and in December, 1912, a permanent national organization was effected by teachers connected with these schools.1 Nearly all such schools of journalism have the same quantitative ad¬ mission requirements as other departments of the university. At the University of Missouri, however, journalism is a separate profes¬ sional school, coordinate with the schools of law, medicine, and education, requiring for admission two years of regular college work. In such institutions as the University of Wisconsin, Kansas Univer¬ sity, and the University of Washington the work in reporting and news writing and editorial writing is spread over two years at least, and is connected with the press enterprises of the student body. Through the courtesy of the Seattle Times the department of journal¬ ism has exclusive control of one page of the Sunday edition. At the University of Wisconsin, in which 155 students were registered in the course in journalism in 1911-12, six organizations are main¬ tained by students interested in journalism: The University Press Club, The Cub’s Club (for freshmen and sophomores interested in newspaper work), the Hoard Press Club (for students in agricul¬ tural journalism), the Advertising Club, and two professional journalistic fraternities for men and for women. While the academic side of the work of students in journalism is confined largely to English and modern languages, history, economics, sociology, political science, philosophy, logic, and psychology, the professional work is made intensely practical by actual gathering of news, especially in institutions located in centers like New York City, Philadelphia, Pittsburgh, Chicago, and Seattle. The profes¬ sional courses include the practice and discussion of news gathering, reporting, editorial writing, and newspaper administration, the his¬ tory of journalism, journalistic ethics, and jurisprudence. In some cases the actual typesetting and^ press work is carried on by the students in the issue of a college daily paper, which is run without subsidy and must pay its bills like any other paper. More than a 1 Beloit, Colorado (University), Columbia, De Pauw, Indiana, Illinois, Iowa State Col¬ lege, Kansas, Kansas Agricultural, Louisiana, Maine, Massachusetts Agricultural, Mar¬ quette, Michigan, Missouri, New York, Nebraska, North Carolina, North Dakota, Notre Dame, Ohio State, Oklahoma, Pittsburgh, South Carolina, Wisconsin. 118 EDUCATION REPORT, 1912. thousand students are reported as enrolled in courses in journalism in American universities. The following outlines of- courses in journalism may be taken as illustrative of the work counted toward degrees in typical eastern, middle western, and far western universities: UNIVERSITY OF MISSOURI, 1911-12. Tlie equivalent of 60 hours' credit in the college of arts and science is re¬ quired for admission to the school of journalism. These credits should include 5 hours of economics, 5 hours of sociology or political science, and 5 hours of logic and psychology. In order to secure the degree of bachelor of science (B. S.) in journalism the student must fulfill the following conditions: 1. He must be regularly admitted to the school. 2. He must complete (a) a major of 24 hours in journalism, including 0 hours of history and principles of journalism, 6 hours of news gathering, and 3 hours of copy reading; and (b) a minor of 12 hours chosen, with the consent of the dean, in related subjects. 3. He must complete a total of 72 hours. Subjects and hours in journalism. Hours. History and principles of jour¬ nalism _ 6 News gathering _ 6 Reporting _ 6 Copy reading _ 6 or 4 The editorial (juniors and seniors only) _ 6 Newspaper direction (seniors)- 6 Advertising (not open to fresh¬ men ) _ 3 Hours. Magazine making _ 2 Newspaper jurisprudence _ 1 Agricultural journalism _ 3 or 6 Advanced news writing (juniors and seniors) _ 6 Educational journalism _ 3 or 6 Comparative journalism _ 2 The press and public opinion- 1. 2. or 3 Professional terminology _ 4 Bibliography _ 2 UNIVERSITY OF WASHINGTON, 1911-12. Specific journalism courses. Titles. Semester. Credits per semester. Offered to— Prerequisites. Elements of newspaper writing . 1,2 1 Freshmen . None. Reporting . 1,2 3 Sophomores . Rhetoric, 1, 2. Editing . 1,2 2 Juniors . 1, 2. Newspaper history . 1,2 2 . do . None. News interpretation . . 1.2 2 Seniors . 1, 2, 3, 4. Editorial writing. . 1,2 1 Juniors . English, 1, 2. Short story . 1,2 3 All . Do. Advertising . 1,2 2 Juniors . None. Mechanics of printing. . . 1,2 3 Freshmen. . . . Do. Advanced printing . 1,2 2 Seniors . 8. Electives recommended: English literature, history, argumentation, eth¬ nology, evolution, law, practical public speaking for men, library reference, magazine make-up, additional courses in political science or philosophy. HIGHER EDUCATION. 119 COLUMBIA UNIVERSITY, 1912-13. FIRST YEAR. Hours. Freshman English composition _ 6 Newspaper reading course in French or German _ 6 History and principles of natural science _ 6 General survey of history _ 6 Introductory course in — Politics _ 6 Philosophy or a language or a science _ 6 SECOND YEAR. Practical course in writing _ 6 Introductory course in economics- 6 Survey of English literature _ 6 Survey of American literature _ 4 Laboratory course in European history _ 8 Survey of American history _ 6 THIRD YEAR. Hours. Practical course in writing (con¬ tinued) - 6 Newspaper technic — news gather¬ ing, copy-j. _ 6 Modern European literature - G Statistics _ _ 3 The industrial revolution - 3 Party government in the United States _ 6 Special lectures _ 2 FOURTH YEAR. Newspaper technic — Special reporting and inter¬ viewing _ G Editing and rewriting _ 8 History of journalism _ 6 Elements of law (especially the law of libel) _ 6 Labor and trust problems _ 6 Total _ 136 The development of courses in journalism is by no means peculiar to the United States. Lecture courses in German universities were begun as early as 1906. These deal with such subjects as, at Leipzig, the history, organization, and technique of journalism; at Berlin, with public opinion and journalism in Germany; at Heidelberg, in the history, condition, and opinion of the press in journalism in Ger¬ many, together with a practical course introductory to journalism; at Zurich, with the history and system of the law of the press; at Berne, with practical courses in editing and news service of a news¬ paper. TRAINING TEACHERS FOR ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS. Never has the attack upon the problem of providing training for teachers for all schools been pressed with more vigor than it is to-day. The significance of the teacher’s function, especially in nonurban communities; the needs of such communities for educational leader¬ ship which reaches beyond the classroom and beyond the school day ; the skill and technical knowledge demanded in a teacher; the sym¬ pathy and enthusiasm indispensable to understand and deal wisely wTith local interests and local industries — these and similar vital mat¬ ters are under daily discussion in schools for the training of persons to become teachers. Various forces are working to quicken the popu¬ lar appreciation of these considerations. Education is no longer 77236° — ED 1912 — vol 1 - 10 120 EDUCATION REPORT, 1912. merely a thing of books and pencils for children and adolescents; it does not end at the age of 16 or 21 ; it is for men and women who still retain the capacity and the desire for growth; it must touch life in the heart and the hand as well as in the head. Extension work, night schools, apprentice schools, short courses (as in dairying), corresponding courses, summer schools, and traveling libraries and laboratories are forms of response to this new demand for education. It might even be characterized as applied education, paraphrasing the term applied Christianity as used in certain discussions of religion and in the title of a professorship in Grinnell College, Grin- nell, Iowa. The problem of training teachers differentiates itself according to the nature of the pupil material to be dealt with, since qualified teachers are needed for positions ranging from the kindergarten to the college, from preparation of boys and girls for rural life to preparation for the complicated responsibilities of business, industry, commerce, professions, and social service. Granting that success will ultimately reward the efforts now put forth to make teaching really a profession and life career, for which definite preparation must be made and to which shall be attracted men, as well as women, of fine personality and thorough training, it is perfectly clear that teaching as a whole is still only a profession by courtesy. When the superin¬ tendent of public instruction in State after State reports year by year such alarming impermanence and such disheartening percent¬ ages of crude and untrained teachers in the common schools, no one can seriously claim that teaching is yet a profession except in the sections devoted to middle and higher education. Earnestness and devotion of a few persons can not be made substitutes for knowledge or for skill in the many in interpreting life and things to children. In the great State of Illinois the superintendent of public instruc¬ tion in 1910 reported 29,281 teachers employed in the common schools of that State, including about 6,000 teachers in Chicago, and all high- school teachers in the State. Of these, 8,448 had not had the equiva¬ lent of a good high-school course and 8,063 were without previous experience. Until very recently, 75 per cent of the teachers of the rural schools of Oregon were without the equivalent of a good high- school education. The normal schools, as originally organized, were designed for training teachers for the elementary or common schools and have generally been considered the State’s agency for that purpose. With great credit many of them have held themselves to this great task; but, unfortunately, too many of them have never outgrown the con¬ dition in which they are a combination of normal school and local high school, or have served as a free State high school in competition with other high schools supported by the localities alone or in HIGHER EDUCATION. 121 cooperation with the State. In some of the older States, as well as in some of the newer, secondary or even elementary work, in which the problem is that of giving knowledge of subjects to be taught rather than instruction in the theory and art of teaching, has been predominant. It is not always easy to determine how far this is true in a particular institution, since many of the normal schools do not report any students of high-school grade, though it is well known that students are admitted in large numbers from the eighth grade. The custom followed by some of these schools, and also by some colleges, of giving only an alphabetical list of students enrolled, instead of making a classification of students, increases the difficulty of making fair estimates of registration and grade of work. A normal school in Oklahoma in its catalogue for 1910-11 gives an alphabetical list of students numbering about 700; its report to the Bureau of Education showed no high-school students ; yet 354 of the students were registered from the town in which it is located, which had a population of less than 4,000 people. Similarly, a Missouri normal school reported 1,400 students in 1911, but pre¬ sented only an alphabetical list. The difficulty of making a statistical estimate of the services of a normal institution is complicated still further in cases where the institution is part of a college or university maintaining also a preparatory department, because of duplicate registration in both the normal and jDreparatory departments or in both the normal and college departments. An institution in Ohio includes a normal college and a preparatory school; a classified list of students is presented, by departments and classes, showing a gen¬ eral total of over 3,000 ; of these about 1,400 are “ names counted more than once,” but the reader can not tell how many of those credited to the normal college are primarily normal college registrations, in contrast with preparatory and regular college registrations. A Kan¬ sas normal school presents a careful classification, enabling one to see at a glance that in 1911-12 there were in the alphabetical list nearly 3,000 enrolled, including “ repetitions ” and graduates of 1911. The classification shows the number in the four-year secondary course; in the first and second years of the college, or regular normal, course; and in the third and fourth years of the college course. Yet this school reported to the bureau no students in the high-school grades for the year in question. Eagerness for numbers of students as an index of success and as a basis for asking increased appropriation has led many institutions away from strict and unremitting attention to their primary business of training men and women for teaching, yet the schools themselves are not solely to blame, since the policy of concentrating this work in one institution, as in Iowa, has necessarily magnified the element of numbers. 122 EDUCATION EEPOET, 1912. A comparison of the statistics of State school systems and of nor¬ mal schools presented in this report will make it entirely clear that the normal schools of the States, without exception, supply only a minor fraction of the demand made annually for new teachers in each State. The State superintendent of public instruction of Minne¬ sota reported in 1909-10 that 3,000 new teachers were needed an¬ nually in the public schools of that State, while the normal schools of the State taken together graduated in that year 690 students, or less than 25 per cent of the number needed. In 1911-12 the need was just as great, and it would have taken the whole registration of 3,700 students of the five normal schools to meet the requisitions of the schools. To supply new teachers in Iowa, which has more than 60 per cent more teachers than Minnesota, the Iowa State Teachers’ Col¬ lege, the only public normal school of the State, with a registration of 2,425, granted degrees and certificates of all kinds, between June, 1911, and March, 1912, numbering 308. In Missouri, with a demand at least 15 per cent greater than Minnesota’s, the total registration at the normal schools in 1911-12 was slightly above 6,300, and the num¬ ber of persons certificated in some way about 750. New York’s 15 public normal schools in 1910-11 graduated 1,811 students, to fill the vacancies occurring in a body of more than 45,000 teachers. Penn¬ sylvania’s 15 public normal schools in the same year sent out 1,925 graduates, to fill vacancies among more than 35,000 teachers. The tendency to advance the normal-school curriculum beyond two years of work above the high-school course and to organize standard courses leading to regular degrees is illustrated by the Albany Nor¬ mal College (New York), the Michigan State Normal College at Ypsilanti, the Colorado State Teachers College, and the State Normal School at Kirksville, Mo. Some of the States have given authority to all their normal schools to grant degrees. Among these are Illi¬ nois, Kansas, Missouri, and Colorado. Many normal schools in other States have taken the name of college or university and have con¬ ferred regular collegiate degrees; for example, the North Carolina State Normal and Industrial College, Greensboro; Winthrop Normal and Industrial College, Kock Hill, S. C., and Illinois State Normal University, Normal, Ill. The degrees granted by these institutions show a wide variety. At one of the normal schools of Missouri, a student may take the degree of bachelor of pedagogy upon the completion of two years’ work above the high school; for three years’ work he may receive the master of pedagogy, and upon the completion of a fourth year’s work the degree of bachelor of arts will be conferred. The enforcement of the requirement of full four years’ high-school work, or its equivalent for admission to the professional two-year courses in normal schools, is making steady headway. The State of HIGHEB EDUCATION. 123 California has established this rule for its normal schools without exception, save that two of the schools continue to give a course sub¬ stantially like the usual four-year high -school course. Where these entrance requirements have been fully met, students upon graduation may, as a rule, go to colleges and universities and receive sufficient credit to enable them to take a bachelor’s degree in two years. Such a plan of coordination of normal school and college work is com¬ mended by its economy and by its professional efficiency. In this way the comparatively small number of graduates from the normal schools who desire to go on will be provided for, just as the normal schools will provide for those who graduate from training classes of high schools or county training schools for teachers. This principle of coordination was worked out in the State of Wisconsin and embodied in a law passed in 1911 which contains the following provision : Tlie board of normal-school regents may extend the course of instruction in any normal school so that any course, the admission to which is based upon graduation from an accredited high school or its equivalent, may include the substantial equivalent of the instruction given in the first two years of a college course. Such course of instruction shall not be extended further than the substantial equivalent of the instruction given in the first two years of such college course without the consent of the legislature. By a system which places all the normal schools under a single board of regents or trustees, as in Wisconsin, Minnesota, and South Dakota, this process of coordination may be carried through logically and yet permit the schools in different parts of the State to diversify their courses to meet local needs or to provide specialized instruction for particular groups of teachers, like those in manual training, domestic science, business, or industrial subjects. In view of conditions like those just discussed in the preceding paragraphs — and the story could be expanded almost indefinitely — it is discouraging to find in so many quarters a well-developed tend¬ ency on the part of normal schools to insist on being granted the right to develop standard college courses, at least in liberal arts and sciences, to give the usual academic degrees, and to prepare graduates for high-school positions. Such a tendency might be welcomed by a State and its normal institutions provided with the necessary facili¬ ties for such advanced instruction, if they were already discharging fully their duty to the elementary schools. As already indicated, some States in their sovereign unity of pur¬ pose seem to have determined to be judiciously deaf to the urgings of ambitious heads of normal schools until every elementary school¬ room is occupied by an informed and pedagogically trained teacher. Distinct advantages attach to a system organized to divide up the revenues available for the training of elementary school teachers 124 EDUCATION REPORT, 1912. among several moderate-sized schools set at strategic points in the State and to keep each school to its appointed task, permitting none to assume college functions in competition with State-supported col¬ leges or universities. Few States have too many normal schools, though some of these schools are badly located. Few States have normal schools which would not be strengthened for their purposes by a rigid pruning and grading and by developing agencies to touch directly teachers in service in much the same way as the new move¬ ment in agricultural education and agricultural extension contem¬ plates touching the actual worker at his task. The State of Tennessee has made it obligatory on the principals and instructors in normal schools for the training of white teachers to assist in conducting teachers’ institutes in the counties of the State. The teachers of the normal schools are required, without additional pay except for traveling expenses, to assist in such insti¬ tutes not more than six weeks in any one year. In other words, by this law of 1909 the extension function of the normal school is recognized and imposed upon the State normal schools of Tennessee as an essential part of their work. CHAPTER IV. CITY SCHOOL SYSTEMS, 1911-12. By William R. Hood, Division of School Administration , Bureau of Education . CONTENTS. I. City school administration. II. Reorganized school systems. III. Professional investigations : Baltimore ; New York. IV. City superintendents : Salaries ; tenure ; important changes. V. Course of study : Simplification ; shorter elementary courses ; departmental teach¬ ing ; differentiation in grammar-school courses ; European history in the ele¬ mentary school ; moral training ; time schedules. VI. Industrial education : Cooperative courses and continuation schools ; dual system of school administration ; Federal aid. VII. Kindergartens. VIII. Teachers’ salaries and pensions. IX. High schools : Shorter courses ; junior high schools ; fraternities. X. Vacation schools. XI. Physical welfare of school children : Medical inspection ; open-air schools ; school lunches ; sex instruction ; quiet zones around schoolhouses. XII. Miscellaneous activities : Social centers ; school gardens ; savings hanks ; play¬ grounds. INTRODUCTION. The field of urban education is broad. No other branch of the American school system ramifies in so many directions or touches society at so many points as the city school does. Health, morals, wholesome home conditions, industrial and commercial well-being — in short, all sorts of means for the enhancement of social and indi¬ vidual efficiency, as well as the traditional textbook training, are now promoted by the city school system. Moreover, the city school is the most mobile of all the fields of American scholastic endeavor. Only a few years ago one read with surprise of medical inspection in schools. Then came school savings banks, industrial training, and open-air classes, all of which are already widespread. Now one reads of swimming lessons, sex hygiene, aviation, and wireless telegraphy in the curriculum of some cities ; and the end is not yet. In a recent letter directed to superintendents of city schools the Commissioner of Education said : In almost every city I visit I find that the public schools are working out particularly well some one or more comparatively new things. 125 126 EDUCATION REPORT, 1912. There is, however, a field in city school progress which may profit¬ ably be surveyed. It is possible to point out pronounced tendencies and significant progressive steps and to bring together as examples masses of facts showing the general trend. To be sure, not every item of progress in each city, nor every possible example of a tend¬ ency can be given; the purpose of this paper is to present a general view of the important developments during the year under consid¬ eration. I. ADMINISTRATION. There have been during the year no revolutionary developments on the administrative side of school work, as in 1911 when Pennsylvania reduced the number of members of school boards of practically all cities in the State and provided for their election at large, and when large and important cities in other States dealt with the matter of administration. This is due in a measure to the fact that more than three times as many legislatures met in 1911 as in 1912. With a few exceptions administrative changes during the past year have pro¬ ceeded little further than the stage of agitation or discussion. But it is apparent that there have been forces at work tending in the same direction as in previous years. While less productive of specific results, these forces have probably been in their influence equally as productive as those of some apparently more fruitful years. Among the proposals for administrative reforms have been the continued agitation in some quarters of the reduction in the size of school boards, the removal of school control from partisan politics, the reduction in the number of committees of boards, and a marked tendency to city self-government. The new charter proposed for New York City in 1911, under which the board of education was to be reduced from 46 to 7 members, with salaries for their services, failed of passage through the State legis¬ lature. But there is no means of knowing what would have been the fate of the proposal for a reduced board membership if it had been stripped of its association with the more objectionable provisions foi salaried board members and the reduction of the school department to the level of the ordinary city department. These latter two fea¬ tures were sufficiently heavy to break down the whole structure. It was urged against salaries for board members that the unpaid board always has been almost universal in the United States, that the beneficiaries of political preferment — too often not the best type for the school board — would seek and obtain the position if it were made a salaried office, and that salaried members with nothing else to do would interfere with the professional duties of the superintendent and his staff of trained experts in professional control. Against re- CITY SCHOOL SYSTEMS, 1911-12. 127 ducing the school department to the level of other city departments, it was said that the proposal would place the administration of the schools more in the hands of partisan politicians. These two fea¬ tures were the chief points of attack, no objection of consequence being made to reducing the membership of the board. In this con¬ nection quotation may be made from an open letter addressed by President Nicholas Murray Butler, of Columbia University, to Mayor William J. Gaynor on June 29, 1911: That the present board of education is much too large is hardly a debatable question, although it has been debated. The number was fixed at 46, rather than at 6 or at 146, simply to compose personal differences and borough rival¬ ries when the school system of the greater city was constituted. A board of 13 or 15 would, in my judgment, be quite large enough to represent all the interests of the city of New York, and it would be small enough to do its busi¬ ness sitting about a table, where views could be easily expressed and compared. It would also be small enough to avoid the temptation to divide itself up into numerous committees, a method of organization which always makes for division of responsibility, inefficiency, and delay. A very few strokes of the pen in the present charter would substitute a small board for a large one, and would also free the board from a considerable portion of the purely routine work which now takes its time.1 The school year 1911-12 was the first under the new “ School code of Pennsylvania,” which received brief treatment in the Annual Report of the Commissioner of Education for 1911, the year of its enactment. The reduction of the membership of boards and the general readjustment of every city school system in the State became necessary. Pittsburgh’s former board of 45 members, representing wards or subdistricts, was displaced by a new body composed of 15 members; in Reading, a city of the second class, 64 members gave place to 9 ; Connellsville, a city of the third class, saw 21 men super¬ seded by 7. In all cases the ward system of selection of boards has passed away, and every member appointed or elected must now be a representative of all the people in the city. It is still too early properly to appraise the Pennsylvania law in the light of experience, but some intelligent discussion of its results has ensued. Some doubt has been expressed as to the efficiency of the law in removing the schools from partisan politics. It is pointed out that the election of the school directors at the same time with other public officers has a tendency to cause the drawing of partisan lines in the nomination and election of such directors. In some cities it may happen that intelligent and progressive wards which formerly elected a high type of board members may now be outvoted by less intelligent sections of the city, and thus the board may lose very desirable members. On the matter of reduced membership of boards, there appears to be practical Educational Review, 42 : 205, September, 1911. 128 EDUCATION REPORT, 1912. unanimity among educators that a wholesome change has been made. Complete data for all the cities of the State are lacking, but from fragmentary facts at hand it would appear that a larger percentage of women is now to be found among the directors selected. Some cities in which the membership of boards has more recently been reduced are New Orleans, La. ; Lynn, Mass. ; Covington, Lexing¬ ton, Newport, and Paducah, Ky. In New Orleans the reduction was from IT to 5 ; in Lynn, from 12 to 5. In the Kentucky cities corre¬ sponding reductions were made. In Providence, K. I., where the system of election by wards prevails, reduction of membership and election at large are earnestly advocated. Doubt as to the advisability of creating extremely small boards in large cities has been expressed in some quarters. It will be noted that President Butler, in the quotation previously made from his letter to Mayor Gavnor, appears to favor a board of about 15 mem¬ bers for New York City. Some have advocated increasing the mem¬ bership of the school committee of Boston from 5 to 9. Those who oppose the extremely small board urge that the duties of the govern¬ ing body of the school system in a city of several hundred thousand population are too numerous for a board of a very few members ; that the advantages of having the composite judgment of a board over the individual opinion of a single director are to some degree defeated in the small board, and that small membership is conducive to “ one-man power.” However true this may be, the trend now is unquestionably toward reduction of the membership of extremely large administra¬ tive bodies. If the pendulum swings too far, it is not unreasonable to expect that it will right itself in a wholesome counter swing. Another movement noticeable in school administration is the tend¬ ency in some cities to reduce the number of committees of the school board, and thus to secure for proposed measures more trustworthy administrative consideration. Without question, committees and sub¬ committees in some board organizations are too numerous. As these committees come to have large powers, either delegated or allowed by courtesy, it is certain that many important acts of the board as a whole become too perfunctory; too often a meritorious proposal is defeated or a questionable measure approved through scant considera¬ tion other than committee action, which is frequently behind closed doors or in such other privacy as will attract little or no attention. But during the past year several boards reduced the number of their committees. This, of course, is a natural concomitant of the reduc¬ tion of general membership. In Lynn, Mass., one of the cities to which reference has been made, it is specifically prescribed that the entire board shall consider all questions. In the matter of granting a greater measure of local self-govern¬ ment to cities, Ohio took the lead in 1912, when constitutional amend- CITY SCHOOL SYSTEMS, 1911-12. 129 merits to that end were adopted on September 3. Regarding city school boards, Article VI, section 3, now reads : Provision shall be made by law for the organization, administration, and control of the public school system of the State supported by public funds ; Provided, That each school district, embraced wholly or in part within any city, shall have the power by referendum vote to determine for itself the num¬ ber of members and the organization of the district board of education, and provision shall be made by law' for the exercise of this power by such school districts. In Article XVIII it is further provided that — Any municipality may frame and adopt or amend a charter for its govern¬ ment and may, subject to the provisions of section 3 of this article, exercise thereunder all powers of local self-government. The legislative authority in the municipality is required on peti¬ tion of 10 per cent of the electors to submit to vote of the people the question “Shall a commission be chosen to frame a charter?” or on its own initiative it may by two-thirds vote submit the question. On an affirmative vote of the electors, a commission of 15 is elected and a new charter is framed for submission to a vote within one year of the election of the commission. n. REORGANIZED SCHOOL SYSTEMS. Much is said and written nowadays of the school’s inefficiency; one hears, too, a great deal of increasing its efficiency. Thus from both points of view the impression is given that something is wrong with the American school, that at least there is room for salutary changes. In the opinion of even the least critical, much remains to be done to perfect our school system. The chief count in the in¬ dictment against the school is that it is not meeting the needs of the community, and various panaceas for this ill have made their ap¬ pearance. “ Enrichment ” of the curriculum, “ socializing ” the school, and industrial training are some of the “ movements ” of which one has often heard or read. A writer recently asserted, perhaps without sufficient basis of fact for an accurate statement, that 75 per cent of the children in the United States are defective, and by implication his remedy would be concentration of interest and energy on improving the health of the younger generation. It can not be denied that there is much of value in many of the recent proposals for improvement. Some see in a complete reorganization of the school system the only effectual means of readjustment. But Avhatever may be the need or however great it may be, there is in some quarters a tendency to make radical changes in the organiza¬ tion and work of the city school. 130 EDUCATION REPORT, 1912. Gary , Pnd. — While the school system of Gary, Inch, does not properly constitute a reorganized system, for it has only very recently attained the proportions of a city, still it may be regarded as a type of reorganization. In that city new buildings have been constructed and schools organized on the principle that much time waste may be eliminated and economy of administration secured by the simple expedient of bringing all the grades, including the high school, into one building and using the building through a longer period of the day. The schoolhouse is made available for use from 8.30 in the morning until 10 at night, not that the children shall be kept in school at night or even all the day, but rather that the period of activity may be made to include more hours of work. The class room is made to serve two classes, the one doing regular work while the other is at play, manual training, or the like. The building is equipped for all such activities and the rotation of classes makes possible the widest use of all parts of the plant. All activities, in¬ cluding play, are conducted under supervision. The advantages claimed for the 44 Gary plan ” are that wider school opportunities are afforded the pupil and that at the same time the cost is reduced. Regarding cost, Supt. William A. Wirt says in his annual report: A tax levy of 25 cents per $100 will provide the revenue for building main¬ tenance with buildings of the Emerson [new] type. A tax levy of 78 cents per $100 will be necessary to provide the revenue for building maintenance with buildings of the Jefferson [older] type. School buildings of the Emerson type, therefore, will make possible a reduction of 53 cents per $100 in the tax levy. The present tax levy of the town of Gary is $3.14 per $100 assessed valuation of property. A reduction of 53 cents would make this levy $2.61. With a fair assessed valuation the school-tax levy in Gary will be reduced 30 cents per $100 assessed valuation of property this year, which will be the actual proof of the economy of school buildings of the Emerson type from the stand¬ point of the taxpayer. Pittsburgh , Pa. — The enactment of the new school code in Penn¬ sylvania in 1911, to which reference has already been made, exempli¬ fied the tendency to reorganize the school system and on a larger scale, for there the entire State was affected. Pittsburgh has re¬ ceived more notice than any other city of the State in effecting the changes provided in the law. In that city not only was the school board reduced in membership, but the importance of the superin¬ tendency was increased and the supervisory staff much enlarged. A teachers’ training school was established and other measures adopted for raising the standard of the teaching force in the city. The course of study adopted includes provisions for industrial and commercial training and other features more in accord with the best practice of progressive city systems. The semiannual promotion of CITY SCHOOL SYSTEMS, 1911-12. 131 pupils has displaced the annual. In short, a school system once the subject of much adverse criticism has speedily recovered from its atrophy and now gives promise of soon taking its place among the best city school systems of the eountry. Hammond , Ijid. — In this, city Supt. C. M. McDaniel has effected a reorganization which includes the introduction of cooperative indus¬ trial courses, vocational guidance, preparatory vocational instruction, an employment bureau, vacation schools for regular studies, and the promotion of pupils without examination or fixed numerical marking or grading of papers. The Hammond plan contemplates keeping the pupil in school as long as possible, providing practical training for him while in school, eliminating nonessentials, and helping the pupil through the prescribed work with as little waste as possible. Concord , N . Id. — The reorganization of the school system of Con¬ cord, N. IT., took the form of a readjustment of the grades. The new scheme constitutes an approach to the “ six-and-six ” plan of school organization, to which some space is devoted in another part of this chapter. Eleven grades now comprise the entire course, but the effort is to do in these 11 years the work of the ordinary 12-grade school. The elementary schools are composed of the first six grades. The seventh grade, which is considered the first year of the high school, is placed in four separate buildings. The eighth grade is in a single building. The three upper grades — third, fourth, and fifth years of the high school, respectively — are housed in the former high-school quarters. Two basic principles underlie the present organization of the Concord schools: First, the separation of the seventh and eighth from the lower grades and their approximation to high-school conditions makes less abrupt the passage from ele¬ mentary to secondary education and works for economy in adminis¬ tration. Second, the plan of providing for the advancement of pupils as they are capable of advancing overcomes to a degree the limita¬ tions of the rigid system of promotion. Supt. Louis J. Eundlett writes as follows of the separate organization of the seventh and eighth grades: Results which have been made manifest by this arrangement are : A very decided advance in scholarship. A marked contrast with former freshmen classes in preserving manners of action and dress that belong to pupils of their age. The social functions allowed have been of a character that retains the artlessness and purity of childhood. The class spirit is more wholesome and strong, being freed from the influence of older classes. Another form of the reorganization consists of offering elective or differentiated courses in the seventh and eighth years. This is made more feasible by drawing the line of demarcation between the elementary and secondary schools at the end of the sixth year instead of at the end of the eighth. Supt. A. B. Hess, at Crookston, Minn., 132 EDUCATION REPORT, 1912. has planned the courses in his city along this line. There the seventh and eighth grades are placed in a single building, and in this school three distinct courses are offered: (1) Preparation for the academic high school, (2) preparation for a commercial course, and (3) prepa¬ ration for an industrial course. Hackensack, N. J., Roanoke, Va., and Houston, Tex., are other cities in which fundamental changes in school organization have recently been effected. Changes in these cities represent different forms of the tendency to differentiate between the elementary and secondary schools on a basis other than the traditional basis. During recent years there has been a tendency toward and much discussion of conducting the school for practically the entire year. The vacation school, which made its appearance in the city system a quarter of a century ago, has blazed the way to a better use of the pupil’s vacation, and many now see in this period an opportunity for valuable school work. In Cleveland, Ohio, a plan involving prac¬ tically a full quarter of work in the summer months was evolved, but later the school authorities receded from their advanced position in this regard. Newark, N. J., has during the past year been experi¬ menting with the all-year school. m. PROFESSIONAL INVESTIGATIONS. Of the recent efforts to reach a correct estimate of the school’s efficiency, none has attracted so much attention as the investigation of city systems by professional experts. In the Annual Report of the Commissioner of Education for 1911 attention was called to this method of approach to the problem of measurement, and the cities of Baltimore and New York were pointed out as the two most notable examples of investigated systems. There are certain difficulties which confront the investigator of a school system, however fit he may be for the undertaking. The lack of fixed and generally accepted standards of measurement by which to judge conditions found, constitutes one of the chief difficulties. That such standards exist as yet can hardly be successfully main¬ tained. For example, the number of minutes per week devoted to a particular study varies greatly in different cities. Formal grammar is begun in some cities in the sixth grade and in others in the fifth or seventh. Wide variation is found in methods of instruction and in the correlation of the several branches of the course of study. This diversity of practice indicates certainly a want of fixity of standard and perhaps a lack of knowledge of the true norm in these particulars. In consequence, the investigator is hampered, since he must depend in large measure upon empirical opinion, a means which can not fix with finality the number of minutes per wreek that should CITY SCHOOL SYSTEMS, 1911-12. 133 be devoted by a sixth-grade pupil to arithmetic, the time at which formal grammar should be first taught, or any one of numerous other desirable standards. The lack of full and reliable data regarding the conditions in¬ vestigated constitutes another difficulty. A reasonably complete body of facts, not only of the city under investigation but also of other cities of its class, is indispensable to the investigator. But much desirable information regarding city schools is not available, or at best it is in fragmentary form. Moreover, local school authorities themselves are often unable to give desired data. By reference to Table 8, Chapter XXV, of the Annual Report of the Commissioner of Education for 1911 it will be seen that of 1,241 city school sys¬ tems of 5,000 population and over, only 81 reported in proper form for publishing in full the data requested on the Bureau of Educa¬ tion’s unabridged schedule, or blank, used for the collection of city school statistics. If it may be assumed that failure to report fully on this schedule was due to inability to do so, then only 6.5 per cent of the cities of the country could give a body of data of moderate scope. It is, therefore, no small task for the investigator coming from outside the city to collect and make readily accessible the great mass of facts connected with the operation of a large and complex city school system. Add to the obstacles already indicated the dangers arising from the expression of preconceived opinions, from hasty antagonisms be¬ cause of fear that a report adverse to certain interests will be made, from opportunities for intensifying prejudices and like manifesta¬ tions of human nature, and one readily sees the difficulty and deli¬ cacy of the task before the investigator of a school system of such proportions as that of Baltimore or New York. Working under some of the limitations indicated, the “ Commission appointed to study the system of education in the public schools of Baltimore ” made its study and published its findings, which are now matters of record. The chief concern here is with the results of the investigation, and the greater proportion of these are more or less intangible. Some succeeding events, however, are worthy of note. Shortly after the commission’s report was made public three mem¬ bers of the school board were relieved of their duties. This was possible through a provision of the charter giving the mayor au¬ thority to remove any member within six months after the latter’s appointment. As it happened, three of the board’s members came within the reach of this charter provision, and they were displaced in favor of three men more in accord with the views of the mayor and with the opposition to some of the administrative policies of the majority of the former board. 134 EDUCATION REPORT, 1912. On© of the first acts of the reconstructed board was to remove the superintendent from office. The vacancy thus made was filled by the appointment of Mr. Francis A. Soper, principal of Baltimore City College, and his corps of assistants was reorganized to meet the views of the new administration. One other important change made was the revocation of the rule requiring teachers to pass pro¬ motional examinations at stated points in their progress to the maxi¬ mum salary in the schedule. Thus, neither the expressed nor the implied recommendations of the commission were carried out in the reorganization of the Baltimore school system that followed. Over the wisdom of the changes made, sharp controversy ensued. The New York inquiry, conducted during the year 1911-12, took a different form from that of Baltimore. Dr. Paul H. Hanus, pro¬ fessor of the history and art of teaching in Harvard University, was called by the board of estimate and apportionment to direct the investigation and associated with himself a body of able assistants. Eleven distinct phases of the school system were subjected to study. The several specialists selected, and the subjects assigned to them, were as follows: 1. Dr. Frank P. Bachman, assistant superintendent of schools, Cleveland, Ohio — Statistical studies : (а) “Promotion, nonpromotion, and part time.” (б) “ Intermediate schools.” (c) “Method of estimating the need of elementary school-teachers.” 2. Dr. Edward C. Elliott, director of the school of education, University of Wis¬ consin — “ The system of supervision and the board of examiners.” 3. Dr. Jesse D. Burks, director, bureau of municipal research, Philadelphia, Pa. — “ The compulsory-attendance service.” 4. Dr. Herman Schneider, dean of the college of engineering, University of Cin¬ cinnati — “Vocational (industrial) schools.” 5. Dr. Frank W. Ballou, director of school affiliation and assistant professor of education, University of Cincinnati — “ Problems in organization and administration of high schools.” 6. Dr. Calvin O. Davis, assistant professor of education, University of Michigan, and inspector of high schools — “ The course of study in high schools.” 7. Dr. Frank V. Thompson, assistant superintendent of schools, Boston, Mass. — “ Commercial education.” 8. Dr. Henry H. Goddard, director, department of psychological research, New Jersey Training School for Feeble-Minded Boys and Girls — “ Ungraded classes.” 9. Mr. Stuart A. Courtis, head of department of science and mathematics, Detroit Home and Day School, Detroit, Mich. — “ The Courtis tests in arithmetic.” 10. Dr. Frank McMurry, professor of elementary education, Teachers’ College, Columbia University— (a) “The quality of classroom instruction.” (b) “The course of studj7.” (c) “ The supervision by the principals.” 11. Dr. Ernest C. Moore, professor of education, Yale University — “The board of education and local boards.” 135 CITY SCHOOL SYSTEMS, 1911-12. To the 11 monographs contemplated in the assignments indicated above Dr. Hanus added a twelfth, “ Introductions and conclusions of the report as a whole,” a paper prepared by himself. At the time this chapter is written, six of the monograph reports have come to the desk of the writer and others are in process of publication. The report of Prof. Moore, however, was rejected by the board of esti¬ mate, difference of opinion having arisen as to the statement of facts contained therein, and it will not appear officially as a part of Prof. II anus’s findings. It is yet too early, of course, to appraise the results of the New York inquiry, but some noteworthy opinions have already found their way into print. About two months ago the New England Journal of Education said in an editorial: 1 It is a long time since there has been such a state of affairs, educationally, in any city as there is in New York at the present time. There seems to have been an “ inquiry ” into the school system. It has cost about $70,000. Some of it, at least, does not satisfy those who instigated the inquiry and pay for it. The report, so far as received, is not accepted, is not officially published, and apparently will not be. Apparently — and at present there is naught but ap¬ pearance to judge from — this inquiry will put an end to all school inquiries; will achieve nothing for the good of the schools or for the enlightenment of the public; will intensify all prejudices for or against the management of the schools of New York City, widening the breach between the city government and the board of education, and magnifying personal prejudices to such a degree that facts and opinions will not be considered for a moment by any one independently of the effect upon the personal equation. Of course, it is possible that a merciful Providence, by whatever name it be recognized, may dispose differently from what men propose, and unseen and undreamed of good may result. The American School Board Journal is equally doubtful of direct wholesome results, but points to the legislature as a means of securing desirable ends:2 The present unsettled situation is doing vast harm to the New York schools. The best outcome that can be hoped for is some radical legislation which will thoroughly reorganize the New York school government, will reducd the size and improve the character of the board of education, will increase and fix definitely the responsibilities of the superintendent and his associates, and will remove the schools altogether from the influence of the politicians. If this happens the inquiry will be worth while after all. It must not be supposed that the work of Prof. Hanus and his corps of associates will be fruitless. The educative influence of the reports will be felt in helping to fix school administrative standards in other cities, whatever may be their direct effects in New York City. The series of monographs will no doubt constitute a valuable contribution to city school literature, whether they be fruitful of 1 Jour, of Educ., 76: 546, Nov. 21, 1912. 2Amer. Sch. Bo. Jour., Jan., 1913, p. 22. 77236°— ed 1912— vol 1 - 11 136 EDUCATION REPORT, 1912. wholesome reforms in the city for which they were intended or not. Lack of space here prevents quotation at length from these mono¬ graphs, but Prof. Hanus’s “ Conclusions of the report as a whole ” may be presented : From the foregoing it is clear that, in spite of the progress the public-school system of New York City has made since the consolidation, it is seriously de¬ fective. It needs thorough reorganization in respect to its administration by the board of education and the supervisory staff, and in respect to its general system of supervision. The board of education needs a clear conception of its functions and should come to close quarters with its work. In the general system of supervision, helpful cooperation under leadership should replace bureaucratic control. The board of superintendents fulfills no useful function and should be abolished. The board of examiners is decidedly efficient, but needs reorganization to improve and maintain its efficiency. The quality of the teach¬ ing, in the elementary schools, at least, is in general not good. The courses of study for elementary schools and for high schools need thoroughgoing revision, and flexibility should replace rigidity in their administration. The compulsory attendance service is inefficient; it emphasizes police functions rather than preventive measures, and the staff needs reorganization on a functional basis. The recognized advantages of intermediate schools in relieving congestion have not led to the further establishment of such schools, and no attempt has been made to realize the exceptional educational opportunities these schools afford; promotions and nonpromotions are not studied so as to yield a real basis for a maximum rate of promotion; part-time classes should be abolished; the es¬ timated need of teachers for elementary schools and for high schools is not based on indisputable and well-organized data. The provision for industrial education is so meager as to be almost negligible; neither industrial nor com¬ mercial education is so maintained as to secure the necessary effective coopera¬ tion of industry and commerce, and cooperative and continuation schools are wholly absent. Habitual self-scrutiny and an appeal to well-conducted investi¬ gations and experiments to secure the necessary data to confirm or refute edu¬ cational opinion and furnish the regulative for all the activities of the school system and for its adequate financial support are lacking. IV. CITY SUPERINTENDENTS. Three phases of the city super intendency engaged the attention of school men during the years 1911 and 1912. These are superin¬ tendents’ salaries, their tenure of office, and changes of incumbents in a number of important cities. During the period under consideration a very decided upward trend in superintendents’ salaries was noticeable, some of the most important and progressive cities in the country having increased the compensation of their chief professional officers. Of the 50 cities having a population of 100,000 or more, 20 allowed the super¬ intendent an increase, according to the educational directory of the United States Bureau of Education. Among these were the follow¬ ing: Boston, from $6,000 to $10,000; New York, from $10,000 to $12,000; Pittsburgh, from $7,000 to $9,000; Buffalo, from $5,000 to $7,500; Cincinnati from $6,000 to $10,000; St. Louis, from $7,000 CITY SCHOOL SYSTEMS, 1911-12. 137 to $8,000; Seattle, from $6,500 to $7,500; New Orleans, from $4,000 to $5,000. As against these increases there were only two decreases, and the lower salaries were for new men assuming office. With the probable exception of the presidents of colleges and uni¬ versities, regarding whose salaries the Bureau of Education has not complete data, superintendents of schools in the larger cities are at the present time the highest paid class of educators in America. The average salary in cities of 100,000 population and over is $5,385. In cities of 50,000 to 100,000 population it is $3,502. While the figures showing salaries of presidents of all higher institutions of learning are not available for comparison here, those for the presidents of State universities were published by the Bureau of Education in 1912. 1 According to this report the average annual amount re¬ ceived by such officers was $5,877, the excess over the superintend¬ ent's salary in the large city being only $492. The average salary of chief State school officers is $3,272, or $230 less than that of super¬ intendents in cities of 50,000 to 100,000 population. Thus, when compared with that of other educational experts, the salary of the city’s chief school officer attained very respectable proportions. The tendency to raise the salaries of city superintendents has not been confined to any particular section of the country. On the Pacific coast, for example, are found the cities of Los Angeles and Seattle, whose superintendents receive $6,000 and $7,500, respectively. Not counting as southern the border cities of Baltimore, Washington, Louisville, and St. Louis, there still remain in the South, Birming¬ ham and New Orleans, which pay $5,000 each. The abstract question of the tenure of office of city superintendents has evoked no great discussion in recent years, but some intelligent attention has been given the subject, and an occasional law has been enacted increasing tenure. The Pennsylvania law, for example, pro¬ vides for a term of four years, the former maximum period for which a choice could be made having been only three. There seems to be no great demand for authority to elect for a longer period than four or five years, but on the other hand the limitation to a period of a single year would seem to need amendment to permit of choice for a longer time. Placing upon the superintendent the necessity of hav¬ ing to stand annually for reelection makes his situation too pre¬ carious and militates against his working at the highest degree of efficiency. Despite this limitation in some cities, however, the con dition usually adjusts itself and many superintendents who have to stand for reelection at short intervals are found to have had long periods of service. The average length of service of the incumbents in the 50 cities of 100,000 population or more is approximately 74 years. Among these are some cases that are notable. The names of 1 See U. S. Bureau of Education Bulletin, 1912, No. 33. 138 EDUCATION REPORT, 1912. a few superintendents in the larger cities and the year of original appointment as reported to the Bureau of Education are presented here in the order of length of service : Kansas City, Mo. — James M. Greenwood _ 1874 Albany, N. Y. — Charles W. Cole1 — _ _ 1878 Birmingham, Ala. — John H. Phillips _ 1883 Oakland, Cal. — John W. McClymonds _ 1889 Columbus, Ohio — Jacob A. Shawan _ _ _ 1889 Seattle, Wash. — Frank B. Cooper _ 1S91 Jersey City, N. J. — Henry Snyder _ 1892 Minneapolis, Minn. — Charles M. Jordan _ 1892 Buffalo, N. Y. — Henry P. Emerson _ 1893 Bridgeport, Conn. — Charles W. Deane _ 1893 Including his term of service in Brooklyn, Supt. William H. Max¬ well has held a professional administrative position in the schools of New York City for 25 years. According to the “ Educational direc¬ tory,” to which reference has been made, the longest period of service of all the superintendencies in the United States is that of William W. Cottingham, of Easton, Pa., who is reported to the bureau as having received his original appointment in 1853. Some of the notable changes in superintendencies during the year 1911-12 were as follows: Stratton D. Brooks, from Boston to the presidency of the University of Oklahoma; Frank B. Dyer, from Cincinnati to Boston; Sylvanus L. Heeter, from St. Paul to Pitts¬ burgh; Milton C. Potter, from Pueblo to St. Paul; Francis A. Soper, from Baltimore City College to Baltimore ; Charles E. Chadsey, from Denver to Detroit; J. M. H. Frederick, from Lakewood to Cleve¬ land; Jacob G. Collieott, from Tacoma to Indianapolis; Ellis U. Graff, from principal of high school to superintendent, Omaha ; Percy M. Hughes, from assistant superintendent in Washington to Syracuse. V. THE COURSE OF STUDY. Owing to the constantly changing demands upon the school, the curriculum is of perennial interest to the school man and frequent revisions or modifications are found necessary. The addition of some new subject, or the elimination of a nonessential or less essen¬ tial topic, is a constant source of concern to the superintendent. Some phases of the course of study which have recently engaged the attention of school administrative officers are: The elimination of nonessentials, shortening the elementary course, departmental teach¬ ing in the upper grades, differentiation in grammar-school courses, the introduction of European history, moral training, and such sub¬ jects as withdrawals and retardation during the progress through the curriculum. 1 Since deceased. 139 CITY SCHOOL SYSTEMS, 1911-12. SIMPLIFICATION OF THE COURSE OF STUDY. For some years educators have been advocating the enrichment of the course of study. This demand arose because of changed condi¬ tions in American life — urban life instead of rural ; growth in wealth, population, and territory; inventions, scientific discoveries, the dis¬ appearance of the apprentice system, and the introduction of the factory system. The traditional three R’s were not broad enough to prepare for complete living during the latter part of the nineteenth century. Accordingly, there were added to the course new subjects, such as physiology, physical training, nature study, manual training, music, and drawing. No one would think seriously of eliminating any of these from the twentieth century course of study, yet the question arises, How is it possible for a child to assimilate all the material of these subjects in an eight-year course? Many school men began almost simulta¬ neously to advocate, not the elimination of whole subjects, but the elimination of certain subject matter. Some topics in arithmetic were found to be useless for practical purposes ; the material in American history was voluminous and unwieldy; many facts in geography had no significance ; and many of the topics in physiology had no bearing on proper methods of living. The school, because of its inertia, was slow in adapting such vast accumulations of material to child life; but gradually superintendents began to eliminate a little here and a little there. Now many courses of study indicate definitely what topics are to be omitted, or they indicate a minimum amount to be taught in each subject, but omitting numerous topics once included. Where courses of study are not definitely planned, the suggestion is generally found that nonessentials be eliminated. To show what is actually done to simplify the course of study, the following quotations are presented from letters in answer to an inquiry as to what eliminations have been made in arithmetic, history, etc. : Oakland, Cal. — We have eliminated from our arithmetic work very much of compound numbers, using only a few of the more common tables. We have eliminated all of stocks, bonds, etc.; cube root; mensuration, excepting the simpler forms; and the more difficult parts of percentage. In our arithmetic I think we are able to promote more pupils, and so far as I can see, the pupils know as much about arithmetic as they ever did. Helena, Mont. — In history we are not placing very much stress upon explora¬ tions and discoveries. We have also reduced the amount of time that has been given heretofore to the details of battles. More attention is given to matters pertaining to cause and effect or the “ why ” of history and to those thoughts of history which have to do with the making of government and the modification of our laws from time to time. We are placing less stress on dates, except a few pivotal dates. 140 EDUCATION REPORT, 1912. Leavenworth, Kans. — The effect [of eliminating subject matter] has been decidedly marked and quite satisfactory. My teachers are deeply interested in the movement, because its good results are so apparent to them. La Crosse, Wis. — In the year before these changes [elimination of non- essentials] were instituted there were 79 per cent of the pupils promoted, the following year 87 per cent, last year 89 per cent, and in the semester just closed [January, 1918] 93 per cent. Whether this gain is due wholly to changes in the course of study may be disputed, but the changes certainly helped. Winona, Minn. — In grammar we have decreased very largely the amount of technical grammar studied in the grades and have transferred the emphasis to forms of expression, written and oral. Conjugations, declensions, modes, etc., receive little attention, and this little only in connection with composition work. The quality of the work done has, I believe, been improved. Knoxville, Tenn. — The effect [of eliminating nonessentials] has been good upon the schools and has resulted in increased promotions. McKeesport, Pa. — Our change in arithmetic has not been due so much to the topics we have eliminated as the grade of the work to suit the abilities of the children at the different stages of their progress. We have eliminated difficult fractions, including complex fractions ; difficult work in the lowest common multiple and greatest common divisor ; difficult work in papering, plastering, carpeting, etc. ; the trapezoid and trapezium ; linear and surveyor’s square measure ; Troy and apothecaries weights ; all interest exbept to find interest by 6 per cent method ; compound interest ; partial payments, except the very simple kind, and annual interest ; cube root ; difficult problems in compound propor¬ tion ; progressions ; annuities. The work in arithmetic is confined to a great amount of simple work within the comprehension of the child. Charleston , S. C. — My belief is that the quality of the work is improving and that the number of repeaters is being diminished [since the course of study was simplified]. The above are typical of the letters received by the bureau. A few schools report that little has been done to simplify the course. In some courses are found such topics as average of payments, foreign exchange, domestic exchange, detailed study of wars, the exact loca¬ tion of small cities, technical physiology, etc. The tendency, however, is away from a curriculum crowded with nonessentials. SHORTENED ELEMENTARY COURSES. Several years ago many cities had nine grades in the elementary school ; now very few have more than eight, and some but seven. The tendency is undoubtedly toward shorter and simpler elementary courses. It was claimed that the ninth grade was to a great extent a review of the work done in the seventh and eighth; that it led nowhere; that pupils became indifferent and dropped out of school. One of the small cities in Pennsylvania that had a nine-year ele¬ mentary course adopted an eight-year course in 1908. There were at that time 100 pupils in the high school ; last year about 400 were enrolled. Those who entered from the ninth grade were over age and indifferent. The entering classes from the eighth grade take up CITY SCHOOL SYSTEMS, 1911-12. 141 high-school work more easily than those who entered from the ninth grade. Under the ninth-grade plan there was a great loss in numbers between the eighth and ninth grades, as well as between the ninth grade and the first year of the high school. Kansas City, Mo., stands out prominently as an example of a city having but seven grades in the elementary course. In his report for 1911 Supt. J. M. Greenwood writes: Owing to a seven years’ course of study in the elementary schools, from 70 to 75 per cent of the pupils who complete that course enter high school, and more than 13 per cent of all our pupils are in high school. The reduction of the number of grades is a topic often discussed at State and national teachers’ associations. No statistics are at hand, however, to show the exact number of schools that have more or fewer than eight grades. New England was for many years the stronghold of the nine-year plan. Practically all cities of any size in New England now have eight years, and a few have adopted the “ six-and- six ” plan. DEPARTMENTAL TEACHING IN THE GRAMMAR GRADES. During the eighties a few schools made trial of departmental teach¬ ing in the elementary schools. The Report of the Commissioner of Education for 1886-87, in summing up the results of these experi¬ ments, says: The attempts to adapt the methods of high-school instruction to the elemen¬ tary grades have not been attended with conspicuous success. The movement at present, however, is toward departmental instruc¬ tion in the seventh and eighth grades. Some superintendents have extended the plan to include even the fifth and sixth grades. The movement, no doubt, has been given impetus by the fact that departmental teaching in New York City has proved a success. This method of organization was introduced into the schools of that city about 1900. At present three-fifths of its grammar schools are so organized. Even in the lower grades of some of the New York' City schools a limited form of the plan is in use. A teacher who is pro¬ ficient in some subject, such as music or drawing, may teach in three or four rooms, while the teachers of these rooms take turns in having charge of her work in other subjects. In the report cf the New Orleans schools for 1912, it is stated that the experiment of teaching under the departmental plan was tried and that the results were such that the experiment was continued for another year. Among the many cities that have recently adopted the plan are: Aberdeen, S. Dak. : Lincoln, Nebr. ; Trenton, Mo.; Johnstown, Pa.; 142 EDUCATION REPORT, 1912. Meadville, Pa.; Washington, Pa.; Hackensack, N. J. ; Bloomfield, N. J. ; Jackson, Mich.; Huntington, W. Va. The organization of the grammar grades on the departmental plan is made comparatively easy in New York City by the fact that the buildings are large and that there are many seventh and eighth grade classes in each. In the smaller cities, where the buildings are small, there may not be more than one seventh and one eighth grade in each building. The teachers of these grades could and sometimes do exchange rooms, but the plan has generally been to bring all the seventh and eighth grade pupils together into one building under a grammar-school principal. It is thus evident that the small city with but a few rooms in each grade building has to solve an entirely different problem from that of a metropolitan city with its large grade buildings. Some of the smaller cities use a high-school building which the high school has outgrown, and a few have erected buildings for the grammar grades. Other cities arrange the districts so that rooms are made available in a building centrally located, while still others use a few rooms in the high-school buildings. This plan is, no doubt, a step toward the “ six-and-six plan,” which is discussed in another part of this chapter. On the whole, school officials and teachers who have experimented with departmental teaching consider it a step forward in school organization. It is claimed that teachers can do better work, and that the pupil enters upon his work in the high school with more confidence and with less likelihood of failure. On the other hand, it is pointed out that the pupils lose the personal influence of the single classroom teacher. A State school official recently asked, “ Is not the plan for the teacher rather than for the pupil?” So long as school administration is an empirical science, no theories formu¬ lated in an office can answer the question. Many experiments must be made with the plan to prove whether it is efficient. DIFFERENTIATION IN GRAMMAR-SCHOOL COURSES. In some cities the courses in the grammar school have been differen¬ tiated. Among these are New Britain, Conn. ; Crookston, Minn. ; Bloomfield, N. J. ; and Buffalo, N. Y. New Britain , Conn. — Four courses are offered:^ (1) A general course; (2) a household arts course; (3) a practical arts course; (4) a business and English course. The choice of courses is not left to the pupil alone, but is in all cases subject to the approval of both the parent and the principal of the school. Changes are permitted from a given course to any other upon the request of the parent. CITY SCHOOL SYSTEMS, 1911-12. 143 Crookston , Minn. — Three courses are offered: (1) Preparation for the academic high school; (2) preparation for a commercial course; (3) preparation for an industrial course. Bloomfield , N. J. — Two courses are offered: (1) A course pre¬ paratory to high school, which includes the subjects of arithmetic and algebra, English and Latin, United States history, geography, physiology, penmanship, manual training or domestic art, and draw¬ ing; (2) a course preparatory to* a vocation, which includes the sub¬ jects of arithmetic and business practice, English, United States history, geography, physiology, manual training or domestic art, and drawing. Buffalo , N . Y . — In two schools an elementary course of six years has been introduced with an opportunity to specialize after the sixth year along three different lines, regular, industrial, and commercial. If this plan appears to meet the needs of pupils better than the old- line organization, it will be introduced in other schools. EUROPEAN HISTORY IN THE ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS. Another movement to which attention may be called is that of introducing European history into the elementary school. In 1910 the American Historical Association published the report of the committee of eight, which had been appointed by the association to investigate the subject of history in the elementary school. The com¬ mittee recommended that such European history as would form a background to American history be taught in the sixth grade. Some States, such as Pennsylvania and Maine, have incorporated essential features of the report in the course of study for the ele¬ mentary schools. Numerous cities have adopted the recommendations of the report. Several publishing houses report a growing tendency to introduce European history in some form into the elementary grades. One house writes that the movement has been more decided in the East than in the West. Among the many cities that have adopted European history, either for supplementary reading or for regular class work, are: Syracuse, N. Y. ; Alliance, Ohio; Danville, Ky. ; Greenville, Pa.; Milford, Mass. ; Providence, R. I. ; Elkhart, Inch ; Kalamazoo, Mich. ; Duluth, Minn.; Mobile, Ala.; New York, N. Y. ; Montpelier, Vt. ; Brookline, Mass. MORAL TRAINING. Some educators express doubt as to the advisability of attempting formal moral instruction in the schools, while others urge the at¬ tempt, but all agree that one of the functions of the school is to secure 144 EDUCATION REPORT, 1912. proper moral conduct. Religious instruction is practically barred from the American school, because of denominational differences of opinion, but there seems to be little reason why moral principles should not be inculcated. The method of procedure, however, is not agreed upon and comparatively few schools attempt formal instruc¬ tion of this character. In Schenectady, N. Y., a graded course of study has been prepared and systematic training is given. St. Louis also has an outline course of study, and 30 minutes per week are devoted to moral les¬ sons. In Chicago the idea prevails that formal instruction in virtues is not desirable, but an abstract of moral principles and ideals is outlined for all grades and moral direction is attempted. Kansas City, Mo. ; Richmond, Ya. ; Houston, Tex. ; and some other cities have forms of moral instruction. Some interesting devices have appeared for the inculcation of ethical principles. In Lexington, Ivy., children are encouraged to hunt for the best in life by a system of “ books of golden deeds.” Supt. M. A. Cassidy thus describes the system in practice there : 1 The great and noble ideals, past and present, are ever the teachers of the young. In some measure to meet the demand for ideals in the lives of the Lexington children, thus helping to model their own, and so help them to be¬ come better men and women by the subtle inculcation of moral and civic righteousness, we have had for several years in every grade in our public schools a book of Golden Deeds. This is only a blank book, of moderate size, with “ Golden Deeds ” printed on its cover with letters of gold. In their read¬ ing, in their study of history and biography, and in their contact with life, the pupils are encouraged to treasure in their minds the good deeds and noble impulses which they may discover and recite them to their companions in the grade. Ten minutes are daily devoted to this as an opening exercise. The deeds found and brought to the grades by the children are illustrative of obe¬ dience, honesty, truthfulness, unselfishness, sympathy, consecration to duty, usefulness, industry, perseverance, patience, self-respect, purity, self-control, self-reliance, fortitude, courage, heroism, ambition, temperance, courtesy, kind¬ ness to brute and human, justice, fidelity, determination, patriotism, and other traits that go to make character that is esteemed by civilized society. If the deeds so recited are deemed worthy by a vote of the grade they are recorded in the “ Book of Golden Deeds.” The children take great pride in these exer¬ cises, and many of the books are works of art. The enrolling is beautifully done, and there are numerous pictorial illustrations of the deeds recorded. The drama, motion pictures and lantern slides, story telling, and u school cities ” in which self-government is promoted, are other forms of inculcating correct ethical standards which are found in some cities. Newark, N. J. ; Houston, Tex. ; Hayward, Cal. ; and a few other cities have forms of student self-government. The Moral Education Board, with headquarters in Baltimore, is an organization for the promotion of ethical instruction throughout the country. 1 Religious Education, 5 : 702, February, 1911. CITY SCHOOL SYSTEMS, 1911-12. 145 TIME SCHEDULES. City superintendents usually indicate in their respective courses of study the amount of time to be devoted each day to each study. This plan, it is claimed, prevents a teacher from emphasizing those subjects in which she is especially interested, to the exclusion of other subjects of equal importance. The following table gives the average time in minutes per week devoted to each study in each grade in 10 cities — Boston, New York, Philadelphia, Rochester, Cleveland, Cin¬ cinnati, Indianapolis, St. Louis, Chicago, Milwaukee, and San F rancisco : Average time (in minute s) per week devoted to each study in elementary grades.1 Studies. I II III IV V VI VII VIII Reading . 491 437 341 259 213 206 186 189 Spelling . Grammar . 84 100 92 84 85 82 67 123 62 134 Language and composition . 131 143 156 164 191 187 151 155 Arithmetic . 120 169 189 205 208 216 220 220 Writing . 82 91 85 81 75 75 60 53 History . 45 100 117 121 140 Geography . 110 139 150 153 114 110 Music . 71 69 68 66 73 66 65 65 Drawing . 134 126 130 130 84 85 81 81 Manual training . 73 71 105 103 1 An. rep. of supf., Cleveland, Ohio, 1909-10, p. 16. The Pennsylvania State Board of Education recently appointed a committee to study the time value of the elementary school studies for the purpose of determining the proper basis for distributing the school time among the various subjects of the course of study. Sub¬ committees composed of superintendents, principals, and teachers have been appointed to help collect data for the general committee. When the report is completed, it should be of value to superintendents who assign their teachers definite time schedules. VI. INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION While not confined to cities, industrial education, as the term is now used, is found more in cities than elsewhere and should come in for its share of treatment in any survey of urban education which purports to cover the field. Within the past two years three phases of this type of training have been uppermost in the interest and attention of its advocates. These are: (1) Cooperative courses and continuation schools; (2) a dual system of control under which it is proposed to separate, in large measure at least, the administration of industrial schools from that of common schools; and (3) Federal 146 EDUCATION REPORT, 1912. aid to industrial training. To these the closely related subject of vocational guidance might be added. Cooperative courses and continuation schools or classes received great momentum from the visit to America in the latter part of 1910 and the early part of 1911 of Dr. Georg Kerschensteiner, director of schools, Munich, Bavaria. The appearance of this distinguished edu¬ cator at the meeting of the National Society for the Promotion of Industrial Education, held in Boston, in November, 1910, and his subsequent tour through other important cities did more than any other single event to crystallize thought on cooperation between school and employer as the most effectual means of working out the problem of industrial training. True, the cooperative course was already in existence in a few places, and the day continuation school was making its appearance at the time of the Boston meeting, but the increased attention which was then and subsequently directed to these types of schools has undoubtedly had much to do with their spread to all parts of the country. There are now about two dozen cities in the United States in which cooperative courses in some form have been organ¬ ized, and continuation schools are to be found in even more localities. Some cities in which cooperative courses have recently been estab¬ lished are : Passaic, N. J. ; Allentown and York, Pa. ; Lansing, Mich. ; Hammond, Ind. ; and McComb City, Miss. Continuation schools have taken root in Wisconsin, where laws were enacted in 1911 pro¬ viding for their establishment. According to a recent statement of Mr. H. E. Miles, chairman of the committee on industrial education of the National Association of Manufacturers, who is a resident of Wisconsin, there have been established in that State 25 schools of the “ continuation ” species. Other States are following the example of Wisconsin in the proposal of similar laws. Among these are Illinois and Washington. A question which remains unsettled in the United States is whether industrial education shall be administered as a department of the common school system and under the administrative authorities of the common schools or as a separate and parallel system under distinct administrative authorities. That is to say, Shall we have a unified system of administration of all schools, whatever may be the ivpe of school organized or the form of instruction given, or shall we adopt a dual system similar to that of Germany and some other Euro¬ pean countries? There are arguments on both sides of the question, but it is one with which there has not yet been sufficient experience in America to warrant positive conclusions. In 1906 the Legislature of Massachusetts, pursuant to the recommendation of a temporary com¬ mission appointed the year before by the governor, created a commis- CITY SCHOOL SYSTEMS, 1911-12. 147 sion on industrial education and conferred upon it the power to establish independent industrial schools. Thus the initial step toward industrial training in this country was along the line of the German system, but in 1909 this commission was consolidated with the State board of education and the dual system of control passed away in that State. Connecticut, New York, and New Jersey have had only the unified system. Wisconsin’s modification of the dual system was inaugurated only in 1911. Those who favor the new departure seem to proceed on the theory (1) that dual administration has worked well in Germany and some other parts of Europe and will therefore work well in this country, and (2) that more practical administrators are needed for the indus¬ trial schools than for the common schools. They have been charged with regarding the present administrative agencies as incapable of handling industrial training. Those opposed to the dual system urge that the present school machinery is capable of handling vocational education, and that therefore two sets of school administrators would be an unnecessary duplication and a cumbersome arrangement. It is further urged that the common schools would be weakened, as has been the case in some sections of Europe; that class, or caste, distinctions Avould be intensified ; that the industrial school, under separate control, would tend too much to the mechanical and would neglect the “ theoretical studies ” ; that teachers would be drawn to the vocational schools from the common schools, to the detriment of the latter. However forceful the arguments on either side of this question may appear to the reader, the dual system of control has already entered upon a period of trial and earnest effort to make it a success in this country. Writing of the results thus far of the new regime in Wisconsin, Mr. H. E. Miles, to whom reference has already been made, recently said: In any bright, progressive, up-to-date community a substantially perfect in¬ dustrial school for children of 14 to 16 years of age can be started in from 4 to 12 weeks, with teachers of superior quality, who will incidentally exert a reflex influence upon our present out-of-touch, out-of-date school workers to the infinite betterment of the present common schools. There is nothing of speculation in this statement. It is a statement of simple fact demonstrated in most, if not all, of the places where it has been tried. Such a school was started in Racine, Wis., about a year ago on about 48 hours’ notice from the State authorities and on 4 weeks’ preparation by the local authorities. Twenty- five such schools we^ started in other places in Wisconsin last September. In Sheboygan, for instance, a bright, prosperous industrial community of 40,000 people, the class in woodworking is taught by a splendid German of middle age, with heart as young as the children’s. He was an apprentice in Germany ; then a journeyman ; and then, in this country, journeyman, foreman, 148 EDUCATION REPORT, 1912. and employer, successively. * * * At the end of six weeks there were 350 children, 14 to 16 years old. from the industries in this school, with 100 on the waiting list, and it is estimated that still 150 more will come in when the authorities fully enforce the law. as they must. The bill for Federal aid to industrial education which in dilferent forms has been before the United States Congress for several years has not as yet become a law, but friends of the measure who have so untiringly sought its passage have now increased grounds for hope of success. Within the past two years two events of importance have occurred in the progress of this measure toward, as its advocates hope, its ultimate passage. One of these was the introduction of a similar bill by Representative Lever, of South Carolina, and its pas¬ sage through the lower House of Congress at the regular session of 1912. The “ Lever bill,” however, was confined in its provisions to the promotion of instruction in agriculture and home economics through extension departments in the several State agricultural col¬ leges, and may therefore be considered as only a step in the direction of Federal aid to industrial education proper. The second important event in this connection was the more recent passage through the Senate of the bill introduced by Senator Page, of Vermont, and widely known as the “ Page bill.” This measure contains all the important provisions of the older and well-known “ Davis bill,” “ Doliver bill,” and others of like character, which have already received notice from time to time in the publications of the Bureau of Education. When the Congress came to an end the “ Lever bill ” and the “ Page bill ” were still in the hands of a conference committee of the two Houses of Congress, and no final action was taken on either. VII. KINDERGARTENS. One of the conspicuous features of the progress of city schools has been the recent extension of the kindergarten system. For many years the kindergarten has been attached to the elementary school without being “ adjusted.” It has been looked upon with suspicion by many elementary school-teachers. On the other hand, kinder¬ garten teachers have often entered protests against the methods of the primary school when the kindergarten children did not fit in with the formal methods of the first grade. The tendency now is to make the kindergarten an integral part of the elementary course and to harmonize kindergarten and primary methods. To bring about a proper adjustment between the two schools, Supt. F. B. Dyer, of Boston, in an address to the Boston teachers, said 1 that he hoped to arrange some way by which the 1 Kindergarten-Primary Magazine, October, 1912, p. 57. CITY SCHOOL SYSTEMS, 1911-12. 149 kindergarten teachers could have the first -.grade children for three or four afternoons a week and use with them methods of the same kind as those to which they had been accustomed before their graduation into “ real school.” In Los Angeles, Cal., the first primary grade has been placed under the supervision of the kindergarten super¬ visor, so that there may be no abrupt break between the kindergarten and the elementary school. Nearly every city reports an increasing number of kindergartens. In Chicago a room for a kindergarten is always included in plans for a new building. During every school year there are frequent re¬ quests from individual members of the board of education, from members of the city council, from women’s clubs, and from parents’ associations that a kindergarten be established in this or that one of the 90 schools in which there is not a kindergarten. “ These numer¬ ous requests,” Mrs. Ella Flagg Young writes in her report for 1912, “ and the above recognition indicate that the time has come when a kindergarten should be established in every school.” Supt. W. H. Maxwell, of New York City, writing in the Educa¬ tional Eeview, of October, 1912, says that prior to 1898 there were only T kindergartens in New York City, and that there are now 843, with over 30,000 pupils. Supt. H. P. Emerson, of Buffalo, N. Y., in his report for 1911, writes: “ We are rapidly reaching the time when every public school will have a kindergarten. There are at present 53 kindergartens, representing 49 schools.” Other cities that have recently added more kindergartens are Salt Lake City, Minneapolis, Cincinnati, Milwaukee, and Pittsburgh. During the past year kindergarten teachers have studied and dis¬ cussed the merits of the Montessori method to determine its place in the American kindergarten. A few schools report that some of the Montessori material is used and that they are adapting the method to their needs. The reports are so few and fragmentary that no con¬ clusions can be reached as to the progress of the “ method ” in the public schools of this country. It is evident that city superintendents and teachers are not adopting the method or any part of it without investigation. Vm. TEACHERS’ SALARIES AND PENSIONS. A thoroughgoing statistical study of teachers’ salaries has not been made in this country since the publication in 1905 of the report of the committee of the National Education Association on “ Salaries, tenure, and pensions of public-school teachers in the United States.” In the absence of such a study at this time it is impossible to show 150 EDUCATION REPORT, 1912. with any degree of accuracy the progress made through the nation¬ wide effort to secure better pay for teaching service. The steadily increasing cost of living has made necessary an advance in all sal¬ aries, and it is known in a general way that teachers have shared in this advance, but there is little definite information to show whether the teacher has relatively gained or lost ground when his salary is considered in conjunction with the increased expense at which he must live. There are some data from individual cities which indicate that the teacher, though still inadequately paid, is surely coming to receive more consideration in the matter of salary. In numerous cities in¬ creases were made during the year, and in reports from others are found recommendations by school officials that more pay be granted.1 The movement to secure for women teachers pay equal to that of men, where the service rendered is substantially of the same char¬ acter and amount, received decided impetus when on October 30, 1911, a bill became a law authorizing the Board of Education of New York City to adopt by-laws providing for equal pay. Pursuant to the provisions of this act the board of education adopted new sched¬ ules of salaries to take effect January 1, 1912. A rule adopted at the same time provides that the salary, including the annual increment, to which a member of the supervising or teaching staff was entitled prior to the passage of the act of 1911, shall not be reduced. In ac¬ cordance with this policy of the board, a number of the old schedules were reenacted, in order that teachers already in the service might continue their progress to the maximum salary, as in previous years. For elementary teachers coming into the service as beginners the fol¬ lowing scheme of payment was adopted and made applicable to both men and women : 1 The following list, undoubtedly incomplete, of cities in which increases have recently been allowed in one way or another, shows the widespread disposition to give the teacher compensation commensurate with the importance of his work, and to some degree the results achieved in this direction : Bessemer, Ala. Selma, Ala. Fresno, Cal. Sacramento, Cal. San Francisco, Cal. Ansonia, Conn. New Britain, Conn. New London, Conn. Norwich, Conn. Chicago, Ill. Joliet, Ill. Moline, Ill. Springfield, Ill. Hammond, Ind. Council Bluffs, Iowa. Des Moines, Iowa. Muscatine, Iowa. Sioux City, Iowa. Atchison, Kans. Kansas City, Kans. Louisville, Ky. New Orleans, La. Boston, Mass. Fitchburg, Mass. Gloucester, Mass. Malden, Mass. Somerville, Mass. Springfield, Mass. Taunton, Mass. Waltham, Mass. Worcester, Mass. Bessemer, Mich. Flint, Mich. Marquette, Mich. Wyandotte, Mich. Crookston, Minn. Duluth, Minn. Kansas City, Mo. Butte, Mont. Omaha, Nebr. Albuquerque, N. Mex. Binghamton, N. Y. Kingston, N. Y. Goldsboro, N. C. Columbus, Ohio. Mount Vernon, Ohio. Toledo, Ohio. Oklahoma, Okla. Allentown, Pa. Connellsville, Pa. Easton, Pa. Norristown, Pa. Pittsburgh, Pa. Providence, R. I. Warwick, R. I. Knoxville, Tenn. Memphis, Tenn. Dallas, Tex. Houston, Tex. Salt Lake City, Utah. CITY SCHOOL SYSTEMS, 1911-12. Salaries of elementary-school teachers. New York City. SCHEDULES Bl, B2, B3, AND B4. 151 Year of service. Bl. Kinder- • gartens and grades 1A to 6B. B2. Grades 7 A to8B. . B3. Assistants to principals.1 B4. Head teachers. First . $720 720 720 780 840 900 960 1,020 1,080 1,140 1,200 1,260 1,320 1,380 1,440 1,500 Second . Third Fourth. . . . $860 940 1,020 1,100 1,180 1,260 1,340 1,420 1,500 1,580 1,660 1,740 1,820 Fifth . Sixth $1,060 1,180 1,300 1,420 1,540 1,660 1,780 1,900 2, 020 2,140 2,260 Seventh . Eighth. . Ninth . $2, 100 2,250 2,400 Tenth . Eleventh . Twelfth . Thirteenth . Fourteenth . Fifteenth . Sixteenth . . . Annual increment . 60 80 150 120 1 Heads of departments. PENSIONS. According to the report of the committee of the National Education Association on “ Salaries, tenure, and pensions,” previously referred to, there were in 1905 nine States in which teachers’ pension laws of either general or special application were in force. This report, however, omitted any mention of the special law applying to Charles¬ ton, S. C., which had been enacted prior to that time. In 1912 there were 26 States having such laws. States having laws of either gen¬ eral or special application in the latter year were as follows : Arizona.1 California.1 Colorado.2 Connecticut; Delaware.2 Illinois.4 Indiana.2 Kansas.5 Kentucky.2 Louisiana.2 Maryland.6 Massachusetts.6 Michigan.2 Minnesota.5 Nebraska.2 New Jersey.1 New York.7 Ohio.1 Oregon.2 Pennsylvania.1 Rhode Island.4 South Carolina.2 Utah.5 Vermont.1 Virginia.1 Wisconsin.1 In general, pension laws are of three kinds, according as they create systems which are noncontributory, compulsory-contributory, or voluntary-contributory from the standpoint of the teacher. In the 1 General law for entire State. 2 Applies only to largest city. 3 Special laws for certain cities. 4 General law for certain cities ; special law for largest city. 77236° — ed 1912 — yol 1 5 General law for certain cities. 6 General law for entire State ; special law for largest city. 7 General law for entire State ; special laws for certain cities. 12 152 EDUCATION REPORT, 1912. first class no part of the teacher’s salary is withheld and he makes no contribution to the retirement fund, which in consequence must be derived from public or other sources. The law enacted in 1912 in Arizona, where the State pays the entire annuity, is of this type. The compulsory-contributory plan is the most prevalent. Under this plan a small percentage of the teacher’s salary is withheld at the time of payment and is applied to the retirement fund. Usually the more recent laws of this type provide for supplementing the teachers’ con¬ tributions with public or quasi-public funds. Under the voluntary- contributory plan, teachers may elect to take advantage of the pro¬ visions of the retirement system. The Kansas act, approved March 14, 1911, belongs to this class. An examination of the laws of the several States will reveal the fact that, notwithstanding the caution of the American people with regard to the policy of granting civil pensions, there are now no less than 24 States in which public funds are devoted to the payment of annuities to superannuated teachers. Few laws, it is true, spe¬ cifically provide for taxation for that purpose, but the funds ap¬ propriated are public funds nevertheless. In the case, for example, of salaries withheld on account of teachers’ absence and applied to the pension fund, the amounts so withheld would otherwise remain in the public treasury and should be expended as other school moneys are expended. Likewise, interest on school-fund balances, which in some cases is applied to the payment of annuities, is clearly a part of the assets of the school system. There can be no question that the trend in legislation is^ toward the public’s sharing with the contrib¬ uting teachers the burden of a teachers’ pension system. With only one exception, every State which enacted a pension law in 1911 or 1912 incorporated a provision for some contribution by the public; and Arizona, the last to enact such* a law, provided that the total amount of the annuities granted should be paid out of the State treasury. IX. HIGH SCHOOLS. The field of secondary education is too broad and difficult of proper treatment to permit an attempt at exhaustive discussion here, but some phases of high-school activity which have been most in the public mind may be briefly noticed. These are two-year or other shorter courses, junior high schools, and high-school fraternities. SHORTER COURSES. School administrators have learned that more pupils will be reached if short, practical courses are offered in the high school than if ad¬ herence to the rigid four-year course is insisted upon. Some chil- CITY SCHOOL SYSTEMS, 1911-12. 153 dren, because of home conditions, age, and other considerations, know that they never will be able to complete the traditional high-school course, so drop out of school altogether at the end of the eighth grade. In a number of cities two-year and other shorter courses have been provided for such pupils. Preparation for commercial and indus¬ trial pursuits and other vocational training are usually given in these abridged forms of the high-school curriculum. From reports re¬ ceived by the Bureau of Education these shorter periods of second¬ ary school work are proving popular without affecting attendance in four-year courses. The emphasis in recent years upon vocational training in the public schools has no doubt contributed to the new trend toward the shorter period of practical high-school education. At least the trend has been so strong in that direction that the two- year course is now an established fact and in all probability has come to stay. Among the numerous cities which now have practical two- year courses are South Bend, Ind. ; Dubuque, Iowa ; New Britain, Conn.; Freeport, EL; San Francisco, Cal.; Pittsburgh, Pa.; North Attleboro, Mass. ; Chicago, Ill. ; Kansas City, Kans. JUNIOR AND SENIOR HIGH SCHOOLS. In 1905 the department of secondary education of the National Education Association appointed a committee on six-year courses. Keports were received and adopted in 1907, 1908, and 1909. These reports indicated that the sentiment for the “ six-and-six ” division was growing. Since the adoption of the 1909 report there is every evidence of a rapidly growing tendency toward a shorter elementary course and a high-school course of six years divided into two parts of three years each, known as the junior and the senior high school. The object is to give a child the tools of an education in the first six .years. It is argued that, since the seventh and eighth grades as now organized repeat to a great extent the work of the fifth and sixth, the pupil gets nowhere, and that he is thus cheated out of that degree of advancement to which he is entitled at the end of the eighth grade. It is also claimed that the ninth grade would do better work if it were organized in a separate department with the seventh and eighth grades, as the pupils of this grade are often hopelessly lost when thrown in with pupils three years their senior. Under the “ six-and-six plan a few of the present high-school subjects, such as the languages, algebra, and elementary science, are brought down into the seventh and eighth grades. It is pointed out that this arrangement will permit a pupil in the junior high school to prepare for any of the courses offered in the senior school, thus bridging the gap now existing between the eighth and the ninth 154 EDUCATION DEPORT, 1912. grades. A pupil who in all probability will never go to college would be given subjects leading to some vocational course in the senior high school, while the pupil who intends to enter college would be given in the junior high school subjects preparing him for any one of the college preparatory courses in the senior school. A pupil would thus continue a subject long enough for it to be of some educational value. Algebra could be completed a year earlier, and the foundation for the study of physics and chemistry could bo firmly laid. The claim is therefore made that the American boy would, under the “ six-and-six ” plan, gain a year or two over the present arrangement. In order to discover what the practice throughout the country really is in regard to the “ six-and-six ” plan of organization, the Commissioner of Education recently sent the following inquiry to 200’ city superintendents : [Inquiry from the Commissioner of Education .] 1. Have you in your city a school which combines the seventh and eighth grades or the eighth grade alone with one or more years of high-school work? If so, please indicate which grades comprise the junior, or intermediate, school and which the senior school, or high school proper. By what name do you designate the junior school (as “intermediate” or “ junior high ” school) ? 2. Is the “ intermediate ” or “ junior high ” school organized as a separate entity, with its own principal, etc.? Is this school placed in a separate building? If not organized as a separate entity, is this school a constituent part of the elementary schools or of the secondary schools? 3. If the seventh and eighth grades are not combined with any year or years of the high school, is one or both organized similarly to high schools? Please indicate briefly the plan of organization. 4. Have you organized the first year or the first and second years of the high school as a separate school? 5. Please describe briefly any school in your system, other than those indi¬ cated above, which constitutes a near approach to the “ six-and-six ” plan c n 3 o £3 "o o & o m Rooms. Pupils enrolled. _ _ _ Depositors. Total amount deposited. Total amount withdrawn. Balance due de¬ positors. California . 4 144 1,649 66, 572 9,558 878,331. 71 $818. 19 $77,513.52 Connecticut . 13 31 159 7,081 3,957 27,866.51 3.817.14 24,049.37 Delaware . 2 4 13 404 258 9,228.41 6', 168. 68 3,059.73 District of Columbia 1 1 1,018 403 4,617. 15 2, 730. 54 1,886.61 Illinois . 1 4 20 4,000 2, 700 6,438.72 400.00 6,038.72 Indiana . 1 15 161 6,000 1.847 15,003.33 13,564.30 1,439.03 Iowa . 3 16 98 : 3,984 6,668 95,242.54 59,895.98 35.346.56 Kansas . 3 6 27 , 906 268 , 407. 19 88.20 318. 99 Maine . 1 6 31 1,290 369 1,082.34 19.59 1,662.75 Maryland . 2 4 13 632 215 440.80 46.60 394.20 Massachusetts . 15 197 636 31,539 17,324 128,572.88 93,686.87 34, 886. 01 Michigan . . . 6 56 459 18,844 6, 832 123,797.52 57,833.82 65,963.70 Minnesota . 5 114 1,460 65, 501 29, 741 64,731.42 19,433.32 45.298. 10 Missouri . . 1 62 700 38,000 10,000 194,984.52 157, 129. 32 37,855.20 Nebraska . 1 1 6 347 120 1,156.00 327.00 829.00 New Hampshire . 4 17 17 665 544 2,022.62 583.09 1,439.53 New Jersey . 1 12 175 7,600 2, 200 122, 128. 45 93, 593. 44 28,535.01 New Y ork . . . 11 42 551 32, 202 10, 359 478,289.89 420,253.42 58,036. 47 Ohio . . . 6 78 744 26, 873 14, 266 310, 708. 70 201,098.05 109,610.65 Pennsylvania. . 45 265 2,224 90, 152 44,443 1,778,738.13 1,433,968.26 344, 769. 87 Rhode Island . 1 9 51 2,171 786 3,867.95 1,028.86 2,839.09 Vermont . 2 2 19 939 143 847. 75 56.32 791.43 Washington . 1 37 373 18,930 3,135 28, 005. 78 6,823.04 21,182.74 Wisconsin . 1 10 114 4,094 1,273 4,939.09 239.00 4,700.09 PLAYGROUNDS. As showing the recent progress and present status of the play movement in this country, quotation may be made from the official organ of the Playground and Eecreation Association of America.1 The data given are for November 1, 1912. When it is remembered that in 1900 only five cities had public playgrounds with expert 1 The Playground, 6 : 408, February, 1913. 174 EDUCATION REPORT, 1912. supervision, the significance of these facts becomes more striking. The quotation follows: Reports have been received from 285 cities maintaining regularly supervised playgrounds and recreation centers. These 285 cities during the year ending November 1, 1912, maintained 2,094 playgrounds and recreation centers, and employed 5,320 workers, of whom 2,195 were men and 3,075 women. In the cases of 50 workers the report failed to indicate whether the persons employed were men or women. Sixty-three cities employed 655 workers the year round. These figures indicate an increase over last year of about 22 per cent in the number of playground workers. In addition to the recreation workers, 1,353 caretakers were employed. A total expenditure of $4,020,121.79 was reported. Of the 285 cities, 245 reported a total average daily attendance of 433,660 dur¬ ing July and August. Forty-five cities reported an average daily attendance of 33,639 during January and February. In 33 cities, playgrounds and recreation centers were maintained by play¬ ground or recreation commissions, in 51 by playground associations, in 11 by playground associations in combination with other organizations, in 35 by school boards, in 33 by park boards, in 9 by park and school boards in com¬ bination, in 5 by park commissions and playground commissions, in 11 by park boards in combination with other organizations. In 12 cases they were carried on by special departments of the city government, in 10 by individuals, in 19 by clubs, in 18 by playground committees, in 50 by other agencies or by several agencies combined. In 99 cities the centers were supported by municipal funds, in 90 cities by private funds, in 94 cities by both municipal and private funds. In 2 cities the sources of support were not given. In 71 cities 299 centers were open throughout the year. One hundred and eighty cities reported that 1,142 centers were open only during July and August. In 88 cities 543 centers were open for periods ranging from 3 weeks to 10 months; of these, 143 centers were open for 3 months, 33 for 4 months, 59 for 5 months, 37 for 6 months, 154 for 7 months, 19 for 8 months, 38 for 9 months, 29 for 10 months. Thirty-one were open for periods of less than 3 months. In 153 cities centers were open on holidays and in 71 on Sundays. The returns for this year show 129 cities having playground associations, 47 having playground or recreation commissions, and 7 having both. One hundred and three cities reported 442 centers open evenings. The total average daily attendance for the 66 cities which made a report on attendance was 47,204. It was reported that 47 out of the 285 cities maintained training classes for playground workers. This number includes the cities holding weekly confer¬ ences for their workers during the playground season. Four cities reported that training classes are in process of organization. In 19 of the 47 cities the returns show 1,180 student workers. Seventy-one cities stated that their schoolhouses were used as recreation cen¬ ters. Sixty-six of these cities reported 276 such centers, 10 of which were spoken of as civic centers. Three reported that their centers were used for lectures and evening schools and class work only. In addition to these, 43 cities, which do not appear in the table, reported that their schoolhouses were used as recreation centers. Forty cities reported 81 such centers. In 10 cities streets were set aside for play ; 61 cities reported that coasting in the streets was permitted. CITY SCHOOL SYSTEMS, 1911-12. 175 In 172 cities organized efforts to promote public athletics were made through the public-school athletic leagues, Young Men’s Christian Associations, inter¬ school meets, and other school athletics. One hundred and four cities reported public-school athletic leagues. The number of cities reporting special recreation center activities are as follows : Boy Scouts, 56 ; Camp Fire Girls, 21 ; debating, 15 ; dramatics, 37 ; evening entertainments, 53 ; folk dancing, 132 ; gardening, 67 ; industrial work, 112 ; instrumental music, 38 ; lectures, 36 ; libraries, 56 ; moving pictures, 35 ; pageants, 44 ; self-government, 52 ; singing, 84 ; social dancing, 42 ; story telling, 143; summer camps, 27 ; swimming, 83; tramping, 74; wading, 75. In 85 cities 385 centers had separate spaces for boys and girls. In 41 cities land has been donated for playground purposes. The combined value of this property in 14 of these cities was estimated at $457,459. In 19 cities bond issues for recreation purposes were authorized during the year to the amount of $2,524,775. In addition to these, 6 cities, which do not appear in the table because their centers were not regularly supervised, report bond issues amounting to $1,260,629. Forty-three cities stated that supervised playgrounds were opened for the first time during the year ending November 1, 1912. Forty-nine cities reported centers carried on under no supervision other than caretakers. Nine reported centers under volunteer supervision. In these centers and in the school grounds — many of which were reported under the supervision of regular school-teachers during the day — many special playground activities were carried on. Forty-two reported Boy Scout activities; 62, efforts to promote organized activities; and 31, public-school athletic leagues. . CHAPTER V. RURAL EDUCATION. By A. C. Monahan, Specialist in Rural Education, Bureau of Education. CONTENTS. 1. The interest in rural school affairs hearing results. — The movement of the population from one State to another and from the country to the city ; the urban and the rural school situation briefly compared. 2. A division of rural education in the Federal bureau. 3. The committee on rural schools of the National Education Association. — Subjects chosen for consideration by the committee. 4. State rural school commissions. — Iowa, North Dakota, and Wisconsin ; recommenda¬ tions of the various commissions. 5. State supervisors and inspectors of rural schools. 6. County rural-school supervisors. 7. County rural-school industrial supervisors. 8. State organizers of school improvement associations. ©. Boys’ and girls’ agricultural clubs. — Brief history of the agricultural-club movement, boys’ corn clubs in cotton States, objects of clubs, rules governing contests, some results, girls’ tomato and canning clubs, clubs in the Northern and Western States. 10. School credit for home industrial work. — The home-project plan, the Oregon plan, the Missouri plan. 11. Important recent legislation affecting rural education. — In Kentucky, South Carolina, and other States. 12. Recent publications on rural education. 18. Progress in several States as reported by the special collaborators of the bureau. THE INTEREST IN RURAL SCHOOL AFFAIRS BEARING RESULTS. The increased interest in rural school affairs evident during the past few years is now bearing results in activity for the improvement of rural educational conditions. Still greater activity may be ex¬ pected in the next few years, and much will undoubtedly be done to make the opportunities for education in rural districts more nearly equal to those in urban communities. The movement for im¬ proved rural schools has come from an increased and more definite knowledge of the actual rural-school situation. Comprehensive studies have been made in several States and information regard¬ ing the results of the studies has been distributed widely. These have been made by special commissions or by special officers of State departments of education appointed to devote their en- 177 178 EDUCATION" REPORT, 1912. tire time to rural schools. As a result the rural schools have been thoroughly examined, and more accurate* knowledge of them and their efficiency exists than ever before. It is not yet generally appreciated that the status of rural education is a matter of concern to all people, regardless of whether they are urban or rural. If people remained in the community or county or State in which they were educated, the problem would be local. The fact is that they do not remain there; probably at no time in the history of the country has there been a greater movement than during the past 10 years from one community to another, from the country to the city, and from State to State. It is not possible to calculate the exact extent of the movement from one community to another within the States. The movement from State to State, however, may be closely estimated from figures published by the United States Bureau of the Census, which show that in 1910 only GG.5 per cent of the total population were then living in the State in which they were born; 18.8 per cent were born in other States, and 11.7 per cent in foreign countries. As would be expected, the number living in the State of birth was lower in the Western Division than in other parts of the country; but if the 11 States in the Itocky Mountains and on the Pacific coast be omitted, the number for the remaining 37 States living in the State of birth is but 69 per cent of the total population. A rough estimate of the movement from the country to the city may be made from the census figures for 1910 by comparing the urban and rural increase. The rate of urban increase for the entire country in the 10 years ended in 1910 was more than three times the rate of rural increase, the figures being 34.8 per cent and 11.3 per cent, respectively. The urban increase exceeded the rural increase by 6,049,785. Part of this urban excess was undoubtedly due to immi¬ gration from foreign countries, but the total number of foreign-born persons in the entire United States in 1910 was greater than the number in 1900 by only 3,174,610, and according to the census report but 77.6 per cent of the arrivals since January 1, 1901, were residing in 1910 in urban communities.1 No part of the greater urban rate of increase can be accounted for by the natural increase; the number of 1 It would seem to be a very easy matter to continue the calculation, based on the figures presented, thus : Increase in number of immigrants living in cities, 2,463,057 ; in the country, 811,553 ; difference, 1,651,504. Excess of total urban increase over rural increase, 6,049,785, of which 1,651,504 may be ascribed to immigration ; therefore 4,39S,281 persons must have moved from the country to the city. Little reflection is required to show that such a conclusion would be fallacious. Much of the urban increase comes from the extension of the corporate lines of cities. Still more of it comes from the transfer of places from the rural to the urban classifi¬ cation, because a slight increase in population has carried them above an arbitrary statistical line. No “ movement ” of population is implied in the first factor and not much in the second. The author writes advisedly of “a rough estimate.” It is evident that he does not intend the figures to be used for a precise calculation in this connection. — Editor. ETJBAL EDUCATION. 179 rural children is greater than the number of urban children, both in actual number and in proportion to the total population. The aver¬ age rural family, according to the census report for 1910, contained 4.6 persons; the average urban family 4.5 persons. The larger part of the urban increase has come, therefore, from the migration from the country to the city. The city is therefore vitally concerned in the amount and quality of the education given to children in the rural sections from which it draws its population, and should assist through a State educational fund in the support of good rural schools where the cost of maintaining such schools proves too heavy a burden for the local communities. Every State is concerned not only with what every community within itself is doing to educate its people, but also with what every other State is doing. Education is no longer a matter of local concern only ; it is a matter of State and of National concern. The urban school situation in the United States is fairly satis¬ factory. The city school systems are well organized, the schools are on the whole wTell managed, adequately supervised, taught by persons with good general education and with professional training, and are housed in buildings which are moderately suitable, sanitary, and well equipped with facilities for teaching. All these essentials are lack¬ ing in the rural schools, except in a few States and in a comparatively few counties in others. It may be said that in probably two-thirds of the States the rural schools are unintelligently and uneconomically managed, are not supervised in any effective or efficient way, are taught by untrained teachers, and are housed in buildings which are largely unsuitable and are often insanitary. Of course, it goes with¬ out .saying that there are exceptions to the above statements ; never¬ theless they are generally true. A recent study has been made by the Bureau of Education of the rural school situation. A preliminary report has been published in a bulletin entitled “ The Status of Rural Education.” It is not necessary, therefore, to repeat here what is presented in the bulletin, except perhaps a few figures which will indicate some of the features of the rural school problem. The total population and illiteracy figures are from the Census Report for 1910. The other figures wTere compiled in the Bureau of Education. It is worthy of note that while 53.7 per cent of the total population is classed as rural 58.5 per cent of the children of school age (6 to 20, inclusive) are rural. This means that the 53.7 per cent of the total population wTho are living in rural territory have 58.5 per cent of the children to educate, while the 46.3 per cent classed as urban have only 41.3 per cent of the children to educate. It is noteworthy also that the rural illiteracy 10 years of age and over is twice the urban illiteracy, and this in spite of the great numbers of illiterate foreign- born persons included in the urban population. This larger rate of 180 EDUCATION REPORT, 1912. rural illiteracy is due largely to the lack of adequate and efficient rural schools. The real test of the service of a school is the amount of illiteracy it leaves about it. The definition of urban and rural in the bulletin mentioned above and in the table following is that of the Bureau of the Census. An incorporated city, town, or village of 2,500 population or over is classed as urban; all places of less than 2,500, rural. For New England the township with 2,500 persons or over is considered as urban, townships with less than that number as rural. Urban and rural school population and school attendance. Total popula¬ tion. Illiterate (10 years of age and over). School popula¬ tion. School enroll¬ ment. Average daily attend¬ ance. Aggregate attend¬ ance. Days in annual session. Aggregate amount paid teachers. Urban . Per cent. 46.3 53.7 Per cent. 5.1 10.1 Per cent. 41.5 58.5 Per cent. 37.7 62.3 Per cent. 41.5 58.5 Per cent. 48.7 51.3 184.3 137.7 Per cent. 54.5 45. a Rural . The following pages are devoted largely to an account of recent progress in rural education. They include also a brief statement of the recent legislation intended primarily to affect rural schools. A report is also included of some of the most important agencies now actively engaged in the work of the improvement of rural schools, together with an account of their principal activities. They mention briefly books on rural education that have appeared during the past year, and some of the more important bulletins from the Federal Bureau of Education, from State education departments, and educational institutions. DIVISION or RURAL EDUCATION IN THE BUREAU OF EDUCATION. In the United States Bureau of Education a division of rural education was created November 1, 1911. This was made possible by a provision included in the legislative, executive, and judicial appropriation bill for the year ended June 30, 1912, approved on March 4, 1911. This congressional act provided the sum of $6,000 to be expended “ for the investigation of rural education, industrial education, and school hygiene, including salaries.” During the one year of its existence the work of the division has been largely a study of the status of rural education in the United States, the results of which are included in Bureau of Education Bulletin, 1913, No. 8. This publication contains data relative to the rural population, illiteracy, school enrollment, attendance, and the one-teacher school ; also a summary of the present status of the rural school teaching force, the supervision and the organizations for the management of school a flairs. The information for the bulletin was EUEAL EDUCATION, 181 obtained from State reports, from the Bureau of the Census, and from personal visits to rural schools by representatives of the bureau. The division also collected the material, and with the assistance of President Bobert H. Wright, of the East Carolina Teachers’ Train¬ ing School, Greenville, N. C., prepared and published Bureau of Education Bulletin, 1913, No. 2, Training Courses for Bural Teach¬ ers. It also assisted in preparing for publication several other bulletins mentioned under the section on recent publications on rural education included later in this chapter. The division has affiliated with it about 50 special collaborators, each appointed at a nominal salary, to cooperate in keeping it in touch with the best things done in rural education. These collabo¬ rators are all persons whose work is directly connected with rural education in State departments of education, in State normal schools, or in other similar positions. Several of them are making special studies for the division on various phases of rural education, the results of which will probably be published by the bureau.1 In the appropriation bill approved August 23, 1912, the amount allotted for “rural education, industrial education, and school hygiene ” was increased from $6,000 to $15,000. As a result the 1 The list of collaborators is as follows : Ernest Burnham, director rural school de¬ partment, Western State Normal School, Kalamazoo,. Mich. Miss Jessie Field, in charge of county department, Y. W. C. A., New York City. William H. Hand, State inspector of high schools, Columbia, S. C. George M. Lynch, State inspector of rural schools, Gainesville, Fla. W. E. Smith, State supervisor rural schools, Jackson, Miss-. '‘Mrs.. Cora Wilson Stewart, Rowan County superintendent,. Morehead, Ky. Mrs. Charles P. Weaver, department of education,, Frankfort, Ky. A. Wagner, township superintendent. Nes- quehoning, Pa. Henry G. Williams, dean State Normal College, Athens, Ohio. Thomas J. Coates, supervisor rural schools, Richmond, Ky. J. L. Bond, State supervisor of rural schools, Little Rock, Ark. E. C. Branson, professor of rural economics and sociology. State Normal School, Athens,. Ga. Miss Adelaide S. Baylor, State department of educa¬ tion, Indianapolis, Ind. B. M. Davis, professor of agricultural education, Miami Univer- sity, Oxford, Ohio. W. E. Larson, State inspector of rural schools, Madison, Wis. Thomas S. Settle, State supervisor of rural schools, Richmond, Va. Jaekson Davis, second supervisor of rural schools, Richmond, Va. L.. J. Hanifan, State supervisor of rural schools. Charleston, W. Va. R. H. Powell, president State Normal College, Val¬ dosta, Ga. N. R. Baker, State supervisor of rural schools, Montgomery, Ala. Cyrus J. Brown, State supervisor of rural schools, Baton Rouge, La. F. C. Button, State super¬ visor of rural- schools, Frankfort, Ky. J. E. Warren, agent of the State board of educa¬ tion, Boston, Mass. Mrs. Margaret Craig Curran, deputy State superintendent, depart¬ ment of education, Olympia, Wash. W. B. Mooney, professor of rural education, State Teachers’ College, Greeley, Colo.. B. W. Torreyson, professor of secondary education, State department of education. Little Rock, Ark. McHenry Rhoads, professor of second¬ ary education. University of Kentucky, Lexington, Ky. N. W. Walker, professor of secondary education, University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, N. C. J. C. Fant, pro¬ fessor of secondary education, University of Mississippi, University, Miss. John A. Thackston, State high school inspector, University of Florida, Gainesville, Fla. Leo M. Favrot, State second; supervisor of rural schools, Little Rock, Ark. Charles G. Maphis, professor of secondary education, University of Virginia, Charlottesville, Va. F. B. Frazier, State supervisor of rural schools, Nashville, Tenn. L. L. Friend, State inspector of high schools, University of West Virginia, Morgantown, W. Va. Herbert E. Austin, East Carolina Teachers’ Training School, Greenville, N. C. Miss Agnes Morris, State department of education. Baton Rouge, La. Mrs. Marie T. Harvey, prin¬ cipal model rural school, State Normal School, Kirksville, Mo. William K. Tate, State supervisor of rural schools, Columbia. S. C. 182 EDUCATION REPORT, 1912. division now includes J. D. Eggleston, formerly State superintendent of public instruction of Virginia, chief of field service, and three specialists in rural education, namely, H. W. Foght, formerly of the Kirksville (Mo.) State Normal School; J. C. Muerman, formerly division superintendent of schools for the Province of Cebu, Phil¬ ippine Islands; and A. C. Monahan. Mr. Eggleston, with head¬ quarters at Richmond, Va., is giving his attention particularly to rural schools of the Southern States; Mr. Foght, with headquarters at Kirksville, Mo., to the States of the Central West; Mr. Muerman, with headquarters at Salem, Oreg., to the Rocky Mountain and Pacific States; and Mr. Monahan to the Eastern States. THE RURAL COMMITTEE OF THE NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION. The National Council of Education at the annual meeting of the National Education Association, held at San Francisco' in July, 1911, upon the motion of E. T. Fairchild, then State superintendent of public instruction of Kansas, voted that a committee of 11 be ap¬ pointed “ to investigate the present condition of rural schools and make recommendations for their improvement.” The committee appointed was the following: E. T. Fairchild, president of New Hampshire College of Agriculture and Mechanic Arts, Durham, N. H., chairman. L. H. Bailey, dean of the State College of Agriculture, Ithaca, N. Y. Henry C. Morrison, State superintendent of public instruction, Concord, N. H. A. C. Nelson, State superintendent of public instruction, Salt Lake City, Utah. Edward C. Elliott, University of Wisconsin, Madison, Wis. Miss Adelaide Steele Baylor, State Department of Education, Indianapolis, Ind. T. H. Harris, State superintendent of public education, Baton Rouge, La. John R. Kirk, president, State Normal School, Kirksville, Mo. Edward Hyatt, State superintendent of public instruction, Sacramento, Cal. Luther L. Wright, State superintendent of public instruction, Lansing, Mich. James Y. Joyner, State superintendent of public instruction, Raleigh, N. C. Charles H. Keyes, president of Skidmore School of Arts, Saratoga Springs, H. Y., and president of the National Council of Education. (Added to the com¬ mittee by vote of the council.) An appropriation of $1,000 for the expenses of the investigation was made by the board of directors of the National Education Association. The first meeting of the committee was held at Chicago, November 18 to 20, 1911. The United States Commissioner of Edu¬ cation and a representative of the division of rural education met with the committee. A report on the organization of the committee and the character and scope of the work contemplated was made at the meeting of the Department of Superintendence at St. Louis, in February, 1912. The board of directors voted another $1,000 for expenses. A pre- RURAL EDUCATION. 183 liminary report was made at the Chicago meeting of the National Education Association in July, 1912, and the committee was con¬ tinued another year. SUBJECTS CHOSEN FOR CONSIDERATION BY THE NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIATION COMMITTEE ON RURAL SCHOOLS. It is conceded that “ the rural school is the one laggard in the educational procession.” The conditions governing the country schools of to-day and the lack of adequate results are well known to the students of education. The indictment is in part as follows : Of the 12,000,000 rural school children less than 25 per cent are completing the work of the grades. The teaching body is immature and lacks proper train¬ ing. Terms are too short. School buildings are poor, insanitary, and ill equipped. The school enrollment is constantly decreasing. The supervision is. wholly inadequate. High-school privileges are denied to the great majority of these boys and girls. The strong, virile rural school of a generation ago has gone, and in its place is a primary school weak in numbers and lacking in effi¬ ciency. The country boy and girl of this strenuous and complex twentieth, century are not afforded equal educational opportunities with the city children.. With this knowledge, it seems unnecessary to enter upon an extensive inves¬ tigation having as its aim the gathering of information relative to the present rural school situation. The committee on rural schools, therefore, will address itself to the problem of suggesting ways and means for the betterment of these, schools and for awakening the public to a definite sense of the needs of the rural schools. In pursuance of this policy the following were agreed upon as proper subjects for investigation and recommendation by the committee on rural schools— ORGANIZATION. 1. The unit of school organization . — A consideration of the several units — dis¬ trict, township, and county — with a view to urging the general adoption of that one which affords the best results. 2. Consolidation. — A presentation of the advantages and of the imperative need of consolidation or centralization of schools from considerations of economy and efficiency. 3. Classification. — The adoption of a plan of systematic classification or stand¬ ardization of rural schools with official recognition by the State of those schools which fulfill prescribed conditions, in the form of a moderate amount of State aid. 4. Minimum term. — The enactment in every State of a law fixing the minimum length of the school year, with provision for State aid to those districts which, without such aid would not be able to maintain school for the prescribed period. ADMINISTRATION. 5. Funds — Their source and distribution. — A study of means of increasing school revenues, and a rational basis for the distribution of State and county school funds. 6. Compulsory attendance. — A thorough study of the compulsory school laws of the several States, and a general investigation of means of increasing the attendance in rural schools. 7. The school plant. — Model school grounds and buildings and a standard equipment for rural schools. 77236°— ed 1912— vol 1 - 14 184 EDUCATION REPORT, 1912. 8. Libraries. — Providing a minimum number of suitable general and reference books in tbe form of permanent or traveling libraries. 9. Supervision. — ( a ) Closer supervision. Tbe development of a plan for closer and more effective supervision ; e. g., tbe Oregon plan, which provides for every 50 schools a supervisor under the direction of the county superintendent. ( 1) ) County superintendents. The system of county supervision, including the qualifications, manner of selection, duties, tenure of office, and compensation of county superintendent. (c) State rural school supervisors. The need in each State of one or more rural-school supervisors or visitors, under the direction of the State department of education. 10. Records and statistics. — Systematic records that shall reveal real facts as to (a) rural school population; (b) enrollment; (c) average attendance; (d) length of term; ( e ) number of rural-school pupils completing the work of the grades; (/) comparative per capita cost of town and country system; ( g ) comparison per pupil of valuation of taxable property, town and country; ( h ) comparison of average mill levy in town and country; ( i ) comparison of value of school property, buildings, etc., per pupil, town and country; (;) com¬ parison of enrollment per teacher, town and country; (k) comparison of aver¬ age number of school days attended in town and in country. INSTRUCTION. 11. Uniform courses of study. — A provision in the several States for the prepa¬ ration and compulsory use of a course of study for rural schools and suggestions as to gradation and a minimum number of classes ; and, in view of the general recognition of the need of a reorganization and redirection of the work of these schools, the feasibility of introducing additional vocational work, particu¬ larly in agriculture, and of providing at State or county expense special instruc¬ tors therein. 12. Textbooks. — The adoption of textbooks that recognize more intimately country life and country environment. 13. (a) Preliminary preparation of teachers. — The enactment of laws provid¬ ing for a more adequate preliminary training on the part of applicants for teach¬ ers’ certificates. (b) Teacher training courses in high schools. — A system of teacher training courses in high schools for the purpose of securing a better-trained class of teachers in the rural schools. 14. Appointment and tenure of teachers. — The appointment or nomination of teachers by an educational expert, as the county superintendent, with greater permanence of tenure. SOCIAL ELEMENTS. 15. (a) Cooperation. — Cooperation of social forces— the home, church, grange, farmers’ institutes, extension work of colleges, papers and magazines. (b) The school as a social center. — The use of school buildings as centers for the various social activities of the community. 16. The home and the school. — A close inquiry based upon the theory that the progress, discipline, qualifications, and development of the youth depend more largely upon the right kind of parental influence than upon all others combined. This may well include the question, To what extent approximately does the influence of incompetent parental supervision affect the capabilities, adaptation, discipline, and efficiency of the average pupils in our public schools? RURAL EDUCATION. 185 The State may provide for its boys and girls great opportunities, the acceptance of which the parent may easily prevent. 17. Organized’ games and plays. — The appropriateness of play as an educa¬ tional agency and the utilization of the child’s instinctive interests as a means of promoting his intellectual and moral growth. RURAL SECONDARY EDUCATION. 18. (a) Free tuition. — The value of high-school training for country youth and the necessity and means of providing free high-school privileges for every eligible boy and girl. (&) Consolidated, township , and county high schools. — The plan of insti¬ tuting and maintaining consolidated, township, and county high schools, and the introduction of vocational training for preparation for country life and pursuits. STATE RURAL SCHOOL COMMISSIONS. During the past year three States, Iowa, North Dakota, and Wis¬ consin, have had special commissions studying the rural schools of their respective States with a view of making recommendations for their improvement. IOWA. In IowTa the commission is a subcommittee of a State commission known as the Better Iowa Schools Commission. This commission results from the action of the State teachers’ association at the reg¬ ular meeting in November, 1911. By unanimous vote the association set aside $2,000 for the expenses of a commission to investigate public-school conditions in the State, and to report its findings with recommendations. In accordance with the provisions of the resolu¬ tion the State superintendent of public instruction appointed a com¬ mission of 21 persons, which met in Des Moines in February, 1912. The committee was divided into nine subcommittees, each to inves¬ tigate a different phase of the Iowa school problem. The various subjects were as follows: 1. School administration in Iow~a — State, county, and local. 2. The rural schools. 3. The graded schools. 4. The high schools. 5. Industrial education. 6. State aid for pub¬ lic schools. T. The school as a community center. 8. Committee on publicity. 9. The facilities for the training of teachers. The recommendations of several of these committees pertain in part to rural education. Such parts will be presented here, although the report of the investigation itself will not be included. The committee on school administration recommend among other things : 1. An increased salary for tbe superintendent of public instruction; that Ms term of office shall be four years; and that the method of nomination be non¬ partisan. 2. The appointment of a rural-school inspector in the State department of education. 186 EDUCATION REPORT, 1912. 3. That county superintendents be paid at least $1,800 per year and be elected by a nonpartisan or appointive method for a term of four years. 4. A county board of education composed of men directly interested in schools. 5. That all school officers be required to attend an annual meeting or con¬ ference called by the county superintendent. 6. That the township be the unit of organization for the management of rural schools, with a township school board of five members. The committee on rural schools report that they find — the Iowa rural school shows unwarranted weakness. This is due to several causes rather than to any one. There is no definite purpose in the minds of patrons to improve the schools. They are meagerly equipped and in some in¬ stances very much neglected. There is a lack of definite standards of work on the part of teachers, and in many instances the schools are presided over by young teachers of little training or experience. Close supervision under the present system is an ' impossibility * * *. The greater sources of weakness in our rural schools are a dearth of properly trained teachers, a cumbersome system of government, a lack of close supervision, and failure to apply a thorough business policy in handling them. The committee make eight recommendations, as follows : 1. We favor voluntary consolidation for Iowa schools, with a minimum area of 16 sections, with State aid annually from $500 to $1,500, to be classified by the department of public instruction; the teaching of agriculture and domestic science to be required, and no consolidated school to have less than two departments. 2. We recommend that the rural independent districts be discontinued. 3. We recommend that rural schools be under the inspection and supervision of the department of public instruction. 4. We recommend one rural inspector, one grade inspector, and one high-school inspector, under the supervision of the department of public instruction. 5. We recommend that provisions be made to properly safeguard the health of rural school children. 6. We recommend that practical courses of study be adopted for the rural schools. 7. We recommend the enactment of a law providing a suitable and sane plan for the adoption of textbooks, which will protect the people. 8. We recommend that additional normal schools be established and that normal training be provided in every high school that can successfully carry on such a course. The members of the committee making the above recommendations represented many different interests. The names and occupations are as follows : B. W. Newman, chairman, Strawberry Point, lawyer, ex- State senator; Thomas H. Barnes, Crawfordsville, farmer; J. A. Woodruff. Storm Lake, county superintendent of schools; Arthur Springer, Wapello, lawyer, member of former educational commis¬ sion; Robert Rienow Elkader, superintendent of schools; Frank D. Joseph, Des Moines, deputy State superintendent of public instruction. BUBAL EDUCATION. 187 The committee on industrial education made a special investiga¬ tion as to the needs of the farm boys and girls with regard to voca¬ tional training. They recommend — 1. That the county educational board be empowered to employ two special supervisory teachers to have charge of the industrial work of the rural schools. 2. That some form of State aid be granted counties employing special teachers. 3. That State aid be given to township high schools when a satisfactory course in industrial work is offered. 4. That all State-aided schools be required to maintain courses in agriculture, domestic science, and manual training and be under the direct supervision of State inspectors. The committee also recommend the adoption of a more effective teaching of agriculture and suggest the following needs : 1. An extension of normal training facilities to all high schools of the State which can properly qualify for it. 2. Legislation providing for a knowledge of the subject of agriculture on the part of those who are to teach. 3. Further summer-school facilities for the instruction in agriculture of teachers who are already in the service but not qualified to teach agriculture. 4. Courses of study which shall classify and outline the work in elementary agriculture and suggest methods of procedure which will enable the great mass of the teachers to apply effectively the teaching of agriculture along with the other essential branches in the general courses of study. 5. Further provision for training special teachers of agriculture for work as high school and normal school instructors. The committee on State aid in their report include a recommenda¬ tion that the State teachers’ association ask at the next session of the legislature the enactment of a law giving aid to Iowa public schools as follows: Consolidated schools of four or more departments shall receive annually as State aid the sum of $1,500. A consolidated school of three departments shall receive as Stale aid the sum of $1,000. A consolidated school of two departments shall receive as State aid the sum of $500. Any high school that shall meet the requirements fixed by the law providing for normal training in high schools shall receive as State aid the sum of $500. NORTH DAKOTA. The North Dakota Kural School Commission was also created by the teachers of the State at the annual meeting of the North Dakota Educational Association in October, 1911. The commission was ap¬ pointed “ to recommend effective measures for the permanent uplift of the schools of the State.” Their recommendations include princi¬ pally a plea for the adoption of State laws which would require : (1) Longer terms and better attendance; (2) better financial sup- 188 EDUCATION REPORT, 1912. port; (3) better school board organization; (4) consolidation of schools; (5) improved supervision and better teaching; (6) a cam¬ paign of education for rural school uplift and improvement. They recommend that the term be at least 9 months and that all children from 8 to 15, inclusive, be required to attend ; that the county tuition fund be increased to about 10 mills and be distributed on the basis of teachers employed and aggregate attendance of pupils, and that the State tuition fund should be distributed on the same basis ; a county board of education to take over the work of local school boards in rural districts, with powers similar to city boards of educa¬ tion; a State board of education to prescribe rules for classifying schools, issuing certificates, conducting teachers’ institutes and sum¬ mer schools, and appointing inspectors and the State superintendent ; a 1 mill county tax, and $100,000 from the State annually to promote consolidation; a minimum wage of $00 per month for teachers; and county superintendents to be appointed for five years by county boards of education with field deputies to assist in supervision. WISCONSIN. The Wisconsin committee is known as the u committee of fifteen.” It was appointed by the State superintendent of schools to make a study of the condition of the common schools of the State, in the hope that as a result of their work public attention would become centered more upon the common schools than it has been in the past. The committee was organized into five subcommittees, one on each of the following subjects: Consolidation of rural schools; preparations and qualifications of teachers; supervision; social center movement; higher education for country communities. The committee on consolidation have prepared a bulletin which has been printed by the State department of education. They recommend that the State law under which consolidation is effected be simplified and that a law be provided requiring the transportation of pupils when consolidation is effected. They recommend a county board of education to have the immediate charge of the consolidation of schools and that consolidation be made compulsory when the attend¬ ance falls below a certain point and where it is possible to make provision for the children to attend neighboring schools. They rec¬ ommend further the transportation to be paid from State funds. The committee on the preparation of teachers recommend that no new teacher shall be permitted to teach in any public school of the State without at least one year of professional training in addilion to two years of high-school work. The committee on supervision recommend a county board of education to have general oversight of RURAL EDUCATION. 189 the schools of the county, to select the county superintendent, and to provide assistants to him in supervising the schools of the county. The committee on the social-center movement recommend that the use of the schoolhouse as a social center for the community be encour¬ aged. The committee has in preparation a bulletin containing reports of what has been done in this field and offering suggestions for social- center work. They recommend further that the school be made a center for the social activities of the pupils, and a meeting place for all gatherings, such as farmers’ meetings, farmers’ clubs, socials, or community observance of special days ; they recommend also the em¬ ployment of a teacher who understands community life and is capable of being a leader in practical affairs. The committee as a whole recommend the adoption of the county as a unit of taxation for school affairs, that the present compulsory-attendance law be amended so as to reach every child, and that special aid be given to rural schools reaching a certain definite standard. STATE SUPERVISORS AND INSPECTORS OF RURAL SCHOOLS. At least 20 States now have in connection with the State depart¬ ments of education special agents devoting their entire time to the rural schools, either as supervisors or inspectors or as special investi¬ gators to study their conditions and needs. In 12 Southern States officers known as “ State supervisors of rural schools,” are appointed by the State education authorities and are paid jointly by the Southern Education Board and the Peabody Education Fund. It is their duty to assist in the development of a State system, of elementary rural schools, to know intimately the rural school conditions in their respective States, and to conduct a campaign for improvement. A report of the work accomplished by them is given in another place in this chapter. The States in which these supervisors are employed are Virginia, West Virginia, North Carolina, South Carolina, Georgia, Florida, Alabama, Mississippi, Tennessee, Kentucky, Louisiana, and Arkansas. In Virginia, Ken¬ tucky, and Arkansas “ second State supervisors ” are appointed to devote their entire time to rural elementary schools for negroes. The other States employing special agents for rural schools are as a rule the States that provide special financial aid to rural schools. In Massachusetts one of the agents of the State board of education devotes his entire time to rural schools, particularly to the State-aided schools in the poorer townships. The third assistant commissioner of education of New York has special oversight over rural education in that State. A u rural school inspector ” is employed in each of the States of Missouri, Oklahoma, North Dakota, and Wisconsin. Illi- 190 EDUCATION REPORT, 1912. nois has two “ State supervisors of country and village schools.” Minnesota employs a “ State rural school commissioner.” The southern group of State supervisors. — These officers are legally appointed State officials in the departments of education and, under the general oversight of the State superintendents of public instruc¬ tion, have charge of the administration and improvement of the rural schools. The office is permanent, so that the efficient super¬ visor may devote his life to his work. Eight were appointed in 1910, the other four in 1911. It seemed wise after the appointment of these supervisors that a definite program of procedure for all be adopted. Accordingly a meeting was called in connection with the Conference for Education in the South at Jacksonville, Fla., in April, 1911. There three prin¬ cipal lines of effort were agreed upon: First, a campaign for in¬ creased local taxation; second, a camj^aign for consolidation, with transportation at public expense; and, third, the establishment of demonstration schools at strategic centers. It was agreed also to work as far as possible with and through the county superintendents. The State supervisor, therefore, visits rural schools with the county superintendent, studying with him the conditions and needs of the schools and suggesting ways and means of improvement. While in the county he takes an active part in the local movements for efficient schools, which are usually efforts to secure a local tax or to increase a previous levy, to consolidate weak schools, or to secure new build¬ ings to replace old ones. In two years the State supervisors have accomplished a great deal. Much of the great movement in the South for better rural schools is due to their work. Their activities in the field are indicated by the reports from 12 States for nine months in 1912, which show that they aided in 137 local tax campaigns, in 172 consolidation efforts, and in 226 campaigns for new buildings. They attended 438 com¬ munity meetings. They spent 1,069 days in visiting schools in 511 counties, in the majority of which they were accompanied by the county superintendents. They met with 75 county boards of educa¬ tion and with 300 district boards of trustees. They visited 826 schools, 334 teachers’ meetings, and assisted at 88 teachers’ institutes. They have addressed 846 public meetings, furnished 269 articles to newspapers, and mailed 33,127 circular letters and 77,485 pamphlets to rural public-school teachers. The teachers have received special attention from the supervisors. It was early realized that the larger number of teachers in the South¬ ern States were young women with practically no professional train¬ ing. It was realized, too, that these teachers must be instructed and RURAL EDUCATION. 191 directed. To do this teachers’ manuals for the elementary schools have been prepared by the State supervisors in eight States and issued by the State departments of education. These give the teach¬ ers in detail the principal points and the work to be done and the best methods of putting them into practice. The other States will issue manuals as soon as possible. The work of establishing demonstration schools has been put into operation in a few States only. In Kentucky Mr. T. J. Coates, State supervisor of rural schools, has been particularly active along this line. In the session 1910-11 he selected 10 schools in each of 10 counties, well distributed throughout the State. These schools were placed under his immediate direction by the county superintendents. In each of them an efficient teacher was placed, who managed the school as directed by the State supervisor. With each demonstration school were grouped seven or eight other schools in the surrounding territory. For each group an extra teacher, called “ substitute,” was engaged. This substitute teacher took the place of the regular teacher in each school in the group in turn so that the regular teach¬ ers, one at a time, spent one or two weeks at the central school. In the past session the number of schools was increased to 200. With the appointment of county supervisors during the present year, as mentioned in another place in this chapter, the immediate oversight of the demonstration schools is placed in their hands. It is expected that the effect of the demonstration schools will gradually extend to all schools in the county and in the State, as it has now spread to the schools in the immediate vicinity. It is expected also that in time they will absorb many of the weaker schools in the vicinity. A beginning has been made for a similar plan in Arkansas. Dem¬ onstration schools are directed by the State supervisors in all coun¬ ties having county superintendents. There are about 100 such schools located in 15 counties. In Mississippi plans are now under way for the establishment of 250 demonstration schools similar to those in Kentucky and Arkansas. Other Southern States are making a beginning. The State supervisors have been active also in promoting the em¬ ployment of county rural-school supervisors. At a meeting held in Morgantown, W. Va., in June, 1911, the West Virginia system of district supervision was studied. Previous to this, one county super¬ visor had been employed by each of several of the State normal schools in Virginia, North Carolina, South Carolina, Georgia, and Louisiana, their salaries and expenses being paid from an appro¬ priation by the Peabody Education Fund. Although connected with the State normal schools, the work of these supervisors was done in each case under the general supervision of the State supervisor. 192 EDUCATION" REPORT, 1912. State officers charged with the supervision of rural schools , 1911-12 , State. Title. Name. Address: State .supervisor of rural schools. N. R. Baker . Montgomery. .. do J. L. Bond Little Rock Do . Second State supervisor of rural schools. L. M. Favrot . Do. Florida . State inspector of rural schools. State supervisor of rural schools. G. M. Lynch . Gainesville. R. H. Powell _ Al lania. Illinois . State supervisors of country and village schools. U. J. Hoffman and Springfield. W. S. Booth. State supervisor of rural schools. T. J. Coates . Frankfort. Do . Second State supervisor of rural schools. F. C. Button . . Do. Louisiana . State supervisor of rural schools. C. .T. Brown . Baton Rouge. Massachusetts . Agent, State hoard of educa¬ tion. J. E. Warren . Boston. Minnesota . State rural school commis¬ E. M. Phillips . St. Paul. sioner. Mississinni . _ . State supervisor of rural schools. W. H. Smith . Jackson. Jr Jr . . Missouri . ^. . . State rural school inspector... . Third assistant State commis¬ G. W. Reavis . Jefferson City. Albany. New York . T. E. Finegan . sioner of education. North Carolina . State supervisor of rural schools. L. C. Brogden . Raleigh. North Dakota ...... _ State rural school inspector... . do . N. C. Macdonald . Valley City. Oklahoma City. Columbia. Oklahoma . E. F. Proffitt . South Carolina . State supervisor of rural schools. W. K. Tate . Tennessee . . do . F. B. Frazier.... . Nashville. Virginia . ..do . T. S. Settle . Richmond. Do . cond State supervisor of rural schools. .To o Vs on D a y is Do. West Virginia . State supervisor of rural schools. L. J. Hanifan . Charleston. W isconsin . State rural school inspector... W. E. Larson. . Madison. COUNTY RURAL SCHOOL SUPERVISORS. County rural school supervisors, as assistants to county superin¬ tendents, have begun work in over 100 counties in the Southern States during the past year. These supervisors are trained teachers, able to give expert advice and direction to the rural teachers and to assist them in the management of their schools and in their instructional work. Their appointment was due largely to the efforts of the State supervisors of rural schools who have been, during the past two years, conducting an active campaign for expert supervision of the work of rural teachers. In four States — Virginia, North Carolina, South Carolina, and Mississippi — the State supervisors received a small amount of money from the Peabody Education Fund to be divided among the counties securing county supervisors as a part of the salaries of these officers. In the other States no outside aid has been used. As far as information is at hand, Alabama, in the fall of 1912 had 6 county supervisors ; Arkansas, 1 ; Georgia, 8 ; Louisiana, 6 ; Ken¬ tucky, TO; Mississippi, 3; North Carolina, 3; South Carolina, 10; Tennessee, 5 ; and Virginia, 7. In South Carolina one of the county supervisors is employed by the State Normal and Industrial College at Pock Hill. West Virginia has district supervisors in 56 magis- EURAL EDUCATION. 193 terial districts. In one of these districts, each of three graded-school principals has the oversight of four rural schools in the vicinity of his graded schools, dividing the time between teaching and super¬ vising. The appointment of supervisors in Kentucky was authorized by the legislature in June, 1912; in many of the other States no legal authorization exists. In Alabama the supervisors in Calhoun and Marshall Counties are paid from the county school funds as teachers and are detailed for supervisory work throughout the county. The next legislature will be asked to authorize the employment of county supervisors and the payment of their salary from the county funds. Among the other States with count}^ supervision several have pro¬ vided special supervisors for rural schools, usually, however, under the title “assistant county superintendent.” Maryland now has as¬ sistant county superintendents in 4 counties and also has rural super¬ visors in 2 — Baltimore and Anne Arundel Counties. Pennsylvania, in the new school code adopted in 1911, requires the appointment of assistant superintendents in every county with over 200 teachers, and 2 assistants in every county with over 400 teachers. They are appointed by the officers of the county association of township school directors and are paid from the State school funds. In Indiana 3 counties have engaged assistant superintendents during the year. North Dakota has now such officers in 10 counties. Information to show the exact extent to which this movement has spread has not been collected. It is, however, becoming generally recognized that the county superintendent in the average county can not supervise the schools in any effective way unless some assistance is given to him. Perhaps the most complete State system recently adopted for rural supervision is in Oregon. In each county with 60 or more school districts the county superintendent, by act of the legislature ap¬ proved in June, 1911, is required to appoint a county board of edu¬ cation. This board is required to divide the county into supervisory districts, each to contain from 20 to 50 school districts, and to ap¬ point a “district supervisor” for each district so created. This dis¬ trict supervisor must devote his entire time to supervision for at least 10 months in the year, and he may be engaged for 12 months. He is a county officer, responsible to the county through the county superin¬ tendent, and is paid by the county. COUNTY RURAL SCHOOL INDUSTRIAL SUPERVISORS. Another plan of aiding county superintendents in their supervisory work with the rural schools has met with considerable success in many of the Southern States. It consists of the appointment of a rural school “ industrial teacher,” working in all parts of the county 194 EDUCATION REPORT, 1912. under the direction of the county superintendent. The work of this teacher consists in visiting the rural schools for the purpose of intro¬ ducing industrial work, such as sewing, cooking, gardening, estab¬ lishing cooking clubs, canning clubs, corn and tomato clubs, and school improvement associations. While not directly concerned with the academic work of the school, the effect of the visit of such a supervisor has been to produce' an awakening in the entire life and work of the school. They have proved their value by showing them¬ selves able to make man}7 suggestions regarding the management of the school, the arrangement of the program, and methods of teaching of especial value to inexperienced county teachers. The first industrial teacher Avas employed by the Jeanes fund in October, 1908, in Henrico County, Ya. A negro woman, Virginia E. Randolph, Avho had taught 13 years in the county and had achieved notable success as a rural teacher, was appointed the first industrial supervisor. There were 23 negro schools in her county. The indus¬ trial teacher during the first year organized the parents into im¬ provement leagues, and through these leagues secured \7ery marked improvements in the conditions of the buildings and the grounds. She introduced into the schools work in cooking, seAving, mat making, and elementary agriculture. FolloAATing the Henrico County plan, industrial supervision has been introduced among negro schools throughout the’ Southern States. The system is now the Virgina plan. Its adoption has been due almost wholly to the Jeanes Foundation, a fund for the benefit of negro education in the South. The industrial teachers are paid in whole or in part from the Jeanes fund, and are in part under the direction of the trustees of the fund. The teachers are appointed by the county superintendents and work under their immediate direc¬ tion. In Virginia, where a second State supervisor of rural schools has been appointed to give his time wholly to negro schools, the negro industrial superA'isors are in large measure under his control. During the past year negro industrial supervisors Avere employed in 117 counties in 12 Southern States, as follows: Alabama, 17; Arkansas, 6; Florida, 3; Georgia, 13; Louisiana, 10; Maryland, 1; Mississippi, 15; North Carolina, 12; South Carolina, 8; Tennessee, 3 ; Texas, 6 ; Virginia, 17 ; and 6 other special teachers. Of this num¬ ber 28 are men and Avere paid an average salary from the Jeanes fund of $357.50; 75 are women and received on an average $320.36. The term of service was about 7^ months during* the year. The total amount paid by the Jeanes Foundation for supervisors during the past year was $35,782.50. Some of the definite results of the Avork of the supervising teachers may be shoAvn from the folloAving figures, taken from report of 17 teachers in Virginia for the past year. In the territory covered by RURAL EDUCATION. 195 these IT teachers there are 469 negro schools, of which number 299 were visited regularly. During the year 9 new buildings were erected and 12 were enlarged at a combined cost of $6,268, which does not include labor and material contributed; 12 schools were painted, 69 whitewashed; 37 sanitary outhouses were built; 102 schools were supplied with individual drinking cups. There were 348 improve¬ ment leagues organized, and they raised for school improvement nearly $14,000. One of the most interesting developments of the work of the negro industrial supervisors is their cooperation with the farm demon¬ stration agents in working during the summer months with clubs of girls who cultivate home gardens and can vegetables and fruits for winter use. This plan has been carried out in Virginia more than in any other State, 8 of the supervisors being employed for 12 months. During the past year there were 267 girls in garden clubs with 202 separate gardens. The girls “ put up ” nearly 4,000 jars of tomatoes and, other vegetables from their gardens, and in addition 6,000 jars of materials raised by the girls were u put up ” by their mothers. In addition to the garden work and instruction in canning, the supervisors gave regular lessons during the summer to the club girls in sewing, cooking, simple dressmaking, housekeeping, poultry raising, and in improving the general appearances of their homes on the inside and out. Rural school supervisors of this kind are, however, not confined to negro schools. Virginia has the present year 7 white supervisors working among the white schools in 6 counties. They are appointed by the State department of education and are paid from the State school funds. They are found in the following counties: Albemarle, Rockingham, Charles City, New Kent, Buchanan, Henrico, and Halifax. The last-named has 2 supervisors. Similar industrial teachers for white schools have also been pro¬ vided in Georgia and Louisiana, in about 12 counties. Their appoint¬ ment in these States has come about through the initiative and the generosity of Mr. N. O. Nelson, of New Orleans and St. Louis, who paid their salaries for the first two years. The first of these super¬ visors was put to work in Putnam County, Ga., in September, 1909. She was placed in charge of the county superintendent. She began work by getting acquainted with the teachers and pupils, and she was invited to the homes and became acquainted with the parents. She talked to teachers, pupils, and parents about sewing and cook¬ ing, shopwork, gardening, and the general improvement of the schoolhouses and grounds. She introduced into the schools sewing and cooking for girls and shopwork for boys, established school and home gardens for both boys and girls, and organized canning clubs 196 EDUCATION REPORT, 1912. and school improvement associations. She raised a library fund and a little money for extending the length of the school term. Her services were very much in demand, and she was freely sent for and entertained in all parts of the county. She was regarded not as an instructor, but as a supervisor and leader. Three additional teachers were secured the second year, and the work was inaugurated in Louisiana. The plan has proved so successful that several counties have taken over the supervisor and are now paying the salaries. STATE ORGANIZERS OF SCHOOL IMPROVEMENT ASSOCIATIONS. Another movement which is accomplishing widely extended and definite results in rural school improvement, particularly in the South, comes from activities of State, county, and local school im¬ provement associations. These associations are composed of the school patrons, both men and women, wTho meet regularly at the school buildings for the purpose (1) of improving in every possible way the school building and grounds; (2) of placing in the school facilities for health and comfort as well as for education; (3) of making the school yard suitable for a playground; (4) of planting trees, shrubs, and flowers to make the yard and building more beau¬ tiful and attractive; (5) of making the school a social center and thus creating a more active interest in the school on the part of the patrons. School improvement associations as local organizations have existed in many States, both North and South, for many years, in Maine and Ohio particularly. Only in 6 Southern States, how¬ ever, has their organization been made a function of the State depart¬ ment of education. Virginia, Tennessee, Kentucky, Mississippi, Louisiana, and Arkan¬ sas each has in the State department of education a State organizer of school improvement associations. At the present time the posi¬ tions are occupied by Mrs. L. R. Dashiell, in Virginia ; Miss Virginia P. Moore, in Tennessee; Mrs. Charles P. Weaver, in Kentucky; Miss Susie V. Powell, in Mississippi; Miss Agnes Morris, in Louisiana; and Miss Eva Reichardt, in Arkansas. They were appointed by the State departments, but are paid by the Southern Education Board and the Peabody Fund. Their work consists largely in assisting in organizing county and local school improvement associations and in stimulating the asso¬ ciations when organized into continued activity for the betterment of the schools they represent. The State organizers have issued publications explaining to the county superintendents and others interested and to the teachers how to organize county and local associations. The most complete of these publications are those issued by the Mississippi State department. KURAL EDUCATION. 197 In a recent bulletin prepared by Miss Powell is outlined in full the plan of rural school improvement through the school improve¬ ment associations. It gives full directions for organizing county and local associations and includes suggestive programs for the observ¬ ance of special days : Clean-up and beautify day, in October ; Health day, in November ; Library day, in December ; Arbor day, in January ; Club day, in February; Field day, in March. The names suggest the purpose of the special days. Directions are given showing also how the special-day programs which are given by both pupils and patrons may be correlated with the instructional work of the school. The activities of the State organizers include visiting rural schools, usually with the county superintendents, meeting with citizens to organize improvement leagues, attending meetings of local and county leagues, making public addresses, preparing articles for news¬ papers and circular letters and pamphlets for teachers, and in per¬ sonal correspondence with league officers and teachers on matters pertaining to the improvement leagues. In several cases the State organizers of improvement associations are also State agents for the promotion of girls5 tomato and canning clubs. Nearly all the other Southern States have State and county school improvement associations without official status. The services of their officers and .members are purely voluntary. boys’ and girds’ agricultural clubs. The boys’ and girls’ agricultural-club movement is becoming more closely connected with the school and the work of the clubs a definite part of the school program. The growth of the movement through¬ out the United States has been rapid during the past year. This has been due largely to the activities of the Bureau of Plant In¬ dustry of the United States Department of Agriculture, through the Farmers’ Cooperative Demonstration Work, which has been engaged in fostering the movement in the 12 cotton States for the past 7 years, and the section of field studies and demonstrations-club work of the Office of Farm Management, which began similar work July 1, 1912, in other States. Boys’ and girls’ corn clubs and other agricultural clubs have been in existence as local district, county, or State institutions for at least 16 years. Among the first clubs were those established in Penn¬ sylvania, Illinois, Iowa, and other States of the Middle West. The national club movement, however, began in 1907 in Holmes County, Miss., while W. H. Smith, now State supervisor of rural schools, was county superintendent. It was organized as a part of the farm demonstration work in the Southern States, begun in 1904 under 198 EDUCATION REPORT, 1912. the direction of the late Dr. Seaman A. Knapp, special agent in charge of farmers’ cooperative demonstration work of the United States Department of Agriculture, Bureau of Plant Industry. The first clubs organized were corn clubs for boys from 10 to 18 years of age, in which each boy cultivated on his father’s farm one acre of corn in competition with other boys in the club. There were 162 members of the Holmes County club in 1907. The number has grown from this as a beginning until in 1912 there wTere approxi¬ mately 100,000 boys enrolled in corn clubs in the Southern States. In 1910 girls’ garden and canning clubs were organized in South Carolina and Virginia. There were 325 girls enrolled the first year and about 3,500 the second year. In 1912 approximately 30,000 girls are enrolled, each growing one-tenth of an acre of tomatoes and can¬ ning for home use and for market her own garden products. Cotton clubs, potato clubs, pig clubs, poultry clubs, etc., have also been established. According to the statement of the Farmers’ Cooperative Demon¬ stration Work, the movement was inaugurated with the following purposes in view : 1. To afford the rural teacher a simple and easy method of teaching practical agriculture in the school in the way it must be acquired to be of any real serv¬ ice, mainly by actual work upon the farm. 2. To prove that there is more in the soil than the farmer has ever gotten out of it ; to inspire boys with a love of the land by showing them how they can get wealth out of it by tilling it in a better way, and thus be helpful to the family and the neighborhood. 3. To give the boys a definite, worthy purpose, and to stimulate a friendly rivalry among them. It was designed also to secure rural cooperation. Wherever the work has been inaugurated county superintendents of education, the school teachers, county demonstration agents, business men, news¬ papers, ministers, and parents have all united for carrying forward the movement in a way which has fostered rural progress along all lines. Corn was selected for demonstration because it may be grown profit¬ ably in nearly all parts of the United States. A more common knowledge of it is possessed by country boys than of any other one crop. It yields more food to the acre than any other green crop, and a good crop means cheaper food for men and animals. Its cultivation is comparatively easy, and the principles of agriculture learned in its cultivation are fundamental and are of broad application. The work usually is organized with the county for a unit and is initiated through the county superintendent, who secures the co¬ operation of the teachers. Each teacher explains the plans to her boys RURAL EDUCATION. 199 and secures the names of those who desire to belong to the county corn club. The boys of the entire county are then assembled in some central place for organization and instruction. For the first year it has been found advantageous to furnish seed, SO' that every boy in the contest is assured of first-class material to plant. The boards of trade, bankers, and business men often provide funds for purchasing the seed. After the first year each boy selects his own seed. Merchants and business men are asked to provide prizes. When the organization is completed the names and addresses of the boys enrolled are sent to the United States Department of Agri¬ culture. Each boy agrees to raise 1 acre of corn in accordance with the directions furnished him. The department sends them circulars of information giving instruction in regard to seed selection, the preparation, fertilization, and cultivation of the soil, etc. They also send a special form which, when filled by the boy, gives a complete record of his work in cultivating his acre of corn, including a descrip¬ tion of the method of cultivation and an estimate of the cost and the value of the crop. The following rules govern the clubs : (1) Boys joining clubs and entering contests must be between 10 and 38 years of age on January 1 of any given year. (2) No boy shall contest for a prize unless he becomes a member of a club. (3) The members of the clubs must agree to study the instructions of the Farmers’ Cooperative Demonstration Work. (4) Each boy must plan his own crop and do his own work. A small boy may hire help for heavy plowing in preparing the soil. (5) Exhibits must be delivered to the county superintendent of education on or before November 1. (6) The land and corn must be carefully measured in the presence of at least two disinterested witnesses, who shall attest the certificate of the boy. (7) In awarding prizes the following basis shall be used: Per cent. (a) Greatest yield per acre _ 30 (ft) Best exhibit of 10 ears _ 20 (c) Best written account showing history of crop _ 20 ( d ) Best showing of profit on investment based on the commercial price of corn _ 30 The results from an agricultural standpoint have been wonderful. In 1911, for instance, three boys made records which are probably better records in corn production than ever before made : Julius Hill, of Attalla, Ala., produced 212 J bushels on 1 acre, at a cost of 8.6 cents per bushel. Bennie Beeson, of Monticello, Miss., produced 227 J bushels on an acre, at a cost of 14 cents per bushel. Ben Leath, of Kensington, Ga., produced 214f bushels on an acre, at a cost of 14.2 cents. 77236°— ed 1912— vol 3 - 15 200 EDUCATION REPORT, 1912. Four other boys produced from 210 to 225 bushels on their acres, at a cost of from 20 to 35 cents per bushel. The following statements, taken from the official report of the Department of Agriculture, will give some idea of the records made : Fifty-two boys in Georgia received diplomas, signed by the governor and other officials, for producing more than 100 bushels per acre each, at an average cost of less than 30 cents per bushel ; 21 Georgia club members, from the seventh congressional district alone, grew 2,641 bushels, at an average cost of 23 cents per bushel; 19 boys in Gordon County, Ga., averaged 90 bushels, 10 of them making 1,058 bushels. The 10 boys who stood highest in Georgia averaged 169.9 bushels and made a net profit of more than $100 each, besides prizes won. In Alabama 100 boys averaged 97 bushels, at an average cost of 27 cents. In Monroe County, Ala., 25 boys averaged 78 bushels. In Yazoo County, Miss., 21 boys averaged 111.6 bushels, at an average cost of 19.7 cents. In Lee County, Miss., 17 boys averaged 82 bushels, at an average cost of 21 cents. Sixty-five boys in Mississippi averaged 109.9 bushels, at an average cost of 25 cents. Twenty Mississippi boys averaged 140.6 bushels, at an average cost of 23 cents. Ninety-two boys in Louisiana grew 5,791 bushels on 92 acres ; 10 of these boys went above 100 bushels, although the weather conditions were very unfavorable in that State. In North Carolina 100 boys averaged 99 bushels. In the same State 432 boys averaged 63 bushels. In Buncombe County, N. C., 10 boys averaged 88 bushels. In Sussex County, Va., 16 boys averaged 82 bushels. Fifteen boys in the vicinity of Memphis, Tenn., where the business men contributed about $3,000 to aid the work, averaged 127.4 bushels, at an average cost of 28 cents per bushel. In each of the cotton States a State prize is given for the best record. The prize usually consists of a trip to Washington, and is furnished by interested individuals or associations. The winners for 1912, as certified by the United States Department of Agriculture, were as follows: Boy prize winners in Southern States in raising corn. State. 1 Name. Address. Yield. Cost per bushel. Bushels. Pounds. Cents. Smith Carolina . "Em fist .Toye . Venters . 207. 18 40. 0 Mississippi Carious Rfiddoek . Summerland . 206. 60 13. 6 Alabama Willie Atchison . McCalla . 198. 25 16. 5 Alabama . J. P. Leach . . . Union Grove . 196. 27 10.3 North Carolina . George E. West . Kinston . 184. 00 46 19.0 Georgia . Byron Bolton . Zeigler . 177.00 33 13.5 Virginia . Frank Brockman . Amherst . 167. 00 22.5 Tennessee . Herbert McKibbon . Culleoka . 159. 00 20 Georgia . Walter Bridges . Dawson . 156.00 6 £1.25 Arkansas . Lester Carrard Magnolia . 134. 20 Louisiana . \ John M. Cobb . Vowells Mill __ .. 131.50 15.0 Florida . Richard Miller . Baker . 129. 29 26.0 Texas . Earle Davis . Grapeland . 122. 50 9.4 Arkansas . Robert Connally . Mena . 117. 67 Oklahoma . Elston Coleman . Newkirk . 101.08 North Carolina . Herbert Allen Pnngo . 83.00 14. 2 RURAL EDUCATION. 201 The organization and methods of the girls’ garden and canning clubs are similar to those of the boys’ corn clubs. The usual crop raised is one-tenth of an acre of tomatoes. The girls cultivate the crop under the directions furnished by the Department of Agricul¬ ture. They preserve the tomatoes in glass or tin cans. The object of the work is — First, to stimulate interest and wholesome cooperation among mem¬ bers of the family in the home. Second, to provide some means by which the girls may earn money at home and at the same time get the education and viewpoint necessary for the ideal farm life. Third, to encourage rural families to provide purer and better food at a lower cost and to utilize the surplus and otherwise waste prod¬ ucts of the garden and orchard. Fourth, to furnish earnest teachers a plan for aiding their pupils and helping their communities. The work in the Northern and Western States, begun in July, 1912, by the Office of Farm Management, was made possible by the appropriation bill for the Department of Agriculture for the fiscal year 1912-13. By it the sum of $300,000 was provided to “ investi¬ gate and encourage the adoption of improved methods of farm man¬ agement and farm practice and for farm demonstration work.” This is in addition to the $332,960 provided to continue the work in the South inaugurated by the late Dr. S. A. Knapp. Part of this amount will be used for the encouragement of boys’ and girls’ agricultural clubs in the Northern and Western States. While they will be organized along similar lines to those in the cotton States, they will be more closely connected with the State colleges of agriculture. Each State club agent will be employed jointly by the State college of agriculture and by the Bureau of Plant Industry. This will con¬ nect the national work with the boys’ and girls’ agricultural clubs already established by the State colleges in the greater number of States. Sixteen States are now organized in cooperation with the Office of Farm Management for national club work, with two or more coop¬ erative agents in each State. The work is planned for the farm and home, rather than from a school or pedagogical point of view. Its purpose' is to teach the children to grow a crop economically and efficiently. The work is initiated in most instances through the agency of the school and may, therefore, be made a definite part of the educative work of the school by the school authorities. Special in¬ structions are furnished to all club members by the Office of Farm Management in accordance with the line of work pursued by the club, which, in the Northern and Western States, is not confined 202 EDUCATION REPORT, 1912. wholly to corn and canning clubs. The circulars of instruction are as follows : Class 1. Boys' national corn clitl). 1. Organization circular. 2. Instructions on how to grow an acre of corn. 3. Special contests in corn-club work. 4. Crop report blank. 5. Instructions to club organizers. 6. Seed selection. 7. Score card. Class 2. Girls' garden and canning clul). 1. Organization circular. 2. Canning tomatoes at home and for clubs. 3. Care and management of tomato plat. 4. Crop report blank. 5. Suggestions to club leaders. 6. Score card. 7. Special contests. Class 3. Boys' and gil ls' potato clul). 1. Organization circular. 2. Instructions in potato culture. 3. Crop report blank. 4. Special contests. 5. Score card. 6. How to use the potato. 7. Suggestions to leaders. Class 4- Other instructions for all classes. 1. State and district field reports. 2. Enrollment blanks and cards. 3. Farmers’ bulletins on corn, potatoes, and tomatoes. 4. Premiums ; their use and abuse. 5. Composition outlines for “ How I made my crop.” In the Northern and Western States the work has not been organ¬ ized long enough to result in many State contests. However, in Maryland, Kentucky, Iowa, West Virginia, and Massachusetts State prizes were given for 1912. The winners wrere : State. Name. Address. Yield (bushels). Cost per bushel. Maryland . Leroy Nichols . Highland . 150.00 Cents. 13. 33 Kentucky . Lester Bryant . Rockfield . 148. 55 12. 75 Iowa . . . Earl Zeller . Cooper . 141.45 9.75 W est V ir ginia . Ethan Allen . Morgantown . 140. 20 25.00 Massachusetts . Ernest Russell . South Hadley . 68.90 70. 00 SCHOOL CREDIT FOR HOME INDUSTRIAL WORK. A movement is growing throughout the country to connect more definitely the home life and the school life of the child through the device of crediting the child in school for household or farm work RURAL EDUCATION. 203 clone at home. It may be as a required part of the school work, or as optional work supplementary to the school work which, if done and done satisfactorily, gives the pupil a higher school rating. There are two distinct schemes in operation, differing principally in the character of the work for which credit is given and the relation of the work to the school : First. A single definite piece of work selected to be done at home in part under the direction and supervision of the school, which can be carried through from the beginning to the completion, and requires supplementary reading and study in the school. Second. The ordinary tasks that require doing daily in the home and on the farm. Credit is given for doing the task; extra credit for doing it well. The parent is the judge of the home work and rates the child according to the quantity and quality of the work done. The first scheme is becoming generally known as the 44 home- project ” plan. This expression as used in this connection probably orignated in Massachusetts, where it is applied to the practice work in the departments of agriculture in rural high schools and where the work is done at the home and not on a school farm. According to the regulations of the Massachusetts State department of education, every boy studying agriculture in the State-aided departments of agriculture in public high schools must carry out some farming proj¬ ect at home. The project and the study necessary to carry it out require about one-half of the pupil’s time. The 46 farming project is a thing to be done on the farm, which, in the preparation for doing it and in carrying it to a successful result, would involve a thorough¬ going educational process.” Projects suggested are: Keeping a pen of poultry ; caring for a select part of an orchard ; raising a specified crop of potatoes; caring for one or two cows, including the feeding, cleaning, milking, and testing the milk. In all cases the farm project includes keeping careful and accurate records of the work. This plan has been adopted widely by individual schools through¬ out the United States. Elementary schools, as well as high schools, have taken it up, and household projects for girls are included as well as farm projects for boys. For boys below the high school the home project consists usually of the cultivation of a plat of corn; potatoes, or some other common crop; and for the girls breadmaking, plain cooking, canning, and sewing, including such work as making aprons or other articles of clothing. The plan seems to be effective. It requires, in the case of the farm project, that the school-teacher visit the home for inspection of the work. The home projects both for boys and girls are made the 204 EDUCATION REPORT, 1912. bases for much reading and study at the school and for classroom discussion. The second scheme attempts to encourage the pupil to help in the regular home work and to do his part well. As a rule where it is in operation no direct attempt is made to make the work educative, except as the pupil receives instructions from his parents. No attempt is made to correlate it with the work inside the school. It makes teachers of the parents, as far as the home duties are con¬ cerned, and puts upon the parents the responsibility of judging the quantity and quality of the work done. This plan is in operation in many sections throughout the United States. Perhaps more has been done in Oregon than in any other one State. State Supt. L. R. Aider- man has issued a small pamphlet explaining the plan as in operation in Oregon. The following is taken from his pamphlet : The plan costs no money, will take but little school time, and can be put into operation in every part of the State at once. It will create a demand for expert instruction later on. It is to give school credit for industrial work done at home. The mother and father are to be recognized as teachers, and the school¬ teacher put into the position of one who cares about the habits and tastes of the whole child. Then the teacher and the parents will have much in common. Every home has the equipment for industrial work and has some one who uses it with more or less skill. The school has made so many demands on the home that the parents have in some cases felt that all the time of the child must be given to the school. But an important thing that the child needs, along with school work, is established habits of home making. AVhat one does depends as much upon habit as upon knowledge. The criticism that is most often made upon industrial work at school is that it is so different from the work done at the home that it does not put the child into that sympathetic relation with the home which, after all, is for him and the home the most important thing in the world. Juvenile institutions find that they must be careful not to institutionalize the child to the extent that he may not be contented in a real home. In my opinion it will be a great thing for the child to want to help his parents do the task that needs to be done, and want to do it in the best possible way. The reason that so many country boys are now the leading men of affairs is because early in life they had the responsi¬ bility of home thrust upon them. I am sure that the motto “ Everybody helps ” is a good one. But one says: “How can it be brought about? How can the school give credit for industrial work done at home?” This may be accomplished by printed slips asking the home to take account of the work that the child does at home under the instruction of the home, and explaining that credit will be given this work on the school record. These slips must be prepared for chil¬ dren according to age, so that the child will not be asked to do too much, for it must be clearly recognized that children must have time for real play. The required tasks must not be too arduous, yet they must be real tasks. They must not be tasks that will put extra work on parents except in the matter of instruction and observation. They may well call for the care of animals, and should include garden work for both boys and girls. Credit in school for home industrial work (with the parents’ consent) should count as much as any one study in school. RURAL EDUCATION". 205 The general plan as worked out by one Oregon school is as follows : A schedule of home tasks and the credits to be allowed was prepared, the credits being expressed in minutes. A few of these tasks are : Building fire in morning, 5 minutes: milking a cow, 5 minutes; cleaning horse, 10 minutes; feeding hens, 5 minutes; making and baking bread, 60 minutes; preparing breakfast for family, 30 min¬ utes ; washing and wiping dishes, 15 minutes ; washing and ironing own clothes that are worn at school, 120 minutes, etc. No pupil is obliged to do any of this work. The parent sends to the teacher each morning a signed list containing the record of the work of the child the previous day. The list is prepared by the child. When the total number of credits for any pupil amounts to a day, the pupil is entitled to a holiday. At this particular school prizes are given to the six pupils obtaining the most credits during the term, and every pupil carrying out the work has 10 per cent added to his standing in the regular school work. In Missouri considerable headway has been made with a similar plan which is used in all the schools of several counties. Its intro¬ duction has come about largely through the adoption of a school report card known as the “ parent-teacher partnership report card,” prepared by Mrs. Mary E. De Garmo, of St. Louis, chairman of the country life department of the National Congress of Mothers. Mrs. DeGarmo’s card contains a printed list of school subjects, reading, arithmetic, etc., with blank spaces for each month in which the teacher indicates the pupil’s standing in each subject. The card is then sent to the parent. It contains also a printed list of home in¬ dustrial subjects, with blanks for each month in which the parent is asked to indicate by the letters E, G, M* and P, denoting excellent, good, medium, and poor, the progress made by the child in the differ¬ ent industrial subjects. The card is then returned to the teacher. The subjects for girls are sweeping, dusting, bread making, cake making, sewing, washing dishes, and ironing. For boys the subjects are feeding stock, milking, cleaning horses, providing fuel, and feed¬ ing poultry. Other subjects may be added by the parent if they are regular work for the boy or girl. It is to be noted that no record of time is asked of the parent, simply a record of progress in the quality of the work done by the child. The teacher in rating the pupil for the term or year regards the home industrial work as one subject in the pupil’s course of study equal, as far as the standing of the pupil is concerned, with any one of the regular school subjects. This particular plan of giving credit for home work has been formulated with two special facts in view: First, many farm boys and girls have their entire time outside of school taken with farm and home duties, and consequently in their school work are apt to fall behind the pupils who have little or no home work ; second, when the 206 EDUCATION REPORT, 1912. home work is taken into account in determining the school standing of the pupil, it becomes dignified in the eyes of the pupil and its performance a pleasure rather than a drudgery. It was devised especially to encourage the boy and girl doing many home tasks ; also to make the home duties educative and their importance appreciated both by parents and by the children. IMPORTANT LEGISLATION AFFECTING RURAL EDUCATION. During the scholastic year 1911-12 the legislatures of 14 States met in regular session, namely: Arizona, Georgia, Kentucky, Loui¬ siana, Maryland, Massachusetts, Mississippi, New Jersey, New Mexico, New York, Rhode Island, South Carolina, Vermont, and Virginia. Important legislation affecting rural schools primarily was passed in only a few of these. The following paragraphs note briefly the most important: Kentucky. — The Kentucky enactments will probably prove far- reaching in their effect. The power of the State superintendent of public instruction has been greatly increased by a provision authoriz¬ ing him to inspect and examine all schools receiving funds directly or indirectly from the State. For this special duty $1,500 is added to his annual salary, and two assistants are provided at $1,000 each, to whom he is authorized to give full power of attorney to act for him; $2,000 was appropriated for extra clerical work in the depart¬ ment office. The State disbursement for common schools was, in 1910-11, approximately $3,105,105, of which amount $2,459,865 was expended on the rural schools. As every public school maintaining a session of at least six months receives a part of this fund, the State department of education is now in a better position than ever before to give effective assistance in the improvement of the rural schools. Two measures looking toward more and better supervision were passed. The county superintendent now must devote his entire time to the duties of his office. The minimum salary has been increased from $400 to $600 and the maximum from $1,500 to $2,500. The county boards of education have been authorized to employ “super¬ visors” for rural schools as assistants to the county superintendents. They will be paid from county funds. In addition to the supervisory duties they also must act as truant officers to enforce the compulsory education laws. No limit is fixed to the number that may be employed in any county. This provision was approved by the governor of the State in June, 1912. Before the opening of the schools for the school year 1912-13 approximately 50 supervisors had been engaged. In December, 1912, there were 70. A new method for the distribution of the school funds has been authorized. The county board may now place in one common school BUBAL EDUCATION. 207 fund the money received from the State and that raised in the county by tax levy, and distribute the common fund in the county in what¬ ever way will best make an efficient system of schools for the county. The State fund will be used for teachers’ salaries, which may range from $35 to $70. The amount paid to any teacher is to be based on and regulated by her qualifications and the number of children actu¬ ally in attendance in proportion to the total number of school age in the district. In determining the amount the county officials must conform to the rules of the State department of education. The law makes provision also for the consolidation of rural schools. The county board is empowered to lay off a territory including sev¬ eral subdistricts and submit to the voters thereof the proposition of consolidation and of a tax sufficient to provide for a consolidated school and the transportation of pupils to it. Districts already consolidated are authorized to pay for pupils’ transportation, and pub¬ lic funds already used for such purposes are validated. Several con¬ solidated schools had been established during the past few years and pupils had been transported at public expense. A question had arisen regarding the legality of the expenditures for these schools and for the transportation of pupils. This has been definitely settled by the action of the legislature. South Carolina. — The South Carolina Legislature passed two acts which will probably do much to improve rural schools. Under the old law county superintendents were elected for two or four years in the fall, taking office the 1st day of January. The activities of the superintendents before election time on other than school affairs and the many changes resulting from the elections occurring in the middle of the school year, both worked to the injury of the school. This situation will be largely remedied by the new law which extends for six months the terms of all superintendents now in office and begins the new terms on July 1 instead of January 1. To encourage the establishment of union and consolidated schools to replace the one-room one-teacher schools, the State has provided special aid. Not less than $15,000 is to be appropriated annually “ to assist rural districts in establishing, maintaining, and improving rural graded schools.” Either $200 or $300 may be received by a school. The first amount is paid on the following conditions: The district must levy a special school tax of at least 4 mills, employ two certificated teachers for a term of not less than six months, maintain, a school with an enrollment of at least 50 pupils and with an average daily attendance of not fewer than 30, provide a comfortable and sanitary building with the minimum equipment prescribed by the State board of education, and use a course of study and a classifica¬ tion approved by the State board. The second amount is paid to larger districts under the same general conditions. Each district, however, must maintain a school seven months in the year, with three 208 EDUCATION REPORT, 1912. certificated teachers, and an enrollment of 75 pupils, 40 of whom must be in daily attendance. The school trustees with the consent of the county superintendent may use the money provided by the State to furnish transportation. The provisions of the South Carolina act are very similar to a Virginia act passed in 1910 which appropriated $25,000 a year for two years. Evidently it has proved a successful and popular enact¬ ment in Virginia, as the legislature has increased the appropriation for 1913 and 1914 to $75,000 for each year. New Jersey has provided for the appointment of county superin¬ tendents by the State commissioner of education with the advice and consent of the State board of education, instead of by the State board as formerly. The appointee must hold the highest teachers’ certifi¬ cate issued in the State and must have been a resident of the county for three years immediately preceding his appointment. All county superintendents are to be paid $3,000 per year in the future and they must devote their entire time to the duties of the office. RECENT PUBLICATIONS ON RURAL EDUCATION. An increased amount of literature on rural schools and rural edu¬ cation has appeared during the past year. A few of these only may be mentioned here. “ Country Life and the Country School ” is the title of a book written by Mabel Carney, director of the country school department of the Illinois State Normal University. Miss Carney discusses the farm problem, the country home, the country church, the grange, farmers’ institutes, the agricultural press, the country road, and the country school. Her book deals especially with the present status of these rural agencies and makes suggestions concerning their possi¬ bilities. Under the country school she treats the school as an agency in the solution of the farm problem, the consolidated school, the work of the teacher and country school supervision. The book contains much information of interest and many valuable suggestions. “ The Country School,” by Homer H. Seerley, president of the Iowa State Teachers’ College, has recently appeared. The scope of the book may be seen from the following topics which are included : The country community, the country school, country life, what educa¬ tion can do, the organization of the school, the organization of a country community, the program, school management, the recita¬ tion, supervision, the place of recreation, taxation and the State, co¬ operation, the proper unit in school organization, standardization, the teacher supply conditions, and prospects. Miss Jessie Field, formerly county superintendent of Page County, Iowa, has published a book entitled “ The Corn Lady,” which gives RURAL EDUCATION. 209 the story of a successful country teacher’s work in a series of letters written to her father. Prof. E. P. Cubberley, of Leland Stanford Junior University, is the author of a little book entitled “ The Improvement of Rural Schools.” This is one of the Riverside educational monographs edited by Henry Suzzallo, of Teachers’ College, Columbia Univer¬ sity. In this book Mr. Cubberley discusses the rural-school problem, the need of better support, of better organization, and of better supervision. “ The F arm Boys and Girls ” is the title of a new book in the rural science series edited by L. H. Bailey. This book was written by W. A. McKee ver, professor of philosophy at the Kansas State Agri¬ cultural College. In it he discusses the various agencies entering into the life of the farm boy and girl. Among these is included a chapter on the rural school, what schooling the country boy should have and what schooling the country girl should have. The entire book may be said, however, to be a book on rural education as the various agencies discussed are all viewed from the standpoint of their in¬ fluence on the development of the mind and the heart and the body of the boy and girl. Mr. C. Walter Fiske, in his book which has recently appeared, en¬ titled “The Challenge of the Country,” discusses education for country life among other topics relating to the rural problem. The' 1912 Yearbook of the National Society for the Study of Edu¬ cation is devoted to the question of school supervision, Part I to urban supervision, and Part II to rural supervision. The second part contains the following papers: The Status of the Supervision of Rural Schools in the United States. A. C. Monahan, specialist in rural education, United States Bureau of Education, Washington, D. C. District Supervision (West Virginia and Oregon as examples). L. J. Hani- fan, State supervisor of rural schools, Charleston, W. Va. Rural Supervision in New England Townships and Union Districts. J. E. Warren, special agent of the State board of education, Boston, Mass. Work of the State Supervisors of Rural Schools in the South. Wallace Lund, Southern Education Board. Washington, D. C. The Relation of the County Superintendent to the School Directors and to the State Department of Education. U. J. Hoffman, State supervisor of country and village schools, Springfield, Ill. The Development of a County System of Expert Supervision, including Suburban, Village, and Rural Schools. Albert S. Cook, superintendent of the schools of Baltimore County, Towson, Md. Methods of Supervision in Berks County, Pennsylvania. E. M. Rapp, county superintendent, Reading. Pa. Supervision of Rural Schools for Negroes. Jackson Davis, State supervisor of rural elementary schools, Richmond. Va. Bibliography on Rural-School Supervision. J. D. Wolcott, acting librarian, United States Bureau of Education, Washington, D. C. 210 EDUCATION REPORT, 1912. Included in the literature on rural education issued by State de¬ partments of education and by educational institutions during the past year have been a number of valuable bulletins on consolidation or centralization of rural schools and transportation of pupils at public expense. Some of the most important of these bulletins that have come to the bureau are as follows: The state department of North Carolina has issued a publication prepared by L. C. Brogden, State supervisor of rural schools, which discusses in a very complete way the efficiency and economy of the one-teacher system of rural schools and of the consolidated system. The bulletin contains the results of a study made in 21 counties in North Carolina, including the number of white rural schools with one teacher, the enrollment, length of the annual session, cost per pupil, the length of the recitation periods, the number of recitations per day, and the amount of time during the year which the county superintendent spent in the school. It contains also the results of a study of consolidation in the country as a whole and of several typical consolidated schools in Virginia and elsewhere. A bulletin prepared by F. B. Frazier, State supervisor of rural schools of Tennessee, gives the results of a study made in Tennessee by Mr. Frazier similar to that made in North Carolina by Mr. Brog¬ den. This bulletin also describes several consolidated schools in various parts of the country. Teachers College, Columbia University, has issued during the year a valuable publication giving the results of a study into two types of rural schools by Ernest Burnham, director of the rural school department of the State normal school at Kalamazoo, Mich. Mr. Burnham has made a study of the economic and social conditions of a township with the district school system and a township vTith a consolidated system. Other publications on rural education are: Alabama. State board of health. Department of sanitation. Rural sanitation adapted to schools, churches, homes, etc. [Montgomery, 1912?] 32 p. 8°. [Bishop, E. C., and others .] Teaching agriculture in rural and graded schools. A correlation scheme with suggestive lessons on the topic “ corn.” Ames, Iowa, 1912. 47 p. 8°. (Iowa State College of Agriculture and the Mechanic Arts. Dept, of agricultural extension. School circular No. 1.) [Cary, C. P.] List of books for township libraries in the State of Wisconsin, for the years 1910 and 1911. ]\Iadison, Wis., Democrat Printing Co., State printer, 1910. 366 p. 8°. Annotated. Cotton, F. A., and others. Consolidation of school districts. Report of a sub¬ committee of the Committee of Fifteen appointed by the State superintendent of schools to investigate conditions in the rural schools of Wisconsin. Madi¬ son, Wis., Democrat Printing Co., State printer, 1912. 93 p., illus., plans. 8°. (Bulletin No. 17.) RURAL EDUCATION. 211 Illinois. Department of public instruction. The one-room country schools and village schools. Springfield, Ill., Illinois State Journal Co., State printers, 1912. 105 p., illus., plans. 8°. (Circular No. 65.) Iowa. Better Iowa schools commission. Report to the Fifty-eighth Annual Session of the Iowa State Teachers’ Association, [n. p.] 1912. 66 p. 8°. Layhue, J. M. Consolidation of rural schools and transportation of pupils. Olympia, Wash., E. L. Boardman, public printer, 1911. 120 p., illus., plans. 8°. (Washington (State) Dept, of education. Bulletin No. 7, Aug. 1, 1911.) Massachusetts. Board of education. Agricultural project study . . . Boston, Agricultural education service, 1912. 38 p. 8°. (Bulletin No. 4. Whole No. 8.) - - Agricultural project study bibliography . . . Boston, 1912. 48 p. 8°. (Bulletin No. 6. Whole No. 10.) - - Project study outlines . . . Boston, 1912. 30 p. 8°. (Bulletin No. 5. Whole No. 9.) Mississippi. State department of education. School Improvement Association. [Jackson?] 1912. 63 p. 8°. Contains plans for the organization of improvement associations. Gives suggestions for activities of an association when formed. North Dakota. Rural school commission. Report to the North Dakota Edu¬ cation Association, at the meeting in Grand Forks, October, 1912. Embracing recommendations for the permanent uplift of the rural schools of the State.. Valley City, N. Dak., Times-Record Printing Co. L1912.] 30 p. 8°. N. C. Macdonald, chairman. Oklahoma. State Board of Education. Rural school consolidation . . . 1911. [n. p. 1911.] 29 p., illus., plans. 8°. Schmidt, C. C. The consolidation of rural schools in North Dakota. Grand Forks, N. Dak., University of North Dakota. 1912. 85 p. 16°. (University of North Dakota. Departmental bulletins. Education No. 3.) References on consolidation of schools, p. 84—85. Tate, W. K. Suggested solutions for some rural school problems in South Caro¬ lina. Columbia, S. C., 1912. 43 p. 8°. (University of South Carolina. Bulletin No. 28. Part VI.) Reprinted from the 43d annual report of the State superintendent of education. Texas. State department of education. Consolidation of rural schools, school buildings and plans, and local taxation. Austin, Tex., Austin Printing Co., 1912. 67 p., illus., plans. 8°. (Bulletin No. 15.) Washington. Department of education. Consolidation of rural schools and transportation of pupils. Olympia, Wash., E. L. Boardman, public printer, 1911. 120 p., illus. 8°. (Bulletin No. 7.) Wisconsin. Department of education. Preliminary report of the Committee of Fifteen appointed by the State superintendent of public instruction to investigate educational needs and conditions in Wisconsin. [Madison? Wis., 1912 ?] 30 p. 8°. Issued by C. P. Cary, State superintendent. - Training school for public service. Preliminary report on conditions and needs of rural schools in Wisconsin. Results of field study reported to the Wisconsin State board of public affairs, [n. p.] 1912. 92 p. 8°. The Training School for public service is maintained by the New York bureau of municipal research. The findings are based upon a general examination of condi¬ tions in 27 counties and a detailed investigation of 131 schools in 13 counties. 212 EDUCATION REPORT, 1912. The following bulletins of the Bureau of Education pertain in whole or in part to rural education : No, 1, 1912. Course of study for rural teachers in nature study, elementary agriculture, sanitary science, and applied chemistry. No. 6, 1912. Agricultural education in secondary schools. No. 9, 1912. Country schools for city boys. No. 10, 1912. Bibliography of education in agriculture and home economics. No. 18, 1912. Teaching language through agriculture and domestic science. No. 20, 1912. The readjustment of a rural high school to the needs of the community. No. 21. 1912. Urban and rural common-school statistics. No. 28, 1912. Cultivating school grounds in Wake County, N. C. PROGRESS IX SEVERAL STATES. The following notes on the progress in various States were pre¬ pared from reports made by some of the special collaborators of the bureau. Alabama. — A State supervisor of rural schools was appointed early in 1911. Two county rural supervisors, one in Marshall and one in Calhoun County, began work in September, 1911. They are expected to devote their entire time to supervision and are under the direction of the county superintendents. Their duties and those of similar supervisors in other Southern States who are beginning work this year are described more fully on page 192. Rural industrial super¬ visors for negro schools, paid from the Jeanes fund, are now em¬ ployed in 17 counties. Further information regarding their work is given on page 193. The new county-institute law, passed by the legislature in 1910, designed to improve the teachers in service, has gone into effect. Attendance on the part of every teacher in the State is compulsory. They must be present at an institute lasting one week or their cer¬ tificates may be revoked. The institutes were held during the sum¬ mer months, and it is the intention to continue to hold them at that time. Each county institute was in charge of the county superin¬ tendent. Two instructors, one of whom was a primary teacher, were assigned to each by the State department of education. The institute conductors were assembled in June at the capital of the State by the department of education and instructed regarding their duties. In some instances two and three counties united in holding an in¬ stitute. The teachers paid from 50 cents to $1 in fees. The money was used to pay local expenses and in part for the instructors. The balance required for the instructors was paid by the State department. Another law passed by the 1910 legislature, providing State aid for school libraries, is now in operation. Under those provisions 451 school libraries have already been established. The law pro- RURAL EDUCATION. 213 vides that the school district, the county, and the State shall each contribute $10. The district and the county may contribute more, and in several instances have done so. The money raised is ex¬ pended for books, which must be taken from a list prepared by the State department of education. Only “ rural towns and village schools ” may participate in this State fund, and it is not available “ to any school located in a town or city of more than 1,000 popula¬ tion.” The books are not for the use of the pupils only, but are also for the use of the entire community. Colorado. — Interest in the rural-school problem is evidenced by the establishment of a special course for rural teachers in the State Teachers’ College at Greeley and a department of rural schools in the State Agricultural College at Fort Collins. Both of these in¬ stitutions are now attempting to give a training fitting primarily for the school in the open country. A marked activity in consoli¬ dating1 rural schools has been shown and several new consolidated schools have been built. C onnecticut. — About 900 schools, located in 91 townships, are under the direct supervision of the State board of education. Ap¬ proximately 500 of these are one-room schools. During the past year model one-room schools have been established in many town¬ ships. It is the intention of the State department to have one in every township. These model schools are to afford observation of good procedure to the other teachers, particularly to the untrained and the beginning teachers. In all townships under the State super¬ vision teachers are required to visit schools designated by the local supervisors. Difficulty has been experienced in finding schools of observation which were wholly satisfactory. The State department decided, therefore, to select certain schools and make them as nearly ideal as possible and send the teachers to visit them. The buildings in which the model schools are held are all one-teacher buildings. They are typical of the one-teacher country school, but are sanitary, properly heated, ventilated, and lighted, and are equipped with such facilities for teaching as are possible in every country school. A good teacher has been placed in charge of each school. The visiting teacher has an opportunity, therefore, to see a properly built and well-arranged school building and good equipment as well as good teaching. Georgia— The rural schools have been making a steady gain dur¬ ing the year. The impetus given them by the boys’ and girls’ agri¬ cultural club work is particularly noticeable. Rural industrial super¬ visors for the schools for white children have been put in 10 or 12 counties. This has been made possible through the generosity of Mr. X. O. Nelson, of New Orleans and St. Louis. County supervisors 214 EDUCATION REPORT, 1912. (see p. 193) have been engaged in 8 counties. The school fair move¬ ment has spread rapidly throughout the State, and exhibits have been shown consisting largely of the products of the corn, garden, canning, and sewing clubs. Three elementary school inspectors were created by the legislature two years ago. These inspectors work under the guid¬ ance and direction of the State school superintendent. Each has charge of a particular section of the State, and gives stimulation and instruction to school officials, to teachers in their institutes, and to the people in public addresses. The results of their work are now begin¬ ning to appear. Twenty-nine counties of the State have adopted county local-tax school systems, and many school districts within the counties have voted an additional tax upon themselves in support of the schools. A new normal school at Valdosta, which will devote itself almost wholly to preparing teachers for rural schools, is under construction, and will open for students about the 1st of January, 1913. Mr. R. H. Powell, formerly State supervisor of rural schools, has been elected president. A department of rural economics and sociology has been established by the board of trustees of the State Normal School at Athens, and Mr. E. C. Branson, formerly president of the institution, has been made head of the department. The department will continue the work begun by Mr. Branson several years ago in his classes in rural sociology and in “ The Georgia Club,” organized for the study of rural sociology. The courses offered by the department will be much more complete than it was possible to offer before. Indiana. — An industrial commission appointed two years ago by the governor to investigate industrial conditions and needs is ex¬ tending its study to cover rural life and education. The principal progress of the year has been in improved buildings, equipment, and sanitary arrangements and in the methods of supervision. Several counties now employ special supervisors for their rural schools, wffiose business it is to look after the specific work in the course of study and to advise and direct the teachers. The department of agriculture of Purdue University has begun a State-wide campaign in the organization of corn clubs for boys, tomato-raising and can¬ ning clubs for the girls, and potato clubs for both boys and girls. Eight counties are already organized. It is expected that before the close of the year the work will be inaugurated in every county. Kentucky. — By an act of the legislature passed in June, 1912, rural supervisors have been appointed in many counties. About 70 are already engaged. Further information relative to these supervisors and their work and the law which authorized their appointment is given on page 206. The State normal schools are establishing courses of study to fit supervisors for these positions. RURAL EDUCATION. 215 The rural school supervisor of the State has prepared and pub¬ lished for use in the schools a course of study which is complete and practical. It will do much toward standardizing the rural work. The high-school supervisor has prepared a manual and course of study for use of high schools. This contains outlines for work, equip¬ ment, and laboratory teaching, and much other information of value. It will probably do for high schools what the other course of study will do for elementary schools. The School Improvement League of the State has established county school improvement leagues in approximately one-half of the counties. The work of the various leagues is beginning to show in increased cleanliness, better sanitation, and improved ornamenta¬ tion. The growth of the boys’ corn clubs and girls’ domestic-science instruction has been phenomenal. School fairs were held the past fall all over the State. Products raised by the boys and specimens of cooking, preserving, baking, and sewing done by the girls were on exhibition. The school fairs were made educational rallies and were attended by parents and other adults in large numbers. A part of the program at each fair includes addresses to the people upon general questions relating to improved educational facilities. Prof. Fred Mutchler, of the State Normal School at Bowling Green, was appointed State agent in charge of the boys’ and girls’ agricultural work. The State department of education has published a bulletin upon school buildings, devoting much attention to the rural school. It is hoped through this to disseminate information which will help to house the country schools in buildings properly suited to school purposes. Model rural schools, called “ demonstration schools,” have been established by the State supervisor of rural schools. Informa¬ tion concerning them is given on page 191. A movement for the eradication of illiteracy in the State was inaugurated by Mrs. Cora Wilson Stewart, county superintendent of How an County, two years ago. Night schools for adults were held in almost every rural school in the county. Eagerness and enthusiasm were manifested by persons of all ages and classes. They became known as “ moonlight schools,” as sessions were held on the moonlight nights of the autumn months in order that the people might find their way over the rugged roads to the schoolhouses. The regular teachers contributed their services and taught the evening classes. They entered into the spirit of the enterprise very heartily and not only gave volunteer service in teaching, but campaigned their districts prior to the opening of the schools to explain the purposes of the movement and to invite attendance. In 45 schools there were no classes smaller than 10, and some were as large as 50. 77236°— ED 1912— yol 1 - 16 216 EDUCATION REPORT, 1912. Not only young men and women, but fathers and mothers and grandfathers and grandmothers were in attendance. Current events were correlated with reading, the reading test being a little news¬ paper prepared by the county superintendent especially for begin¬ ners. This saved the adults the humiliation of using a primer and gave them something of interest for the reading lesson. Classes in all the elementary subjects were established, reading, writing, com¬ position, arithmetic, history, and geography proving most popular. Bible study was one of the most attractive subjects, especially to the old men and women who had passed their fifties and even sixties. It is worthy of note that these people, upon learning to read, turned first to the Bible to practice their new-found art. Some of the adults, after but two weeks’ practice, learned to write a legible letter. The result of the session of the first year proved far greater than had been anticipated. The schools were again opened in the fall of 1912, and 1,600 pupils, mostly adults, were in attendance. The movement has spread to several other counties. A second State supervisor of rural schools was appointed during the year, who is to devote his attention to the schools for negroes. The establishment of this position and the work of the supervisor have resulted in increased activity among the negro schools. The colored women’s clubs of the State have taken up the subject of rural education and have assisted in establishing 14 “ parents’ leagues.” Many new buildings have been constructed and demonstration schools have been established in every county in the State where there*is a sufficient colored population to justify their establishment. Maine. — A campaign for the improvement of rural schools has been inaugurated by Hon. Payson Smith, State superintendent of public schools. He is urging the school superintendents throughout the State to place before the citizens of their own towns a definite state- ’ ment of the needs of the schools and a plan for meeting them. Granges and other organizations interested in rural life have been urged to give special emphasis during the year to a discussion of rural education. The State superintendent asks that public sentiment be aroused and a sense of public responsibility created especially on the following points : (a) Better qualified and better paid teaching force. (b) Better buildings, especially in regard to heating, ventilation, and sanitary surroundings. ( HCOHHCLMHHCl H CO ^ rH COHHH 1911 © lOiOHOMOMMMONiOOW^OM^NINONWMHTtlMOiO T-lMffiCOlOON'fOl-^OOlOOaiOlOONOOTtlNC'lOOCOMCOOmW '*i-Hl®©i-HC®Htl.*c000C0C0'3<'-H©700e®®l©Of^iO!'-OiOT of ccT o' t-T HlON© 0 i-H CO H i-H i— 1 Number. 1912 (N ^05HOONOOCO‘005005HHCOOiOCDNNOCOOOOSCONNiOH 00 (NHHHHHHCKNOO^COCOOCONOHXNWCOOCCOOOO^C-J rH (M H H iH 1911 - ■•^©H^OOCOH^CONt^Oaii— 1 O i— l.i®» • ^ 05 (M Is- • • 0 • • rH 05 *CO • • • *1C ^ ^ ' O CO 00 rH Num¬ ber. 09 12 • rH • • • rH rH i-H • CO • • • • • (M • • c5‘S‘2‘ 71 h-S a © © I a^>so2 £+r co o m C$ C) § » 3 © ® d ~e< a .2 to ■s*f • Jj 1? S3 a 8 iial Table 2. — Enrollment in seminaries , colleges, and academics , and in 'parochial schools, in 1911 and 1912 — Continued. Children in Cath¬ olic institutions. 1912 EDI o ei CJCATION REPORT, 1912. ^(NCDOO»OOH^cOCO(NCOHCOCOCONa3NQCOO)HCON(NGOO^Tll cotjTio iCcm'o c^rn'oo oT^tCoo»o oTr-TccTco'^io'^'Tjr^oro o cTt>T rH i— 1 CO rH HH CO CM (N 00 ^ O 1911 os 15,570 4,727 13,941 510 6,707 2,129 29,575 2,921 12,516 7,691 18,773 11,006 7,448 37,977 4,993 2, 176 1,445 5,365 5,800 3,928 5,108 4,000 21,497 6, 150 8,018 21,187 78,000 39, 607 57,400 Orphan asylums. Inmates. 1912 18 CO O 05 COON CO CO CO CM CM o co CM t^t^OrHCMt^TFlO OOOOICMOOHH^ rH COHHTf 42 65 45 128 402 140 960 40 212 1,456 7,400 1,550 l 1,110 1911 CO OM O CO Q CO CM ^ to 00 o -JD iQ^OOlOCOrHlOtO OOOOHCOHO^ rH COHrH^ 35 85 45 104 345 132 1,295 . 214 1,489 7,400 1,221 1,195 Num¬ ber. 1912 «D CO CM CO - * HHH,OHH,# : HHHHcOCMNHCMOOtOtOOi 1911 if* CO CM CO - - HHHHCOCMNHCJOH»OCM Parishes with parochial schools. Pupils. ■ 1912 *¥ HiOCOOO^NOiOO^NNOOHCOOCOOINMOHTti^OOOOlNOON OOOOHCOQOOCOOOOOOOOONWiOOOOOOOOCONOOiO^iO HCOOHO^XCOOCON^COCONCXfOHO^cOOONOOOiOCOCDNCO coco^ co'cmVT ofoTtCoo'cT rC^^r4VH\o\*Tco ^cm^ccTco'co'oo co'co' rH T-t CM HH CO rH rH CO 1911 09 lONOOiOOO OlONiONNO NCO^HOiOO t-Tco'cm' ko'r-Tlo' H H CM OHCOWOONONCOOCO^^OO^HOO^HOHN QCMNNC0C0O05CMONNCDOC00500HH100010 ^05i005CMC0CMNH(N0J0)OC0N00^05OCMNH c^oTt>Ti>rcr^T^Ttrr-rrH''«irco'co''^'cM*'to''^'to'oriCcM'co' rH rH CO rH rH CO CO tO Number. 1912 01 HCOOOH’HNCOCO^OOMCONOiCOHOOOO»00 N(NCO ^HOO (NMOONfNjONH CO CO ^ CO rH CM ^ uO ^ 00 Ol CM 1911 3 CO^HH^COiO CO CM CO ^HOO ^HCOCDNO»OCMS05HNiJCM050Q«OOONCO CMOOtOONCM^jCMH CO CO TP CO t-H CM tF ^ tO 00 rH rH Colleges and academies. For girls. 1912 o 1 U5 C9 I-H t-. 91 91 H CO t— CO t— 1 91 •*}< 05 >«5U5HOilflt>.CONNlOMiOOO 1911 * | «D CO i-l O CO 91 CO O CO rH CM ^ 05 ! lO co rH 05 00 CM CM CM CO JO 00 © For boys. 1912 oo | - •CM • CO rH • T*i icOrHrHTjiCMCOrHOOCMtOCMCO^O 1911 - ! - - •CM • CO rH ■ to • CO rH rH ^ CM CO r-H 00 CM to CM CO ^ O Seminaries. 1912 Stu¬ dents. o i i i i Ms i • • 00 CM © • O CO T*H ’oHN • • rH CM CO • CO rH rH • CO CO CO Num¬ ber. i-O : : : : : : • • H CM H -HHH • rH CM CO 05 Stu¬ dents. 961 ! ! ! 05 oo • o o rH • cm o co • . ■ rH CM • CO CO CO •t^t'-CO [Num¬ ber. as : : : : : : • CM rH • H H H • rH CM CO Dioceses included in province. 91 Louisville . Nashville . Toledo . Chevenne _ Davenport . ..1 Des Moines _ *Dubuque . Lincoln . Omaha . Sioux City . Green Bay . . . La Crosse . Marquette . *Milwaukee . Superior . Corpus Christi .... Dallas . Galveston . Little Rock . Mobile . Natchez . *New Orleans . Oklahoma . San Antonio . Albany . Brooklyn . Buffalo . Newark . Ecclesiastical provinces. - Cincinnati . Dubuque . (Includes Iowa, Nebraska, Wyoming.) Milwaukee . (Includes W i s c o n s in, northern Michigan.) (Includes Louisiana, Ala¬ bama, M i s s i s s i p pi, Texas, Arkansas, Okla¬ homa, western Florida.) New York . (Includes New York State, New Jersey.) ROMAN CATHOLIC SCHOOLS, 241 OiO^?OHOCOH05iOOCO^NOiQNiOO)NCOOOOOCONiOOOi^^OiO(Nai ID ^ - - - - )QHOOOCOM»(MNIOHOO)HCOCOIOOCOCOCOC(0 " - !^WOHOO^ONONOOiO>ONNO(N - " ^OHOOtflONOI 1 CD iO ^ CO cTep' coVo o co o 10 CM to tOOON - . _ iO(Nr 00 O t- H ' TjTt>Tco'«M*' IOOWHCOCO(M(NO^(NNOCOCOIOCONC00010CONOOCOOOC i t*h O CD O CO ICOOIO^ CM I 00 O N O CO ^ CD 00 OOHD(NOOOO^iOOcOiO(Ni uO«D(NiON I (M CO CD Hdi |>. OOOiMiON CD H CD CD CD H to ID CM O CO CD OOCO^ON CO CM 00 CM OO^CKOONIOI COlOHOhlQHhi lOOGOOt ^NCOO' (NH ID ^ O CO O CO CM 00 CM O O O O »D iD iD H CD 00 O H Tt< CM H CM N H 00 CM CO »D CM 00 CM CO *D CM I CM CM rH CM -HH I 00 CMHID^' OiDiOh-DOOiO CM CO 05 05 IOCMHI lOiDOC OCMHOHCJOOiiDCJCMiOO^HOOiDOh ~ "*uDHN>OhcDhcDC50CM^QOCDOCD . - - - - iDO^ iDiDiD OOHDiOCDNCOCDCDWOWH HH ^CM^COC^'oo' rH CD-1 V ®,-ea § o : -p 'i m "3 § m ^0^2 §,h'5(2 * §•£ o U g | S 13511 §1 S135 is o< ^ i Si I * * * * * W),£j _i_; ■ • _, . - . ■ |p,.“ *H*&4 |1 d-s o *> OX) O 8-S OH a; r ?3 H a a .3 NOWJ^OtO OOONN'fWO O © N H H CD l> • CD l> co co co W jrH °» 3 600 2, 127 1,422 1,424 1,283 500 •sdd'eq; '•B O o © of 1,190 i . :8 : • 00 • ‘notssij^ 00 CN :8 1,364 O o CO •Sc *-< a3 H»OHOjO(M^OiO(N 0^0 • © 05 HCOOO»OOhO)00 CO CO CO ^ CM ^ lO CM tH t*H HH Tt • ^ pH CM rH CM CO CO rH CM Natives. •patLw.0 jaapurag 05 OCJ OQtO CO CO to ^ 05 ID O CO LQ 05 CM uo iO 05 CM CO CO 05 IQ H IQ O lO l>- 1,036 213 rfiDCOCD»OH ^»0 05iDC0D ^ CD 05 CO •saAipm itJ^ox ^(ONHiOO 13 6 *D 05 t>- !>• CM !>• H H CM Apprentices. •saorjuaiddu i^ox ©eo^or-t ■'T eo eo >o v* eo>-ieoco CO LO ca (M T-( CO (N Herders and owners. uaapmag § oo • CM *D 44 37 53 12 79 CM j • CM O CD 00 rH CD H 00 •jaqranj^ *0 CO j CO CO CO CM CO tH CM h V'CH-HCOtH Herders. ueapniag CD 00 iO HHOJ iO CO rH 00 rH CD rH CM CD II 388 § CO ^ ^ 98 189 96 LfZ CO CD 05 CM 00 !>• 05 ID tT CD COHrJHNCM •jaqranjvi *0x 844 450 1,226 972 275 663 1,578 690 531 312 708 850 524 667 803 1,247 900 1,069 521 434 303 506 508 656 964 467 •paqsqqi^sg; 00DHH(NN(NHHON»O hnocooon ct. OOOl— Ir-HOOr— Ir-HrHOO rH O O C5 O O C 00 05 05 05 05 05 05 05 05 05 05 05 05 05 05 00 05 05 O^ 1911 1912 1906 1907 1912 1910 1905 Stations and herds. Barrow No. 1 . Barrow No 9. Bethel No. 1 . Bethel No. 2 (Kilahalin) Bethel No. 3 (Kivigluk) . Bethel No. 4 (Nukluk).. Bethel No. 5 (Taulksak) i ’S I e 1! II j l i & 1 e IE i 5 u c Council . Peering No. 1 . Peering No. 2 (Good Hope River) . Effa.vik _ il is 1C Golovin No. 1 . Oolnvin "Mn. 2 4 Golsovia . Goodnews Bay (Quin- i il i = Homier Bav _ Icy Cape . Teloo No. 1 _ (M i C iSz 1 c |C d bi TplotaliV _ !l fS 1910 EDUCATION IN ALASKA. toe oQioo CS to o o o ^ oo to oi co NOON»OiCO^r OOOOCONOONC CO lOlMHNOOr OWOOOOIOIOCQ OHCOOO*0(M^(M ^HNCO^O^HOCO > O • • CO O O O^OOOIOIO • ■ Tt< O^COCOCOt^CSJCSlGO lOOJt^(N ^HOiO H to CO 05 t^NINOONC COOCOOOIOCO^^C lO I> CO OO CO »0 (N ( »0*OCOH^(MtOCOI>l>0 (N^t-CO^tOr t0^t0t0C0-^(M^T to CO 'CO ^ CO COHlQCOOi> Tl< 00 (N to to ^ to ^ to lO^N^oOHCOHto 00 • O • CO NMOO CO to CO CO (O to 05 Oi cococooo^^ogxN to CO ^ COCOON rH NNOHt CO CO TP CO l (N H ^ to CO CO to tO^CO (N OO 00 05 (N CO CO O CO rH ^COt^COCOHCO^NCO CO(N^O^CO(NOC < CO CO 11,473 1,293 425 21 182 217 12 Total. 25 332 4 82 2 73 563 283 296 4 11 100 55 12, 809 1,293 441 21 388 217 12 Total of all classes. 677 418 4 209 2 17 140 775 1,064 476 4 298 100 123 13, 651 1,387 1,198 21 615 498 113 15,217 17,011 21,790 Eligi¬ ble chil¬ dren not in school. 4,497 655 115 94 21 130 21 661 811 214 110 4,699 35 675 2,668 1,127 880 160 651 438 270 18, 962 Total.... Private schools Not reported. 2 Private schools. 428 EDUCATION REPOET, 1912. Recapitulation. Government schools : Nonreservation boarding _ 8, 180 Reservation boarding _ 9’ 2 18 Five Civilized Tribes boarding _ • _ T 405 Day - 6, 384 Mission schools : Contract boarding _ 1, 533 N oneontract — Boarding - 2, 6S3 Day - 405 - - 3, 088 Private schools : Contract boarding _ 134 Noncontract boarding _ 24 Public schools : Contract - 1, 794 Noncontract _ 15, 217 25, 187 4, 621 158 17, 011 Total, all classes _ _ 46, 977 Number of eligible children not in school _ 18, 962 EDUCATION IN THE PHILIPPINE ISLANDS, 1910-1912. Based upon annual reports of Frank E. White director of education for the Philippine Islands. The report of the director of education for the year 1910-11 shows that the annual enrollment reached 610,493, as against 587,317 for the preceding year. The highest monthly enrollment was 484,689, as against 451,938 the previous year. The average daily attendance for the highest month was 395,537, an increase of 31,489 over that of the same month of the preceding year. The total number of sc-nools in operation was 4,404, and American and Filipino teachers on duty at the close of the year numbered 9,086, with a total estimated school population for the islands of 1,215,000. The director recommends a limitation of the enrollment and a substantial increase in the percentage of daily attendance. An example is given of one Province with a waiting list of 4,000 pupils desiring to be enrolled, but this Province reported an actual daily attendance of 80 per cent, which was 5 per cent higher than the general average for the islands. The report of the director for 1911-12 shows that in all lines of school activities the results during the year were very encouraging. A determined effort has been made to improve the quality of Eng¬ lish taught in all the schools, whether of primary, intermediate, or secondary grade, and progress in this respect has been marked. In- , dustrial instruction has been organized and developed to a greater extent, perhaps, than in any previous year. A large number of permanent school buildings have been completed. The policy of acquiring adequate school sites has found general acceptance and much attention has been given to the improvement of temporary EDUCATION IN THE PHILIPPINE ISLANDS. 429 buildings. Through its publications, through personal contact, and particularly through the vacation assembly at Baguio, the Philip¬ pine Bureau of Education has come into closer sympathy with the vast majority of its teachers than ever before. A decided improve¬ ment is to be reported in the personnel of the teaching force, both American and Filipino. A great deal of attention has been given to the improvement of office methods, and as a result the administrative work of the Bureau of Education is now handled with greatly in¬ creased efficiency. There has been some decrease in the total number of pupils en¬ rolled in the public schools, the annual enrollment for the school year 1911-12 being 529, G65, as against 610,493 for the school year 1910-11. The average daily attendance for the year 1911-12, how¬ ever, was 329,073, as against 355,722 for the previous year. The per¬ centage of attendance was 83 per cent, as against 80 per cent for the previous year. It will be seen, therefore, that although the total enrollment wTas reduced by about 81,000, the average daily attend¬ ance suffered a decrease of approximately only 26,000. This in¬ crease of 3 per cent in the average daily attendance indicates that more really effective work was done during the past year. The decrease in enrollment and attendance was anticipated, and is due to a number of causes. In many towns the balances in the municipal treasuries have been exhausted and there are no funds to pay for suitable permanent buildings. Another cause that has operated to decrease the attendance is the increased salaries paid Filipino teachers. This additional expense could be 'met only by reducing the number of teachers. There is nothing discouraging in the decrease, therefore; the loss is more apparent than real. Until additional funds are placed at the disposition of the bureau, there can be no further expansion of educational work. The hope of con¬ tinued improvement lies in securing the greatest possible regularity of attendance. AMERICAN TEACHERS. Approval was secured for the temporary detail of an agent to be on duty in the United States as representative of the director in the selection of new teachers. Each of the 118 newT teachers who arrived during the months of April, May, and June of this year had been interviewed by this representative^ and the selections were made only after careful con¬ sideration of the merits of all certified applicants. The following table, indicating the academic preparation and experience of these appointees, is of interest. 430 EDUCATION REPORT, 1912. Educational attainments and teaching experience of the original appointees to the teaching service of the Philippine Bureau of Education, 19J1-12. Number of men _ 1 _ 105 Number of women _ 13 118 Average age, 24 years, 8 months. Number having done graduate work and possessing degree of A. M _ 7 Number having done graduate work, but who do not possess graduate degrees - 3 - 10 Number of graduates, degrees A. B., B. S., etc _ 56 Number with credit of three years’ college work _ 5 Number with credit of two years’ college work _ 7 Number with credit of one year’s college work _ 10 - 78 Number of normal-school graduates _ _ 23 Number who were normal-school students, not graduating _ 8 - 31 Number with special training, domestic science, technical, etc _ 14 Higli-school graduates (only) _ 1 - 15 Total _ 134 Counted twice _ 16 Net total - 1 _ 11.8 TEACHING EXPERIENCE. As principal and superintendent-- 2 As principal _ 8 Teacher and principal _ 8 High-school teacher _ 13 Rural and high-school teacher _ 9 Rural and village teacher _ 14 Village teacher _ 9 Rural teacher _ 24 College assistant _ 5 Rural and college.-- _ 1 High school and college _ 2 Normal and city teacher _ 1 Tutoring _ 3 No experience _ 19 Total _ 118 The plan of bringing new teachers from the United States to Baguio for a course of instruction intended to prepare them for immediate and better service in their various assignments is a new departure. The venture was made this year with a class of 16 teachers who reached the islands about the opening of the assembly season. The climate of Baguio, the summer capital, is delightful, and not only do new teachers receive first impressions that are very agreeable in the associations formed during this summer school, but the general health of the new teachers is better because of this gradual climatic change from the Temperate Zone to the Tropical. Experience of— 10 years _ 4 7 years _ 2 6 years _ 9 5 years _ 13 4 years _ 14 3 years _ 14 2 years— _ 19 1 year _ 21 Tutoring _ 3 No experience _ 19 Total _ 118 EDUCATION IN THE PHILIPPINE ISLANDS. 431 Those new teachers who arrived later in the vacation period were given a brief course of lectures in Manila prior to assignment, with a view to acquainting them in some measure with Philippine conditions. There are 40 men now serving as division superintendents, 27 of. whom have been with the department since 1901. The director mentions the death of Mr. T. W. Thompson, division superintendent of the Province of Pampanga, and gives a brief ac¬ count of his long and faithful service in the bureau. FILIPINO TEACHERS. The total number of Filipino teachers on duty at the close of the school year 1911-12 was 7,699, of whom 1,066 received salary from insular funds, 6,488 from municipal funds, and 145 were apprentices without salary. With few exceptions all primary instruction is now handled by Filipino teachers, and a large proportion of the inter¬ mediate classes have also been turned over to them. Increasing num¬ bers are engaged in secondary instruction, and 161 have been assigned to positions as supervising and assistant supervising teachers. From the first it has been the policy of the Philippine Bureau of Educa¬ tion to place upon the Filipino teachers as great responsibilities as they are capable of assuming. The constant increase in the number . assigned to the more important work is evidence that this policy has not been without favorable results. Seme mention has already been made of the increase in the salaries of Filipino teachers, and it will be noted that a part of this increase has been at the expense of attendance. Very little more can be done to relieve this situation until more money is placed at the disposition of the Philippine Bureau of Education ; otherwise it would be neces¬ sary either to curtail school activities further or to reduce again the number of teachers. Neither of these alternatives the Philippine Bureau of Education can properly consider. It is fortunate for the educational work of the islands that young men and women are willing to devote themselves to the profession of teaching at lower rates of compensation than they would receive in private business or in other bureaus of the Government. This does not, however, lessen in any degree the duty of legislators to provide more generously for teachers who are giving their services freely and unselfishly to the cause of education in their native land. The total number of Filipino teachers shows a decrease of 704 over the report for the preceding year, but an increase of 12 in the num¬ ber of teachers receiving salary from insular funds. The decrease was due to the dropping of apprentice teachers and the closing of some barrio schools. Kaising the standards has also had a tendency 432 EDUCATION REPOET, 1912. to decrease tlie number, but lias increased the efficiency very ma¬ terially. One hundred and forty-eight Filipinos were employed as super¬ visors and assistant supervisors during the school year 1910-11. The salaries reported for 1910-11 were low. The general average for the islands for municipal teachers was $9.29, an increase of only 13 cents over the year preceding, while some Provinces reported as low an average as $5.80, and the much-needed legislation recom¬ mended in 1911 does not seem to have been acted upon. OFFICE ORGANIZATION. The general office of the Philippine Bureau of Education consists of 5 division chiefs, 1G American stenographers and clerks, 7 Ameri¬ cans detailed to inspection duty in connection with the industrial division, and 79 Filipino stenographers, clerks, and messengers; mak¬ ing a total of 108 for the year 1910-11. On November 21, 1911, the correspondence study department, which was formerly operated in connection with the Philippine Normal School, was made a part of the general office, increasing the general office force to 24 American clerks and stenographers and 113 Filipino clerks and messengers. Much attention has been given to systematizing the work, both in the general and division offices, thus bringing the division offices in the Provinces into much closer harmony with the general office. Many of the old forms were changed and new ones introduced, particularly with respect to the handling of Government property and fixing the status of Filipino municipal teachers. The volume of business handled by the general office in 1910-11 was double that of the two years previous, and a further increase is reported for this year. The accounting division shows that $2,477,216 was made available by 11 different acts of the legislature. There is also a reimbursable property fund of $250,000 that takes into account all sales of books, supplies, losses paid, etc. The total value of the equipment on hand in Manila and the Provinces amounts to $1,183,240. REVISION OF THE COURSES OF STUDY. The course of study adopted in 1904 had been subjected to many changes to meet altered conditions, especially in industrial education. The necessity for a complete revision was recognized by the bureau, and Circular No. 2s, 1912, gives a list of the committees appointed to revise the different courses. These committees collected informa¬ tion from every part of the islands, and submitted reports that were EDUCATION IN THE PHILIPPINE ISLANDS. 433 partially adopted, except that some changes could not be put into effect immediately because the textbooks for 1912 and 1913 had al¬ ready been purchased. The course for primary and intermediate school shops was adopted July 22, 1912. This course is made a part of the other courses. It is compulsory, and before pupils can be promoted from the interme¬ diate grades they must comply with the requirements in shopwork for the intermediate grades. Furthermore, no substitution of time spent in the primary grades can be allowed. Circular No. 97 outlines the courses in detail, and also gives the number of shops as 236, with an attendance of 10,356 pupils and only 203 shop teachers. The value of the articles made amounted to $10,265.31. This does not include the value of articles made by the students out of school hours. Conditions that make for efficiency in shopwork are named as follows: “A trained shop teacher; an adequate supply of tools; a sufficient supply of materials; a sufficient number of pupils ; proper housing of shop ; ample bench accommoda¬ tion for each pupil; the choice and execution of a definite course; the continued use in the shop of the English related to shopwork; and the proper keeping of records.” The adoption of this revised course has had a beneficial effect upon the work, as municipalities had to provide shops and equipment for this required work or the regular course would be of no value to them. The financial condi¬ tion of some Provinces makes it difficult to conform to this part of the revised course of study, and very little insular aid is given for manual training or shops. No change has been made in the hours or sessions, but the two- sessions-a-day plan is recommended. Special courses are to be given along six different lines as follows : General course; course for teaching; course in farming; trade course; courses in housekeeping and household arts; and the course for busi¬ ness. Each intermediate school must select one or more of the special courses. Of the total annual enrollment of 610,493 pupils, 582,115 are in the primary classes (first four grades), 24,947 in intermediate classes, and 3,404 in secondary courses. The average pupil goes no higher than the primary course. For like reasons special courses are intro¬ duced into the fifth grade, and the elementary course is made as rich as possible in its provision for practical instruction. Only 1 in every 200 pupils enrolled in the public schools of the Philippine Islands passes beyond the intermediate grades. For the present school year no material changes have been made in the course of study, nor are any further changes contemplated at this time. 434 EDUCATION REPORT, 1912. The new revised high-school course will stand as follows: First year — algebra, English, composition, general history; second year — jilane geometry, English, physical geography, government, general history, United States history; third year — review arithmetic, Eng¬ lish, biology (double period), Colonial history, commercial geog¬ raphy; fourth year — advanced algebra (optional), solid geometry (optional), Latin (optional), literature, composition and rhetoric, business English, physics (double period), and economic conditions of the Philippines. THE PHILIPPINES AND OTHER TROPICAL COUNTRIES. During the past year the director of education of the Philippines has been in correspondence with the school authorities of a number of other countries, particularly those located in the Tropics and enjoy¬ ing practically the same conditions as obtain in these islands. Let¬ ters requesting information on 13 topics were sent out to about 70 countries, from nearly two-thirds of which replies have been received. A careful review of the correspondence shows that it is the aim of nearly every one of these countries to make education general, but as a rule the percentage of population attending school is much lower than in the Philippines. In very few cases is special attention given to industrial education. The elementary schools are seldom con¬ sidered in the plan of industrial instruction, the attention gener¬ ally being confined to advanced technical and agricultural subjects. Much more stress is laid upon athletics and physical training in the Philippines than is given in other countries generally. The interest that the Filipino people take in public instruction is much greater than is apparently the case elsewhere. Reports seem to indi¬ cate that in a number of the countries at least not only a lack of interest but actual opposition is manifested. BUILDINGS AND SITES. Under acts 1801 and 2029 of the Philippine Legislature, each of which provided the sum of $500,000 for the aid of municipalities in constructing permanent school buildings, 135 buildings have been completed, of which number 83 are built in accordance with the standard plans of the Bureau of Education, and 173 other buildings are in process of construction, of which 81 lack only very little of completion and are already occupied. Funds provided by act No. 1801 have been exhausted; $432,880 remains unallotted under act No. 2029, of which sum $57,880 is already available. The remainder will be available at the rate of $125,000 yearly. Acts Nos. 1954 and 1988, each of which also appropriated the sum of $50,000 for munici¬ pal school buildings, have been used to supplement the two acts just EDUCATION IN THE PHILIPPINE ISLANDS. 435 mentioned in provincial capitals and important centers where larger buildings are needed. For the past year a campaign has been carried on for the acquisi¬ tion of adequate school sites to provide sufficient room for the build¬ ings to be erected, for the future development of the school plant, for school gardening, and for suitable playgrounds. As a result of this campaign, the bureau now has in its possession 137 school sites which contain 10,000 square meters or more each, and 332 school sites containing at least 5,000 square meters each. It is to be regretted that activity in securing these sites has been limited to a very few Provinces. What has been accomplished in these instances indicates very clearly what the result will be when every Province enters upon an active campaign for this purpose. Fop a number of years the Philippine Bureau of Education has been committed to the policy of providing adequate permanent build¬ ings for the housing of the public schools as rapidly as money might be made available. This policy will be pushed during the coming year, and there is every reason to believe that a much greater advance will be reported than heretofore. Too often improvements have been made on school grounds without permanent plans, as a consequence of which much of the work has had to be undone within a few months or years. Emphasis will continue to be placed upon the adop¬ tion of permanent plans for the improvement of school grounds, and cleanliness of premises will be insisted upon. In all large schools regular inspection of buildings and grounds is required. The difficulty of securing good school sites is much greater in some Provinces than in others. The school authorities are not allowed to use the right of “ eminent domain 55 to secure school sites. The Filipino people are, however, taking a greater interest now in secur¬ ing satisfactory sites of good size. When they more fully under¬ stand the use of the grounds for school gardens, athletics, and other school exercises the present difficulties will not obtain. INDLTSTRIAL INSTRUCTION. The industrial program is being promoted constantly through the medium of provincial industrial supervisors ; inspectors and in¬ structors from the traveling corps of the general office ; various pub¬ lications, bulletins, and correspondence; through industrial exhibits; through the appointment of pensionados to receive training along such lines ; and by means of the special courses offered in the Philip¬ pine Normal School and the Philippine School of Arts and Trades. Such satisfactory progress is to be reported as to convince the director that the methods employed are substantially correct. On entering the school, the pupil must immediately take up as a part of 486 EDUCATION DEPORT, 1912. each day’s work certain manual exercises in the nature of play work, which gradually lead up to the regular industrial courses provided in the advanced primary and in the intermediate grades. Special courses in fanning, housekeeping and household arts, trade work, and business are offered for those pupils who desire to do more indus¬ trial work than that prescribed in the general intermediate course. These special industrial courses are replacing the general course in many intermediate schools. Already 41 schools are giving the farm¬ ing course, 54 are giving the housekeeping course, 85 are giving the trade course, 42 the teaching course, and 1 the business course, as compared with a total of 199 conducting the general course. Of the total enrollment of 235,740 boys and 138,842 girls during the month of February, 1912 (an average month), 216,290 boys and 125,203 girls — 91 per cent of the entire monthly enrollment — were doing some form of industrial work; 13,210 boys were taking manual training and trade work; 96,167 boys were engaged in school garden¬ ing and farming; 15,485 girls were also engaged in garden work ; and 165,450 boys and 68,194 girls were taking up various lines which go under the general caption of minor industries. The course in housekeeping and household arts was followed by 79,382 girls. In lace-making alone 16,439 girls were receiving instruction; in em¬ broidery, 12,339; and in cooking, 4,768. There were 22,965 boys and 7,709 girls making hats in the industrial classes, 40,264 pupils making mats, and 104,424 studying the art of basketry. From another point of view, 63,067 pupils who wTere engaged in school gardening cultivated 3,046 school gardens and 24,682 home gardens during the year; 1,319 pupils were enrolled in the regular trade-school classes; 1,263 in regular trade courses in other schools; and 7,360 in the shops operated in connection with provincial and other intermediate schools. In addition to the above, 10,356 pupils were taking work in 236 primary woodworking shops conducted in connection with municipal primary schools in all parts of the islands. The purpose of the industrial instruction is, of course, primarily to give the pupil a certain training in mind and character and to enable him to acquire a measure of skill in manual exercises. There are, however, certain tangible results and the following specific instances are noted as illustrating what has been accomplished : School boys in a hundred towns of the Philippines are wearing hats made by themselves. The hat exports from the Philippine Islands increased from 621.475 in the fiscal year 1910 to 1,025,596 in the fiscal year 1911. What pro¬ portion of this increase is due to school influence can not be definitely stated, but the schools have had much to do with it, and the result is going to be far greater in the future. Igorot girls weave the cloth and make the clothing which they wear in school. EDUCATION IN THE PHILIPPINE ISLANDS. 437 More tlian half of the desks and tables in the primary schools of the Philip¬ pines have been made by the pupils. The primary schools of Albay are able to deliver 1,000 salable baskets on a month’s notice. The industrial school at Capiz has introduced and developed the slipper¬ making industry in that community. Slippers to the estimated value of $2,000 were sold during the year. Through school influence, 1,072 gardens were established during the past year at the homes of people in Union Province. In November, 1910, an inspection of Albay Province developed the fact that many vegetables and fruits, capable of easy production in that district, were very scarce or entirely unknown. After the date of the inspection, 470 school and home gardens were developed in the Province, with pronounced effect upon the food supply of the people. In the non-Christian Province of Bukidnon every school has 4 hectares of land inclosed and under cultivation. Its school farms are models of cleanli¬ ness and order, producing an abundance of rice, camotes, and other substantial foods, with which the people were m eagerly supplied before these schools were established. The school farm at Batac, Ilocos Norte, sent to Manila, and had on exhi¬ bition throughout the week of the 1911 carnival, a crop of vegetables superior in size and quality to anything ever appearing in the Manila markets. The provincial school of Pampanga exhibited at the last carnival more than 600 samples of jellies, jams, and preserves made from Philippine fruits, as illustrative of practical school work in developing a new industry and new articles of diet for the Filipino home. These cases will serve to illustrate the sort of thing that is accom¬ plished in the industrial classes of the public schools ; but, as else¬ where indicated, the highest results of industrial instruction are those which have to do with the molding of the character and life purposes of the children. SCHOOL OF HOUSEHOLD INDUSTRIES. The Philippine Legislature by act No. 2110 appropriated the sum of $50,000 for the establishment and maintenance of a school of household industries in the city of Manila. The purpose of this school is to train adult women in certain selected home industries. In five or six months of daily -work in embroidery and lace making the persons attending this school can become very proficient. They will then return to their homes, or to other towns agreed upon be¬ tween themselves and the director of education, where each woman will be expected to establish a local class for instruction in her specialty. It is desired that she gather about her a group of indus¬ trious women and girls whom she will instruct along the lines of her training in the school of household industries. When they shall have become proficient she will employ them at fair wages. Doubt¬ less many of the women who receive instruction in local classes will be ambitious to form similar organizations on their own account, and 438 EDUCATION REPOET, 1912. in this way it is expected that an ever-widening circle of industrial activity will result. Through the medium of either the Bureau of Education or the sales agency it is intended that the Government shall keep in touch with these industrial centers and communicate to them up-to-date information relative to patterns and standards de¬ manded by the foreign market. Xo promise is exacted from these women to teach, as in the case of the students and teachers who are sent at Government expense to Manila. The Philippine Bureau of Education purposes to keep in close touch with all graduates from this school and at all times will be glad to render them any assistance possible, other than financial. One of the objects of the school is to establish a new standard of excellence for Philippine lace and embroidery, and also to give em¬ ployment to women who may work under the direction of skilled teachers. It is believed that by an economical subdivision of labor a great advantage will be obtained in the quantity of work produced. One Filipino woman has established such an industrial center in Manila and has under her direction about 800 workers. The extent of her work may be inferred from the fact that one order for 2,400 shirt waists was received. This woman now has subcontractors in many of the different towns, and thus the work is growing rapidly. The demand for all work of this kind from the Philippines has developed at a rapid pace during the past year, and many orders can not be filled. The physical and mental adaptability of the Filipino woman to work of this sort is universally recognized, hence Filipino embroideries and fine lace may in a few j^ears have as great a com¬ mercial demand and artistic value as the best hand products of the skilled workers of the Orient and of the leading countries of Europe. VARIOUS INSULAR SCHOOLS. The new normal school building has been completed at an expense of $187,500 and contains ample room for present needs. Plans are under consideration, however, for new buildings devoted to some special lines of industrial work and also for girls’ dormitories. The annual enrollment reached 928. The Philippine School of Arts and Trades, under the direction of W. TV7. Marquardt, has given an excellent account of itself. Money has been appropriated for a much-needed new building, but the amount is not considered sufficient for the floor space required. The large and commodious building used by the Bureau of Education for the carnival exhibit, February, 1912, was entirely the work of the trade school. The requirements for admission of the Philippine School of Com¬ merce have been raised to the completion of sixth grade. The enroll- EDUCATION IN THE PHILIPPINE ISLANDS. 439 ment reached 362, as against 391 for the year 1911-12. This shows a comparative increase in attendance in view of the higher standard for admission. So great is the demand for students of this important school by Government bureaus and business houses that there is no difficulty in placing all students who have done satisfactory work. The result is that, very few remain in attendance to complete the four years’ course. The class in stenography enrolled 57 in June, 1912. The attendance of the school for the deaf and blind during the past year has been 40 pupils, gathered from 9 Provinces. Substantial progress is reported from all non-Christian divisions. The best results have been secured in developing strong schools at provincial capitals and other large centers, rather than increasing the number of small schools in the outlying districts. In the sub¬ province of Bukidnon greater results in minor agriculture have been accomplished than in any other district in the islands. ATHLETICS. The Athletic Handbook for the Philippine public schools outlines the plan of the bureau under two general head& — general school games and organized athletics. Athletics for every pupil are first discussed, then the schedule for group games, impromptu schoolyard games, athletic badge competition, and simple apparatus for school play¬ grounds. Under the second heading are discussed : History of school athletics in the Philippines, general system of organization, athletics within divisions, interprovincial organizations, finances, general rules governing meets, playing rules for (a) baseball, (&) basket ball, (c) volley ball, (d) indoor baseball, (e) track and field, and (/) lawn tennis, hints on training, Philippine interscholastic records, trophies, athletic courtesy. The Filipino boys and girls enjoy most of our school games, but some have to be modified more or less to conform to climatic conditions. Baseball, volley ball, tennis, and basket ball are played with a spirit of enthusiasm equal to that in the United States. The athletic badge competition gives a red button or badge to each schoolboy under the age of 13 years who is able to make all of the following records: Sixty-yard dash in 9 seconds; pull up (chin¬ ning the bar) four times; standing broad jump, 5 feet 9 inches. A white emblem is given to any schoolboy under 18 years of age who can do the following: 100-yard dash in 14 seconds; pull up (chinning the bar) eight times; standing broad jump, 7 feet 6 inches. A blue trophy is awarded to any schoolboy who can accomplish all of the following feats: 220-yard dash in 28 seconds; pulling up (chinning bar) 12 times; running high jump, 4 feet 6 inches. The rules of the A. A. U. govern in all contests. 77236°— ED 1912— VOL 1 - 30 440 EDUCATION EEPORT, 1912. The following athletic associations have been organized : The Southern Luzon Athletic Association, the Central Luzon, Yisayan Interscholastic, Ilocano Interscholastic, and the Southern Tagalog. The Bureau of Education has adopted, along with its own rules, the tests and athletic rules which are required by the Philippine Ama¬ teur Athletic Federation, of which the Governor General is the president, and it is affiliated with this association according to the articles of alliance published in the handbook. A certificate is required from each amateur, as follows: If I commit any of the following acts, I become a* professional athlete and ineligible to compete further as an amateur : 1. Enter a competition for money. 2. Accept a prize for money. 3. Sell or pawn prizes. 4. Enter a competition under a false name. 5. Issue or accept a challenge for money or its equivalent. 6. Receive reward for becoming or continuing to be a member of an athletic organization. 7. Accept a free membership or remission of dues in any club. 8. Teach, train, or coach in any athletic sport for money or any valuable consideration. No student can represent a school unless he has been a regular attendant at this school for at least four school months immediately preceding the meet, and only those students who are taking full work in a regular course are allowed to represent a school. No person who is a graduate of a four-year secondary course is eligible to compete in athletic meets. Approved private educational institutions may be represented at interprovincial athletic meets only upon the written invitation of the director of education. The chapter on athletic courtesy states that visiting teams are to be honored guests of the home team, and all their mutual relations are to be governed by the spirit which is understood to guide such deal¬ ings. Ungentlemanly or unfair means are not to be practiced, even when they are used by opponents, and the admonition given is, “ Cheer when you win; cheer when you lose.’1 The fact that a Fili¬ pino baseball team met and defeated the strong team from Wasada University, Japan, shows the results of careful training and good coaching. LEGISLATION ENACTED, 1910-11. Act No. 2002 makes available $500 for purcnase of additional land for Baguio Industrial School. Act No. 2018 authorizes municipal councils to appropriate funds for payment of traveling expenses of municipal teachers attending vacation institutes. Act No. 2029 appropriates $500,000 for construction of barrio school buildings, one-fourth to be made available annually, beginning January 1, 1912. (This act is a continuation of the “ Gabaldon law,” act 1801, allowing to each barrio a EDUCATION IN THE PHILIPPINE ISLANDS. 441 sum equal to double the amount appropriated locally for scliooihouse construc¬ tion, provided, however, that not over $2,500 from this fund can be used on a single project. ) Act No. 2048 appropriates $25,000 for teacher scholarships in insular schools. Act No. 2049 appropriates $15,000 for student scholarships in the Philippine Manual Training School and Philippine School of Arts and Trades. Act No. 2059 appropriates $25S,000 for the construction of insular school buildings in the city of Manila. Act No. 2061 appropriates $30,000 for the establishment of a sales agency. (This agency is to handle all the industrial products of the public schools.) No new appropriation bill was passed for the fiscal year 1912. The former bill (act No. 1989) by executive action was declared to be in force. This made the amount available for the current expenses of the bureau for the year $1,855,000. LEGISLATION, 1911-12. Act No. 2069 appropriates $167,850 for support of schools in non-Christian Provinces for the year 1912. Act No.H070 appropriates $23,000 for construction of school buildings in non- Christian Provinces. Act No. 2110 appropriates $50,000 for the establishment in the city of Manila of a school of household industries and provides for 300 scholarships therein. Act No. 2134 provides for appointment of 100 pension students for the Philip¬ pine Normal School of Arts and Trades. Appropriates sum of $15,000 therefor. Act No. 2146 provides from current funds for scholarships in the University of the Philippines or any other Government institution in the city of Manila. Act No. 2182 appropriates $10,000 for construction of girls’ dormitory for Filipino teachers at the teachers’ camp, Baguio. EDUCATIONAL STATISTICS, PHILIPPINE ISLANDS. School year 1911-12. 1 university : College of liberal arts. College of medicine and surgery. College of agriculture, with a school of forestry. College of engineering. College of fine arts, with a course in pharmacy. College of veterinary science. College, of law. 1 normal school. 1 insular trade school. 1 school of commerce. 1 school for deaf and blind. 35 provincial trade and manual train¬ ing schools. 200 municipal manual training shops. 38 high schools. 283 intermediate schools. 3, 364 primary schools. 3, 685 total number of schools. 3, 599 secondary students.1 24, 458 intermediate school pupils.1 367, 018 primary school pupils.1 1 director of education. 2 assistant directors. 40 division superintendents. 444 supervising teachers. 664 American teachers. 7, 699 Filipino teachers. $3,176,617.04, expenditure for schools during fiscal year 1911-12; insular, pro¬ vincial, and municipal, exclusive of special building appropria¬ tions. Average monthly enrollment for the year. 442 EDUCATION REPOET, 1912. $2,121,500.00, appropriation from insular sources for secondary, intermediate, and primary buildings, and for trade and. other special school buildings, since December 6, 1904. •Over 350,000 school pupils engaged in some kind of industrial work. PUBLICATIONS OF THE PHILIPPINE BUREAU OF EDUCATION. Bulletins : 37-38, School Buildings and Grounds ; 40, Athletic Handbook for the Philippine Schools; 41, The Service Manual; 42, Intermediate English II (for use in the correspondence course) ; 43, Catalogue of the Philippine School of Arts and Trades ; 44, Libraries for Philippine Public Schools. The Service Manual gives in compact form all the rules and regulations governing the serv¬ ice and is of immense benefit to teachers just entering the service. Other publications of the bureau include the Eleventh Annual Report of the Director of Education ; No. 7 of the series of Civico-Educational Lectures on Cocoanuts; and Volume V of the Teacher’s Assembly Herald. Four textbooks have also been issued by the bureau : Commercial Geography ; Introduction to the Study of Colonial History ; Selected Short Poems by Representative Ameri¬ can Authors; and a book containing Macaulay’s Samuel Johnson, Emerson’s Self-Reliance, and Lincoln’s Gettysburg Address. The most important publication of the bureau in many respects is the Philip¬ pine Craftsman. This magazine is published monthly for the nine months of the year, and is devoted entirely to the advancement of industrial instruction in the public schools of the islands.1 HAWAII. The school year 1911-12 marks a new period in the history of edu¬ cation in the Territory of Hawaii. By an act of the legislature ap¬ proved April 13, 1911, a new method of financing the schools was adopted. Under this act the Territorial department of public in¬ struction is authorized and directed to prepare a salary schedule to cover the compensation of all teachers, supervisors, and principals, such schedule to be based upon a classification of schools, teachers’ certificates, and length of service. The salaries of supervisors and principals must be based also on the number of teachers under their direction. Such schedule, wThen approved by the governor, has the effect of law, and may from time to time be altered, amended, or revised. The law provides that the total number of teachers, includ¬ ing supervisors and principals, w7ho may be continuously employed in any one year shall not exceed 1 for every 35 pupils enrolled in the public schools during the preceding year, and that the monthly pay roll of teachers, supervisors, and principals shall not exceed $45,000 per month, plus $50 additional for every 35 children of school age added to the enrollment of the public schools after June 30, 1911. 1 This periodical may be obtained from the Bureau of Education at Manila. HAWAII. 443 In addition to the salary schedule the Territorial department of public instruction is required to prepare biennially a school budget showing the estimated expenses, other than salaries of teachers, supervisors, and principals, of the public schools of the Territory and of such department, under two heads. Under the head of “ gen¬ eral fund ” are included the salary of the superintendent, salaries of office force, general expenses, supplies, libraries and books, industrial and manual training, and maintenance of special schools. Under the head of “ special fund ” are included new buildings (school- houses, cottages, and outbuildings), repairs and maintenance of buildings and grounds, new grounds, janitor service, furniture and fixtures. The budget must be submitted to a committee of estimate consisting of the secretary of the Territory, the superintendent of public instruction, the mayor of the city and county of Honolulu, and the chairmen of the boards of supervisors of the several counties, which committee may revise or change any item appearing under the heading “ special fund,” but shall not change any item under the heading “ general fund.” The budget is then submitted by the governor to the legislature, and when acted upon by the legislature such budget shall determine the amounts which may be expended for the several purposes during the succeeding biennial period. The administration of the public schools is almost entirely cen¬ tralized in the department of public instruction, which consists of the superintendent and 6 commissioners appointed from the 4 counties by the governor with the consent of the senate. The only function connected with the public schools exercised by the local or county governments is the maintenance of school buildings and groands. The course of study in the high schools extends through four years, as does that of the normal school. During the school year 1911-12 a summer school was held at the normal school for a period of 6 weeks, with an attendance of 112. Of this number 83 took work required for the primary-grade teacher’s certificate, and 29 for the grammar-grade certificate. Attendance at either a public or a private school is obligatory for all children from 6 to 17 years of age. In 1912 the public-school system comprised the Territorial normal school at Honolulu; 2 high schools, 1 at Honolulu and 1 at Hilo; 3 industrial schools, 2 of which are for boys and girls, respectively, committed to them by the juvenile courts; and 151 schools of primary and grammar grades. The total enrollment in public schools was 23,752, of which number 12,965 are boys and 10,787 girls. This was an increase of 3,1-55, or more than 15 per cent, over the preceding year, while the average attendance w7as about 86 per cent of the enrollment. Of the total enrollment, 146 pupils wxere in the normal 444 EDUCATION REPORT, 1912. school, 249 in high schools, 305 in the eighth grade, 434 in the seventh grade, 803 in the sixth grade, 1,649 in the fifth grade, 2,841 in the fourth grade, 3,325 in the third grade, 4,170 in the second grade, and 9,803 in the first grade. Excluding the normal school, it is foimd that 41J per cent of all public-school pupils were enrolled in the first grade. There was expended for public schools during the year the sum of $722,912.57, of which $92,577.92 was for new buildings. The total cost per pupil was $30.43. In addition to the public schools there are 51 private schools in the Territory, ranging from kindergartens to colleges, with an en¬ rollment of 6,157 pupils — 3,270 boys and 2,887 girls. These institu¬ tions are required to obtain permits from the department of public instruction. The cosmopolitan character of the schools in Hawaii is indicated in the following classification of teachers and pupils by nationalities: Teachers and pupils in Hawaiian schools. Nationality. Teachers. Pupils. Public schools. Private schools. Total. Public schools. Private schools. Total. Hawaiian . 68 15 83 3,453 800 4,253 Part Hawaiian . 163 20 183 2,765 1,310 4, 075 American . 222 204 426 459 710 1,169 British . 37 10 47 85 52 137 German . 6 9 15 179 129 308 Portuguese . 47 10 57 4,214 1,117 5,331 Japanese . 3 9 12 8,368 930 9,298 Chinese . 23 7 30 2,471 801 3,272 Porto Rican . 510 68 578 Korean . 3 3 274 119 393 Others . 13 13 26 974 121 1,095 Total . 1 682 300 882 23,752 6, 157 29, 909 The Japanese pupils have increased from 1,352 in 1900 to 9,298 in 1912 and now form more than 31 per cent of the school enrollment in Hawaii, while in 1900 they formed less than 9 per cent of the entire enrollment. PORTO RICO. [From the report for the year ended June 30, 1912, of Edicin G. Dexter, Commissioner of Education for Porto Rico.] At the close of the year ended June 30, 1912, Dr. E. G. Dexter was succeeded as commissioner of education for Porto Pico by Mr. Edward M. Painter, of Kansas City, Mo. In his report for the year Dr. Dexter summarizes briefly the progress in education made in Porto Rico during his term of five years. The report shows that POKTO EICO. 445 during that time the total enrollment in the public schools increased from 71,696 to 160,657, or 124 per cent; average daily attendance increased from 44,218 to 114,834, or 160 per cent; the* enrollment in secondary schools increased from 182 to 1,547, or 750 per cent; the expenditure for public schools increased from $908,794 to $1,366,810, while the per capita cost per pupil in attendance decreased from $12.67 to $8.51. During his term instruction in manual training and in agriculture was introduced in the public schools, public-school playgrounds were established in 61 municipalities, and libraries were established in 225 schools. COMMON SCHOOLS. The common-school system consists of the rural and graded schools. The graded schools show an increase of 84 over the number in the preceding year, and the rural schools an increase of 185. The total number of common-school teachers was 1,781, as compared with 1,671 for the preceding year. The enrollment in these schools was 141,424. As compared with the previous year, the enrollment shows an increase of 5,636, or 12 per cent, in graded schools, and 7,335, or 9 per cent, in the rural schools. Of the 44,912 pupils enrolled in the graded schools on March 1, 1912, there were 14,327 in the first grade, 9,228 in the second grade, 6,682 in the third, 4,703 in the fourth, 3,669 in the fifth, 2,679 in the sixth, 1,888 in the seventh, and 1,706 in the eighth. The rural-school course covers a period of six years and articulates with the graded-school system at the beginning of the fifth grade. On March 1, 1912, there were enrolled in the rural schools 78,796 pupils, of which number 47,855, or 61 per cent, were in the first grade. Only 71 of the total number were enrolled in the sixth grade. Considerable attention has been given to the matter of retardation of pupils. The percentage of promotion from grade to grade has not been satisfactory. An attempt to better conditions has been made by the introduction of the plan known as “ flexible promotions.” After a trial of over two years, the consensus of opinion on the part of supervising principals is in favor of the plan as a practical solution of the problem. The plan pursued is in brief as follows : (1) The course of study was divided into six groups of six weeks each for both rural and graded schools. This gave a short portion to be covered at a time, the exact amount being indicated by pages of textbooks and by detailed instructions to the teachers. (•2) The pupils of each grade were rearranged so that in each of the two groups in a given room were found only those of practically the same degree of advancement. This regrouping was at first only tentative, but in the course of time has become fairly stable. Each group was allowed to advance at the 446 EDUCATION BEPORT, 1912. rate at which it could do the work well. Thus the groups gradually drew apart, the stronger covering the work outlined in a given six weeks’ period in less time, the slower requiring more, but all working at their best. It was not intended that the interval between them should be or remain uniform, al¬ though this has in many cases resulted. (3) At the end of each six weeks those who had shown marked ability, usually only a few at a time, were advanced to the next higher group, while those who could not keep the pace set by the rest of the class were demoted to the next lower, reviewing the work in which they were weak. As far as possible the pupils did not change teacher or rooms, as it was recognized that such changes would not prove to be for the best interest of young children. Not more than two groups were allowed in a room. In this way a constant regrading was carried on during the year, the aim being always to place pupils in the group where they could do the best work, all at the same rate. The plan has not been found feasible above the fourth grade, except in a few of the larger towns, owing to the fact that as a rule the higher grades have not enough students to form more than one group. But it is in the lower grades where the greatest retardation has occurred in the past and where the largest number of pupils are found who are behind the normal advancement. The use of the English language as the medium of instruction is making rapid progress. In 1912 all instruction was given in English in 98.4 per cent of the graded schools, and in 1.6 per cent of such schools the instruction tvas partly in English. There are now no graded schools in Porto Rico in which English is not used. In the rural schools the conditions are not yet so satisfactory, although considerable progress is being made. In 1908-9 there were no rural schools in which instruction was given wholly in English. Now instruction is given wholly in English in 188 rural schools, or IT per cent of the total number; in 22 per cent of the schools instruction is partly in English; in 60.5 per cent English is taught as a special subject ; and in only 6 schools is there no instruc¬ tion in English. The commissioner states that without a doubt the teaching of English is far more effective in the lower grades by the Porto Rican teachers authorized to teach in that language than by American teachers. They give betters results in the higher grades and it is the intention to gradually increase the number of Porto Rican teach¬ ers in charge of the upper grades, as greater efficiency in the use of the English language is acquired. HIGH SCHOOLS. The number of high schools with four-year courses has been in¬ creased to four by the establishment of the school at Arecibo, which is located in a building that has been remodeled for high-school pur¬ poses and is the only high school in Porto Rico adequately housed. The enrollment in high schools was as follows: Arecibo, TO; Maya- guez, 1T5; Ponce, 360; San Juan, 301. The requirements for gradua- POETO KICO. 447 tion from the high school are uniform, as is the course of study. To graduate from the four-year course, a student must have attained 16 units of credit, of which 4 must be in the English language, 2 in either Spanish, Latin, or French, 2 in history, and 1 in science. The remaining 7 units may be chosen, under the direction of the principal, from the various elective subjects offered. AGRICULTURAL INSTRUCTION. Following the general plan of last year, special teachers of agri¬ culture were assigned to a limited number of towns and were charged with giving theoretical and practical instruction to the pupils of both the graded and rural schools. The budget for the past year made provision for 10 special teachers of agriculture, at a salary of $60 a month for the calendar year, but owing to a lack of trained men available for this work only seven appointments were made. These seven were assigned to the districts of Carolina, Juana Diaz, Bayamon, Utuado, San German, Toa Alta, and Anasco. They devoted their entire time to the teaching of agriculture to the pupils of both graded and rural schools, holding conferences and classes for teachers, conducting public meetings for the farmers, and in general to arousing and maintaining interest in the agricultural movement throughout their respective school districts. Many of the distant rural schools, accessible only on horseback over long and wearisome trails, could be visited but once a month, though in such cases the teachers in charge looked after the agricultural work, receiving explicit instructions from the special teacher. As a rule, both boys and girls took the course, and emphasis was laid on the practical as well as on the theoretical side of the subject. In the seven districts where this instruction was given a total of 8,723 pupils are reported as having taken this course, as compared with 1,663 during the year previous. The course lias been offered in all grades of both graded and rural schools, but in the lower ones the most mature pupils were selected to do whatever manual work was neces¬ sary. In the graded schools the practical work in agriculture has been done on land contiguous to the school building, in most cases it being the property of the local school board. In the rented rural schools land has been donated or loaned by public-spirited people for the agricultural work. Nature study is a required subject in the first four grades of both rural and graded schools, and in those districts where no special teachers of agriculture were found practical work connected with school gardening was carried on as a part of the nature-study course. In those in which special teachers of agriculture were located the courses in nature study .and in elementary agriculture have been very closely correlated. A course in agriculture has been worked out by 448 EDUCATION REPORT, 1912. the different teachers in this subject for their respective districts, and it is recommended that a uniform course be promulgated as soon as possible. The following table shows the average number of minutes per week given to theoretical and practical work in the seven districts mentioned above: Grades. Theo¬ retical work. Practical work. Grades. Theo¬ retical work. Practical work. Grade 1 . . Minutes. 38 38 56 Minutes. 62 59 68 69 Grade 5.. . Minutes. 60 60 63 68 Minutes. 73 53 55 64 Grade 2 .. Grade 6 . Grade 3 . Grade 7 . G rade 4 . . Grade 8 . 1 The need of more industrial instruction, especially in agriculture, which is and will remain the fundamental industry of the island, has long been recognized. During the past school year special efforts have been made to in¬ troduce elementary agriculture efficiently into the common schools. A recent ruling of the Commissioner of Education of the United States made it possible to utilize, to a reasonable extent, the Federal appropriations known as the Morrill and Nelson funds for instruct¬ ing teachers in agriculture and for the teaching of agriculture. The Commissioner of Education of the United States and the Com¬ missioner of Education for Porto Pico in consultation at Washington decided that it was highly desirable to hold a series of one-week institutes throughout the island for the purpose of giving instruction in agriculture to the teachers in rural and graded schools. The plan contemplated closing the schools for one week in a given district, assembling the teachers at a convenient central point, and requiring their attendance at the exercises of the institute. This was put into effect, and 35 institutes were held in different sections of the island. The selection and organization of the institute faculty, as well as the planning of the work, subject, content, and equipment, was placed in the hands of Dean F. L. Stevens, recently elected to organ¬ ize the college of agriculture at Mayaguez. The institute faculty selected by Dean Stevens wTas as follows: P. I. Smith, E. A. Cocke- fair, Mrs. A. C. Stevens, Miss M. E. Umberger, A. D. Cromwell, D. T. Griswold, and S. K. White, all of whom arrived in Porto Pico in January, 1912. Work was begun immediately on the development of the scheme already worked out in its main features by Dean Stevens, and was essentially as follows: 1. Each week’s work to consist of 20 exercises, each exercise to present the subject matter, with method of instruction, for approximately one week’s work in agriculture in the common schools. PORTO EICO. 449 2. Several periods to be given to practice classes with the various grades. 3. Evening illustrated lectures and moving-picture exhibits on agriculture to be given. 4. During the following year 20 lessons to be presented and the 20 lessons of the first year revised. ■*5. During the second year a weekly bulletin to be sent to each teacher. This bulletin to present lesson plans for the agricultural lessons of the week follow¬ ing and to aid in stimulating interest in all phases of this work, including school fairs, school collections, etc. 6. During the second year a large personal correspondence with the teachers regarding the teaching of agriculture to be conducted by the college faculty. 7. A prize in the form of a one- week scholarship at the college of agriculture in a special course, all expenses paid, to be awarded to the pupils in each school district doing the best work in agriculture. The faculty immediately began to get together the equipment, charts, microscopes, specimens, lantern slides, etc., and to prepare the syllabi of the lessons to distribute to the teachers. In the selection of subject matter special stress was laid upon fundamental knowledge, teachability, and applicability of the knowl¬ edge in Porto Rico. It was, of course, impossible properly to de¬ velop and use school gardens in the work of the first year, but their utility was constantly emphasized and advantage was taken of the many excellent school gardens that already existed in the island. The paucity of birds in Porto Rico, and their evident need here, lead also to special emphasis on the relation of birds to agriculture. In the agricultural instruction the proper value and full dignity of labor were emphasized, and pupils and parents are gradually com¬ ing to an appreciation of the work and to a realization that it is not ungentlemanly to soil the hands in manual labor. In many of the districts public agricultural exhibits were held with excellent results, and at the annual insular fair collections of fruits and vegetables raised in the school gardens of the island were on exhibition. The result of agricultural instruction has shown itself not only in the beautification of the school surroundings, but also in the homes of many of the children, where the pupils are raising not only flowers, but fruits and vegetables on their own account. The work is progressing as satisfactorily as can be expected, and with the teaching force receiving instruction during the year and at the summer institutes the time is not far distant when agriculture should be placed in the course of study for all the rural and graded schools of the island. INDUSTRIAL WORK FOR BOYS. It is the desire of the department of education to awaken in the heart of every boy a knowledge of the dignity of manual labor. In Porto Rico there are splendid opportunities for skilled artisans and 450 EDUCATION REPORT, 1912. workers in wood, iron, and other material. The boys, generally speaking, are artistic, and great credit is due them for the work undertaken in the classes. At the second insular fair a considerable variety of articles made b}^ pupils in the manual training classes was exhibited. Instruction in woodworking was given during the year in 16 districts to 758 boys, an increase of 258 over the number for the preceding year. SEWING. Instruction in sewing was given in 54 towns to more than 5,000 girls. The classes were taught as a rule after school hours and on Saturdays and wherever possible by teachers in the common schools who had special aptitude for the work. COOKING. In 1911 instruction in cooking was offered in but 4 towns, with a total of 159 girls enrolled. During the year 1911-12 this was ex¬ tended to 9 other municipalities, making a total of 13 towns, and the number of girls taking such instruction increased to 361. The girls have been taught to make practical menus, estimating the cost of meals. A course in cooking for use in the public schools was prepared by a former professor of domestic science in the University of Porto Pico. The course followed covers carbohydrates, prepara¬ tion of food value; proteins, foods which supply protein and prep¬ aration of the same; fats, use as food and in cooking; foods, kinds and value; batters, kinds and value; beverages, study of coffee, cocoa, tea, and their uses; meats, kinds, value, composition, and prepara¬ tion; simple desserts. Great interest is shown in these classes by both pupils and parents. Girls who have never done any manual work in their homes are anxious to show what they have learned at school, and in many instances parents have bought ovens, so that the children can make things which they were taught in the cooking classes. MUSICAL, INSTRUCTION. School bands were maintained in 36 municipalities, an increase of 7 over the number for the preceding year. The bands were com¬ posed of 1,479 boys, who received instruction under the direction of competent teachers. The funds available for these bands amounted to $16,633.12, of which amount $11,661.86 was provided by the school boards, $1,032 by the municipal councils, and $3,939.26 by subscriptions. There wTas expended for salaries of instructors, $9,044; instruments, $5,758.71; material, $718.41; rent, $162; leaving a balance of $950. An average of 12 hours per week was devoted to musical instruction given outside of school hours. PORTO RICO. 451 NIGHT SCHOOLS. During the year there were maintained 149 urban and 209 rural night schools. In the former the enrollment was 8,594, with an average daily attendance of 3,566; in the latter the enrollment was 8,254, with an average daily attendance of 4,273. The school census of March 1, 1912, shows that of the pupils in night schools 39.7 per cent were over 18 years of age. teachers’ conferences. During the school year a total of 185 conferences have been held in the school districts of the island, with an average attendance of 136 teachers. The average number of conferences per district was 4.5, and the average number of teachers in attendance at each was 33.1. These general conferences have been conducted, on the whole, with a definite aim in mind, and the programs have been so arranged as to allow ample time for informal discussions on the different sub¬ jects submitted. Some of the supervising principals planned the con¬ ference work at the beginning of the year and had conferences which concerned especially the different classes of teachers : Rural, primary, grammar, and high school, although one or twTo general topics were included at each conference which were applicable to all grades of schools. In this way definite conclusions were more easily obtained. Not infrequently a social gathering for the teachers, supervisors, and members of the school boards followed the conference, and much good was done in bringing about a spirit of cooperation in the work. In some districts these conferences have been held in rural school- houses in the country, the teachers making the journey on foot or on horseback. An important part of each has been model classes given by the strongest teachers for the benefit of the weaker, thus giving all an opportunity to see the best work being done in the district. Ex¬ hibitions of work from both rural and graded schools have been freely displayed, so that the teachers have received many valuable aids looking toward the improvement of their daily work. In addition to these general school conferences, numerous grade and group meetings, usually presided over by the supervising prin¬ cipal, at which the knotty problems of the work were straightened out, have been held. school buildings. Continued interest has been manifested by the department and by the school boards in the erection of modern school buildings. Every effort is being made to lessen the number of rented schoolrooms as 452 EDUCATION REPORT, 1912. fast as the resources of the local school boards permit. During the past year four school boards have constructed graded school build¬ ings with funds obtained through loans from the insular govern¬ ment, while several others have obtained the loans and expect to begin building immediately. Of the 1,168 buildings used for school purposes, 825, or 28 per cent, are owned by the Government, and 848, or 72 per cent, are rented. Of the 1,845 rooms used for common schools, 759, or 42 per cent, are in buildings owned by the Government, and 1,066 rooms, or 58 per cent, in those rented. Of the 325 school buildings men¬ tioned, 102 are within the urban limits and 223 in the rural districts. STATISTICS. Number of different pupils actually enrolled in all schools, including special schools : White- Males _ 72, 500 Females _ 49, 923 Total _ 122, 423 Colored — Males _ 21, 913 Females _ 1 _ 1G, 321 Total _ _ _ 38, 234 White and colored — Males _ _ 94, 413 Females _ G6, 244 Total _ 160, 657 Number of different pupils enrolled during the year : (a) In secondary schools (normal and agricultural departments of the university, high, and continuation schools) _ 1,547 ( b ) In common schools - 141, 424 (e) In special schools (night schools, kindergartens, and chari¬ table and correctional institutes) _ 17, 68G Average daily attendance for the school year of 171 days (in night schools 132 days) - 114, 834 Average daily enrollment for the school year, of 171 days (in night schools 132 days) _ 125,299 Number of buildings in use for schools during the year _ 1, 168 Estimated value of all insular school buildings 1 - $821, 409 Rental value of other buildings - $75, 576 1 Including entire expenditure made by the insular government under the direction of the department of education in connection with the acquisition of property and the erec¬ tion of school buildings since the establishment of civil government. PORTO RICO. 453 Number of different teachers employed in the common schools at the end of the year : White- Males : - 655 Females _ 888 Total _ l, 543 Colored — Males _ 114 Females - 119 Total _ 233 White and colored — Males _ 769 Females _ _ 1, 007 Total _ , _ 1, 776 Number of different teachers employed in secondary schools at the end of the year 1 _ 83 Number of different teachers employed in special schools at the end of the year2 - 323 Monthly salary of teachers, as fixed by law : Rural teachers — First class _ $40 Second class _ 35 Third class _ 30 Craded teachers — First class _ 55 Second class _ 50 Third class _ 45 English graded teachers — First class _ ' 60 Second class _ 55 Third class _ 50 Principal teachers — First class _ 80 Second class - 75 Third class _ 70 Teachers of English and special-work teachers _ 75 Continuation teachers _ _ _ 83 To which amounts were added allowances for house rent, as follows : Rural teachers, not less than $3 nor more than $8. Graded, English graded, and principal teachers, not less than $8 nor more than $20. Total expenditures for school purposes during the fiscal year ending June 30, 1912 : By insular government _ $980, 375 By local government _ 3S6, 435 1 Sis of these are duplicates. 2 Of these 204 are night-school teachers and arc duplicates. 454 EDUCATION REPORT, 1912. CANAL ZONE. (From Report of the Isthmian Canal Commission, 1912.) The organization of the division of schools .consists of 1 superin¬ tendent, 2 clerks, 1 supervisor of primary grades, 2 supervisors of children, 1 principal of high school, 7 principals of grammar schools, 66 teachers, and 1 gardener temporarily employed. The total enroll¬ ment for the year was 3,321, of which number 1,556 were white children and 1,765 colored children. Of the 48 white teachers, 13 hold degrees from colleges or uni¬ versities, 19 hold diplomas from normal schools, 12 have had two or more years’ normal, college, or university training. Of the teachers, 25 have had six or more years’ experience, 19 have had three or more years’ experience, and 4 have had two or more years’ experience in public-school work. In October, 1911, the upper-grade white school at Paraiso was con¬ solidated with the Pedro Miguel white school, and the children trans¬ ported to and from Pedro Miguel by brake. A new school for white children between the first and fifth grades was opened at Las Cascadas on October 2. Another school for white children of all grades was established at Porto Bello on November 6. New schools for colored children were also established at Majagual, Miraflores, and Cucaracha on October 2, and at Manclingo and Ancon on October 16 and November 17, respectively. The Cristobal colored school was reopened on October 2 in the new school building constructed to re¬ place the: one destroyed by fire on March 23, 1911. On June 30, 1912, there were 26 buildings used for school pur¬ poses, 11 for white schools and 15 for colored schools. One of these, a school for lower-grade white children, was conducted in a room of the Las Cascadas Hotel building, and another in a room in a house in Porto Bello, while the school for native children at Majagual was maintained in the native church building at that point. New build¬ ings were erected or old buildings converted for school purposes as follows : Mandingo, 1 room ; Ancon, 4 rooms ; Miraflores, 1 room ; and Cucaracha, 1 room, all for colored children; while the school build¬ ing at Tabernilla for white children was re-erected at Mount Hope for colored children. An addition of one room was made to the school building at Pedro Miguel for white children. The total expenditures for school purposes amounted to $100,997.23, of which sum $62,122.75 was expended for salaries of superintendent, teachers, and clerks; $8,230.79 for construction of school buddings; $3,483.62 for maintenance of buildings; and the remainder for janitor service, furniture and equipment, supplies, and traveling and miscellaneous expenses. EDUCATION REPORT, 1912. AMERICAN SAMOA. (From reports of the governor to the Secretary of the Navy.) 455 The islands of Tutuila and Manua of the Samoan group are United States territory, and have been placed under the control of the Navy Department, with a naval officer as governor of the islands. No appropriations have been made by Congress for the development of the islands nor for the welfare of the natives. The revenues are raised from customs duties and licenses. The natives pay a poll tax in copra, which is marketed by the island government and nets about $8 per capita. All of the native tax fund is used to pay the salaries of native officials. The only fund from which expenses for educational purposes can be paid is the customs fund, from which there is available about $1,500 per annum for such purposes. There is only one Government school in the American islands, which is located on the grounds of the naval station. It has an enrollment of about 50 pupils, with 1 teacher and a native assistant. In 1905 the people of the western district of Tutuila petitioned the governor that they be allowed to establish a district school and to employ Marist brothers as teachers. A contract was made between the chiefs of the western district and the Marist brothers to continue in force for 20 years. The Marist Society agreed to furnish three brothers of the order as teachers, not to teach religion nor to influ¬ ence children in religious matters, and the district agreed to pay the teachers each $300 per annum. The district erected a schoolhouse, and there are now about 120 pupils in attendance. Instruction is given in the English language. The district assesses all males a school tax of a certain amount of copra per annum, amounting to about $1,000. The eastern district of Tutuila has taken steps to erect a school- house, and it is hoped that 2 teachers for the school may be obtained from America. The London Missionary Society maintains a preparatory school for boys at Fagalele, Tutuila, and a school for girls in charge of two white women at Atauloma^ Tutuila. All native pastors of this society are required to conduct a day school for both boys and girls. They teach in the Samoan language only, and the instruction is con¬ fined to reading, writing, arithmetic, a little geography, and the Bible. The Societjr of Marists has decided to erect a schoolhouse in the eastern district of Tutuila and will conduct a private school. There are now 2 schools for girls in Tutuila conducted by Catholic sisters. English is taught in one of them. 77236°— ED 1912— VOL 1 - 31 456 EDUCATION REPORT, 1912. The Mormons conduct 3 schools in Tutuila. Their principal school is located at Mapusaga, where English is taught to both boys and girls. Their teachers are young Americans who serve without pay. They have a flourishing plantation, all the land being held by natives, and an attempt is made to give instruction to the natives in the cultivation of the soil. In the island of Manua there is 1 school for boys taught by a native pastor in addition to the usual parochial schools. In summing up the conditions regarding education in American Samoa, the governor states : (1) The only “public” schools in Tutuila are the Government boys’ school and the western district boys’ school. (2) In the denominational parochial schools no English is taught (except by Mormons), and undue time is spent on Bible study. (3) There is not sufficient instruction in the English language. (4) Education for all children does not proceed far enough. (5) Conditions in educational matters are generally unsatisfactory to the governor. An effort has been made during the past year to improve the condition of the schools. A convention of all the school-teachers of all denominations was called in November, 1911, and was attended by all teachers except those of the Roman Catholic Church. The convention was addressed by the governor, by the Government school-teacher, and by other persons who have had experience in teaching. The convention recommended that a law for compulsory educa¬ tion be passed, and this law was passed by the governor, after a consultation with the district governors and other high chiefs. Another meeting of white teachers was called on April 1G, 1912, to consider wffiat textbooks should be adopted. A committee was appointed to standardize schoolbooks and the school courses for those schools taught by non-Samoans. The work required in each grade has now been standardized. While it is not possible to enforce upon any religious denomination any cer¬ tain kinds of books, it is found that the convention and subsequent meetings of the school-teachers have been of great value in coordinating the work of the different denominations, and most of them now use the same textbooks. GUAM. The annual report of J. Schnabel, superintendent of public instruc¬ tion of the island of Guam, for the year ended June 30, 1912, shows a total enrollment in the public schools of 1,622, of which number 844 are boys and 778 girls. The total number of teachers was 28. There were 12 public day schools, 1 night school, and a music (band) class. The location of these schools, with the number of teachers and pupils in each, is as follows: GUAM. 457 Teachers and pupils in public schools. Schools. Teachers. Pupils. Boys. Girls. Agana No. 1 . . . 7 301 283 Agana No. 2 . 2 50 26 Agana No. 3 . 3 121 113 Asan . 1 19 28 Piti . 2 40 38 Sumay . 2 54 62 Agat . 2 57 64 U matac . 1 29 24 Merizo . 2 46 45 Ynarajan . 2 42 53 Dededo . 1 30 21 Ordot . . . 1 14 16 Night school . 1 27 5 Band (music class) . ' 1 14 Total . 28 844 778 The percentage of attendance in the public schools is very high, ranging from 95 to 99 per cent in the several schools. Half-day ses¬ sions are held, boys attending in the forenoon and girls in the after¬ noon, excepting in Agana School No. 2 and in the schools at Dededo and Ordot, where boys and girls attend both sessions. The half-day sessions are rendered necessary on account of lack of room in the school buildings to accommodate all the pupils at one time. The schools in Agana have been graded, and the following course of study has been prescribed : Agana School No. 1. Class C-l. — Newsom Primer (pp. 12-47), mental arithmetic. Class B-3. — Newsom Primer (pp. 48-65), elementary arithmetic (pp. 1-30). Class B-2. — Newsom Primer (pp. 66-124), elementary arithmetic (pp. 1-53). Class B-l. — Newsom First Header (pp. 1-45), elementary arithmetic (pp. 54—71 ) . Class A-3. — Newborn First Reader (pp. 46-91), elementary arithmetic (pp. 72-84). Class A-2. — Newsom First Reader (pp. 92-13S), elementary arithmetic (pp. 85-101). Class A-l. — Barnes’s Second Reader. Rational Spelling Book (1st part), ele¬ mentary arithmetic (pp. 102-118), elementary geography (pp. 5-20). Agana School No. 2. Class B. — Barnes’s Third Reader, Mother Tongue, elementary arithmetic, ele¬ mentary geography, elementary history of the United States, spell¬ ing, penmanship, and drawing. Class A. — Barnes’s Fifth and Fourth Reader, Mother Tongue, advanced arith¬ metic, elementary and complete geography, elementary history of the United States, spelling, hygiene, dictation, penmanship, and drawing. 458 EDUCATION REPOET, 1912. Instruction is given also in vocal music in both the forenoon and afternoon sessions, and averages about one-half hour at each session. Reviews are held every Friday on work done during the week, and an examination is held every three months to determine the fitness of pupils for promotion to the next higher grade. The superintendent recommends that at least two professionally trained teachers be sent from the United States to take charge of the highest grades in Agana. Most of the teachers are natives of the island, and some of them are endeavoring to improve themselves by attending the sessions of the night school. Several enlisted men of the United States Navy on duty in Guam have been detailed as teachers. The report shows that improvements of a sanitary nature are being made in some of the school buildings, and shower baths have been installed in two of them. The amount expended for school furniture, rent, and repairs is $2,486.08, including a new school building in Ordot and playgrounds in Agana. The superintendent recommends that a small sum be set aside annually for the decoration of school¬ rooms, and he urges that use be made of the flag and of pictures of great men like Washington, Lincoln, and others. CHAPTER XVI. EDUCATIONAL ACTIVITIES IN CANADA. By Anna Tolman Smith, Specialist in Foreign Educational Systems , Editorial Division, Bureau of Education.1 CONTENTS. introducton — The main features of the systems of public instruction — Statistics of public elementary and high schools — Current activities — Training in manual arts and agriculture — Commissions on industrial education — Higher education. Never before in the history of the world was education the sub¬ ject of such widespread national interest as at the present time. The relative vigor of nations is no longer estimated solely by the strength of their armaments or their wealth, but, in constantly increasing degree, by the efficiency and universality of their school provision. This fact is emphasized by the numerous commissions sent on world tours to investigate educational systems, and by the international congresses called to discuss principles and methods of public educa¬ tion with a view, in every case, to the improvement of home condi¬ tions. In the discussions and legislative measures which the subject ex¬ cites, broad distinction is made between the agencies for popular education and those engaged in the work of liberal and professional education. This distinction obtains to some degree in countries where there is no traditional or social cleavage between schools for the people and higher institutions; it is noticeable, however, that the distinction is lessening, even in countries where it is most pro¬ nounced. Everywhere systems of popular education, elementary, and industrial, are expanding and overlapping systems of liberal education. 1 The chapters in this report relating to education in foreign countries were prepared under the direction of the Specialist in Foreign Educational Systems, unless otherwise credited. 459 480 EDUCATION REPORT, 1912. As regards elementary education, which in nearly all foreign countries is administered as a separate department, current activities have at present three main directions: First, the endeavor to make adequate provision of schools — a task of peculiar difficulty in new communities, in communities which have fallen behind in the march of progress, and in the centers of congested and constantly increas¬ ing populations; second, the endeavor to adjust school training to the vital needs of the people ; and third, the endeavor to utilize the school system for hygienic and welfare services which affect the entire popu¬ lation. The mere enumeration of these activities serves to indicate the stages of advance in respect to popular education that mark different nations. The greater number are still struggling with the first prob¬ lem, namely, that of getting schools enough. Comparatively few nations, indeed, have passed the first stage of effort and are working out the problems of efficiency and general uplift. Canada, like the United States, offers examples of endeavor in all the directions indicated. The newer Provinces have first to provide the essential conditions of a school system, buildings, teachers, etc., and this necessity they are meeting with liberal expenditure; at the same time, on account of the rapid growth of cities and of concen¬ trated industry in their midst, they are forced to consider the prob¬ lems that are most urgent in long-settled communities. The older Provinces of Canada are chiefly engaged in readjusting their systems of public instruction as required by the complex conditions of modern industrial life. Hence, from the similarity of their problems, there is a community of interest between educators in the United States and in Canada that makes the interchange of experiences helpful to both. MAIN FEATURES OF THE SYSTEMS OF PUBLIC INSTRUCTION. Every Province of Canada has independent control of its educa¬ tional affairs in accordance with the British North American act of 1867, which applied to the four Provinces (Ontario, Quebec, Nova Scotia, and New Brunswick) then united under the general name of Dominion of Canada. The same right has been assured to the Provinces that have since entered the. confederation. The public-school systems in the Dominion are particularly marked by the combination of central and local control, the former being most highly developed in Ontario. The minister of education in this Province has extensive judicial authority and powers of ap¬ pointment, and as a member of the legislature initiates and largely directs school legislation. In all the Provinces, excepting Quebec, public elementary schools are free, and school attendance is com¬ pulsory for all children not otherwise instructed. In Ontario, EDUCATIONAL ACTIVITIES IN CANADA. 461 Alberta, and Saskatchewan provision is made for separate schools for Roman Catholics and for Protestants, and the supporters of the separate schools are exempt from the payment of the local tax. The separate schools, however, are under Government inspection, and in general have the same regulations as the public schools. The public schools are classified as elementary and high, but in Ontario the high schools are comprised in a distinct division of the system, and tuition fees are charged in them, although these are often remitted. The support of the public schools in the several Provinces is de¬ rived from provincial grants, municipal appropriations, and local school taxes. The local control of schools in all the Provinces rests with elected boards, which establish schools and appoint school inspectors and teachers, but the qualifications for these positions are determined by provincial laws. The system of public instruction in Quebec departs most widely from the common type. Provision is made for the separate control of Roman Catholic and Protestant schools under a central authority, the council of public instruction, which is organized in two commit¬ tees ; the one charged with the direction of the Catholic schools ; the other with that of the Protestant schools (law of 1875). The Roman Catholic committee consists of — (1) The bishops, ordinaries, or administrators of the Roman Catholic dioceses and apostolic vicariates situ¬ ated either in whole or in part in the Province; ex officio members. (2) An equal number of Roman Catholic laymen appointed by the lieutenant governor in council. The Protestant committee consists entirely of Protestant members, equal in number to the appointed members of the Roman Catholic committee, and, like them, appointed by the lieutenant governor. School questions in which the interests of Roman Catholics and Protestants are collectively concerned are under the jurisdiction of the council of public instruction, and shall be decided by it. School questions in which the interests of Roman Catholics or Protestants are exclusively concerned are decided by that one of the two committees which rep¬ resents the religious belief which the party concerned professes. The superintendent of public instruction, who is appointed by and holds office at the pleasure of the lieutenant governor, is ex officio a member of the council of public instruction and of each of its two committees, but he has a right to vote only in the committee of the religious faith to which he belongs. In the exercise of his functions he is bound to comply with the directions of the council of public instruction, or with those of its committees. In general, it may be said, that the administration of public schools in the Provinces is similar to that in the United States; the intimate 462 EDUCATION REPORT, 1912. relations between the two countries give special interest to the par¬ ticulars summarized in the following statistics: Statistics of public elementary and high schools. Provinces. Year. Enrollment. Ratio of average attend¬ ance to enroll¬ ment. Teachers. Boys. Gills. Total. Men. Women. Total. Ontario . Quebec . 1910 1909- 10 1911 1910- 11 1910 1910-11 1910-11 1911 1910 235, 131 224, 014 1 459, 145 379, 123 102,910 63,073 76, 247 49,968 17,397 61,660 63, 964 Per cent. 60.84 1,696 2,383 331 221 2, 153 323 178 8, 822 13,314 2, 468 1,754 621 856 413 10,518 15, 697 2,799 1,975 2, 774 1,179 591 2,651 2, 672 Nova Scotia . New Brunswick . . Manitoba . 31,871 31, 202 69. 82 20.85 75.00 69.40 British Columbia . Prince Edward Island . Alberta . 25,734 9, 152 31, 753 33, 356 24, 234 8,245 29, 907 30, 608 Saskatchewan . 52. 80 1,074 1,598 1 Not including 32,612 pupils in high schools, which are administered separately. Enrollment. Provinces. Popula¬ tion in 1911. Total school enroll¬ ment. Ratio of school enroll¬ ment to popula¬ tion. Ages for com¬ pulsory attend¬ ance. Ontario . . . . 2,520,000 2,000,000 462,000 459, 145 379,123 Per cent. 18.22 8-14 Quebec . 18.95 Nova Scotia . . . 102,910 63,073 76,247 49,968 17,397 22.27 7-12 New Brunswick . 352,000 455 , 000 363,000 94,000 373,000 453, 000 17.91 7-12 Manitoba . . . . 15. 17 i British Columbia . Prince Edward Island . 13. 76 18.50 7- 12 8- 13 Alberta . . . 61,660 63,964 16.53 7-12 Saskatchewan . 14. 12 7-12 Expenditure for public elementary and high schools. Provinces. Expendi¬ ture. Per capita of enroll¬ ment. Ontario. . . i $9, 343, 102 6,010, 104 1,271,675 2 873, 696 $20. 34 Quebec . . ! _ 15.85 Nova Scotia . . 12.35 New Brunswick . . . 2 12. 81 Manitoba . ■_ . 2,590,345 3 2, 730, 773 181,572 33.97 British Columbia . . 54.65 Prince Edward Island . * . . . . . . . 10. 43 Alberta . . . . 2, 085, 056 3, 655, 428 33.81 Saskatchewan . . . . . . 57.14 1 Not including high schools. 3 Also $1,151,715 for buildings. 2 For 1910. EDUCATIONAL ACTIVITIES IN CANADA. 463 Teachers arid salaries. Provinces. Number of teachers. Propor¬ tion of men teachers. Average annual salaries of teachers. Men. Women. Total. Men. Women. Ontario . . Quebec . Nova Scotia . New Brunswick . Prince Edward Island . Alberta . 1,696 2,383 331 221 178 8, 822 13,314 2,468 1,754 413 10,518 15, 697 2, 799 1,975 591 2,651 2,672 Per cent. 16 15 12 11 30 $711 824 235 to 1,054 271 to 1, 051 197 to 459 675 to 1,029 787 to 1, 015 $483 178 208 to 652 229 to 402 149 to 282 658 to 738 638 to 715 Saskatchewan . 1,074 1,598 40 CURRENT ACTIVITIES. Recent reports from the Canadian Provinces show great activity in respect to multiplying schools and extending the scope of popular education. The newer Provinces, by reason of the stream of immi¬ grants for which they must provide, have heavy expenditure for schoolhouses and teachers. The older Provinces are better able to keep pace in these respects with the increase of population, though this effort entails ever-increasing expense. In Ontario, where the cost of building has greatly advanced within a few years, the expend¬ iture for primary education, including permanent works and the provision for expanding programs, rose from $6,100,000 to $9,300,000 in the half decade 1906-1910. The teachers have shared in this in¬ crease; the average salary for men, which in 1907 was $907, has risen to $1,089 ; and for women from $453 to $565. TRAINING IN MANUAL ARTS AND AGRICULTURE. The movement for giving a more practical character to elementary education, which received great impetus from the Macdonald fund donated in 1899, has developed according to the plans of the donor in two directions, • i. e., manual training and rural industries, the latter involving also the consolidation of rural schools.1 When the experimental stage of this effort under private direction had passed the work was adopted into the school systems. In respect to the organization of the new orders of training, On¬ tario and Nova Scotia have made great advance. The minister of public instruction for Ontario in his latest report says : The new act of 1911 providing machinery for the establishment of classes for industrial training has already lent stimulus to the movement for what is comprehensively termed technical education. In a number of urban centers the advisory boards, whose special concern it is to institute and develop these 1 For a detailed account of this movement supported hy the Macdonald fund, see Rep. Commis. Educ. 1907, vol. 1, ch. 7, pp. 225-237. 464 EDUCATION REPORT, 1912. classes, Rave been set up, and tlie result thus far is eminently encouraging. The appointment of Dr. F. W. Merchant as director of industrial and technical education will enable a thorough organization and inspection of the work to be made throughout the Province. During the coming year it is intended that the director shall visit some of the chief centers of technical training in Great Britain and the Continent of Europe, with a view to applying here the latest experience abroad. Without waiting for such encouragement as the Federal authorities may decide to give to technical training as part of the duty which the Dominion Government must discharge in respect of national industrial efficiency, the legislature last year voted an ample sum of money for immediate purposes and will be asked to supplement the grant during the coming year.1 The efforts with respect to rural industries are summed up as f ollows : The agricultural courses established in connection with the high schools have led to such promising results that a number of new centers have been provided during the year. There are now in the Province 18 of these courses in con¬ nection with either high schools or continuation schools, and by means of the short courses and the field work generally, which are carried on at convenient points in each county, the latest knowledge is being brought within the reach of the farming community. In this work the departments of agriculture and education unite their efforts. Another step of equal importance was taken in 1911 in order to promote elementary agricultural instruction in the rural public schools. Prof. S. B. McCready, of the staff of the Ontario Agricultural College at Guelph, has been transferred to this department and appointed director of elementary agricultural education. To inspect and encourage the school-garden work connected with the rural schools is one of the duties of the new director, and the prospect of a general extension of this practical application of agri¬ culture to the school program is excellent. There were in 1910 just IT school gardens in the Province, upon which grants aggregating $750 were paid, while at the close of 1911 the returns showed 33 school gardens, with grants aggre¬ gating $2,320. Here, as in other departments of school training, much depends upon the teacher. In 1911 the grant of $30 on the certificate of teachers holding a certificate in elementary agriculture and horticulture giving the required instruction was paid to 33 teachers. The encouragement given to normal- school graduates to take the three months’ courses provided by this department at the agricultural college from April to June each year is beginning to bear fruit. The number of certificates issued in elementary agriculture and horti¬ culture and industrial arts during the three years the courses have been in existence is 319, and the hope is that this number may increase until a large proportion of the teachers in our rural schools possess at least a grasp of agri¬ cultural conditions and have the sympathetic outlook which can do so much to inspire country pupils with an interest in the life about them. In referring to his new sphere of work, the director of elementary agriculture education reports : “ Everywhere throughout the world there is evidence of a strong desire on the part of educationists and governments to have the schools give some measure of instruction in agriculture. Nowhere has the problem been solved completely. The plans that have been in operation in Ontario for the 1 See Rep. of Minister of Educ., Ontario, 1911. Dept, of Educ., Ontario, Cire. 13, 1911. Regulations relating to elementary agriculture and horticulture and school gardens. (Published in 1912.) Dept, of Educ., Ontario, 1912. Manual training and household science in high, con¬ tinuation, public, and separate schools. Regulations. EDUCATIONAL ACTIVITIES IN CANADA. 465 past five years give promise of a very satisfactory solution of tlie problem. To promote tlie work, teachers are trained especially at Guelph, material is sent for gardening purposes, special grants are paid both trustees and teachers, practical help is given by the district agricultural representatives, and the teachers assisted by charts, bulletins, and instruction sheets. In no other part of Canada nor in any State of the United States has any better scheme been devised, nor indeed has greater progress been made. There is strong evidence that the advancement of the work from now on will be rapid. Public opinion is becoming alive to the importance and the desirability of this kind of instruc¬ tion being given in the schools.” Iii Nova Scotia technical education is well organized under the immediate supervision of a director who is also principal of the Nova Scotia Technical College. By this combination of duties the practical courses of instruction in the elementary schools coordinate in a measure with the work of the special technical schools. The latter include the Nova Scotia Technical College and three types of secondary technical schools, namely: (1) Coal-mining schools, to train men for colliery managers, underground managers, and overmen. (2) Engineering schools, to instruct engineers, firemen, etc., in steam and mechanical engineering, so that they may obtain certificates as first, second, or third class stationary engineers. (3) Technical schools, where artisans or people who are engaged in commer¬ cial life are given evening instruction in mathematics, English, bookkeeping, science, drawing, or needlework which appertain especially to their vocations. The work of the department is rapidly extending, as indicated by the increase of its expenditures from $33,068 in 1909 to $53,998 in 1911. Interest in rural industries is promoted by the agricultural college at Truro, which, in connection with the Provincial Normal School, conducts a summer school of rural science for the purpose of affording teachers the opportunity to acquire the special knowledge required for teaching the elements of the sciences relating to agriculture, household, industry, etc. The attendance at all the technical and special schools directly under the education department increased from 2,306 in 1910 to 2,476 in 1911. This total includes 134 teachers attending the vacation course at Truro, and 83 teachers a shorter, but similar, course at the summer science school of the Atlantic Provinces. From this summary it will be seen that Nova Scotia lias taken advanced standing in respect to organizing practical studies and in preparing teachers for their proper conduct in both elementary schools and higher institutions. The work started bv private benefaction and enterprise is main¬ tained in some form in all the Provinces, as indicated by current 466 EDUCATION REPORT, 1912. reports. The director of the Macdonald College school for teachers, in his report covering the year 1911-12, says: The educational propaganda recently carried on by the Quebec government has done much to awaken interest in rural education. In many localities there is great need for consolidation, which would make it possible, by the combina¬ tion of two schools, to pay a salary which would secure a trained teacher. There is also need for some form of rural trustees’ association by which school commissioners could meet together and discuss the needs of rural schools. An¬ other desirable change proposed is the granting of rural-school diplomas to students taking an extended course in agriculture or household science at Macdonald College with a minimum training in teaching. The first essential characteristic of a rural school-teacher is that he know and appreciate his environment, be able to make the best of rural conditions, and desire to live in the country. Macdonald College is unsurpassed and probably unequaled in its facilities for imparting such a spirit to the students who desire to teach rural schools. A vote of students in the classes of the past few years showed that the majority of our students prefer to teach in the country ; indeed, a number of them have returned to their own homes to teach at salaries half as large as they could have obtained in the city. The director of manual training for the Province of New Bruns- wick reports that : Seventeen school woodworking shops have been in operation, all of which have been visited, as required by law, during the term. Of these, four are in rural schools and three in consolidated schools, and in them the woodwork is taken by all the boys from grade six up. This condition also obtains in five of the city and town schools. In the remainder shopwork is only given to the boys of grades six to eight, inclusive, except in the city of St. John, where this work is confined to the boys of grades seven and eight. Nine household science departments have been open in the Province. In all but two of these the subject has been presented to the girls of grades six to eleven, inclusive. In St. John only the girls of grades eight and nine take the work, although sewing is carried on to a limited extent in some of the lower grades in that city. In some schools throughout the country grades four and five take sewing regularly. Systematic hanchvork, hovrever, is carried on in very few of the elementary schools. In 1911 school gardens were maintained in connection with IT schools. In Prince Edward Island a central institution, the Macdonald manual training schools, offers opportunity for the boys in the three school districts to take manual training as part of the regular school course. The plan of consolidated rural schools has thus far awak¬ ened but little interest in the Province, but one school of this kind is maintained to serve as a model, wTith financial aid from Sir William Macdonald. The inspector of manual training for the Province of British Columbia reports steady growdh of the manual-training movement throughout the Province. There vcere IT centers for this wTork in EDUCATIONAL ACTIVITIES IN CANADA. 467 1911, with a total attendance of 3,292 boys. Arrangements were made for the equipment of additional centers for 1912. Manitoba reports classes in woodwork and in sewing and cooking in several cities; in Winnipeg this work is carefully systematized for the girls, and a corresponding course in manual training is con¬ ducted for the boys. Recently the capital city has created two large technical high-school buildings, at a cost of $400,000 each. Both schools are well equipped with shops and laboratories. Interest in the improvement of rural education is indicated in a few districts by the establishment of consolidated schools. One of these, the Star- buck consolidated school, is a model in arrangement and equipment. In Edmonton, capital of the lately organized Province of Alberta, manual training and domestic science are subjects of the regular school program, beginning in the grades and extending through the high school. COMMISSIONS ON INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION. Manual training and instruction in rural industries have thus far been promoted in the Canadian Provinces with chief reference to their power in stimulating natural activities and utilizing familiar experiences; but, as the movement progresses, the relation of this practical training to the industrial life of the individual and of the State is emphasized, and this larger conception leads to the examina¬ tion of the subject from both the economic and the educational standpoint. In 1910 a royal commission on industrial education was appointed under the chairmanship of Prof. Robertson, for a comprehensive in¬ vestigation of the conditions of industrial efficiencj^ in the principal countries of the world. This action was taken at the request of the premiers of the several Provinces, prompted by the conviction “ that the industrial interests of Canada may be best promoted by the adoption of approved systems and methods of industrial and tech¬ nical training.5’ 1 From advanced notices of the report of the commission, it appears that while the higher forms of technical training were investigated, the ordinary school systems were particularly considered as the basis upon which all other education must rest. The appointment of the commission for the Dominion was fol¬ lowed by the appointment the same year (1910) of a royal commis¬ sion to inquire into the industrial needs of the people of the Province of Manitoba, and to recommend to the government of the Province a system or plan for establishing such technical or industrial schools 1 See Rep. Commis. Educ., 1910, vol. 1, ch. 8, pp. 873-374. 468 EDUCATION REPORT, 1912. or colleges as the circumstances of the Province will admit. In the course of their investigation this commission conferred with manu¬ facturers and other employers of skilled labor, mechanics represent¬ ing the various trades, social workers, teachers and school officials, and citizens whose position and experience gave weight to their opinions. The witnesses were unanimous in the opinion that the conditions of the Province require the adoption of some well-con¬ sidered scheme of vocational training u based upon and accompanied by the essentials of a good general education.” This opinion was embodied in the recommendations of the com¬ mission, which included the formation of an advisory board to assist the education department in the development of a. scheme; the appointment of an officer familiar with the aims and methods of vocational education, whose duty it would be to advise with and assist school boards in the organization of such work, and the pro¬ vision of grants by the provincial government, as in the case of manual training and household science, to assist in meeting the cost of equipment and maintenance of approved forms of vocational training. In the progress of the investigation a subcommittee was appointed to investigate and report upon systems and institutions for industrial education in the United States, and the results of this investigation form a very interesting part of the report of the commission, to which comparative significance is given by resumes of the reports of recent similar commissions whose investigations were extended to European countries.1 HIGHER EDUCATION. The recent development of higher education in the Dominion of Canada has been marked in the older Provinces by the federation of colleges with central universities. In Ontario this result has been brought about by the federation of colleges with the University of Ontario; in Quebec, by federation with McGill University, Mont¬ real, and with Laval University, which is the center of higher education for the Catholic population of that Province. The rela¬ tions thus established give uniform value to the degrees which are granted only by the universities. The need of consolidation has been recognized in Nova Scotia, and also in New Brunswick. In the newer western Provinces the movements for higher education center about three recently established universities. Of these, the University of Alberta is the oldest, having been established in 1908. The year following, the University of Saskatchewan was founded; and the year 1912 h«s been marked by the culmination of measures for the 1 See Report of the Royal Commission on Technical Education and Industrial Training. Winnipeg, Manitoba, 1912. EDUCATIONAL ACTIVITIES IN CANADA, 469 establishment of the University of British Columbia. The pro¬ vincial government has contributed for this institution a valuable site of 217 acres (of an estimated value of 2J million dollars) in one of the choicest districts of the city of Vancouver; 2,000,000 acres of public land have been set apart for an endowment fund. Measures are also in progress for the establishment at Calgary of a private university, for which liberal contributions, both in money and land, have already been made by private individuals. The following table summarizes the principal statistics pertaining to the universities of the Dominion already established. University statistics. Institutions. Date of founda¬ tion. Endow¬ ment as Students. reported in 1904. 1908-9 1911-12 University of Alberta, Strathcona . . . ... 1907 45 i 180 761 University of Manitoba, Winnipeg . 1877 2$150, 000 461 University of New Brunswick, Fredericton . 1800 3 8, 964 241, 970 153 University of Acadia College, Wolfville, Nova Scotia . 1838 191 238 Dalhousie College and University, Halifax, Nova Scotia . 1818 420, 000 420 405 University of King’s College, Windsor, Nova Scotia . . . University of Toronto and University College and Federated Institutions . 1790 140,000 47 49 1827 3,315,924 4,583 4,149 Laval University, Montreal . 1876 977 1,063 400 Laval University, Quebec . 1852 421 McGill University, Montreal, Quebec . . . 1821 4 5,010,569 1,912 2, 484 1 In round numbers. 2 Acres of land. 3 Government grant. 4 Cash endowment as reported in 1910, exclusive of lands, buildings, and plant. Of the total, 52,002,333 belongs to Macdonald College. . - . ' . CHAPTER XVII. EDUCATION IN THE LATIN -AMERICAN STATES. CONTENTS. Introduction — Mexico — Central America. South American Republics : Comparative view of public-school enrollment ; Argentina ; Brazil ; Bolivia ; Chile ; Paraguay ; Peru ; Uruguay ; Venezuela, INTRODUCTION. The Latin-American countries are marked by common scholastic traditions and impulses derived from their early subjection to Span¬ ish and Portuguese influences, hence the predominant regard for higher education and the indifference to popular education which prevailed throughout the several Republics to a very recent date. Notwithstanding the fact that the leaders in the revolutionary move¬ ment which freed the different States from dependence upon Eu¬ ropean powers all advocated plans for the enlightenment of the people as of first consequence in the political experiment upon which the States were entering, efforts in behalf of popular education have been on the whole feeble and spasmodic until the present time. The following survey relates chiefly to the changed policy in respect to this fundamental interest. MEXICO. The political disasters of Mexico have diverted attention from the educational activities which were promoted by President Porfirio Diaz during his long administration and continued with undiminshed vigor until the revolutionary outbreak. In his address at the opening of the fourth period of sessions of the Twenty-sixth Congress of Mexico, April 1, 1912, President Madero declared that education was a matter of special concern to the Executive, and that every endeavor was made to secure competent instructors for the public schools and to encourage them by “ high salaries, promotions, pen¬ sions, and every other privilege conducing to their advantage.” 77236° — ed 1912 — vol 1 - 32 471 472 EDUCATION REPORT, 1912. Measures for promoting the health and physical welfare of school children were summed up in the message, as follows : Scrupulous care is also exercised with respect to the morality of the instructors and the hygiene of the schools. With this latter object in view, a careful exam¬ ination is made of all premises offered as schoolhouses, and even of the premises already occupied as such, in order to reject those that are unsuited or expensive. The object, of course, of these endeavors to secure better instructors and prem¬ ises is the welfare of the pupils, whose attendance at school is thus facilitated and who are led to feel an affection for their schoolhouse. CHILDEEN WITH SKIN DISEASES. The various departments of the special school for children suffering from skin diseases continue to be numerously attended. Various experiments have been made at this school in the use of the X rays for the cure of ringworm, and 350 pupils affected with common warts have received treatment. HELPING SCHOOL CHILDREN. Among measures adopted for the benefit of school children may be mentioned the establishment of school refectories, of which there are now 29 in the Federal District, attended on an average by 5,800 pupils, who there receive food free or at very low prices, and the distribution of 25,000 pairs of shoes to be effected in the schools, also free or at very low prices. It may be added that the manu¬ facture of these shoes was intrusted to shoemakers out of work, who were thus themselves greatly benefited. The President noted also that, in accordance with extensions of its authority in school matters, by act of July 1, 1911, the Federal Gov¬ ernment had made a beginning in the establishment of rudimentary schools throughout the Republic. In each State an official had been appointed to install these schools, and it was proposed to create approximately 500 of them.1 Mexico shares also in the world-wide movement for agricultural improvement, an interest which is being promoted by a number of the State governments as well as by the Federal Government. An agri¬ cultural experiment station has been established in San Juan Bau¬ tista, the capital of the State of Tabasco, which is subsidized by the Federal Government. The station will be devoted to experimental agriculture and all agricultural and kindred interests of this State. Pupils will have to pay only actual cost of food, books, and lodging, no admission or tuition fee being charged. CENTRAL AMERICA. The status of public instruction in the States of Central America remains practically the same as that shown in the commissioner’s report for 1910.2 Costa Rica still leads in respect to the actual pro- 1 From translation of the President's message, forwarded through the Department of State. 2 Kept, of Commissioner of Edue., 1910, vol. 1, ch. ix. EDUCATION IN THE LATIN-AMERICAN STATES. 473 vision of schools and in measures for further progress. During the current year the assistant secretary of public instruction, Sen or Brenes-Mesen, was commissioned by his Government to make an investigation of the systems of public instruction in the United States, and in particular to study the organization and work of rural and industrial schools for the purpose of gaining suggestions applicable to Costa Bica. Panama. — In his address on the occasion of his inauguration as President of Panama, October 1, 1912, Dr. Belisario Porras, after reviewing the general condition of public affairs in the State, continued : Of our administrative services, none is so respectable, so important, and so sacred as that of public instruction. Tbe physical, moral, and intellectual development of our children and our young men should occupy more of our time. It is well known that men may become what we wish them to be if trained from infancy. * * * The first influence is decisive in man’s destiny. Morality exists in habits or customs ; repeated acts constitute vice if they are bad, and virtue if they are good. It is never superfluous to repeat such simple truths. It therefore seems logical that our country may live in peace and order if her men are taught from childhood to respect each other’s religious beliefs and political opinions, existing interests, and all legitimate aspirations. Human right is just that. It is also very plain that in order that our country should prosper, it would suffice to have healthy, strong men, lovers of progress and of work, and in order that it may be lasting it must have devoted citizens, decided, con¬ stant, loyal, and brave. Hence the main reason why public instruction must not be only an apprenticeship of arts and sciences but of sound education. The acquirement of teachers who will know how to educate and mold the souls is the principal problem, and shall be, therefore, the object of my most earnest and well-intentioned efforts. The Congress of Panama has just passed (February, 1913) a new public-instruction bill, which will undoubtedly receive the President’s signature. According to a synopsis forwarded from the American consul general : The Republic is divided into scholastic districts, each under an inspector, except the capital, which is to have two. The bill also provides that parents, tutors, or guardians of children who have attained school age must prove, if required, that these children are receiving elementary education, while persons employing children under 15 years of age can not bring any objection to their being educated. Further provisions of this bill are : Promotion of education among adults in condition to receive same by the establishment of night schools, or teaching in night schools, prisons, colonies of farmers, or any other place containing 40 adult uneducated persons ; the founding, where the Executive deems most con¬ venient, of two schools of agriculture or model farms, in place of the one pro¬ vided for in Law 43 of 1911, and the Executive may engage two foreign directors 474 EDUCATION REPORT, 1912. for these schools ; the creation of the post of dressmaker and cutter in the normal school, who shall devote at least 15 hours weekly to this work.1 SOUTH AMERICAN REPUBLICS. The dawn of a new era in the States of South America is marked by efforts for the spread of public education and the improvement of schools and higher institutions. These efforts are pursued under widely different conditions of population and social order, and in several of the countries referred to are constantly interrupted by political disturbances. Argentina and Uruguay have been specially progressive by reason of more stable conditions and the character of their populations; but while the States named have recently made the greatest progress in the development of popular education, other States are taking active measures in the same direction, and several maintain institutions that have contributed greatly to the general movement. It is impossible to show by statistics the actual condition of elementary education in the different States, from the lack of uni¬ formity in their reports and the difficulty of securing details from the local authorities, which, in general, have independent control of the schools within their respective areas. The following table, drawn from current reports and special documents 2 received in this office, shows approximately the extent of primary education at the present time. It should be considered, however, that the public primary schools do not draw pupils from the upper classes; their children attend either the preparatory departments of the colleges or private schools, with respect to which this office has only fragmentary infor¬ mation. The table as it stands will serve as a basis for future com¬ parisons, and it will also conduce to a clearer understanding of the particulars which follow. Comparative view of public-school enrollment. Popula¬ tion. Date of census or esti¬ mate. Enrollment in public primary schools. Ratio to popu¬ lation. Argentina . 7,171,910 2,267,935 21,461, 100 1911 650, 627 46, 000 634, 539 258, 875 200, 965 93, 900 Per cent. 9. 00 Bolivia . 1910 2.03 Brazil . 1909 2.96 Chile . 3,329, 030 4,320, 000 1, 500, 000 752, 000 1910 7. 78 Colombia . . 1910 4. 65 Ecuador . 1910 6. 26 Paraguay . 1910 40, 600 153, 900 76, 000 44, 600 5.40 Peru . 4,000, 000 1,112,000 2, 713, 703 1909 3.85 Uruguay . 1910 6. 83 Venezuela . 1911 1.64 1 Epitome prepared by Alban G. Snyder, consul general to Panama. 2 See El Monitor de la educacion comun. Orgaaio del consejo nacional de educaeion. Buenos Aires, mayo 31 de 1912. EDUCATION IN THE LATIN-AMERICAN STATES. 475 ARGENTINA. Argentina in 1910 had an estimated population of 7,091,822, includ¬ ing only 30,000 Indians. Of the total given, 1,995,211, or more than one-fourth, was comprised in 13 cities, ranging from San Luis, with 13,994 inhabitants, to Buenos Aires, with 1,319,747. If to this number be added the population of the Province of Buenos Aires, not including the capital, the total is 3,791,531. In other words, more than half the population of the State is sufficiently concen¬ trated for the creation of strong public opinion and diversified indus¬ tries. Public primary education is organized in accordance with a law of July 8, 1884, which reflects very plainly the influence of move¬ ments taking place in France at that time. In fact, French influences have had much to do with shaping both political and educational systems throughout South America. In the present movement for the uplift of primary schools and provision for tech¬ nical education there is a general tendency to look to the United States for guidance. By the law of 1884 primary education in Argentina is free for all children and obligatory for ages 6 to 14. Religious instruction is excluded from the regular programs, but it is permitted in the schools, and by the clergy, authorized, before and after school hours. Local school committees are appointed to look after the matter of school attendance, and fines are imposed for violation of the law in this respect. The law also requires that local appropriations shall be made to assist needy pupils. The control of education in the 14 Provinces having been reserved to them by the constitution, the law of 1884 applied only to the Federal district and the territories; but as the provincial laws em¬ body the principles of the national law, primary education is, theo¬ retically, secular, free, obligatory, and graded throughout the Republic) The failure of the provincial authorities to enforce the compul¬ sory school-attendance law, and to make due provision of schools, led to the enactment in 1905 of the Lainez law, which authorized the Federal Government to maintain national schools in the Prov¬ inces, as a means of preventing illiteracy. For the support of schools under the control of the Government a fund is maintained to which are applied certain taxes and 40 per cent of the direct contributions for national expenditures from the capital, the territories, and the national colonies. In addition to the regular primary schools, there may be main¬ tained at public expense infant schools, schools or classes for adults, and ambulatory schools. 476 EDUCATION REPORT, 1912. The following statistics show the number and classification of the primary schools, and their enrollment, as reported for 1911 : Primary schools. Number. Enroll¬ ment. Public . . . ' 4,489 1,514 1,355 62 498, 165 130,000 114,478 22,462 National (Lainez law) . . . . . . . . Private . _ . . . Annexes (normal schools) . . . Total . . . 7,420 1 765, 105 For the service of the public schools 14,451 teachers (2,428 men, 12,023 women) wrere employed. The great excess of women teachers is regarded as a serious evil, and the importance of bringing all boys under the virile influence of men is urged, as in the United States. The causes of this excess are said to be the small inducements, material and social, that the work offers, and the political persecutions and irritating favoritism that mark official life in the Provinces and make it especially irksome to earnest men. The enrollment in all classes of primary schools, viz, 765,105, is equivalent to 10.6 per cent of the estimated population; omitting private schools, the enrollment in public schools equals 9 per cent of the population, a ratio which places Argentina at the head of the Latin States of the Western Continent in respect to the diffusion of elementary education. The statistics show, further, a marked in¬ crease in the relative school attendance; in 1902 the enrollment in all classes of primary schools was equivalent to 8.6 per cent of the population, as against 10.6 per cent in 1911. This increase is due largely to the efforts of the General Government, as the statistics show a decline in provincial schools since the Lainez law went into effect. The State appropriations for education have greatly increased during the past half decade, rising from 10,221,421 pesos ($9,863,671) in 1906 to 22,000,000 pesos ($21,230,000) in 1911. The estimated appropriations by the provincial governments for the latter year, 15,000,000 pesos, would raise the amount available for primary edu¬ cation to 37,000,000 pesos ($35,705,000), or very nearly $5 per capita of population. The principal cities of Argentina are very progressive in educa¬ tional matters, and their schools compare favorably with those of the principal cities of the United States and Europe, especially as regards buildings and equipment. Attention to the educational side, that is, to organization and methods of instruction, is indicated by the revolution in the system of drawing in the schools of Buenos Aires and La Plata. This change, which is due largely to the in- EDUCATION IN THE LATIN-AMERICAN STATES. 477 vestigation of systems in the United States, lias substituted for the constant copy of conventional forms the study of natural forms, their reproduction, and the analysis of their elements as a basis of design. In the broad scheme for reorganizing the public system of in¬ struction, which is under discussion by the Government, the closer coordination of all classes of schools is purposed, and hence experts recently sent to the United States and to Europe for educational investigations are instructed to observe particularly the relations between different orders of instruction, i. e., primary and secondary, general and technical, etc., in the principal countries. A practical experiment in the integration of different classes of schools in Argen¬ tina has been made by the recently established University of La Plata, which through its affiliated secondary school opens a direct course from the elementary school to the university. The university school is a model institution, combining some of the best features of English secondary schools with the freer, more natural life of schools of the type of Abbotsholme. " The close relation between secondary schools and universities which exists in Argentina, as in all other South American States, makes it difficult to give new direction to the secondary curriculum without the cooperation of the universities. The two classes of in¬ stitutions offer a complete scheme of education, having little relation to the work of the primary school ; the courses of instruction of the secondary schools (colegios) are the preparatory stage for the spe¬ cialized university faculties. The University of La Plata, with its secondary school, is, therefore, a new departure in education of great interest to all the Latin States. In the provision for technical and industrial education agricul¬ tural interests, which exceed in value all others in the State, claim first consideration. Five national schools of agriculture have been established in accordance with a decree of February 10, 1908; the higher school of agriculture which was created in 1904 wTas trans¬ ferred in 1909 to the University of Buenos Aires, and now has the dignity of a university faculty. BRAZIL. Brazil, covering an area exceeding that of the United States, ex¬ clusive of Alaska, comprises 20 States and the Federal District, having a total population of 21,461,100. The Federal Government is responsible for university education throughout the Union, but has no control of elementary schools outside of the Federal District. This district, under the fostering care of the Government, maintains an excellent system of public schools, in which respect it is rivaled by several of the States, in particular that of Sao Paulo, but there 4Y8 EDUCATION REPORT, 1912. are vast stretches of territory which are without the means of educa¬ tion. The latest statistics (1910) give for all the States a total of 634,539 pupils in elementary schools, which is only 3 per cent of the population. The disposition on the part of leading men in the different States to remedy this condition, and to supply the means of education for the entire population, is indicated by a decree, bear¬ ing date April 5, 1911, which was sanctioned by the National Con¬ gress, providing for a reform in the system of public instruction. One feature of the proposed reform is a central board of education, charged with advisory functions and with the power of establishing schools in case the local governments neglect this duty. Rio de J aneiro, like the chief cities of the Latin States in general, is the seat of a number of special institutions for higher education and for commercial and technical training. The technical school (Escola Polytechnica do Rio de Janeiro) maintained by the Federal Government enjoys great distinction, not only in Brazil but in the adjoining States. The report of the minister of agriculture for 1912 shows that there is great activity in respect to provision for special training for the industries pertaining to agriculture in several States of the Republic. The schools under this ministry include a Superior School of Agri¬ culture and Veterinary Medicine, middle schools of agriculture, schools of agricultural apprenticeship, and traveling lecturers, be¬ sides the auxiliary agencies, namely, demonstration camps, model farms, breeding stations, and meteorological stations. According to a consular report 1 — the Superior School of Agriculture and Veterinary Medicine has just been installed in one of the Government buildings in Rio de Janeiro, and classes are expected to begin in April. Instruction will be divided into two special courses, one of agronomical engineering and the other of veterinary medicine. There are three middle schools of agriculture, which furnish the theoretical and practical education of which the conservative Brazilian farmer stands in need. One of these is attached to the breeding station at Pinheiro and was begun in 1912, another is situated in the town of Sao Francisco and has been in operation for two years, and the third is that of Rio Grande do Sul. The curriculum of these schools embraces the general principles of agriculture, zootechnics, and veterinary science, and is preferably concerned with the most usual and best-known branches of rural industry. This is considered the best possible type of school for Brazil, and official opinion as to the utility of these institutions is confirmed by the large number of applications for admission to those established, especially the one at Pinheiro, in Bahia. The third type of agricultural schools is the apprenticeship school, which teaches rational methods of exploiting land, the handling of agricultural implements, the breeding of cattle, the hygiene and feeding of animals, and various agrarian industries. Thus they are intended to supply capable workers for the rural farms and estates within a brief period. There are eight of these schools, all in active operation, and others are being constructed. 1 See Daily Consular and Trade Reports, 16th year. No. 69 (Mar. 25), 1913. EDUCATION IN THE LATIN-AMERICAN STATES. 479 Traveling professors, chosen according to their specialties, the nature of their districts, etc., disseminate professional instruction in the various branches of agricultural industry. There are 12 of these instructors, and the system con¬ stitutes one of the most efficacious methods of developing agriculture, especially considering the fact that the benefits are more immediate and direct than those from the schools. EXPERIMENTAL SUGAR PLANTATION - DAIRYING AND SERICULTURE SCHOOLS - REAFFORESTATION. Measures for developing agriculture and disseminating agricultural informa¬ tion are not confined altogether to the conducting of schools, however. Among other things the Government has established an experimental sugar plantation at Campos, in the State of Rio de Janeiro, and has decreed the establishment of another at Escada, State of Pernambuco. The sugar industry, formerly so prosperous, is said to be passing through a serious crisis, and it is expected that these new institutions will be the source of considerable knowledge on the planting and rational cultivation of cane, distribution of selected plants, fer¬ tilizers necessary to increase the saccharine content, etc., which will increase production. It is expected that the new establishments will demonstrate the value of replacing the slow and costly method of boiling in large tanks by modern and economical machinery. The Secretary of Agriculture expresses the opinion that when these modern plants are adopted, the interior of the States is traversed by railway lines, and native sugar is used for the manufac¬ ture of native confectionery and preserves, the sugar industry will no longer suffer from the periodical fits of depression that mark it now. The Government expects to establish many more such experiment stations. Schools of dairying and sericulture have also been established, and an expert from the United States, who made an investigation to determine the practica¬ bility of using dry-farming methods in the north of the country, has affirmed that this process can be adopted with absolute certainty of favorable results in the States whose soil, vegetation, and climate he studied. A demonstration camp is to be established in one of the States which suffer from the drought. The continuous destruction of the forests of Brazil has disturbed the hydro- graphic system of many rivers and has made necessary measures to protect the forests and to replant many of the waste lands formerly covered with trees. The botanical gardens w'ere given the name of Forest Garden, and the scope of work considerably broadened in order to make a study of reafforestation ; and from May to August, 1912, 273,622 saplings of fruit-bearing and ornamental trees and shrubs were sent out to municipalities and private individuals. BOLIVIA. Bolivia, in which the general diffusion of education is at present impossible, has the nucleus of future development in an excellent nor¬ mal school at Sucre, whose director, Dr. G. Rouma, is recognized as a leader in those psychological investigations which are bringing ele¬ mentary training into greater harmony with the natural interests and spontaneous activities of the young. 480 EDUCATION REPORT, 1912. CHILE. The system of public instruction in Chile received its formal organi¬ zation by law of January 9, 1879, but education was the subject of Government concern from the time the Chilean patriots achieved their independence of Spanish rule, and especially after the adoption of the constitution of 1838, which assured stable government. The importance of a new order of secondary schools was early recognized, and as a means of avoiding the excessive literary tendencies of the schools established during the Spanish regime the Instituto Peda- gogico was founded (1813) for the training of professors for the secondary schools (liceos). German professors were invited to form the .faculty of this institution, and as a consequence secondary edu¬ cation in Chile has developed under German influences and with a due proportion of scientific studies. The Pedagogical Institute is, in fact, a university school of education and the chief center of modem studies in South America. It was eventually opened to women, and thus widely extended its influence. The curriculum of the institute is divided into seven distinct sections, as follows : (1) Spanish; (2) French; (3) English; (4) Ger¬ man; (5) history and geography; (6) mathematics and physics; (7) biology, chemistry, and mineralogy. All students are required to take the strictly professional studies, namely, pedagogics, experi¬ mental psychology, logic, ethics, the history of philosophy, civics, and educational organization and legislation. In addition to the public liceos for general education, numbering 39 for men with an enrollment of about 9,500 students and 31 for women with an enrollment of 6,400, the provision for secondary education comprises technical schools of recent origin, which have assumed great importance in the industrial and business world. They include commercial schools at Santiago, Valparaiso, Concep¬ cion, and other cities, which take pupils from 12 to 15 years of age and thus represent the first stage of commercial education. The school of mechanical arts at Santiago bears the same relation to industrial education; Santiago has also led in provision for the industrial training of girls by the establishment of a school in which such trades as dressmaking and millinery are' taught, as well as bookkeeping, stenography, etc. The institutions for higher technical training maintained by the Government include a central agricultural institute and mining schools at La Serena, Santiago, and Copiapo. Textile industries are promoted by a private society, which maintains 14 schools, with about 1,000 pupils in training. The provision for various degrees and kinds of technical training and the scientific and literary char¬ acter of the Pedagogic Institute have given Chile educational leader¬ ship among the western States of South America. EDUCATION IN THE LATIN-AMERICAN STATES. 481 PARAGUAY. The purpose of the Government of Paraguay with respect to the development of popular education is indicated by the appointment of a commission in 1911 charged to investigate the educational sys¬ tems of the United States and Europe and to make recommendations as to needed reforms in the system of their own country. PERU. The industrial enterprise which marks the current history of Peru lias lead to close scrutiny of its educational condition and needs, and in 1909 measures looking to a complete reorganization of the system of public instruction wTere adopted. For the practical development of these measures assistance was sought by engaging a number of teachers and inspectors from the United States to take charge of in¬ dividual schools or for the practical oversight of particular districts. At the same time a specialist in educational administration, Dr. PI. E. Bard, who had served in the educational department of the Philippines, was selected to act as a consulting expert to the minister of public instruction. As a result of prolonged investigations and conferences a bill providing for the complete reorganization of the system of public instruction was prepared, but before legislative action could be secured the change in the Government which took place in October of the present year interrupted the proceedings. While political and social conditions interfere with the progress of elementary education the traditions of the country favor the de¬ velopment of higher education not only in its literary and phil¬ osophical forms, but in tecnnical directions. The engineering school, established in 1876 and one of the highest rank in South America, has been extended during the year by the addition of a mechanico- electrical section which was formally opened April 28, 1912. The School of Arts and Crafts, established in 1905, has been en¬ riched on the art side by the addition of a department of sculpture and reorganized on the industrial side under the direction of an electrical engineer, Mr. Victor M. Arana, a graduate from the Uni¬ versity of Notre Dame, Ind. Mr. Arana was appointed head of the electrical department early in 1911, and through his efforts, heartily supported by the Government, shops and laboratory facilities have been provided. The new building of the naval school at La Punta (Lima), which was opened with due ceremony September 15, 1912, is the product of native skill in design and construction. The building is of reen¬ forced concrete, with steel and concrete roof, and was erected at a cost of $70,000. 482 EDUCATION REPORT, 1912, The greatest hindrance to educational progress is the embarrassed financial situation of the country, which, as explained by President Billinghurst in his first message to the Congress, demands the im¬ mediate and concentrated efforts of the Government. URUGUAY. The progressive movement in Uruguay, so far as it pertains to education, is directed first to the spread of elementary education, and second to the improvement of agriculture through the scientific training of farmers and land workers. As the aboriginal races have disappeared from the country, it is freed from one of the greatest obstacles in South American States to the spread of popular educa¬ tion. The laws of 1877 and 1885 regulating public instruction in Uruguay, afford the basis for a very good system, and in Montevideo this has been well developed. The elementary schools of this city are organized in three divisions, of which the lowest comprises three grades or years ; the intermediate and highest divisions follow, each covering two years. The course of instruction for the three divi¬ sions includes a progressive course in manual training, beginning with the Froebelian gifts and ending with woodwork, after the sloyd system. The girls are taught housekeeping, cutting, and sewing, and gymnastics is practiced in all the schools. Medical inspection, which was authorized by law of August 7, 1908, is established in the city and includes the biennial examination of all teachers with re¬ gard to their health. According to the census of 1909, the Department of Montevideo comprised one-third of the total population of the State ; in 1910 the enrollment in the primary schools of this Department was equivalent to one-third the total enrollment for Uruguay, namely, 76,000, and the number of teachers bore the same ratio to the total teaching force. Fully 95 per cent of the pupils and teachers in the Depart¬ ment were in the schools of the capital. In this city the current ex¬ penditure for primary schools for the year specified was $332,227, equivalent to $14.42 per capita of the enrollment, which gives Monte¬ video very good standing in this respect, as compared with cities of the same size in the United States. Professional interests are stimulated by the publication at the capital of the Armies de Instruccion Primaria , which keeps its read¬ ers informed as to the progress of popular education and promotes the discussion of principles and methods. The current volume, for instance, presents a comprehensive report on vocational education (ensenanza profesional) in Belgium, and a full account of the EDUCATION IN THE LATIN-AMERICAN STATES. 483 organization of the American public schools, based upon a study of the schools of New York City.1 Among the State institutions maintained at Montevideo are two excellent normal schools, one for men and the other for women, a school of arts and trades, military college, and the university. In the rural districts of Uruguay primary education is in a back¬ ward state. A special investigation made in 1906 drew attention to the deplorable lack of suitable schoolhouses throughout the country and the bad condition of many that were in use. As a consequence of this revelation, above $1,000,000 were appropriated by the legisla¬ ture for new buildings and the improvement of the old, and at the same time a service of school inspection was organized. The interest thus aroused in the condition of the schools was stimulated by the census of 1909, which showed that 33 per cent of the people above 6 years of age were illiterate, or considering the native Uruguayans, above 30 per cent. Efforts were at once made for the enforcement of the compulsory education law and for increasing the provision of schools. Nearly one-half the entire population is rural and widely distributed, the density of population being only 15 to the square mile, about the same as in Texas and Nebraska. It is proposed to establish a school within reach of every child of school age living in the country. Measures have also been taken to raise the standard of qualification for rural teachers who have generally little or no train¬ ing and are ignorant of modern ideals and methods of education. As a means of arousing interest in these matters, the Government has recently sent a select company of women teachers to the United States, with instruction to familiarize themselves with the organi¬ zation of primary schools, their methods, and in particular with the conduct of manual training. The endeavor to promote the general diffusion of elementary edu¬ cation is intimately related to measures for improving rural indus¬ tries. The most important measure bearing directly upon this pur¬ pose is a law, passed in the session of 1910, providing for the establishment of six agricultural experiment stations, with a maxi¬ mum of 2,500 acres of land and an appropriation of $20,845 for salaries and general operating expenses for each station. For the expenses of expropriation, construction, and installation, the maxi¬ mum sum of $827,000 was provided, and the entire work was placed in charge of an inspector general at an annual salary of $4,963. Elaborate arrangements are making for expositions to be held in 1913 for the exploitation of the natural resources of the country. Among the number is an exposition to be held at Montevideo in April, under the auspices of the Rural Association of Uruguay, 1 An.ales. de Instruccion Primaria, Ano IX, Tomo X, Nos. 1-12. Abril de 1911-Marzo de 1912. 484 EDUCATION REPORT, 1912. which will be devoted to agricultural products, machinery, etc. A Government appropriation has been secured for this enterprise. The legislative appropriation for the service of public instruction amounted in 1911-12 to 8,100,725 pesos ($3,206,150), which was nearly one-tenth the entire budget. VENEZUELA. The Government of Venezuela. has just entered upon the work of reorganizing the system of public instruction, after carefully ma¬ tured plans. As a preliminary measure, Dr. Guillermo Todd, one of the leading professors of secondary education in the country, was commissioned to make extensive investigations in the United States with a view to advising as to reform measures, and soon after his return to Venezuela in 1911, was appointed special inspector of the colleges and Federal schools of the country and invested with broad advisory functions. These pertain to the means of securing the development of primary instruction in the municipalities; the development of modern programs for the colleges and schools; the selection of suitable illustrative material ; the examination and pro¬ motion of pupils from grade to grade ; personal instruction to teachers with respect to modern ideas and methods in education; advice as to textbooks for different grades of schools; the establishment of a pedagogical library and museum; close cooperation with the pro¬ fessors of the normal school, with reference both to the organization and conduct of that institution; and to the preparation of a manual similar to those in standard use in Europe and America, which will serve as a model for graduates of the institution in the ultimate conduct of their own schools. In the report embodying the results of his investigations Dr. Todd dwells particularly upon the importance of normal schools as the essential factor in a system of public instruction. Those of his own country, he explains, are little more than repetition schools wanting in professional instruction and in means for the practical applica¬ tion of pedagogic principles. He expresses the confident belief, however, that his recommendations as to these institutions will com¬ mand the support of the minister, since on account of his education in Europe and his familiarity with the conditions of progress abroad he is able to appreciate their full force. The normal schools of the United States and Germany are referred to by Dr. Todd as models in respect to the scope of their training and their material resources. He cites also the opinion of a “ distinguished foreigner ” who had i made a recent tour in the Latin- American States and who was deeply EDUCATION" IN' THE LATIN-AMERICAN STATES. 485 impressed by the fine buildings and ample equipments of the normal schools of Argentina and Uruguay. In view of this report, measures have already been adopted by the Government for the establishment of a model institution for training teachers, and an appropriation equivalent to $14,985 has been made for the purchase of modern school furniture for graded schools and an additional sum of nearly $6,000' for the purchase of illustrative material. The interests of industry and trade will be promoted by Government commercial schools in the leading cities and by a school of arts and trades for women to be established in Caracas. An ap¬ propriation has also been made for promoting agricultural education and plans have been formed for the equipment of a central agricul¬ tural school and experiment station. The backward condition of popular education in the Latin- Ameri¬ can States is in striking contrast to the development of university education and of the colleges preparatory to the former. This sub¬ ject is exhaustively treated in a bulletin recently published by this office.1 1 Bulletin, 1912, No. 30, Latin American Universities and Special Schools, by Dr. Edgar Ewing Brandon, -vice president of Miami University, Oxford, Ohio. ' , CHAPTER XVIII. GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND, CONTENTS. England and Wales : Brief conspectus of the system of public elementary schools. — Statistics. — Current movements.: — School attendance. — Teachers : Number ; financial status.— Welfare work and medical inspection : The function of the board of educa¬ tion ; state of medical inspection ; extension of medical service to juvenile workers ; auxiliary agencies. — Provision for vocational training. — Agencies for rural uplift. — Expanding scope of the State system. Scotland : Statistical summary of elementary and secondary schools. — Detailed statistics of primary and higher-grade schools. — Measures for prolonging school attendance : Supplementary classes ; continuation classes. — Central institutions. Ireland : System of national education. — Statistics for 1910-11. — The rural uplift move¬ ment. — The department of agriculture and technical instruction. ENGLAND AND WALES. SYSTEM OF PUBLIC ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS. The public elementary schools of England and Wales are adminis¬ tered in accordance with the education act of 1902, which abolished the former school boards and placed the schools under the charge of the local authorities (county and borough councils), and admitted private schools (chiefly parochial) to share in the local taxes, al¬ though under private management. Schools are supervised by local committees, but are subject to Government inspection. In 1911 there were 21,294 ordinary elementary schools, of which 8,377 were council (public) schools, with accommodation for 4,012,544 children, and 12,917 were voluntary (private), with accommodation for 2,839,576 children. Enrollment, 6,044,284, or 16.7 per cent of the population; teachers, men, 42,573 ; women, 127,842 ; total, 170,415. Statistics of State-aided elementary schools, 1911.1 2 Classes. Number. Accommo¬ dation. ( Enroll¬ ment. 1. Ordinary public elementary schools: (a) Maintained by local education authorities . 2 20, 780 6, 789, 741 17,799 } 6,030,718 (6) Not maintained by local education authorities . 66 2. Higher elementary schools . . . 47 12,447 7,598 2,255 8,852 3. “Certified efficient” schools . 65 4, 714 4. Certified schools for blind children . 38 1,782 3, 666 11,853 5. Certified schools for deaf children . _ . 50 4,265 6. Certified schools for mentally defective children: (a) Certified day schools . 165 11,811 (6) Certified boarding schools . 7 580 400 7. Certified schools for physically defective children: (a) Certified day schools . 62 4,614 492 4,327 (6) Certified boarding schools . 8 386 8. Certified boarding schools for epileptic children . . 6 i 518 377 Total . 21,294 6, 852, 120 6,067,075 1 Board of education. Statistics of public education in England and Wales, pt. 1. Educational statistics, 1910-11, p. 15. 2 Of these, 12,734 schools, with accommodation for 2,808,795 children, are “voluntary” schools that have accepted public supervision. 77236°— ed 1912— vol 1 - 33 487 488 EDUCATION REPORT, 1912. Summary of current accounts of local education authorities, year ending Mar. 31, 1911.1 Class. Amount. United States equivalent. Income: Elementary education . £24,170,821 4,665,968 24,087,318 4,658,623 $117,470,190 22,670,604 117,046,869 12, 640,908 Higher education . Expenditure: Elementary education . Higher education . Percentage of total income from various sources. Sources of income. Elementary education. Higher education. Parliamentary grants . 47.7 39.0 Rates (local taxes) and municipal funds . 50.5 25.8 Other local sources . . . 1.8 2 35.2 1 Board of education. Statistics of public education for England and Wales, pt. 2. Financial Sta¬ tistics, 1910-11-12, pp. 22, 23, 222-223. 2 Derived chiefly from endowments and fees. CURRENT MOVEMENTS. The present year (1912) promises to bring to a close the third period in the history of the State-aided system of elementary educa¬ tion in England and Wales, which dates from the passage of the education act of 1902 ; for while as yet no measure embodying liberal policies in respect to this matter has been submitted, the leaders of the Government are publicly committed to the support of such a measure. Notwithstanding continued opposition to the act of 1902, its benefits are fully recognized, and its best features will undoubtedly be preserved in a new education act. Under the county system and the extension of local taxes to inspected private (parochial) schools, these have been raised to the level of the public schools, a change of enormous importance in rural districts, which have no other provi¬ sion; further, the elementary schools have been brought into closer relations with the secondary and technical schools of the country. Meanwhile, by reason of supplementary measures, in particular the act of 1906, 1 providing for the supply of food to school children, and the act of 1907, 2 increasing the administrative scope of local educa¬ tion authorities, the school system has become the medium for many services directed to the general welfare of the young. SCHOOL ATTENDANCE. The school provision of the country is practically complete, the accommodation being slightly in excess of the estimated demand. In 1 Provisions of Meals Act, 1906. 2 Education (administrative provisions) Act, 1907. GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND. 489 large cities the movement of population may at any time cause a deficiency of places in one section, even while there is excess in an¬ other; in London, for instance, this is a constantly recurring diffi¬ culty, unavoidable but temporary. The enrollment in all classes of public elementary schools for the latest year reported (1910-11) was 6,067,075; of this number 27,791 were in schools for the deaf, the blind, and other defectives, leaving in schools for normal chil¬ dren 6,044,284, equivalent to 16.7 per cent of the total population (36,075,269). The average enrollment was 6,036,944, and on this number an average attendance of 89 per cent was maintained. En¬ rollment in the public elementary schools has declined since 1909 oii account of the exclusion of children under 5 years of age, the with¬ drawal of children above 12, and the effort to draw off the most promising children into secondary schools. The average attendance, on the contrary, steadily increases; for 1912 it is estimated at 5,550,000, or 90 per cent of the enrollment. It appears, therefore, that school attendance for the time actually required is in a fairly satisfactory condition. The steady approach to a common limit for obligatory school attendance is shown by the fact that 320 local authorities out of 327 have adopted by-laws covering the full time — i. e., 5 to 14 years of age — authorized by the education law. Unfortunately, however, the provisions for partial and total exemption are many and various ; so that a large proportion of pupils cease to attend school at 12 years of age and drift into casual occupations or into idleness and vagrancy. The school- attendance bill introduced during the current session of Parliament was intended to correct this evil. It provided uniform conditions for exemption, as follows: A child must satisfy the authority that he (a) has attained the age of 13 years, and (b) is about to enter into some employment which will, in the opinion of the authority, be beneficial to him. The measure had strong sup¬ port, but failed to get through the slow course of parliamentary pro¬ cedure. TEACHERS. The number of teachers of all grades employed in the schools in 1911 was 156,266, a decline of 3,248 in two years. This decrease is offset by improvement in professional competency. The number of trained certificated teachers rose from 47,064 in 1909 to 52,593 in 1911. The number who without training succeeded in passing at least the lower certificate examination increased in the same time from 39,672 to 40,351. In other words, one-third of the teachers had been specially trained for their work, an additional one-fourth had passed an easy examination, while a little less than half the force had no assured qualification for the work of teaching. 490 EDUCATION REPORT, 1912. The status of the elementary teachers has been somewhat improved by the new superannuation act, which was the only one of several education bills introduced into Parliament during the session of 1911-12 that was placed upon the statute book. This measure doubles the present rate of allowance, namely, 10s., for each year of recorded service; it also increases by 50 per cent the rates of £1 for men and 13s. 4d. for women at which disablement allowances are calculated in respect of each year of service after the first 10 years. The contribu¬ tions of men teachers to the deferred-annuity fund are increased from £3 10s. to £3 12s. per annum ; the future rates of contributions for both men and women teachers are made fixed and unchangeable. The act comprises a scheme of superannuation for other than ele¬ mentary teachers — i. e., secondary and technical teachers — in accord¬ ance with. regulations that have yet to be worked out. A special fund from the treasury, equivalent to a perpetual annuity of £200,000, was placed at the disposal of the minister for the purposes of this act. In this connection it may be noted that the board of education has introduced a four years’ course in the training colleges for teachers, which, for the present at least, will be optional. Experience has shown that a three years’ course, with the required practice, is not sufficient time for the students to prepare adequately either for the final examination or for the work which they are to enter. The optional course has been made attractive by pecuniary arrangements which secure to the men students who live at the college hostel £35 ($175) a year., instead of the £30 ($150) at present received; and to the women students £25 ($125), instead of the present £15 ($75). The significant fact in all these arrangements is the sympathetic attitude of the present education department toward elementary school-teachers. It remains true, however, that appointments and salaries are all in the hands of local authorities, and the complaint is made that many of these authorities are indifferent in the matter and offer very meager salaries. In his speech on the budget estimates Mr. Pease said: I stood almost aghast when I realized what the position was when I came to my present position. The average salary of an elementary school-teacher was £145 ($725) for men and £99 ($495) for women. In the large cities, which vie with each other to secure the best teachers, the average salary is much higher ; this consideration, how¬ ever, is offset by the still lower average in small towns and rural districts. In addition to the efforts for improving the financial prospects of the teachers, the education department during the current year has established the long-desired teachers’ registration council. This body is, first of all, to determine the conditions upon which teachers shall GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND. 491 be placed on the register; and as all teachers are included, whether elementary or secondary, the register will fix the standard for pro¬ fessional recognition. WELFARE WORK AND MEDICAL INSPECTION. The entire life of the children of the humbler classes has become a matter of public concern, through the operation of the act of 1906 providing for the supply of meals to needy children attending public elementary schools, and the act of 1907, making it the duty of the local councils to provide for the medical inspection of school chil¬ dren and authorizing the use of public funds for the recreation and physical training of pupils. The general direction of these new activities and duties is committed to the board of education, and thus from the outset means have been provided for unifying and equalizing the work throughout the Kingdom. The board of educa¬ tion has regarded the provision for the medical inspection of schools as part of a general movement, including also the act of 1906, and hence in plans for the service of medical inspection its relations to other forms of welfare work have been kept in view. In 1907 a medical department was ^ organized in the board, and Dr. George Newman was appointed chief medical officer. This appointment secured for the direction of the service a man eminent in the field of bacteriological research, an authority on subjects of hygiene and public health and experienced also in the practical duties of a medical officer. Associated with Dr. Newman was Dr. Alfred Eichholz, member of the staff of Government inspectors, and subsequently the department was strengthened by the addition of Dr. Janet Mary Campbell, formerly in the service of the London County Council, and Dr. Henry Crowley, formerly medical officer at Bradford. The four reports of the chief medical officer already issued are replete with information and suggestions valuable to all persons engaged in the service of public health and sanitation. In his third report (covering 1910), Dr. Newman asserts in emphatic terms the national importance of the service with which he is charged. On this subject he says : The conditions of life, both in respect of personal hygiene and of environment, which result in a high mortality among infants under 1 year of age, lead at the same time to a high degree of sickness and disablement among children of school age, and in the same way, and probably in even greater degree, sickness and disease of children lead to disease and disablement among adolescents and adults. The whole business, both of inspection and treatment of children, must be viewed, as an undertaking of absolute necessity, if the health and physical fitness of the Nation is first to be secured and then maintained. 492 EDUCATION REPORT, 1912, While approaching this subject with great professional experience and enthusiasm, Dr. Newman recognizes that these qualities alone will not suffice for an efficient enforcement of the law. “ No amount of medical skill, experience, and industry,” he says, “ can of itself avail to do what is requisite without a large measure of administrative ability.” In England, as he explains: Successful administration is dependent upon an effective coordination between all the local authorities concerned with health questions in an area, and upon a genuine and intimate cooperation between their officers, medical men, health visitors, school nurses, teachers, and attendance officers. Secondly, the differ¬ ent branches of school medical work need to be unified under the school medical officer. The branches which should thus be unified are: Medical inspection, medical treatment, the sanitation of schools, the provision and management of special schools for the defective, physical training, and the feeding of school children. These six activities are but parts of one under¬ taking in behalf of the children, and the full value and effect of these contribu¬ tory factors can only be secured as they are corelated and associated together in each area.1 THE FUNCTION OF THE BOARD OF EDUCATION. The duties thrown upon the board of education in respect to the service of medical inspection being of a purely advisory nature, the medical department began its work by the issue of circulars to the local authorities responsible for carrying out the provisions of the law. The scope and practical spirit of these circulars are clearly indicated by the subjects of which they treat, namely: Organiza¬ tion of the local service (Circular 576) ; schedule of medical inspec¬ tion (582) ; scope of the service (596) ; form of reports (728). Although the board of education is chiefly an advisory body, it has a compelling authority in regard to medical inspection through the control of conditions upon which the parliamentary grants for elementary education are disbursed. Immediately upon the passage of the law authorizing the service, certain conditions pertaining to it were embodied in the annual code, or body of regulations, with which a school must comply in order to secure a share of the grant. The sections of the code for 1912 pertaining to this matter are as follows : Satisfactory provision must be made for the medical inspection of children attending the school in accordance with section 13 (1) (b) of the Education (administrative provisions) Act, 1907. (Sec. 25 c.) The board must be satisfied that provision has been made for the school in the year, and of all children who are expected to leave school in the year — the year in each case being the 12 months ending on the 31st of July. (Sec. 58 b.) xAn. rep. for 1910 of chief medical officer of the bd. of educ. (issued iu 1911), pp. 1-2. GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND. 493 STATE OF MEDICAL INSPECTION. From the report of the medical officer for 1911 1 it appears that the schedule of medical inspection issued by the board has been adopted by 302 out of the 317 local authorities responsible for the execution of the law. These authorities reported for the schools under their control an average attendance in 1911 of 5,371,662 pupils. According to the official basis of estimate, the number of children subject to medical inspection — namely, those just entering and just leaving school — was 1,365,000. The “special cases,” about 250,000, would bring the total to one and a half millions. The services of 943 medical officers were required, including 74 women working in 47 different areas. Reports of the service were received at the cen¬ tral office from all the local offices, as required by law. In connection with the medical inspection, 212 local education authorities have appointed nurses or health visitors; the number of these auxiliary assistants for the year was 353, of whom 74 gave their entire time to the work. The pressing need of medical inspection is shown by the mere summary of conditions .disclosed in the last year. Of the children attending the schools, 10 per cent had defective eyesight, 4 per cent defective hearing, 7 per cent adenoids or enlarged tonsils, 40 per cent decayed teeth, 38 per cent were suffering from utter neglect of clean¬ liness, 1 per cent were tuberculous, and nearly 2 per cent had heart disease. Seventy-two authorities were giving free spectacles to children needing them, 22 authorities made provision for treating children in hospitals, and 48 authorities had established free clinics. Special interest attaches to the report of the medical inspection in London on account of the vast population to be dealt with and also because the London council did not immediately comply with the requirements of the board. The differences between the two bodies having ceased, the work is proceeding in accordance with the code conditions. Decided changes are therefore taking place in the system of inspection that has been long maintained in the metropolis. The summary for London shows — that medical inspection of some kind was carried out in 393 schools (in a total of 925) during the year (1910-11), and that 172,619 children were examined, of whom 42,886 were entrants and leavers as defined in the code, 23,214 were children between 8 and 9, and 5,812 were “specials” referred for medical examination by the teachers. The year under review not only saw the system of medical inspec¬ tion of school children in practical operation in every administrative area, but gave new and very convincing proof of the determination of the Government in this matter by a grant specifically assigned to 1 Issued by the board of education, 1912. 494 EDUCATION REPORT, 1912. the Work. The amount of this grant, £60,000 ($292,000), is not large and the regulations for its distribution are not yet definitely deter¬ mined, but from the present outlook it is certain that the amount will be increased as the demand arises. It is evident also that the health care work will not be restricted to the perfunctory examination of school children as they enter and pass out of school ; measures will be taken to carry the benefits of the service into humble homes, to stimulate, improve, and organize parental cooperation in the effort to safeguard the public health by insuring that of the rising genera¬ tions. This form of effort is reenforced by the provisions of the national insurance act relative to allowance for the sick, sanatoria for consumptives, etc. One of the chief medical authorities of the Kingdom declares that the full development of that act depends upon the health of the children at the public elementary schools.1 The ultimate hope of national health lies in the fact that the typical child u attending school from 5 to 14 is under continuous supervision by one authority.” AUXILIARY AGENCIES. The complement of such supervision is found in the various reme¬ dial agencies which had been provided in a few places even before the Government moved in the matter. Among these agencies are open-air schools, playground classes, and country schools for town children, which counteract the enfeebling influences of city life and indoor confinement. Arrangements are made for open-air classes in several ways. Of these the simplest is that of utilizing a selected classroom for the purpose. In such cases the window space is greatly extended, in order to provide a constant flow of fresh air, and the number of chil¬ dren restricted to half the number in an ordinary classroom. The children are selected by the medical inspector. This experiment has worked so well in Monmouthshire that the county education commit¬ tee recommend that in plans for new schools a special open-air class¬ room should be included. A second method is that of conducting classes in the playgrounds. The London authorities during the year maintained 50 such classes in session from April to September. Similar classes have been con¬ ducted in London in the playgrounds of schools for the defective, i. e.. the blind and the deaf-mute, under the immediate supervision of a medical officer of health. The experiment of sending children out from congested districts of large cities to country places for the purpose of education and health was continued during the year by public or private agencies centered 1 The Nation’s Children ; Juvenile Health and the Insurance Act, by Dr. Christopher Addison, M. P., in Daily News (London), Feb. 8, 1912. GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND. 495 in London and five other cities. With few exceptions, the country schools referred to have been in operation for two or three years.1 THE PROVISION OF MEALS. The main purpose of the supply of meals at public expense, as provided for by the act of 1906, is to insure that no child shall fail through lack of food to profit from the provision made by the State for its education. On the relation between this provision and the medical inspection authorized by the act of 1907 the chief medical officer says: It is certain that malnutrition and physical defects are closely associated and react upon each other, but it is difficult to determine their exact relation in each child or to say in what degree malnutrition causes the other physical evils. Merely to increase the supply of food would in many cases not solve the complex problem of the individual child, although in many cases lack of food lies at the root of the mischief. I am convinced that any work which a local education authority can usefully do to combat malnutrition must be done as a branch of their medical work ; and that on grounds of service as well as of convenience the provision of meals must, as far as possible, be effectively connected with the machinery of the school medical service. From a tabulated summary relating to the supply of meals at public expense, it appears that in 1910-11, of the 322 local administrative areas in England and Wales, 117, including 54 counties, 35 boroughs, and 28 urban districts, made provision for feeding children. The expenditure brought upon the local taxes varied greatly, falling as low as £3 ($15) in the small borough of Bury St. Edmunds and reached its maximum, £48,126 ($234,892), in London. The amount claimed from the local tax was generally at the rate of half a penny in the pound. The total number of meals furnished to school chil¬ dren in 1910-11 by local authorities outside of London was 7,634,395. The total for London was 8,487,824. On an average the London authorities fed 41,672 children every week. The final outcome of this service as it appears to Dr. Newman is significant. On this subject he says: In anything like the social and economic conditions which now prevail, the work which the local education authority can do in directly preventing and remedying the evils of malnutrition has somewhat definite limits. The proper and sufficient feeding of the child is primarily the function of the home, and it is to the gradual improvement of the home that local education authorities must look for relief from the special difficulties which confront them through the malnutrition of the child. To the agencies which are working in that direction local education authorities can themselves contribute materially by bringing into the home, through their own schools and classes and through their medical and nursing services, knowledge of the best ways of feeding and caring for children.2 1 See report of the chief medical officer for 1910, pp. 245-258, 303-313 ; report for 1911, pp. 269-286, 317-332. 2 Report for 1910, p. 258. 496 EDUCATION REPORT, 1912. EXTENSION OF MEDICAL SERVICE TO JUVENILE WORKERS. The basis for public action in respect to safeguarding young peo¬ ple who are early thrust into -industries is provided by the act of November 28, 1910, which authorized the education authorities to give assistance to boys and girls under IT years of age in securing employment. For this purpose employment committees advisory to the education authorities are appointed and juvenile labor bureaus established. Through these agencies attention has been called to the physical condition of the boys and girls seeking employment, which is found to have a very important bearing upon their success.1 Al¬ ready in some cities medical inspection is maintained over school children employed out of school hours or under partial exemption, and plans are considered for extending the inspection to young people above 14 years of age who are at work in factories. Such a plan has already been carried out at Dewsbury, where the school medical offi¬ cer is also the certifying factory surgeon. The London County Council in its capacity as education authority has made arrange- | ments whereby school children placed in employment may be kept under supervision until 18 years of age. Similar arrangements have also been made by the Birmingham authorities. Some idea of the magnitude of this proposed work may be formed from the fact that between 2,500 and 3,000 children were placed in employment by the advisory committees every week during the past year. The organization and extension of welfare work is the chief feature of the current record of elementary education in England. In re¬ spect to this service England has suddenly taken a foremost place among nations. The significant lesson of this achievement, reiterated by the chief medical officer, is that of the close relation of the various forms of welfare work and their dependence upon professional skill and knowledge. This lesson is emphasized by the action of the Lon¬ don council, which is responsible for the largest school population in the world comprised under one authority. In the reorganization of the work of medical inspection the London council has placed the medical inspection of children, which was formerly dealt with by the public health department, and the work of medical treatment, which devolved upon the education department, under the sole control of the chief medical officer of the county. PROVISION FOR VOCATIONAL TRAINING. The problem of vocational training engages great attention in manufacturing and commercial centers of England, but no marked advance has been made during the year toward its adequate solution. i See Bureau of Education, Bulletin, 1912, No. 11, “ Current Educational Topics Juvenile labor bureaus and vocational guidance in Great Britain. GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND. 497 The higher orders of technical training, as experience shows, are more readily secured than that elementary provision which prepares the great body of laborers for industry, opportunity, and good citi¬ zenship. The lack of agencies for the continued training of children beyond the primary school is declared by Mr. Pease, president of the board of education, to be “ the great blot on the English system.” The drop in school attendance of children above 12 years of age is alarming. More than one-third leave by the time they are 13 ; last year the pupils between the ages of 14 and 15 numbered only 36,000, being one-sixth the number between the ages of 12 and 13. It is estimated that 6 out of 7 children never appear in school after reach¬ ing the age of 15. “At any rate,” says the minister, “ the proportion of individuals who are educated only up to the age of 14 is excessive, and enormous sums of this country’s money are being wasted because we have no proper system of continuing the education of our young people.” The existing agencies for vocational training available for those who make up the great industrial army consists of evening technical schools, trade schools, day and evening, and tutorial classes con¬ ducted under the combined auspices of the universities and the Workers’ Educational Association. The trade schools and technical classes serve in the main those who are already at work. The tutorial classes are not vocational, but have a broader educational aim. They are due to the efforts of workingmen themselves for the development, social and civic, of their own class. The vocational problem is quite different, but here again the help of the workers and also that of the employers of labor is essential, and the most hopeful sign in re¬ spect to this matter is the recent action of these two factors. The Trades-Union Congress, at its annual meeting in September, unanimously adopted a resolution embodying an elaborate scheme of education and nurture for children, of which one clause is as fol¬ lows : That secondary and technical education be an essential part of every child’s education, and secure by such a reform and extension of the scholarship system as will place a maintenance scholarship within the reach of every child, and thus make it possible for all children to be full-time day pupils up to the age of 16. On the part of employers, the example of the North Eastern Rail¬ way Co. may be cited. They send some of their young people to the Armstrong College, at Newcastle, and not only pay their fees, but also their wages while they are attending technical classes. In this matter the company is doing voluntarily what several German States are obliging employers to do, and what, it is urged, England must soon require by law. 498 EDUCATION REPORT, 1912. In regard to provision for the higher orders of technical training the industrial centers of the Kingdom — Birmingham, Manchester, Leeds, etc. — are making wonderful strides by the establishment of municipal technical schools, which open a way from the higher elementary schools to the provincial universities, with which the technical schools are in close relation. AGENCIES FOR RURAL UPLIFT. The establishment of continuation schools fitted to the needs of the rural population as a whole progresses very slowly. The report of the Rural Education Conference, published in May, 1911, dealt particularly with this condition, and suggested a type of higher grade rural school as one means of improvement. The report of the conference, issued in November, 1911, deals with the consolidation of rural elementary schools, and as a result of extensive investigation expresses approval of the principle of consolidation, urges its adop¬ tion in suitable localities, and a special grant from the Government to aid in such experiments. The conference has issued two reports during the current year. The first, dated February 27, 1912, embodies the results of an inquiry into the courses of study for agricultural colleges, and the latest, bearing date June 13, 1912, treats of the co¬ ordination of the various agencies engaged in the work. Thus, while the county authorities almost without exception have provided for a system of agricultural education, the conference supplies expert opinions and directions to guide in the choice and conduct of agencies. The elementary stages of training for rural industries as at present developed in England comprise gardening, which is taught in 48 of the 49 county areas in England, and in 11 of the 13 in Wales. About 30,000 pupils take the subject. Dairying as a subject in elementary schools has only 180 pupils, chiefly girls. The teaching of domestic economy, including practical work in sewing, cooking, and other household arts, is required in all the schools for girls above the lowest or infant grade. The number of pupils reported in cookery classes in 1911 was about 320,000, and in laundry work 120,000. Of the total more than one-third were in schools outside of London and the other large cities. This work, which is increasing year by year, is effecting great improvement in the home life of rural communities. The county system of agricultural education 1 has made progress during the year. This provision is only one feature of a broad policy which includes the scheme of small holdings, under the act of 1907, improved rural housing and sanitation, reafforestation, and 1 See Report of the Commissioner of Education, 1911, vol. 1, Ch. X, pp. 382-385. GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND. 499 scientific farming. These projects are promoted by the farm schools and colleges of agriculture, whose effects are seen in the increased output of small farms and the spirit excited in owners and land agents. The schools and colleges which are also supplying to England a body of experts for the growing services of agricultural research, have the benefit of the treasury grant for agricultural education and research, amounting in 1912 to £18,840 ($89,562). The welfare activities covered by the latest report of the chief medical officer (1911) include measures for extending the benefits of public care and supervision to children below and above the school age. Among these measures must be included provision for teach¬ ing infant care, described as “ mother craft.” As a consequence of a memorandum on the teaching of infant care and management in public elementary schools,1 such instruction is rapidly becoming a part of the ordinary school course for girls and of the professional training for teachers. In the opinion of the medical officer, continu¬ ation classes and schools for teaching infant care and child hygiene to both mothers and girls are even more desirable. Experiments of this kind are reported from several towns, and in the county of Derbyshire an organizer has been appointed to arrange and supervise the teaching of home management, personal hygiene, etc. As yet no public authority has definite responsibilities in regard to these' mat¬ ters, beyond the immediate province of the school, but there is a growing recognition of the need of such provision. EXPANDING SCOPE OF THE STATE SYSTEM. The movement for vocational education in England is closely re¬ lated to the upward expansion of the system by subsidizing private secondary schools which accept official inspection, and by the con¬ tinuance of the work formerly conducted by the science and art department. The number of private schools coming into the arrangement is steadily increasing, and although the system does not accord with the rising spirit of democracy, it has turned to public service many endowments which were practically running to waste. The regulations issued by the department during the year for grant- aided technical institutions bring to an end the famous South Kensington system, with it elaborate lists of specific subjects from which students might choose, its syllabi for guidance and control, and its official examinations. The specific subjects are replaced by a grouped course arranged in junior, senior, and advanced sections. 1 Board of Education, Circular 758, 1910. 500 EDUCATION REPORT, 1912. Only two examinations are required in the course, and these may be conducted by the institutions themselves with the cooperation of an official examiner. Thus, throughout 'the system there is the evident purpose to meet the needs of students rather than to maintain tradi¬ tional standards. The present scope of the State-aided system is summed up in sub¬ stance by the minister as follows: In addition to the 5,500,000 children in average attendance at ele¬ mentary schools there are 982 inspected secondary schools, with 170,700 pupils; 84 technical colleges, with nearly 13,000 students; and in various technical classes throughout the country about 830,000 pupils. In addition to these institutions, all of which are aided from the public treasury, the education department dispenses grants to 22 universities and other higher institutions. Estimates submitted by Mr. Pease for the support of this system for 1912, so far as it is borne by the Government, amounted to £14,500,000 ($70,470,000). Of this sum, £13,750,000 ($66,825,000) was distrib¬ uted in grants in one form or other, and £159,000 ($772,740) in pen¬ sions for elementary teachers. The balance was required for the administrative work of the board of education. SCOTLAND. Scotland has an advantage over England in the unity of its edu¬ cational system, with the consequent coordination of all grades and classes of institutions and the maintenance of the open door from the elementary school to the university, which was the boast of the old parish system. The following statistics show the different classes of schools below the university plane that are supported or fostered by public funds: Classes of schools. Enrollment in 1911. Normal ages. Elementary: Primary . 818, 706 26,349 5-14 12-16 Higher grade . Total . . 845,055 Continuation classes. . . 14 12-18 or 12-16 137, 180 21,008 16,849 2,669 Secondary and intermediate. . . Central institutions . Training colleges for teachers . 16-18 GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND. 501 Statistics of primary and higher grade schools.1 Current expenditure : For board schools £3, 587, 712 For voluntary schools. £282,622 Total _ £3, 870, 334 United States equiva¬ lent _ _ $18,809,823 Per capita of enroll¬ ment _ $22. 25 The primary and higher grade schools correspond to the elementary schools of England; their enrollment (845,055) was equivalent to 174 per cent of the population. The tendency to enter children at the earliest statutory age, 5 j^ears, is encouraged by the school authori¬ ties, and it is noted with satisfaction that 20 per cent of the pupils are below 7 years of age; at the same time efforts are made to con¬ tinue the attendance of children at school after the upper statutory limit, i. e., 14 years, is reached. These efforts are promoted by the close coordination of the different classes of schools; as indicated by the normal age limits, pupils may pass from the ordinary pri¬ mary schools into the higher grade schools or the secondary schools at 12 years of age, or may complete the primary school course and continue their studies in continuation classes. MEASURES FOR PROLONGING SCHOOL ATTENDANCE. Apart from the success of the efforts to get all the children under instruction, the current events of greatest interest in Scotland relate to the new powers conferred upon the school boards by the education act of 1908. This act authorized the boards to make attendance com¬ pulsory at continuation schools, and, further, to provide for the physical and social improvement of the school children. The system of continued education begins in the ordinary schools with the sup¬ plementary classes, which lead to the continuation school and thence to higher institutions. Enrollment _ 845, 055 Average attendance _ 755, 988 Per cent of enrollment _ 89. 46 Teachers : Men _ 5, 309 Women _ 14, 833 Total _ _ _ 20, 142 SUPPLEMENTARY CLASSES. The supplementary classes have vitalized the work of the pri¬ mary schools by providing special facilities for the more capable pupils without breaking up the unity of the lower classes. The classes are parallel with the last two years of the regular course, but follow special programs with vocational ends in view, according to local conditions.2 Children are transferred from the regular to the 1 Report of the committee of the Privy Council on Education in Scotland, 1911-12 (issued June 7, 1912). 2 Educ. Dept., Circ. 374, Feb., 1903. 502 EDUCATION REPORT, 1912. supplementary classes upon examination and the record of previous work; special teachers are employed, and thus while backward and mediocre, pupils pursue the elementary course to the end, the more capable children get the full benefit of the school provision.1 The number of pupils approved for transfer to supplementary classes in 1911 was 59,406, and the special grants allowed for the same were claimed on an average attendance of 47,565 in 2,000 schools out of the total, 3,369. These figures are emphasized by the reports of the Government inspectors. The inspector for the Western Division (population 2,216,288) reports for Glasgow 56 supplementary courses, with 3,146 pupils, which number he hopes to see increased shortly to 5,000 or 6,000. Provision is made for instructing the boys and girls separately, with a view of giving the girls training in cookery and the domestic arts, mending garments, nursing children and the sick, housekeeping, with advice regarding the purchase of household necessities, which subjects, the inspector observes, are naturally taught by a woman only. The inspector for the Southern Division (population 1,229,983) gives the following statistics showing the character and growth of the supplementary classes in one district, population 135,062. Pupils in supplementary classes. Years. Cookery. | Laundry. Practical household economy. Dress¬ making. Wood¬ work. Garden¬ ing. Practical science. 1908-9 . 51 29 21 9 37 11 2 1909-10 . 61 33 22 7 45 15 * 2 1910-11 . 69 40 26 7 57 21 2 The inspector observes that — The teaching of these subjects is usually in the hands of special teachers, and follows recognized and well-defined lines. An exception to this rule is gardening, for which a special teacher is not available. The gardens have, however, all been laid out under the supervision of either the West or the East of Scotland College of Agriculture, and the officers of one or other of the colleges have given advice as to syllabuses of instruction. Highland Division . — -According to the inspector the subjects which have up till now figured less frequently in supplementary courses than one could wish are branches like cookery, laundry work, wood¬ work, and school gardening. Their introduction into the smaller schools has been retarded by various causes, of which the principal are the reluctance of boards to face the initial expense, the want of 1 For details of the organization of these classes, see Rep. Commis. of Educ., Ch. X, v. 1, 1911, pp. 372-377. GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND. 503 specially qualified teachers, and also the prejudice not infrequently entertained with regard to these branches by the public or by school managers. This attitude, however, is now becoming less common, nor, indeed, was it at any time universal. Further, school boards are now combining to maintain a special teacher, which reduces the cost. CONTINUATION CLASSES. Continuation classes are regulated by a special code applicable to either day or evening sessions. School boards may enact by-laws making attendance at such classes obligatory up to the age of IT years. For 1911-12, 603 authorities reported classes of this kind in 1,150 centers, an increase of 34 over the previous year, when the num¬ ber of pupils was 137,180. Sixteen school boards have framed com¬ pulsory by-laws requiring attendance upon the continuation classes, but the boards, as a rule, are moving very slowly in this respect, pre¬ ferring rather to excite an interest in the classes by rendering them practically effective. The courses of study for continuation classes are arranged in four divisions, of which the first is for the completion of general elemen¬ tary education; of the remainder two are specialized courses, either theoretical or strictly trade and technical, such as bookbinding, elec¬ trical engineering, etc.; the fourth course comprises subjects of varied character, i. e., dressmaking, military drill, repousse work, etc. Pupils who complete the full three years’ course in the continua¬ tion classes are prepared for admission to the central institutions, which form the crown of the system of practical education as dis¬ tinguished from the system of liberal education. The latter shows no decline by reason of the new provision which has arisen in re¬ sponse to new conditions and demands that have simply enlarged and enriched the field for the exercise of the highest orders of training and talent. The 16 central institutions are distinctively technical in character; they are aided by Government grants, subject to close supervision, conveniently placed to meet the requirements of the entire country, and have such relations with the universities that students, if they desire, may eventually complete their studies in the latter and secure a full degree. Naturally, technical and trade courses have been most highly developed both in the continuation classes and in the central institutions, but agriculture is engaging more and more attention. The admirable working of the county systems in England has led to similar measures in the Northern Division of the United Kingdom. Schemes recently formed for the extension of the work of agricul¬ tural colleges to the farming people include the appointment of a college organizer for each county or group of counties comprised in 77236°— ed 1912— vol 1 - 34 504 EDUCATION BEPOKT, 1912. the college area, dairy and poultry instructresses, and, in the case of the crofting districts comprised in the area of the Aberdeen College, the appointment of special crofter instructors. The formation of local advisory committees to assist the staffs of the colleges in the organization of the extension work is a feature of the schemes. Heriot Watt College The relation of the central institutions to the continuation classes and the local schools from which their students are drawn is illus¬ trated by the accompanying diagram, which pertains to the county of Midlothian. The centers of continuation classes are represented by the small parallelograms; to these centers pupils are drawn from the surrounding districts, arrangements being made for conveying pupils who live at great distance from the class. The central institution, Heriot- Watt College, is one of the most important in the Kingdom. GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND. 505 The following is a list of the central institutions at work in 1911-12 : Aberdeen and North of Scotland College of Agriculture. Aberdeen, Robert Gordon’s Technical College. Dundee Technical College and School of Art. Dunfermline College of Hygiene and Physical Training. Edinburgh and East of Scotland College of Agriculture. Edinburgh College of Art. Edinburgh, Heriot-Watt College. Edinburgh, Royal (Dick) Veterinary College. Edinburgh School of Cookery and Domestic Economy. Glasgow and West of Scotland College of Domestic Science. Glasgow and West of Scotland Technical College. Glasgow Athenaeum Commercial College. Glasgow School of Art. Glasgow Veterinary College. Leith Nautical College. The West of Scotland Agricultural College. WELFARE WORK. The general welfare work in behalf of children is not so highly developed in Scotland as in England; a few Scotch cities, however, show remarkable progress in this respect. The Edinburgh system of providing meals for poor children and also the system under which the pupils leaving school are aided in getting suitable employment have both attracted wide attention. In the Western Division of Scot¬ land all the counties except Argyle have established medical inspec¬ tion as a county service, and in the county named the work is only temporarily delayed. In the burgh of Peterhead, in the north of Scotland, through the concerted action of churches, charity organiza¬ tions, and the school board, a joint council has been formed, to which are committed all the services comprised under the head of welfare work, namely, child welfare from birth to the age of 16, juvenile- employment bureau, medical inspection of school children, feeding and clothing of school children, and charity organizations. IRELAND. The reform of education in Ireland, to use a phrase which has become common in the discussion of conditions in that island, awaits the issue of the pending legislation on home rule. Meanwhile, educa¬ tional progress appears from the official reports and is admitted even by candid observers who do not favor present conditions. The bishop of Limerick, in a recent address, eulogizes the very systems which are 506 EDUCATION REPORT, 1912. under a constant fire of criticism — the intermediate and the primary — as follows : In recent years all education in Ireland has made great advances. Under the commissioners of intermediate education we must allow, although we need not admire their system of examinations, that secondary education has received a very strong and vigorous impulse. And, what touches us here more nearly, we have in town and country as complete, as efficient, as well organized a system of primary education as you will find in any country, with, perhaps, the exception of Germany and Scotland. I know very well that a different opinion is nowadays expressed by speakers on public platforms, but for myself I prefer to exercise my own judgment, founded on a long and intimate acquaintance with our schools, than be led by these persons, the most of whom, as our Yankee friends would express it, are “ talking through their hats.” And I think that I may appeal to the business community of Limerick to bear me out in what I say of our primary schools. The greater number of them in this city are conducted by the Christian Brothers and I dare say that before a Limerick audience it is not necessary to argue their capability to train the intellect or form the character of youth. We have also some very fine National schools. I happen myself to be offi¬ cially connected with one of them, Leamy’s School, and I can affirm on my own knowledge that it is a school of the very first order. The National system, to which that school belongs, has spread over the whole country and has struck its roots deeply in the confidence of the people, for whom it is doing, on the widest scale, an educational work of the highest value. Statistics of the National system for 1910-11. Number of schools _ 8, 337 Average enrollment _ 699, 945 Average daily attendance - 495, 962 Per cent of average enrollment 70. 8 Number of teachers : Men _ 5, 697 Women _ 9, 584 Total _ 15, 281 Expenditure _ * _ £1, 714, 103 United States equivalent $8, 330, 540 Per capita of average en¬ rollment _ $11. 90 The National system of elementary education has won its way in the face of the schools of the Christian Brothers, which have accom¬ plished great things for Ireland and have a lasting place in the con¬ fidence of its people. These schools are carried on independently of the national commissioners, or what may be termed the public system, but the latter recognizes all church schools which comply with the official requirements. The average enrollment in the National schools for the latest year reported (1910-11) was 699,945. The attendance at the schools of the Christian Brothers would bring this total to about 720,000, or 16 per cent of the population. Separate schools are maintained for Roman Catholic and for Protestant pupils, the former constituting the great majority, i. e., 74.5 per cent of the total number. The distribution of the Roman GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND. 507 Catholic pupils for the year reviewed was as follows: 370,728 pupils in the separate schools for Roman Catholics ; 128,243 in mixed schools taught by teachers of that faith, and 3,987 in mixed schools taught by Protestant teachers. The separate schools for Protestants had 116,383 pupils, and the mixed schools under Protestant teachers 47,310. Early withdrawal from school is an evil of great proportions in this country, explained in part by the excess of the rural popula¬ tion, which forms 69 per cent of the total. The same cause accounts, also, for the low standing of pupils, of whom at the last report 43 per cent were in the first grade, the proportion falling to 13 per cent for the second grade, and the same for the third, with continued de¬ cline for the higher grades. Thus far, as these ratios indicate, the impulse given to secondary education by the system of official ex¬ aminations and Government grants has had little effect upon the class of children found in the elementary schools. Efforts for correcting the evils of irregular school attendance and nonattendance are directed mainly to inceasing the attractions of the schools, by means of better schoolhouses and more competent teachers. New and improved buildings are replacing makeshift schoolhouses, and a general scheme for increasing the salaries of teachers has been adopted by the Government, which is gradually going into effect. The increased expenditure thus incurred has been met by addi¬ tional appropriations from the public treasury, amounting to an average annual increase for the past four years of £23,000 ($113,780). Of the entire teaching force, numbering 12,829, more than two-thirds (68 per cent) have been trained in some one of the 10 training col¬ leges which receive Government grants. The commissioners urge large additions to the annual appropri¬ ation in order that Ireland may be brought to the level of Great Britain, by provision for public high schools, for school gardens, and for medical and dental inspection of school children. THE RURAL UPLIFT MOVEMENT. The recent progress in education is due in great measure to the remarkable movement for rural uplift, which is inseparably associated with the name of Horace Plunkett, first vice president of the Depart¬ ment of Agriculture and Technical Instruction. The work which he recommended not only transformed Ireland, but blazed the way which has since been followed in England and Scotland and stimulated similar efforts in other parts of the Empire. Primary education has been affected indirectly by this movement through the increased pros¬ perity of rural communities; in the same way the development of 508 EDUCATION REPORT, 1912. technical education has given an impetus to primary schools in the populous centers. New hopes and interests, arising from the higher rewards of industry, excite ambition alike in parents and children. In some measure the movement has affected the daily routine of the schools by creating an interest in subjects bearing directly upon the common industries of life. This is especially seen in the increasing number of schools offering instruction in domestic arts, i. e., cookery and laundry work ; since 1907 the number of girls taking this instruc¬ tion has more than doubled. In their latest report the commissioners call attention to arrangements made with the Department of Agricul¬ ture and Technical Instruction for the attendance of national school * pupils at classes in domestic economy in technical schools, where the local committees in charge of the latter are desirous of cooperating. A grant of 7s. 6d. per pupil is made to the authorities of the technical school. It is hoped by this means to secure for the pupils of urban districts a thoroughly sound course of instruction in domestic econ¬ omy. In this way also the elementary schools are brought into relation with the system of technical education. The revival of cottage industries, more particularly that of lace making, has brought different classes of society more closely together; women of the wealthier classes started the industry, furnished pat¬ terns and material at their own expense, and developed plans for marketing the lace. The congested districts board, which has taken up the work in the unproductive districts of western Ireland, has simply adopted the methods originated by Lady Aberdeen and her associates in the enterprise. The relations brought about through these benevolent activities have done much to revive the sense of • national unity and improvement, which has stimulated an interest in the revival of the Irish language. Leagues for the study of the Gaelic language and literature have been formed, and the subject has been included in the school programs, and in 1911 was taught in about one-third the entire number of national schools; in 191 schools a bilingual program of Irish and English has been adopted. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE AND TECHNICAL INSTRUCTION. The latest report of the work of the Department of Agriculture and Technical Instruction, covering the year 1911, shows an expendi¬ ture for the agricultural division of £139,000 ($647,540). Of this amount £3,500 ($17,010) was appropriated for investigation and research. The amount applied directly to the various agencies for agricultural education, i. e., agricultural colleges and stations, schools and classes, lectures and demonstrations, was in round numbers £33,000 ($165,000). GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND. 509 Among the agencies sharing in this fund were 9 schools of rural domestic economy for girls, with 656 pupils; 40 county instructors, who made during the year 14,700 visits to farms; and the Albert Agricultural College, at Glasnevin. The current year completes a decade in the movement for tech¬ nical education in Ireland which has borne an important part in the recent industrial progress of the country. The Department of Agri¬ culture and Technical Instruction began the work of the latter division in 1901 by establishing summer courses for training teachers in the sciences that underlie the industrial arts; classes in drawing and in manual work for teachers followed. Subsequently the depart¬ ment developed schemes of instruction and plans for the organization of technical and industrial classes for young pupils, in combination with local agencies. Scholarships were also established to assist pupils in pursuing these courses. The work spread until nearly all the secondary schools of Ireland have adopted the department program of experimental science and drawing. The final stage in this development is marked by the establishment of municipal tech¬ nical schools, which are aided by grants from the department. In a review of the decade the chief officer of the technical division of the department says: So far as rural industries are concerned the powers of the department are undoubtedly wide, and they have been freely and beneficially exercised. In¬ dustries for the making of lace and crochet and in embroidery, for which Ireland has become world-famed, have been encouraged and have developed; art crafts are practiced with success in many places. But outside the wide field of agricultural industries and of home industries, including machine knitting, sprigging, and the like, the department must confine its efforts to educational aid. Here, however, some interesting developments have taken place. * * * Among these may be noticed the glove-making industry in Tipperary and the machine-embroidery school at Ballydougan. The Municipal Technical Institute opened during the year at Limerick is an important addition to the six recently established in as many cities. The bishop of Limerick, who was the chief speaker at the inauguration of the building, congratulated his fellow towns¬ men that the institution was entirely their own, and he expressed the confident belief that it was destined to exercise for generations to come a “ profound and far-reaching influence upon the progress and prosperity of the city.” Although the Government does not contribute to the erection of the buildings for the municipal schools, they are partly maintained by grants from the department. The annual sum appropriated by this body for technical instruction is £55,000 ($275,000). Of this amount £26,000 ($130,000) is allotted to cities (county boroughs) and £29,000 ($145,000) is applied elsewhere. 510 EDUCATION REPORT, 1912. Attendance at universities of Great Britain and Ireland at specified dates. Students. Universities and university colleges. 1901 1903 1905 1907 Great Britain: England — Oxford (22 colleges, 3 halls and noncollegiate students) . - . . Cambridge (17 colleges, 1 hostel and non¬ collegiate students) . . Durham . London 1 . Birmingham . Bristol . Leeds . Liverpool . Manchester (Victoria) . Sheffield . 3,481 2,958 590 2, 132 677 2,404 3,570 2,900 1,831 3,005 814 842 667 1,914 3,648 3,742 3,054 870 3,071 850 3,463 926 3,264 848 833 790 1,152 512 815 914 1,432 676 University colleges (3) . University colleges for women (3) University of W ales (3 colleges) . . Scotland— 4, 131 417 1,428 1, 495 443 1,383 5,999 517 1,301 Aberdeen . Edinburgh . Glasgow . . . St. Andrews (3 colleges) . Ireland: Dublin University (Trinity) .... National University of Ireland — University College, Dublin. . University College, Cork. . . . Un»versity College, Galway. Queen’s University, Belfast . 755 2,929 2,013 419 976 171 97 359 814 2,990 2, 178 546 936 180 199 97 342 830 3,165 2,364 502 862 3, 278 2,580 531 184 232 97 387 240 254 112 371 1910 3,857 3,726 1,049 4,119 984 543 933 914 1,554 885 1,961 529 1,551 924 3,366 2, 709 561 450 1912 3,951 3,748 1,100 2 4, 120 1,017 700 901 1,078 1,557 818 3 781 312 1,500 988 3,421 2, 771 510 1,100 770 425 140 606 1 The University of London, reconstituted as a teaching university in 1900, in accordance with the pro¬ visions of the University of London act, 1898, comprises three colleges incorporated in the university and a large number of federated colleges and professional schools. The table presents the number of students registered in degree courses for the years specified. 2 1911. 3 Full time. CHAPTER XIX. EDUCATION IN THE KINGDOMS OF NORTHERN EUROPE. CONTENTS. Scandinavian countries — Denmark ; Sweden ; Norway. — Belgium : School provision ; wel¬ fare activities ; technical schools. — The Netherlands. SCANDINAVIAN COUNTRIES. The Scandinavian countries are characterized by their ample pro¬ vision of schools and the close adaptation of the teaching to the civic and industrial conditions of the people. Elementary education is free and compulsory for all children, the standard of qualifications for teachers is high, and continuation schools afford the means for prolonging the training of the people beyond the elementary stage. DENMARK. The basis of the general education in Denmark is the common school, or people’s school (decree of July 24, 1814, and act of March 29, 1904). Its task, according to an official statement — is to make its pupils good and righteous citizens in conformity with the Evan¬ gelical Christian religion (of the Lutheran State Church) and to give them a certain amount of instruction and expertness, so that they may eventually become useful citizens. The subjects taught are Danish, religion, penmanship, arithmetic, geography, history, singing, and gymnastics. The instruction given in the people’s schools is enlarged upon in the continuation schools, the evening schools, and the “ people’s high schools.” 1 Statistics of the various classes of schools, 1910-11. PRIMARY SYSTEM. Classes of schools. Schools. Teachers. Pupils. Elementary schools: City- Public— Copenhagen . 42 1, 613 316 51, 104 Frederickburg . 8 9,064 74, 237 Provincial . 147 2,239 Total public . 197 4, 168 1, 343 5,353 655 5,511 6, 008 134, 405 14, 793 242, 291 12,837 149, 198 255, 128 Private . 243 3,225 390 Rural- Public . Private . Continuation: City . 440 3, 615 Rural . 1 For particulars relating to the general system of education the office is indebted to the courtesy of Dr. Maurice Egan, American Minister to Denmark. 511 512 EDUCATION REPORT, 1912. Statistics of the various classes of schools , 1910-11 — Continued. SECONDARY SYSTEM. Classes of schools. Schools. Teachers. Pupils. Private: Latin schools . 39 903 9,860 17,815 Realskole . 126 1,174 State schools . 12 196 2,878 The grand total expended by the State during the year 1910-11 for all the different schools was 7,101,154 kroner ($1,903,109). Of this sum the amount appropriated to each of the institutions for higher education was: For the University of Copenhagen, 765,958 kroner; for the Polytecnicum, 331,009 kroner; for the Lyceums, 509,158 kroner: for the Royal Academy, 128.330 kroner; for the Veterinary High School, 477,967 kroner; total, 2,212,422 kroner. The communal expenditures for the year 1909-10 were as follows: Copenhagen, 5,275,162 kroner: provincial towns, 5,165,000 kroner; rural, 8,401,000 kroner; making a total of 18,841,162 kroner ($5,049,- 431). As is evident from these statistics the State and communal ex¬ penditures for public education are nearly 10 kroner ($2.86) for each inhabitant. Although the amount is rather large, vet it is bearing good fruit, for Denmark ranks high among the nations in respect to the standard and diffusion of public education. DANISH RURAL SCHOOLS. In the present world-wide movement for “ rural uplift ” Den¬ mark has attracted special attention by reason of its progress in this respect. This advanced position is due to the system of agricul¬ tural and distributive cooperation, and the diffusion of education which made this cooperation possible. The following statement 1 pertains to the means by which the Danish rural schools are maintained at their high state of efficiency: Attendance. — All normal children must attend the school sessions regularly through the eight years of the elementary schools. A fine is assessed and enforced by the Government for each and every day that is missed by any would-be truant. As a result Danish country districts show less than one- twentieth of 1 per cent illiteracy to-day. Size of school districts. — Two things determine the size of the school dis¬ tricts : (1) The number of children to be taught; and (2) the distance of the children from school. No child shall be obliged to go farther than English miles to school, and there must not be more than from 30 to 35 children in a room. Where the rural districts are thickly populated one may see two, three, and even four room schools. These are all well graded, but none of them 1 By H. W. Foght, specialist in rural education, U. S. Bureau of Education ; at present (March, 1913) on a tour of investigation in Denmark. EDUCATION IN SCANDINAVIAN COUNTRIES. 513 undertakes to do what we would call high-school work. This is the field of another kind of school — the folk high school. Schoolhouses. — All new school buildings in the country must be erected in compliance with certain rules laid down by the ministry of education. Sani¬ tation, proper ventilation, heating and lighting are covered by these rules. Every rural community of reasonable wealth must provide a suitable covered gymnasium. The less well-to-do communities must furnish a well prepared, leveled, and sanded space for outdoor gymnastics and play. This must meas¬ ure at least 600 square meters. The space must be inclosed and have small sheds for the preservation of gymnastic apparatus. Thus in Denmark every country boy and girl may have daily gymnastic training. Sanitation. — All classrooms must be thoroughly aired before and after school, as well as during intermissions. All floors must be scrubbed daily. Wood¬ work and furniture must also be wiped with a wet rag daily. Once a week the schoolrooms must be cleansed with soap and water. The school year. — The length of the school year is uniformly a minimum of 41 weeks of 246 school days in rural communities. School is carried on 6 days in the week. Some schools run as much as 300 days a year. However, this does not mean that all the children must attend all of these days, for an old law gives this minimum prescription that all children shall have at least 21 hours of instruction per week for 41 weeks. It is so arranged that the older pupils may attend 3 whole days and 2 half days, instead of the full time, during the summer, while the same holds good for the children during the winter months. In some cases the attendance may even be further reduced. Teacher preparation. — All teachers are licensed by the Government through the ministry of education, and just as thorough preparation is required of a teacher in the rural schools as of one in the grade schools in the towns and cities. The free public school covers the first eight years in the school system, whether in town or in the country. To supply teachers for these schools, 20 teachers’ seminaries have been established. Teachers for the higher schools (middle schools, gymnasia, etc.) are trained in other higher institutions nf the land. The training in these seminaries is uniformly strict and thoroughgoing. This means that rural districts get as thoroughly trained teachers as the towns do. Salaries for rural teachers. — Under the law of 1908 teachers in one-room schools receive a beginning salary of from 900 to 1,400 kroner per annum and receive an annual increase for 20 years until 1,000 kroner additional has been reached; i. e., a teacher may ultimately reach 2,400 kroner in money. _ Besides this, he receives free house, fuel, and good garden. These perquisites amount to another 1,000 kroner. Then he may earn 100 kroner to act as church chorister. This makes 3,500 kroner ($945), almost three times the average pay for rural teachers in the United States. The “ People’s High School ” is the institution by means of which Denmark has solved for itself the problem of the ethical and civic training of its adult population, and for this purpose it has been adopted by the other Scandinavian countries. During the present year 80 schools of this class were conducted in Denmark, with an attendance of about 8,000 young men and women. They were maintained usually by private contributions, the small fees paid by the students, and a State grant which averages for each school about 3,000 kroner ($800) a year. 514 EDUCATION REPORT, 1912. These high schools are intended for adults — that is, persons over 18 years of age — who pay their board and tuition for the session. In extreme cases they may get a public grant amounting to about half the expenses. The schools are privately owned, but in case not less than 20 persons attend one of the centers for three successive terms the State grants a small subsidy for its support. The session for men lasts for five months in the winter, and for women three months in the early summer. The more successful schools also take short-time scholars, generally elementary teachers, who spend a fort¬ night of their vacation in this way. The great majority of the students come from country towns and villages and from small farms, often at great sacrifice of time and money, animated by the desire for intellectual and moral guidance. The fact should be emphasized that this unique institution does not offer technical training. As one authority says: Nothing is taught that could be of any direct use to any scholar in his or her walk of life. The aim is to awaken souls, not to give practical knowl¬ edge. * * * To this end song and speech are the ancient and proved weapons employed. Nearly all the teaching is in the form of lectures. Not facts are sought, but truth ; not information, but new life. History is the main subject; history, the living spirit of the people, uniting all the sons of men. Lectures are also given on language and literature, on politics, poetry, science, and nature study. Much latitude is allowed to the teacher. It is recognized that not the wTord spoken, but the speaker of it, signifies. One hour’s daily gym¬ nastics is compulsory on all. In the larger schools there are social evenings, when the pupils ask questions which the head master answers and discusses. The value of the people’s high schools as agencies for civic and moral improvement was recognized during the year by the place given them in the program of the second international congress on moral education. As set forth in a paper presented on that occasion — The spirit that characterizes this institution springs from the belief that different as the work is to every one of us, nevertheless an education exists which is. common to us all, attainable through the common admission to the supreme good of the spiritual life. * * * The men of the high schools believe in the possibility of representing the life and work of even the greatest personalities in a way which makes at any rate the nourishing, inner kernel of it available and approachable even to the hum¬ blest man or woman. And this has a special application upon the spiritual property of any single people. A “popular” (folkelig) education means an education which has sprung up from a heartfelt living together with the history of the people and from a belief in this history as the property of all the mem¬ bers of the people being able to unite them into one living organism.1 1 Bredzorff, Thomas. The people's high schools in Denmark. ( In Memoires sur l’educa- tion morale ; presentes au deuxifeme congrfcs international d'education morale, La Haye, 1912.) EDUCATION IN SCANDINAVIAN COUNTEIES. 515 SWEDEN* Each country of the Scandinavian group offers some striking example of the means of promoting the general welfare of the people through school agencies. Sweden leads in respect to the provision of school gardens and vacation colonies, and the physical and manual training of school children through its unique system of gymnastics, and the complete adaptation of the sloyd exercises to different classes of schools. Notwithstanding its completeness and recognized excellence, the entire educational system of Sweden lias recently been brought under special investigation with a view to needed modifications. Of three commissions appointed for that purpose two have submitted exhaus¬ tive reports during the current year covering the fields assigned them. The first commission, appointed in 1906, was charged with the investigation of normal schools, primarily in Sweden, but for pur¬ poses of comparison including also foreign countries. The report of this commission, brings under review all conditions affecting the training of teachers in Sweden, admission to the teaching service, and the financial status of teachers. These matters necessarily in¬ volve the primary schools; hence the inquiry has covered the entire field of primary education. So far, time has been wanting for full consideration of the recommendations of the commission, which per¬ tain almost entirely to minor features of the system.1 The second commission was appointed in 1907 to investigate the system of technical and industrial education and, like the commission on normal schools, included foreign countries in its scope. The report of this commission brings together, therefore, a mass of infor¬ mation of great value to persons charged with the administration of the various orders of vocational and technical schools.2 NORWAY. Norway is noted for its ample provision of industrial schools which maintain and develop the arts characteristic of the nation, in particu¬ lar work in metals and wood, and the feminine industries of em¬ broidery and lace work. Recently attention has been directed to the need of training for agriculture, although Norway has a compara¬ tively small proportion of productive soil, 25 per cent, as against 90 per cent in Denmark. It is estimated that less than 4 per cent even of the productive land is under full cultivation. As a consequence of the recent agitation of this subject, measures have been taken to establish agricultural schools at selected centers and to interest 1 Folkundervisningskommittens Betankande, vols. 1-4. Stockholm, 1912. 2 TJnderd&nigt utl&tande och forslag till den lagre tekniska undervisningens ordande avgivet av den avkungl. maj : t den 4 Oktober, 1907, tillsatta kommitten. 1912. Vols. 1-3. 516 EDUCATION REPORT, 1912. farmers in improved methods and implements of agriculture by means of lectures and demonstrations. The manner in which technical schools arise in response to local needs is illustrated by the plans for a new trade school at Stavanger, described by the American consul at that town as follows : The school will start with three separate six month’ courses in electro¬ mechanics, architecture and building, and the canning and preserving industry. The plan is to give a practical elementary training to persons actually em¬ ployed in the vocations covered by the subjects. Those receiving the training must have a public-school education and have been actually employed in their several vocations for three years preceding their entering the school. Only a nominal tuition fee of 5 kroner ($1.34) per month will be charged, the only expense to students. Besides three trades teachers in electromechanics, building, and practical machinery, the school will have a teacher in chemistry one hour daily and one in arithmetic two hours daily. The trades teachers will receive a salary of 2,400 kroner ($643.20) per year. The plan is to have the day-school teachers employed also in the present night school, which will increase the above salaries somewhat.' The expense budget for the school as adopted calls for the following ex¬ penditures: Salary for manager, 600 kroner ($160.80); three trade teachers, at 2.400 kroner, 7,200 kroner ($1,929.60) ; one arithmetic teacher, 600 kroner ($160.80) ; one chemistry teacher. 450 kroner ($120.60) ; apparatus, janitor services, etc., 1,500 kroner ($402) ; library, 500 kroner ($134) ; free tuition for pupils, 300 kroner ($80.40) ; office supplies and examination expenses, 650 kroner ($174.20) ; total, 11,800 kroner ($3,162.40). The following is quoted from the local “Aftenblad.” This (Stavanger) amt is largely interested in mechanics, having 9,887 indus¬ trial workers. Few can afford to go to the elementary technical schools in Christiania, because of the cost and loss of wages. There is an especially strong demand for some technical education for those engaged in the canning factories, giving them at least elementary training as to raw materials, and the mechanical processes involved in canning and preserving fish, as well as some knowledge of elementary chemistry. The school is needed not only for the bene¬ fit of the laborers, but for the industrial concerns employing them. Already these industries have been greatly benefited by many inventions of workmen employed in the factories. And if these workmen are given some technical training the factories are bound to profit thereby,1 BELGIUM. SCHOOL PROVISION. In regard to the diffusion of public instruction Belgium presents great inequalities, some communes standing very high in this respect and others being exceedingly backward; hence the high degree of illiteracy, as shown by successive censuses. According to the latest census (1900), in Luxembourg, the Province in which instruction is Statement by Consul P. Emerson Taylor, Stavanger. EDUCATION IN BELGIUM. 517 most widely diffused, 20 per cent of the population above 8 years of age were illiterate, and in East and West Flanders, which stand low¬ est, 39 per cent. This showing is emphasized by the reports of the examination of recruits : In 1910 nearly 8.9 per cent of the young men called out for military service could neither read nor write, while in the neighboring nations there are practically no illiterates. The ab¬ sence of a compulsory-school- attendance law has long been deplored by leaders of the Liberal Party, as well as by prominent men among the Conservatives, but it is impossible at present to secure a majority for an educational measure. Bills introduced in the legislative ses¬ sions of 1910 and 1911 provided for limited compulsion, but none of them was passed. They served, however, to keep the subject before public attention. WELFARE ACTIVITIES. In striking contrast with the high degree of illiteracy in Belgium is the activity of individuals and of associations in promoting lib¬ eral ideas of popular education, and the support of enterprises for insuring the health and the social welfare of the young. Brussels is one of the chief centers of these activities in Europe, and affords suggestive lessons for other cities in respect to provision for school hygiene, medical inspection of school children, and general care for the health and welfare of the poor and necessitous. Vacation colonies are maintained every summer by the cooper¬ ation of the city authorities and numerous private associations. Of 2,500 children having by this means the benefit of a brief stay, in the country during the past year, 350 boys and 370 girls were taken to colonies maintained by the city; the remainder were in charge of private associations. For the medical inspection of school children a force of 15 doctors, 2 dental surgeons, and 4 nurses is employed. The medical corps includes a specialist in affections of the throat, nose, and ear, two spe¬ cialists in defects of vision, and two women doctors attached to the special schools fox girls. The nurses, who are a recent addition to the force, visit the homes of pupils needing particular attention. As the hospitals of Brussels are municipal institutions, it is easy to arrange for the continued care of those pupils who are found to be critically ill. Food and clothing are supplied to very poor children attending the public schools by two societies, viz, L'CEuvre de la Bouchee de Pain and ISQCuvre de la Soupe Scolaire . A third society, UCEuvre du Bol de Cafe , simply gives coffee and biscuit. The city govern¬ ment aids the work of these societies by appropriations amounting to about $3,000 annually. 518 EDUCATION REPOET, 1912. Distribution of clothing to destitute pupils is made both by the city and by private societies. In 1910 above 6,000 children bene¬ fited by this assistance. The latest endeavor for the welfare of pupils is the formation of committees to assist those who leave school, in their efforts to find suitable employment. The first committee of this kind was formed in 1910 in connection with a single school ; the example has since been followed in several other districts of the city. The inculcation of thrift and temperance is enjoined upon teach¬ ers of all grades of schools throughout Belgium ; in the former sub¬ ject the teaching is reenforced by the school savings banks, which according to the latest report had a total of 472,697 depositors in primary schools, and 35,646 in schools for adults. The deposits by the children amounted to 13,106,910 francs, and by the adults to 1,438,946 francs; or a total equivalent to $2,909,171. TECHNICAL SCHOOLS. The year has been marked in Belgium by the publication of a report on technical education, including technical schools of high order, and trade and industrial schools.1 The report covers the decade ended 1910, during which period the number of technical schools subsidized by the Government increased from 579 to 703. The latter comprised 389- schools for girlsr of which 330 were schools of domestic science and household arts, including professional schools for training teachers of these branches; the remaining technical schools for girls pertained to industries in which women are em¬ ployed, such as dressmaking, embroidery, making artificial flowers, lace work, decorative art, etc. The technical schools for boys include institutions as dissimilar as the vocational classes, which are held on Sunday, and highly or¬ ganized technical schools like the central schools of arts and trades at Anderlecht and Liege. The elaborate system of technical education is maintained by the cooperation of the State, the communes, and private bodies, but howTever maintained, the technical and industrial schools subsidized by the State are under Government inspection. STATISTICS. In 1910, the latest year for which official statistics are available, the number of children in primary schools, omitting infant schools and schools for the defective, was 929,347 ; in continuation schools 1 Minist&re de l’industrie et du travail ; Rapport general sur la situation de l’enseigne- ment technique en Belgique (1902-1910), Bruxelles, 1912 (2 vols.). EDUCATION IN THE NETHEKLANDS. 519 and classes for adults, 240,019; or a total of 1,169,366 pupils in ele¬ mentary schools under the ministry of public instruction. This total was 15.5 per cent of the population (7,516,730). The pupils in schools of commerce, industry, and agriculture num¬ bered altogether 52,486. These are the select and most ambitious graduates from the primary schools. The higher technical schools, 14 in number, are not included in the foregoing statement, as they draw their students from secondary schools, generally those of the lower order. The higher order of secondary schools (athenees royaux) prepare for the universities, which comprise in their organization the highest technical institutes in the Kingdom. The statistics for 1910 give a total of 6,073 students in the athenees ; 27,739 (18,572 boys, 9,167 girls) in the com¬ munal college, lower secondary schools; and 1,568 in the technical schools; or altogether in secondary schools, general and technical, 35,380 students; at the same time the four universities had 7,880 students, of whom one-third were in the technical departments.1 By its scope and supervisory service the system of technical edu¬ cation illustrates the broad distinction between skilled and unskilled! labor as economic factors in the State. This distinction gives ground for the propaganda in behalf of the social and intellectual uplift of the masses, which has its center in the University of Brussels. By reason of its private endowment and control, this university has been free to take advanced ground in respect to social and economic teachings. THE NETHERLANDS. Attention has been particularly directed to the Kingdom of the Netherlands during the year by the sessions of the second interna¬ tional congress on moral education which were held at The Hague August 22 to 27. The choice was determined in part by the dis¬ tinction of this city as a center of international interests; but it was also selected as a place favorable to free discussion of the ques¬ tions before the congress, for in the Netherlands tolerance is exer¬ cised toward all religious creeds and ethical doctrines. This spirit is fostered by the school system, which gives equal recognition to public nonsectarian schools and to religious schools of different de¬ nominations so long as they meet the Government requirements in regard to the qualification of teachers, programs, and standards. In this respect the Netherlands is naturally contrasted with Belgium, 1 The reports of the minister of public instruction are issued triennially in separate volumes for the three departments, primary, secondary, and superior. The latest reports bring the record through 1908-9. The statistics for 1910 are derived from the Annuaire Statistique de la Belgique, issued by the Ministry of the Interior in 1912. 77236°— ed 1912— vol 1 - 35 520 EDUCATION REPORT, 1912. where denominational prejudices seriously affect the progress of education. The population of the Netherlands was 5,945,155 in 1910, of which 59.5 per cent was rural. The enrollment in elementary schools the same year was 904,142, a little more than 15 per cent of the popula¬ tion, about the same ratio as in Belgium. School attendance, how¬ ever, is much more regular than in Belgium and the proportion of illiterates much lower. The sentiment of the people and the many inducements offered pupils in the way of prizes and of admission to industrial and tech¬ nical schools have combined to promote school attendance, and until a recent date the Netherlands had no compulsory law. Propositions for amending the school law in this respect were repeatedly con¬ sidered but abandoned for fear of disturbing the harmony that prevailed regarding the system. With the increase in urban popu¬ lations, which has been marked at each census since 1869, and the accompanying industrial changes, irregularities in school attendance increased, and in 1900, by the common consensus of all parties, a compulsory school- attendance law was passed. The effects of this law are already marked. According to official data for the com¬ munes reporting the item, the proportion of children of school age (7 to 13) not receiving instruction and not legally exempt from school attendance was 0.21 per cent in 1904; in 1908 the proportion had fallen to 0.10 per cent. The example of the Netherlands in this respect has given new impetus to the campaign for compulsory edu¬ cation waged by the Liberals in Belgium. During the present year the Kingdom has been excited by a claim on the part of the clerical authorities, both Catholic and Protestant, that the church school shall have equal claim with the public schools upon Government support; an amendment to the constitution has been proposed which would establish this provision as the funda¬ mental law of the land. Thus, on the eve of the new elections, which take place June 4, 1913, the question of church versus state has become a burning issue in this Kingdom. CHAPTER XX. EDUCATIONAL MOVEMENTS IN FRANCE AND SWITZER¬ LAND. CONTENTS. France : Conspectus of the administrative system. — Statistics of primary schools. — School attendance. — Medical inspection. — The teaching service. — The Government v. teachers’ syndicates. — Measures in the interests of teachers. — Need of continuation schools. — Secondary education : Classification of schools ; statistics of secondary schools for boys ; the new program ; development of secondary education for girls. — Higher education : Distribution of students ; the reorganization of medical studies ; Government appropriations for higher institutions, 1911 ; for the entire service, 1911-12. Switzerland : Distinctive features of public education. — Statistics. — Agencies for con¬ tinuation education. — Public expenditure for education. FRANCE. CONSPECTUS OF THE EDUCATIONAL SYSTEM. The system of public instruction comprises separate departments of primary, secondary, and higher education, each under its own chief director; the supreme authority being centralized in the minis¬ ter of public instruction. The minister, in advice with the superior council of education, drafts all laws modifying the system, and sub¬ mits the budget for education. These measures he supports in the legislature. For local educational administration, France is divided into 17 circumscriptions, called academies. The rector, or chief of an academy, assisted by the academic council, directs all classes of in¬ stitutions within his circumscription in accordance with the laws and ministerial decrees. The area for the administration of primary education is the Department, a civil division, but in respect to the control of schools subordinate to the academic rector. Primary schools are under the supervision of Government inspectors, and also of local inspectors and committees. Primary instruction is strictly secular, free, and compulsory for all children, ages 6 to 13, or until exemption certificate is secured. Teachers must be French citizens, belong to the laity, and have Government diplomas. Other ministries than that of public instruc¬ tion are charged with the administration of special classes of schools, i. e., technical, agricultural, military, etc. 521 522 EDUCATION REPORT, 1912. Statistics of primary schools, France and Algeria, 1909-10. Classes cf schools. Schools. Teachers. Enrolled pupils. Infant schools: Public — Lav . 2,672 11 1,174 129 6,816 17 1,540 229 509,512 1,905 91,129 17, 472 Cleric . . . . Private- Lay . Cleric . Total . . . 3,986 8,602 620,018 Primary and higher schools: Public— Boys' and mixed . 45,501 23, 619 3,423 9, 668 1 58,364 . 2 60,783 i 8,233 2 28, 168 3 2,482,885 4 2, 124, 354 3 349,705 4 681,833 Girls’ . Private — Boys’ and mixed . . Girls’ . . . Total... . 82,211 155, 548 5, 638, 777 1 Men. 2 Women. 3 Boys. 4 Girls. SCHOOL ATTENDANCE. In France the provision of public primary schools is quite equal to the demand, but school attendance is unsatisfactory. Thirty years have elapsed since the passage of the compulsory school law, and France is still disturbed by the number of illiterates. In 1907, of the total recruits entering the military service, 3 per cent were illiterate, while for Prussia and Switzerland the ratio was less than 1 per cent. This disparity fixes attention upon the state of school attendance, as reported by local inspectors from many parts of the country. It is estimated that in the suburbs of Paris two-thirds of the children of school age are absent from May to November, or during that time attend school only 60 or 80 half days. In many country districts the degree of irregular attendance or nonattendance is much greater. Yet, according to the law, every commune has a committee to look after school attendance and a fund to assist poor children in order that they may attend. The machinery simply does not work. What is needed — says one inspector — is not alone better enforcement of the compulsory law, but a new conception of popular education, a new spirit in the teaching corps, and in the people themselves. The irregularity of school attendance and the tendency to early withdrawal are the more noticeable from the fact that the census of the school population and the actual enrollment in school are strictly supervised. The enrollment in primary schools (excluding infant schools) has been maintained for several years at 14.2 per cent of the total population (39,601,509) ; this is a fair ratio for France, in which the child population is comparatively small. EDUCATIONAL MOVEMENTS IN FRANCE. 523 MEDICAL INSPECTION. Although the actual work of the schools is peculiarly uniform throughout France, city schools offer many advantages that are want¬ ing in the country. For instance, in the former, medical inspection is generally well organized and effectively carried out. In the Department of the Seine (population, 4,154,042) there are 275 medi¬ cal inspectors who visit the schools of their respective districts every week. Equal provision is made by other cities, Lyon, Bordeaux, Nancy, Lille, Havre, etc. In the rural regions the service is neither well organized nor adequate, and it is to their interests that the pending bill is directed, providing for medical school inspection throughout the nation. The measure was strongly supported by the congress of school medical inspectors held during the year. THE TEACHING SERVICE. The spirit of the teaching force at the present time is in striking contrast with that which prevailed during the early years of the third Republic. The primary school was then the hope of the future, and men and women were drawn to its service by patriotic fervor. This high enthusiasm has passed, and to-day the recruitment of the service is subject to the same conditions as in other countries. The falling off in the number of candidates, as well as in their quality, excites apprehension for the future. For a full understanding of the changed conditions it should be recalled that one feature of the system of primary instruction cre¬ ated by the Republic was the ample provision of local nprmal schools. The law required that there should be two in every Department (one for each sex), excepting in case a Department should be ’ authorized to combine with another for this purpose. Unity of ideals, as well as the efficiencjr of the primary normal schools, was secured by the creation of two higher normal schools — St. Cloud for men, Fontenay- aux-Roses for women — to prepare professors for the departmental schools. Candidates seeking admission to the primary normals must be at least 16 years of age and must have already passed the examination entitling one to the brevet elementaire, or lowest grade teacher’s diploma. The course of the primary normal schools covers three years, the last year being given entirely to professional training, theoretic and practical; only students who pass successfully the examination at the end of the second year, which entitles them to the brevet superieure; or teacher’s diploma of the higher degree, are allowed to remain for the third year. Not the social welfare alone, but professional pride as well, is imperiled in the lowering standard of the teaching service, and in 524 EDUCATION REPOET, 1912. the interest of the profession itself an inquiry into the causes of the present crisis has been conducted during the year by the Manuel General, which, under the direction of M. F. Buisson, has long been the forum and bulwark of the primary teachers. The inquiry dis¬ closes the fact that the number of candidates for admission to the primary normal schools fell from 4,909 in 1906 to 3,692 in 1912, a decrease of 1,217, or one-third of the present total, in six years; but of the 3,692 candidates offering themselves in the current year, only 1,630, or less than one-half of the whole number, passed the admission requirements; the failure in this respect was common to all the 87 Departments, and it implies, further, a decline in the stand¬ ard of the first-grade diploma, which is held by many probationary teachers who do not enter the normal school at all. The reporter commenting on the situation says : The greatest need of the present moment is to assure to the schools a sufficient number of qualified teachers. To this purpose many things must conduce. The efforts of the teachers themselves will not be wanting, but they demand that they shall have some other aid than discourses and soothing felicitations upon their devotion to the grandeur of the work which they accomplish. THE GOVERNMENT V. TEACHERS’ SYNDICATES. Unusual complications affecting the service have arisen during the year from the action of the Government in respect to teachers’ syndi¬ cates. As civil servants, teachers are forbidden to form trade-unions or to take part in political affairs. The legality of teachers’ unions which have existed for many years was, however, provisionally affirmed by the French Legislature in 1905 in connection with legis¬ lation affecting the religious orders. The unions, or “ amicales,” as they are called, are rather loosely organized and have for their object simply the promotion of the professional spirit and the welfare of their members. The general association of teachers is formed by the federation of the “ amicales,” and numbers about 98,000 members. From the unions have arisen teachers’ syndicates, which are more closely organized than the unions, and carry on an active and aggres¬ sive campaign for the social and financial improvement of teachers. While it is difficult to distinguish between the syndicates and the amicales, the great body of teachers belonging to the latter are not members of the former. Through the similarity of their purposes the syndicates were drawn into close relations with the unions of workmen (trade- unions), and finally the federation of the teachers’ syndicates was affiliated with th q Confederation generate du travail ( C . G. 77.),1 an action opposed by the Government. 1 Buisson, F. Nouveau dictionnaire de pedagogie. Article, Syndicats d'instituteurs. EDUCATIONAL MOVEMENTS IN FRANCE. 525 At the annual congress of the Teachers’ Federation, held at Cham- bery in August of the present year, resolutions were adopted express¬ ing sympathy with the trade-unions, especially in view of recent repressive acts of the Government, and pledging a fund, the “sou du soldat,” intended to aid “ their comrades, the syndicated soldiers, morally and financially.” The resolutions gave rise to somewhat heated discussion in the con¬ gress as to the true relations between the federation of amicales and the teachers’ syndicates, but the congress finally accorded the syndi¬ cates full liberty to retain their relation with the amicales. On the part of the Government the resolutions adopted by the congress were regarded as unpatriotic, designed to promote the anti- military propaganda among the French regiments, and in general as a sign of insubordination on the part of the teachers. Consequently, the minister of public instruction issued a circular letter directing the dissolution of the syndicates before September 10, 1 and on the opening of the fall session of the schools a second circular letter addressed to the academy inspectors instructing them to enforce the previous order.2 The order of dissolution does not apply to the amicales, but the executive committee of their federation protests against it as contrary to law, and they claim for teachers the common rights in regard to association. The union of the Seine, which is the largest in France, has denounced the order in much more resolute terms, and at the same time declares that the only remedy for the unsatisfactory state of the teaching profession is to increase the salaries of teachers, pro¬ tect them from social indignities, and guarantee them civil rights. The teachers generally support their comrades of the syndicate, and maintain that the spirit of the resolutions adopted at the congress has been wrongly interpreted; but as the excitement subsides it is admitted by many that the language of the resolutions was imprudent. Although the Chamber of Deputies has sustained the ministerial order, the provisional measure of 1905, authorizing teachers’ unions, has not been rescinded. The final disposition of the case awaits legislative action, which will determine exactly the limitations upon teachers who are members of the civil service. In this respect the position of French teachers is in marked contrast with the freedom of teachers in England and in the United States. It is of interest to note the opinion of M. Poincare on this subject, who, since the events referred to, has been elected President of France. 1 Bulletin administrate Aug. 24, 1912, p. 410. 2 Ibid, Oct. 12, 1912, p. 658. 526 EDUCATION REPORT, 1912. In an address delivered at Nantes in November, M. Poincare, at that time Prime Minister of France, said: The provisional and irregular state of the administration at the present time can not be prolonged without peril to the public order. The Government has, therefore, agreed with the committee of the Chamber of Deputies upon the essential outlines of a bill. The chairman of the committee has finished his report. Everything is now ready for a discussion, and this can not be prolonged without aggravating the difficulties of a problem which becomes more and more complicated. Certainly no one could desire to restore the inflexible rigidity of the administrative hierarchy of the year VIII; the associations of civil servants have united in a movement which it would be idle to attempt to re¬ press and the importance of which can not be denied ; but public servants have some social advantages which neither workmen nor farmers possess, and conse¬ quently they have not a right to the same independence. It is necessary, there¬ fore that the law, while giving to them the guaranty of a fixed and regular statute, shall determine precisely their prerogatives and their obligations.1 MEASURES IN THE INTERESTS OF TEACHERS. The pressing need of improved conditions for the teachers in the service of the public elementary schools is fully recognized by the Government, which by longer delay in this respect is exposing itself to the perils of illiteracy and to the insidious criticism of anti- republicans. In his estimates for the service for the coming year (1913) Minister Guisffhau provides for increases in the annual salaries guaranteed by the States as follows: For probationers, from 1,000 francs to 1,200 france ($200 to $240) ; of the lowest grade certificated teachers, from 1,200 francs to 1,500 francs ($240 to $300) ; the maximum salary for a man, from 2,200 francs to 2,500 francs ($440 to $500) ; and for a woman, from 2,000 francs to 2,300 francs ($400 to $460). Special provision is also promised for teachers who suffer from tuberculosis. These measures, which are to come gradually into effect during the next five years, it is estimated will cost the treasury 40,000,000 francs ($8,000,000). In addition to this financial relief the minister made an urgent appeal for measures looking to the protection of teachers against local tyranny and clerical attacks and an increase in the number of teachers appointed on the departmental councils which advise in matters pertaining to elementary education. NEED OF CONTINUATION SCHOOLS. # The problem of school attendance merges into the larger problem of compulsory attendance upon continuation schools, “poste scolaire 1 Cited from Le Volume, No. 7 (Nov. 9), 1912, p. 100. EDUCATIONAL MOVEMENTS IN FRANCE. 527 obligatoire,” which has also been the subject of a special investigation during the year on the part of the “Manuel General.” In France, as in other countries, the question of legal provision for prolonging the period of school attendance is inseparable from that of vocational training; but in regard to the latter question France differs some¬ what from other countries from the fact that it has long been pro¬ vided with facilities for preserving the distinctive qualities of its manufacturers, artistic design and perfect finish, which require an elite body of workmen in every trade; it is for the maintenance of such a corps that the network of technical schools, public and private, has developed. The extent and the limitations of this provision are indicated by Prof. Mortier, of the Ecole Rationale Professionnelle, of Vierzon, an authority on this subject. In a recent article Prof. Mortier sums up the present situation substantially as follows: Both from economic and moral considerations, the welfare of the nation and the rights of the child, it is a duty to secure to each individual a vocation after having given him primary instruction. These are pressing questions, to the study of which we have seen during the past few years both workmen and employers multiplying their efforts, rivaling each other in zeal — as well as the press, public authorities, and educators. From this study we learn that out of a million of young French people reaching the time of independent work, only 25,000 have been trained in the vocational schools (ecoles professionnelles), 5,000 of these in private schools, while from 60,000 to 70,000 attend with a fair degree of regularity courses of public instruction, vocational in their character — 100,000 privileged youths out of 1,000,000! In this respect wre are surpassed by Prussia with its 1,719 courses for industrial training and its 381 commercial schools; or altogether 21 schools or classes comprising about 360,000 pupils (600,000 if all Germany be considered). These numbers do not include the 204 special schools fqr building trades, construction of machines, industrial arts, textiles, etc., with nearly 45,000 pupils. Even Belgium leaves us far behind with its 70,000 pupils; and Denmark, with a population of 2,500,000, counts in its industrial and commercial schools 23,000 students, as many as France with its much larger population. Moreover, to these schools we devote only 7,000,000 francs ($1,400,000), while the board of education for England disburses for the same work more than 30,000,000 francs ($6,000,000) ; Germany, more than 40,000,000 ($8,000,000) ; Austria, 15,000,000 ($3,000,000) ; and Switzerland, 8,500,000 francs ($1,700,000). No wonder that, according to statistics during the past 20 years, 1890-1910, the increase of the exportations of Germany and of Belgium, for example, was from 124 to 129 per cent against 66 per cent increase for France. Although the year under review has been marked by agitation and discussion of the problems here considered, the only important meas¬ ure adopted by the legislature looking to the general welfare of the young is the appointment of a parliamentary commission to study the means of supplementing the work of the schools by provision for physical education, hygiene, and sports. 528 EDUCATION REPORT, 1912. DEPARTMENT OF SECONDARY EDUCATION. Secondary education in France comprises the State lycees and communal colleges for boys, and institutions bearing the same titles for girls ; the latter, however, have distinctive courses of study. The typical secondary schools are the lycees for boys, established by the State with the concurrence of the municipalities. Every effort is made by the Government to attract to these schools the most promis¬ ing youth of the nation, and to surround them with influences that shall insure their devotion to the Republic. The communal colleges follow, nominally, the same program as the lycees, but, as a rule, do not maintain the complete secondary course of study. Under recent regulations, the colleges are assum¬ ing more and more the character of local high schools similar to the higher primary schools. The following table shows the enrollment of students in the lycees and colleges for boys for the latest year reported : Enrollment in public secondary schools for boys, 1910. Institutions. Number. Students. State schools: Lycees . Ill 231 60,618 36, 173 Colleges . Total . 342 96, 791 THE NEW PROGRAM. ’ • Current discussions pertaining to secondary education relate chiefly to changes in the curriculum as determined by the program of 1902, which has been under constant criticism ever since its adoption.1 The official program, it should be recalled, is uniform for all pub¬ lic secondary schools, and since it leads to the baccalaureate exami¬ nation, it virtually controls the course of instruction in private sec¬ ondary schools and therefore determines the intellectual character of the nation itself. Slight modifications have been made in the program from time to time, but none so important as that authorized by the arrete of No¬ vember 15, 1912.2 This relates to the literary subjects which form the center of liberal education, as the term has long been interpreted in France. The program of 1902 was intended to give scientific studies equal value with the literary or classical; the new program indicates a disposition to give slight preference to the latter. The 1 See Rep. Commissioner of Educ., 1902, Vol. I, ch. 4, pp. 691-693. 2 See Bulletin Administratif, 1912, No. 2054 (Nov. 23), p. 945. EDUCATIONAL MOVEMENTS IN FRANCE. 529 changes pertain mainly to the division of time assigned to French, ancient languages, and modern languages. By grouping the sub¬ jects, it is possible to allow some choice as to the language that shall receive chief attention without material change in the division of, time between different groups. Similar combinations had already been authorized for the cognate branches, mathematics, physics, and natural sciences, by an arrete of May 18, 1912, 1 and in the extension of the group system it has been found possible to increase slightly the amount of time given to language studies. The chief significance of this change lies in the adoption of the group classification, but it has also other purposes which illustrate certain principles of general application. By common accord, teachers, parents, and physicians who were consulted on the subject urged some reduction in the number of recitation hours required by the program of 1902 and in the number of different subjects between which the time of the pupil was divided and his attention distributed ; hence, slight reductions have been effected in these particulars, espe¬ cially in the lower classes. By the combination of allied subjects it has been possible to arrange so that in the earlier years the pupil remains longer under the direction of one master, whose essential task it is to teach him how to study. As the pupil advances in age, on the contrary, he will be left more to his personal effort and to the habit of relying upon his own powers. It is pointed out that the combinations impress upon students the actual relations between subjects and, further, that by keeping a group of subjects under one authority or direction the system meets the views of associations of professors and of parents, who have urged upon the legislature and in the press the importance of emphasizing the role of principal pro¬ fessors. This arrangement also leaves the teacher freedom to give most time to the subjects in which his pupils are weakest or which for any cause need special attention at a given time. The persistent efforts of the literary forces in France to preserve the culture influences of the classics in the secondary schools have had their effect in the readjustment of the program. The grouping of language studies emphasizes anew the pursuit of Latin as a means of perfecting the student in his native language, which, in the opinion of F rench professors and the literati of the country, is its main pur¬ pose. An endeavor has also been made to prevent further decline in the study of Greek, by creating a classical division in which this language is obligatory. 1 See Bulletin Administrate, 1912, No. 2028 (May 18), pp. 710-734. 530 EDUCATION REPORT, 1912. The new program, which goes into effect October, 1913, is indicated by the following tabular outline of subjects and weekly distribution of time : Program of French Secondary Schools (Lycties).1 [Preparatory division (average ages, 7 to 8 years) common to all pupils.) Hours per week. Subjects. First year. Second year. French . 9 7 Moral and civic instruction . (a) 2£ Writing . 2i Modern languages- . ■"3 2 Historic narrations . 1 1 Geography . i£ 3 U Arithmetic . 3 Object lessons . 1 1 Drawing . 1 1 Singing . 1 1 Total . 20 20 1 See official circular, Bulletin administratif du Ministere de l’Instruction publique, 1912, No. 2054 (Nov. 23), pp. 945-955. * Combined with French history and geography. Program of Secondary Instruction. FIRST CYCLE. [Duration, 4 years, from sixieme to troisieme (sixth class to third class.)] SIXIEME ET CINQUIEME (SIXTH AND FIFTH CLASSES). Division A (classical) : French . . Latin . Modern languages . History and geography Arithmetic . Natural sciences . Drawing . Hours. 10 5 3 2 1 2 Division B (nonclassical): French . Penmanship . Modern languages . History and geography Arithmetic . Natural sciences . Drawing . Hours. 6 1 5 3 3 2 . ' 2 Total 23 Total 22 QUATRIEME (FOURTH CLASS). Division A. Division B. Subjects. Section with Greek. Section without Greek. Section without Latin and Greek. Literary subjects: French, Latin, Greek, Ethics 1 . Hours. 13 Hours. 10 Hours. 6 Modern languages . 3 4 4 History and geography . . . 3 3 3 Mathematics . 2 2 2 4£ Natural sciences . 1 1 Drawing . 1 2 2 Phvsics and chemistry . . . n Total . 23 22 22 La Morale. Mathematics, in this section, includes bookkeeping and geometric drawing. EDUCATIONAL MOVEMENTS IN FRANCE. 531 Program of Secondary Instruction — Continued. FIRST CYCLE— Continued. TROISIEME (THIRD CLASS). Subjects. Division A. Division B. Section with Greek Section without • Greek. Section without Latin and Greek. Literary subjects: French, Latin, Greek, Ethics 1 * 3 . Hours. 14 3 3 3 Hours. 11 4 3 3 Hours. 5 3 > * 2 H . l Modern languages . History and geography . Mathematics . Geometric drawing . Drawing . 1 2 Physics and chemistry . Natural sciences . Total . 24 23 24* 1 La Morale. SECOND CYCLE. (Duration, 3 years.) SECONDE (SECOND CLASS). Subjects. Section A: Greek, Latin, Section B: Latin, modem languages. Section C: Latin, sciences. Section D : Sciences, modern languages. Literary subjects: French, Latin, Greek . Hours. 13 4* 2 2 Hours. 8 4* 7 2 Hours. 8 i 3 2 4* 2* 2 2 2 Hours.1 4 3 7 4* 21 2' 2 2 Ancient and modem history and geography . Modern languages . . . Mathematics . Physics and chemistry . Laboratory exercises . . Drawing . 2 2 Geometric drawing . Total . 23* 23* 26 27 1 Ancient history omitted. PREMIERE (FIRST CLASS). Subjects. Section A: Greek, Latin. Section B: Latin, modem languages. Section C: Latin, sciences. Section D : Sciences, modern languages. Literary subjects: French, Latin, Greek . Hours. 14 5 2 2 Hours. 5 2 Hours. G i 3 2 5 6 2 1 Hours. 3 1 2 6 2 Ancient and modern history and geography . Modern languages . Mathematics . Physics and chemistry . Laboratory exercises . Drawdng . Tofel.... . 2 23 3 21 25 1 Ancient history omitted. 4 Also, optional, 2 hours for mathematics, and 2 horns for drawing. 3 Also, optional, 2 hours for literary subjects; 2 hours for mathematics; and 2 hours for drawing. 532 EDUCATION REPORT, 1912. Glasses of philosophy and mathematics .x Subjects. Philosophy. Mathematics. Section A. Section B. Section A. Section B. Hours. Hours. Hours. Hours. Philosophy . 28 28 3 3 Do . 29 2 9 Greek and Latin . 3 4 Latin . 3 2 Modern languages . 3 2 3 History . 3 3 3 3 Mathematics . 2 2 8 8 Physics and chemistry . 3 3 5 5 Natural sciences . 2 2 2 2 Practical exercises in sciences . 2 2 Drawing . 32 32 <2+2 <2+2 Hygiene 5 . Total . 618£ 7 21i <27+2 <28+2 1 Unchanged. 4 2 hours optional. 6 Plus 8 hours optional. * During 1 semester. 5 Twelve lectures of one hour each. 7 Plus 4 hours optional. ® Optional. SECONDARY EDUCATION FOR GIRLS. The establishment of public secondary schools (lycees and col¬ leges) for girls, which date from 1880, was regarded at the time as a hazardous venture on the part of the Government, but the schools have prospered and their patronage has steadily increased. In the scheme of study for these institutions, no effort was made to dupli¬ cate that of the lycees for boys, its distinctive character being deter¬ mined by reference to the careers, social and professional, upon which the students would naturally enter. In time, new demands arose by the increase in the number of young women desiring to enter the university faculties, but who were obliged to prepare for the admis¬ sion examination by private tuition. As a means of correcting this injustice it was determined in 1909 to open in a few lycees for girls, a special course assimilated to that of the lycees for boys, and, like the latter, preparing for the bachelor’s diploma. As a result of this experiment the question of unifying the two orders of secondary education has been seriously discussed during the current year. The proposition marks a stage in the progress of higher education for women which derives special interest from the death of M. Camille See, author of the law creating lycees for girls and an enthusiastic supporter of their special programs and aims.1 1 This distinguished author and legislator died Jan. 22, 1913, in the ninetieth year of his age. « EDUCATIONAL MOVEMENTS IN FRANCE. 533 Enrollment in public secondary schools for girls. Institutions. 1905 1910 Number. Students. Number. Students. Lyc^es (France) . 42 14,777 48 17,641 11,592 5, 756 Colleges (France and Algeria) . 50 8,679 7,379 68 Secondary courses (France and Algeria) . 69 , 58 Total . 161 30,835 174 34,989 HIGHER EDUCATION. Provision for higher education in France is made by universities and special schools. The former number at present 16, including the University of Algiers, which was organized in 1909. The devel¬ opment of the provincial universities of France continues to excite interest and satisfaction, because it increases intellectual activity throughout the country and multiplies its scientific forces. Paris remains, however, the chief center of learning and research, draw¬ ing to itself, as will be seen by the distribution of students, shown in the table below, one-third of the entire student body and two- thirds of the foreign students. From the distribution of students by faculties, it appears that law attracts one-third the total number ; medicine, one-fifth ; the faculties of letters and of sciences, nearly equal registration. Distribution of students m State universities and university schools, January 15, 1911. Location. Men. Women. General total of students. French. For¬ eign. Total. French. For¬ eign. Total. French. For¬ eign. Total. Paris . 13,018 2,099 15,117 953 1,168 2,121 13,971 3,267 17, 238 Aix 1 . 527 33 560 8 8 535 33 £68 Amiens 2 . 72 1 73 14 5 19 86. 6 92 A ~n gprs ^ 101 1 102 101 1 102 Besangon . 197 23 220 8 11 19 205 34 239 Bordeaux . 2, 453 31 2,484 124 12 136 2, 577 43 2,620 Caen . 621 10 631 54 6 60 675 16 691 Clermont-Ferrand . 231 2 233 42 3 45 273 5 278 Dijon . 891 55 946 80 17 97 971 72 1,043 Grenoble . 806 214 1,020 77 175 252 883 389 1,272 Lille . 1,594 51 1,645 142 14 156 1,736 65 1,801 Limoges 2 84 84 23 23 107 107 Lyon . 2, 773 142 2, 915 152 24 176 2,925 166 3,091 Marseille 1 . 576 21 597 95 4 99 671 25 696 Montpellier . 1,586 234 1,820 58 150 208 1,644 384 2,028 Nancy . 1,333 410 1,743 24 119 143 1,357 529 1,886 Nantes 2 315 2 317 3 3 318 2 320 Poitiers 1,085 2 1,087 28 28 1,113 2 1,115 "R.-b pirns 2 63 68 20 20 88 88 Rennes . 1, 4J1 6 1,497 68 8 76 1,559 14 1,573 Rouen 2 . 92 5 97 4 2 6 96 7 103 Toulouse . 2, 483 231 2, 714 102 48 150 2, 585 279 2,864 Tours 2 72 2 74 18 18 90 2 92 Alger . 1,160 32 1,192 84 7 91 1,244 39 1,283 Total . 33,629 3,607 37, 236 2, 181 1,773 3,954 35,810 5,380 j 41,190 1 Aix-Marseille constitute one university; the faculties of law and letters being at Aix, the faculties of sciences and medicine at Marseille. 2 Seat of university schools. 534 EDUCATION REPORT, 1912. ; State universities — Distribution of students by faculties, January 15, 1912. Men. Women. University faculties and schools. French. For¬ eign. Total. French. For¬ eign. Total. Total. Law . 15, 774 6,648 4, 761 3,421 1,296 1,365 246 1,111 16,885 7,400 5,929 4,115 1,318 1,388 249 61 81 142 17,027 8,265 6,463 6,309 1,358 1,522 250 Medicine . . 752 357 508 865 Sciences . 1,168 357 177 534 Letters . 694 1,184 38 1,010 2 2, 194 40 Pharmacy . 22 Schools of medicine:1 Medicine . 23 116 18 134 Pharmacy . 3 1 1 Total . 33,511 3,773 37,284 2,114 1,796 3,910 41,194 1 Not included in the universities. REORGANIZATION OF MEDICAL STUDIES. The topic of chief discussion during the year in respect to univer¬ sity matters was the decree of November 29, 1911, reorganizing medical studies.1 The existing order of studies authorized by decree of January 11, 1909, is not changed, but the course of instruction is extended on both the theoretic and practical sides and with par¬ ticular regard to specialties. Hospital service is made an obligatory part of the entire course and is included in the final examinations for the diploma. While this obligation meets with general approval on the part of the profession, it raises serious question as to the means for its practical realization. For example, in the discussion of this proposition in the Chamber of Deputies it was stated that even in Paris, which is noted for its ample hospital provision, it would be impossible to accommodate the 3,000 students subject at present to the obligation, and much more impossible when the number should be increased, as was anticipated, to 5,000. On the contrary, many of the provincial faculties have hospital accommo¬ dations, as well as ample laboratories and demonstration halls, which are not utilized because students are wanting. A more uniform dis¬ tribution of students was declared to be desirable, but this again is impossible so long as Paris and a few other universities maintain their distinction.2 The requirements for admission to the medical faculties and the duration of the studies is unchanged by the new decree. All candi¬ dates for admission to the medical faculties must have completed the course of secondary studies and have obtained the bachelor’s degree. This requirement applies to foreign students who wish to practice 1 For the text of the decree see Bulletin administratif, No. 2007 (Dec. 9), 1911, pp. 1199-1210. 2 For analyses of the decree see Be la reorganization des etudes medicales, by Docteur X- — and reply by P. Vuillemin. Revue internationale de Fenseignement, Vol. LIX, No. 8 (Aug. 15), 1912, pp. 111-127. PUBLIC EDUCATION IN SWITZEELAND. 535 medicine in France. In addition to the bachelor’s diploma the appli¬ cant must have the special certificate in pl^sics, chemistry, and natural sciences (P. C. N.), secured by a year of study in the faculty of sciences. The course of medical studies is five years, with a nine months’ session each year. The appropriations by the State in 1911 for the universities and special schools under the minister of public instruction were as follows : Government appropriations for higher institutions ( ministry of public instruc¬ tion), 191 1.1 Institutions. For the teaching personnel. For mate¬ rial. Total, United States equivalent. Universities . Francs. 11,989,115 513,000 748, 450 275,000 65. 500 72,925 153, 150 53,000 38. 500 J Francs. 3,058,927 77, 560 318, 640 101,000 14,000 204, 000 22,300 70, 000 36,760 Francs. 15,048,042 590, 560 1,067,090 376,000 79, 500 276,925 175, 450 123,000 75,260 $3,009,608 118,112 213, 418 75,200 15,900 55,385 35,090 24,600 15,052 College of France . museum of Natural History . Practical School of Higher Studies . School of Archives . Superior Normal School . . School of Living Oriental Languages . School of Athens . School of Rome . Total . . 13,908,640 3,903,187 17, 811,827 3,562,365 1 Chambre des Deputes. Rapport de la commission du budget general de l’exercice, 1912. Ministere de l’instruction publique et des beaux-arts. Pp. 766-774. The total appropriation by the State for the service of public instruction in 1911 was 290,460,931 francs ($58,092,186). Of this amount, 224/776,306 francs ($44,955,261), or 77.4 per cent, went for the service of primary education. The total amount carried in the estimates for public instruction for 1912 was 297,944,599 francs ($59,588,919). PUBLIC EDUCATION IN SWITZERLAND. GENERAL SURVEY. Switzerland presents a striking example of a small nation holding a creditable place in the economic struggle with larger and more powerful nations, by reason in great part of the complete provision for the education of its people and the practical character of that edu¬ cation. The total population of the federated Cantons is 3,741,971, about the same as that of the State of Massachusetts, and is comprised in an area of 15,976 square miles. The largest of the Cantons is Berne, with a population of 642,744, less than the city of Boston; Zurich stands second, with a population of 500,679. The population of 13 of the remaining Cantons ranges from 116,000 to 515,000, and of the smaller Cantons from 13,700 to 76,000. Hence as areas of school administration these divisions are properly compared with cities of the United States. 77236°— ed 1912— vol 1 - 36 536 EDUCATION REPORT, 1912. Two important principles were settled by the constitution of the Federal Republic (adopted May 29, 1874). Every one of the 25 Cantons is “ to provide sufficient elementary education ” free to all children without prejudice to “ freedom of faith and conscience,” but with this restriction: Each division has entire management of its schools. This independence is indicated by the varied organiza¬ tion of the several systems, some of which reflect French influences; others, German and Italian influences; but in all there is evident a common purpose, namely, to develop every order of ability among the people and to afford adequate preparation for every calling, professional or industrial, that may be exercised in the Republic. The independent control of education, guaranteed by the constitu¬ tion, is jealously guarded by the local government ; at the same time the need of Federal aid in this work has been recognized, and in 1902 an amendment to the constitution was authorized by popular vote which established the obligation of the Federal Government to subsi¬ dize primary schools. The right of cantonal control was reaffirmed in the amendment. The amount of the Federal subsidy is fixed at the uniform rate of 60 centimes (12 cents) per capita of the population, excepting in eight cantons in which, by reason of special difficulties, the rate is increased by 20 centimes (4 cents). This subsidy, which in 1910 amounted to $450,000, has aided greatly in equalizing the school provision of the country. The military system adopted in 1875 provided for recruit exam¬ inations, and these have fostered education by exciting keen rivalry among the Cantons in respect to the success of their youth in the tests. The provision of primary schools is ample throughout the Republic, and, without exact uniformity, the regulations respecting schools of this grade are practically the same. Children enter the primary school at 6 or 7 years of age and remain for seven or eight years. Continuation schools are universally maintained, and in 16 Cantons attendance upon these schools is also compulsory. In Switzerland, as in European countries generally, secondary education is continuous with university education ; but in the Repub¬ lic there is no marked distinction of social classes between the pupils of primary and secondary schools, and the programs are so arranged that pupils from the former may pass over to the latter at ages varying from 10 to 12 years. STATISTICAL SUMMARY. The following statistics taken from the latest yearbook1 indicate the extent to which the people of Switzerland are reached by the ample provision for education : i Jahrbuch des unterrichtswesens in der Schweiz, 1910, von Dr. jur Albert Huber, Staatschreiber des cantons Zurich [published in 1912], pp. 216-239. PUBLIC EDUCATION IN SWITZERLAND. 537 Institutions and pupils. Classification of nstitutions. Number. Pupils. Kindergartens . 1, 159 51,597 538,286 56, 103 Primary schools . 4, 704 652 Higher primary . Continuation schools (general and vocational) . 3,417 1101,947 3,645 1,901 13, 067 9,615 Normal schools . Seminaries for girls . Vocational schools (Berufschulen) . Secondary schools (Mittel) . 41 Federal Polytechnic Institute . 1 2, 436 8, 671 Universities . 7 1 Not including 9,638 young men in the classes maintained for recruits. From the foregoing table it will be seen that the primary and higher primary schools enroll nearly 595,000 pupils, or about 16 per cent of the population ; the enrollment in continuation classes of all orders, 101,947, raises this ratio to 18.6 per cent; that is, nearly one-fifth of the people preparing for the practical work of life. The pupils in secondary or “ Mittel ” schools, under which head are included gymnasia, lycees, and higher schools for girls, are drawn chiefly from the professional and higher official circles; the students in the secondary technical schools will be the future fore¬ men and leaders of industry. The total of pupils in these two classes of schools is 24,583, equivalent to 1 student for every 152 in¬ habitants pursuing studies up to the level of the universities and higher technical schools. CONTINUATION SCHOOLS. The striking fact brought out in the table is the large number of young people in the continuation schools and in schools which are distinctively vocational or trade schools (Berufschulen). The elementary schools and the continuation and. vocational schools based upon them make up a system of popular education unsurpassed for completeness and efficiency, and which has enabled Switzerland to withstand the industrial competition of neighboring nations. The continuation schools or classes either complete the elementary sub¬ jects of the primary schools or give vocational training. The courses of instruction are generally arranged for two years, covering six periods a week during the winter. Continuation schools that are distinctly vocational differ little from trade schools, with which they are often classed. The trade schools are established by local effort, either public or private, and, carefully adapted to local demands, they are usually one-trade schools, but sometimes have a polytechnic character. They are directed to enterprises and institutions for (a) art and indus- 538 EDUCATION REPORT, 1912. trial training, (b) domestic and vocational training for women, (c) commercial education, and ( d ) agricultural education. Al¬ though local in scope, the national importance of trade schools is recognized by Federal grants, which are always conditioned upon the local contributions — cantonal, municipal, individual; hence the Federal aid acts not only as a stimulus but tends to prevent the multiplication of feeble schools, of which complaint is frequently made. In the present interest in vocational training Switzerland com¬ mands attention as one of the chief exemplars of this form of training. This distinction the Republic shares with Austria and Germany, but in respect to the local adaptations of the schools and the combination of civic and ethical instruction with the technical train¬ ing, the Swiss schools are preeminent; for this reasop they are espe¬ cially instructive to other republics which depend for their political security upon the civic intelligence as well as the industrial efficiency of all the citizens. This principle was emphasized in the twenty- second congress of the Swiss association of teachers (Schweizerischer Lehrerverein) which assembled at Basle in October, 1911. Civic education was the prominent topic of discussion by the congress, on the ground that “ in a democracy where the people rule every child must be prepared for his duty as a citizen. He must be taught to understand and love his country.” This preparation, it was said, “ is already made to some extent, but it appears more and more in¬ sufficient.” It was unanimously resolved by the congress that civic education is an “imperative obligation for every class of schools.” EXPENDITURE FOR EDUCATION. The current expenditure for public education in 1911 and the amount from each contributing source were, in round numbers, as follows: Sources. Amount. From each Source. Francs. I United States equivalent. Cantons . 38,600,000 42,200,000 i 6,700,000 1 $7,720,000 1 i 8,440,000 1,340,000 Per cent. 44. 1 48.2 7.7 Communes . Federal Government . Total . . 87,500,000 17, 500,000 100.0 To the current expenditure should be added 1,900,000 francs ($380,000) for buildings for middle schools, trade schools, and higher institutions, making a sum total of 89,400,000 francs ($17,880,000). CHAPTER XXI. EDUCATION IN GERMANY. By W. Carson Ryan, Jr. Editorial Division , Bureau of Education. Contents: I. German school reform ; II. The proposed Saxon school law; III. The reli¬ gious question ; IV. Continuation schools ; V. Education for citizenship ; VI. The teach¬ ing profession. I. GERMAN SCHOOL REFORM. Germany, like every other civilized nation, is astir with the spirit of a restless changing life that is reflected in the activity of the schools. The broadening sense of human brotherhood and the deep¬ ening feeling of social responsibility, as well as the better-recognized scientific and industrial development of our time, have wrought a veritable transformation in the aim and scope of public education. Nowhere is this more keenly felt than in Germany; yet so far the highly developed organization that is characteristic of German insti¬ tutions in general has prevented anything other than an orderly change in the school system. There has been no revolution ; and even the vigorous movement for u school reform ” that now holds the stage in Germany is not revolutionary in the usual sense of the term, since it is essentially reform from within, based on the principle of evolution from the less to the more perfect type. Only by realizing this may we grasp the true significance of the present situation in Germany, where a school system which to a foreign observer seems unprogressive in certain particulars is wonderfully progressive in others. The German educational system has been allowed to develop, rather than to make sudden and violent upheavals ; for this reason it appears to be slow in adopting new ideas when it is generally only reluctant to accept what is new until it is shown to be in the line of organic development. No matter how ardently the German educator throws himself into the movement for economic and social uplift through education, he continually reminds himself that “ we must never lose our connection with the past of pedagogic development. Only that which develops organically can be perfect.”1 Hence the frequent 1 Petersen, P. Schulreform. In Zeitschrift fur Kinderforschung } 18, pp. 97-101. 539 540 EDUCATION REPORT, 1912. charge that the German schools are too conservative, urged more recently in the case of the secondary institutions and in the field of school administration in general. Thus the statement is frequently heard that the separate continuation school system as it has developed in Prussia and other German States is due to conservatism on the part of the educators. So far as this criticism is directed at the teachers themselves it is scarcely justified, unless the teaching force has changed essentially in the past score of years, for the teachers of the present generation are more apt to be charged with being too advanced than otherwise. There are at least two ways in which educational ideals may be formulated into practical demands: Either in proposed legislation, where one group asks as much as it dares and the other group con¬ cedes as little as it can, or in definite programs agreed upon by or¬ ganizations of the teachers. The attempt to write into law some of the aspirations of German school reformers will be discussed below under the proposed Saxon school law. The teachers themselves in their meetings have frequently drawn up articles of faith, and one of the most recent of such pronouncements, that adopted by the Society for the Promotion of Popular Education at its Wiesbaden meeting, is here given : 1. The school must stand in the most intimate possible relation to the life of the people and be the connecting link between life in the family and life in the State. 2. The ideal of education that is to be realized in the school and express itself in the content of education must correspond to the demands of the cultural life, and the actual work of education must correspond to the demands of scientific teaching method. 3. The school of our time must give heed to the ideal subjects as well as to material subjects; it must give special attention to technical training with¬ out neglecting the demands of the life of culture. 4. Since the child when he becomes a man must play an active part in the duties of national life, subject matter that is “ national ” must be a central part of the curriculum ; and since the duties of national life are embodied in the State, training for State citizenship must be especially fostered. 5. The work of education should bring the pupil so directly into touch with actual things that his educative impulse will awaken and those qualities de¬ velop with which he may gain education by self-activity. 6. In the preliminary educational process of the first six years, as opposed to the later special training, the chief aim must be the development of the various abilities into definite forces for good, in order that a harmonious personality may develop. In the special training that follows these special abilities must be particularly fostered. These are, of course, general demands. At the same meeting an¬ other set of resolutions was adopted specifying more particularly what changes were immediately necessary to begin carrying out the general program. First and foremost, this set of resolutions de¬ manded the abolition of all schools that tended to foster class EDUCATION IN GERMANY. 541 distinction and the introduction of the general common school — which, contrary to the general impression, does not exist in Ger¬ many, at least in the sense in which it is understood in the United States. “ The basis of the whole school system should be the same for all classes of the population — the general common school,” de¬ clare the resolutions, “ and on this common basis higher institutions should build.” Educators are by no means alone in this insistent demand for the genuine “Allgemeine Volksschule.” Thus Richard Nordhausen, in a recent issue of Der Tag , argues that the real trouble with the “ Gymnasium ” is that the material it receives is dependent on the ability of the parents to pay rather than on the ability of the stu¬ dents to do the work. “All the children of our people ought to go through the elementary school together,” he says. “ Then the more highly gifted ones should be selected and assigned to the Gym¬ nasium, without regard to the financial ability of the parents,” and the others provided for according to their special gifts. All efforts at reform in the Gymnasium are wasted so long as such a division is not made. We are wasting precious strength in sacrificing our time to little decorative details of the structure, while foundation walls and lower stories are rotting away. II. THE PROPOSED SAXON SCHOOL LAW. The proposed new school law for Saxony furnishes one of the best indications of the year as to what the school men themselves wish to have, and its importance is enhanced rather than otherwise by the fact that it ultimately failed of enactment. Teachers and others have for years urged the enactment of an adequate school law to replace the outworn legislation of 1873. It is true that even the original draft of the bill, and the form in which it was accepted by the Liberal majority in the Lower Chamber, did not satisfy the teachers. They wished to see the general free common school specifically provided for ; they desired a definite pro¬ nouncement on the question of improving the religious instruction in the schools; they sought to obtain something in the way of inde¬ pendence from the church, if only the abolition of the unpopular clerical supervision; they hoped for some definite recognition of the principle of the “Arbeitschule ” as developed by Kerschensteiner and others; they hoped to see recognition of the comparatively new de¬ mands of hygiene and sanitary science ; they desired to have the principle of the continuation school extended as widely as possible; and there were other items in their bill of particulars. The first draft of the bill answered but few of these demands, but it did answer some of the most important. The Liberals supported the bill, and it passed the Lower Chamber without difficulty, but it was held up in 542 EDUCATION REPORT, 1912. the Upper Chamber, and long conferences between the two bodies failed to produce any agreement. Thus the proposed law, after long discussion, has failed of enactment. Ordinarily a rejected law is properly an object of little further consideration; but in the present case the special points upon which differences arose, and the sharp conflict of opinions, together with the acknowledged importance of the whole Saxon situation, make it distinctly worth while to examine the bill in some detail. The 70 paragraphs of the bill were grouped under five divisions: (1) General statements — object of school, etc.; (2) organization of the common schools; (3) preparation, employment, and legal status of the teachers; (4) administration and supervision of the common schools; (5) provisional regulations and conclusions. The following discussion covers most of the important provisions: 1. Object. — The object of the common school is, through instruction, exercise, and training, to develop actively the mental and physical forces of the child and give him the fundamentals of moral and religious education as well as general knowledge and skill necessary for the life of citizenship. This clause was acceptable to the teachers, but not to the Conserva¬ tives. They made it read: “ The object of the school is to awaken and to foster love for King and the fatherland, for the Emperor and for the Kingdom.” 2. Subjects of instruction. — The essential subjects of instruction in the com¬ mon school are: Religion and morals; German language, with reading and writing ; arithmetic ; geometry; local geography; history; geography; nature study; singing; drawing; physical training (including games) ; sewing for the girls. The children shall have some preliminary citizenship training in branches that will adapt themselves to such instruction. The local school authorities are to decide whether domestic science for girls, manual arts for hoys, instruction in one or several modern languages and in shorthand, are to be offered, and whether such instruction shall be elective or prescribed. Organization of the common school. — It is left to the free decision of the local communities to decide whether they will maintain a general common school ( allgemeine Volksschulc) , or the several kinds — elementary, intermediate, or higher. Where conditions allow, the common school shall be established as intermediate and not as elementary. This paragraph was particularly objectionable to the teachers and reformers, because of its attitude toward the “ allgemeine Volks- schule.” It will be noted that it left the matter to the local communi¬ ties and explicitly recognized the three types of school, as at present. The following comment on the provision, from a teacher’s journal, will explain the objections of the educators : Saxony is the only German State which still recognizes the triple division into elementary, intermediate, and higher common schools. There are enormous dif¬ ferences between an “elementary” and an “intermediate” school. If a pupil in an “ elementary ” country school should desire the same education quantita- EDUCATION IN GERMANY. 543 tively as the student of a Leipzig “intermediate” school, with its 8 years, he would have to go 4J years longer, or until his nineteenth year. The “ higher” common school, for which the old law demanded a 10 years’ course, has likewise suffered a lamentable decline. Of the 62 “ higher ” common schools now in exist¬ ence, attended at most by 3 per cent of the pupils of Saxony, only 6 had a 10 years’ course; of the others, 10 had a 9-year course, and 42, or fully two-thirds, had an 8-year course, thus differing in no respect from a well-developed inter¬ mediate school. They were and are, in fact, not “ higher ” common schools but only schools that recognize class distinction. A resolution embodying this sentiment was passed by a special meeting of the teachers without a dissenting voice. The continuation-school provisions of the bill were in general con¬ sidered an advance. They were as follows: CONTINUATION SCHOOL FOR BOYS. 1. In the continuation school for boys instruction shall be given at least 3 hours every week; where the necessary arrangements can be made, it shall be extended to 4 or 6 hours per week. By order of the local school authorities it may be increased to 12 hours a week. 2. Under exceptional conditions, arrangements may be made by the local authorities for special reasons to have the instruction limited to eight consecu* tive months of the year, provided during this time at least 126 hours of instruc¬ tion are given. 3. The instruction will take place in the daytime on work days. During the summer semester no instruction shall be given after 8 o’clock in the evening, and during the winter term none may be given after 7 o’clock. After this time, and on Sundays and holidays — but not until after the close of the morning church service — under exceptional conditions special instruction may be given in so far as it is in excess of 6 hours per week, in not more than 2 hours weekly ; but in general compulsory continuation instruction shall not be thus given. Gym¬ nasium instruction may also be given in the evening. 4. The number of pupils in a class shall as a rule not exceed 30. 5. In larger schools special classes for defectives shall be formed. CONTINUATION SCHOOL FOR GIRLS. 1. In the continuation school for girls the instruction shall be at least 2 hours weekly in the 2-year course and in the 1-year course at least 4 hours per week. 2. Other provisions applying to the boys’ continuation schools with respect to time of instruction, number of hours, and number of students in a class, as well as the formation of special classes for defectives, are considered to apply to girls as well as boys. The training of continuation-school teachers is provided for as follows : 1. An applicant for a position as head of a continuation school shall have passed the examinations previously defined and have taken successfully one of the special courses for continuation-school teaching established by the education department. 2. Special teachers may be allowed to give instruction in the continuation schools if they show that they possess the requisite general knowledge and the special qualifications for teaching. 544 EDUCATION REPORT, 1912. 3. But special teachers shall only be installed as principals when they have passed an examination before the board of examiners consisting of a commis¬ sioner from the department of education, and of accredited continuation-school directors, teachers, and technical experts selected by the chief school officers. No feature of the proposed legislation caused more discussion than the various religious provisions. Supervision by the clergy would have been in part abolished by the bill, but the denominational prin¬ ciple was strictly upheld in school organization. Even the auxiliary schools were to be divided denominationally when possible. The teachers apparently did not seek to alter this condition, but merely sought to put religious instruction on a somewhat different plane. A paragraph which caused bitter discussion was as follows : The religious instruction to be imparted to the children of the different Christian faiths shall be imparted in the spirit of £he particular church, with¬ out obligation to the letter of formulated creeds, through living guidance into the life and teachings of Christ with the aid of the Holy Scriptures. The religious vow to be taken by the teacher was changed. In¬ stead of taking a special oath and forfeiting his position if he left the faith, the teacher was required to accept a new vow, which read: I promise before God that I shall teach the Gospel of Christ as it is con¬ tained in the Holy Scriptures and as revealed in the first unchanged Augsburg Confession, as well as in the two catechisms of Luther, to the best of my knowledge and belief, pure and undefiled. In some respects the proposed law was distinctly modern. It recognized the need of special training for abnormal children and made special provision therefor. Special or auxiliary schools or classes were to be formed. Vicious or criminally disposed children whose presence in the classroom constituted a menace to their com¬ rades were to be segregated and given special instruction by the school authorities if institutional care was not available. A similar obligation was imposed by the State in the case of children physi¬ cally incapacitated, but the State stood willing to render aid to the communities in carrying out this and the previous provisions if necessary. In the important matter of free tuition the bill marked a partial step in advance, to the extent of making free tuition optional with the communities, but this was hardly satisfactory to teachers who knew that in Prussia and Oldenburg free tuition was mandatory. Some effort was made to reduce further the number of pupils as¬ signable to a single teacher. The maximum, previously 60, was re¬ duced to 50, to take effect within five years ; and after ten years from the date of enactment no two-class school was to contain more than 80 pupils. EDUCATION IN GERMANY. 545 It may well be asked how it came about that a bill so mildly pro¬ gressive as to be far from satisfactory to the teachers and reformers should prove too radical for the Conservatives in the Upper Chamber of the Saxon Parliament. The attitude of the teachers was summed up by a writer in the Allgemeine Deutsche Lehrerzeitung in these words : The bill does much for the continuation schools. For the teacher of the regular schools it has a few rather nonessential advantages. For the common school itself it is silent on almost all the fundamental questions. It rejects the general common school ; it does not free the school from the domination of the church ; it affords a slight reduction in the number of pupils to a teacher and does not demand obligatory free tuition. Finally, it does not gi\y the school system the necessary independence through the creation of a separate ministry of education. Yet the teachers were willing to accept the bill as it was. Why, then, did it not pass ? A summary of points upon which the discus¬ sion raged most hotly may answer the question. These were four: (1) The denominational instruction; (2) the religious vow to be taken by the teacher; (3) the question of free tuition; (4) the general common school. Although the teachers professed themselves dissatisfied with what the bill granted under all of these heads, the concessions were ap¬ parently more than the Conservatives felt they could allow. The latter declare, in explaining the failure of the bill, that the teachers, led by the younger and more advanced set, made radical demands that could not be granted. Says the C onservative Correspondence for the Saxon Kingdom: Agitators and fanatics held the ascendancy ; extravagant demands were made in extravagant form ; young fellows just entering life with their Nietsche and Haeckel still undigested in their brains thought they could foist their youthful schemes upon the Saxon people. To which a Saxon correspondent of the Berliner Tagehlatt replies that he saw no 20-year-old youths among the working committees of the teachers’ organization. He insists that the religious provisions vere not the main cause of the failure to agree, but rather the pro¬ posal of free tuition. The Conservatives did not want at any price the provision of free school tuition that has so long existed in Prussia. The Upper Chamber refused to accept any proposition which would make the higher classes of the school open to every one without pay. In justice to the opponents of the bill it should be said that some of the educators themselves do not altogether absolve the teachers from blame in their management of the campaign. They suggest that the expression of socialistic and anticlerical ideas by some of 546 EDUCATION REPORT, 1912. the more radical of the teachers aroused a mistrust on the part of the Conservatives which made them wary of granting what seemed to be distinctly moderate proposals. The more careful observers regret the fate of the bill because of the effect it may have in other German States where important school legislation is pending. Thus Brunswick has a new school law under consideration. In this case the teachers are by no means satisfied with what is proposed. They feel especially disappointed over the refusal to grant their request for a ministry of education, with a professional educator at its head. III. THE RELIGIOUS QUESTION. Whether or not the religious question was the main cause of the defeat of the Saxon law, it is certainly one of the most troublesome questions before Germany to-day. The question is at the same time so delicate that it is practically impossible for an outside observer to present the issues without danger of misunderstanding. Yet no sur¬ vey of education in Germany for the year can properly omit some statement of the problem of the relation of church and school. The controversy in Saxony over clerical supervision, teacher’s religious vow, etc., is but one of many indications of current religious feeling in Germany. It needs to be remembered, first of all, that education in the Em¬ pire, and more particularly in Prussia, is for historical and other reasons regularly found in intimate connection with the church. The schools are in the main denominationally religious despite the growth of the so-called “ Simultanschulen” of recent years. The children are separated rigidly according to the religious faith of the parents. To one unfamiliar with this fundamental fact the Prussian figures are surprising. Of the 6,572,000 school children in Prussia 3,815,000 are in Protestant schools, 2,383,000 in Roman Catholic schools, and the comparatively small number of 368,565 in the “ Simultanschulen,” or nonsectarian schools, where the pupils take most of the subjects in common but receive the religious instruction separately in the faith to which they belong. Again, it must not be forgotten that religion is the one constant subject in the curriculum of German schools. It appears everywhere, except in the continu¬ ation schools, as a leading school subject. These facts rightly con¬ sidered will tend to give pause to anyone who may feel that the question of the relation of church and state in Germany with respect to the schools is easy of solution. It is in the question of administrative control that the problem touches the schools most vitally. “ Shall church or state control the school?” asks Johannes Tews, secretary of the German Teachers’ EDUCATION IN GERMANY. 547 Association, in an address on the subject “ State school or church school.”1 Herr Tews attempts to analyze the attitude of political parties and leading individuals on the question of state or church control of education. He disclaims any attempt to put forward his own opinions or the opinions of others hastily expressed, but proposes to confine himself to authenticated and “constantly recurring” state¬ ments of party policy. He reviews in some detail the party programs. The Center group, by its platform of 1871, demands “protection of the rights of the religious organizations against the attacks of legis¬ lation by the State.” The German-Conservatives (1892) take their stand for the “denominational Christian common school.” The Na¬ tional Liberals (1911) demand — complete assurance of the inalienable rights of the state toward the church in the domain of the school ; cooperation of the religious organizations in such a way that the state remains in control of the school and the teacher is inde¬ pendent of the clergy. The advanced Liberals (1910) demand — independence of instruction from the church ; abolition of clerical supervision ; the general common school without denominational separation. The Social-Democrats (1891) insist upon “secularizing the school and compulsory attendance at a common public school.” The Social Democracy is thus the only party, according to Tews, that demands monopoly by the state. In analyzing the utterances of men responsible for party policy, Herr Tews credits the^Center with the belief that the church alone is justified in imparting education. He quotes prominent Catholics to prove his assertion. Schadler (1904) : “The secret of education is love. But can love be felt for an abstraction? And the state is an abstraction!” Other similar statements are cited that tend to question frankly the right and ability of the state to dominance in education. That the Center and the Conservatives agree in advo¬ cating clerical control is generally acknowledged,2 though obviously there are widely varying shades of opinion as to how far this con¬ trol shall be exerted or insisted upon in practice. Herr Tews himself refuses to argue the right of the state to edu¬ cational control, on the ground that the state has already sufficiently maintained that right. The state does not need to demonstrate its right to educate; it has already amply demonstrated it. This much is true — not every state can educate. There have been in the past, and there still are to-day, types of government to which we can not ascribe educational functions. But in Germany this type is, fortunately, past. 1 Printed in Padagogische Zeitung. 41, 1031—1035 and 1055—1061. 2 See Dr. Brandi’s reminiscent article, “ Unterrichtsverwaltung und Schulwesen in Preussen.” Preussische Jahrlmcher, Oct., 1912, vol. 150, p. 17. 548 EDUCATION REPORT, 1912. He also quotes Friedrich Paulsen: If we survey the course of educational progress, two fundamental principles stand forth: One is the complete secularization of the system of education; the other is the steady extension of education through the schools to ever- widening circles — the democratization of education, if you will. That Prussia has not developed in the way indicated by Prof. Paulsen, Herr Tews admits, but reminds us that Prussia is not an island, and will, sooner or lator, have to give up her u splendid iso¬ lation.” There is also a third standpoint from which the church and school question in Germany may be viewed, according to Tews — ■“ that neither the state nor the church has control of the school, but that the school is established and maintained by a free school community.” Though recognizing that this attitude finds realization in parts of Germany and more particularly in other countries, he dismisses it from consideration as a practical basis of operation. “ It [the local community] can never fill the place of the state in education,” he maintains, “ and is only possible where all strata of the population are equally well educated.” IV. CONTINUATION SCHOOLS. In the field of continuation-school education the two significant points of recent educational history are, first, the extension of the principle of compulsory attendance to the continuation schools; and second, the attempt to amplify the scope of the continuation school to include girls as well as boys. With regard to compulsory attend¬ ance, conditions are too indefinite to permit of a satisfactory state¬ ment at this time; the most that can be said is that the compulsory principle is distinctly recognized in the continuation schools by nearly all the German States, and it is probably only a question of time when it will be an accomplished fact. As to the application of the continuation-school principle to girls, definite progress is re¬ ported during the past year, the most notable instance being perhaps the establishment of a compulsory continuation school for girls in the city of Berlin. The whole vocational question is such a vital one at this time that it seems worth while to give the course of study for sales girls in this school, as worked out by a committee composed of representatives of various lines of business and officially approved by the continua¬ tion-school authorities, to go into effect April, 1913. Besides the appropriate technical* subjects, others are provided, including economic geography and household arts. The following schedule and outline of courses is slightly abridged : EDUCATION IN GERMANY. 549 Subjects and hours per iveelc. Subjects. First year. Second year. Third year. Total hours. First half. Second half. First half. Second half. First half. Second half. Vocational science 1 . Science of living . 1J 14 14 14 14 14 14 14 14 14 150 60 180 120 30 180 Arithmetic and bookkeeping . Commercial science and economic geography . W riting 1£ li 14 14 14 14 14 14 Household arts instruction . Total hours per week . 1J 1J 14 14 3 6 6 6 6 6 6 720 1 Including German and correspondence. FIRST YEAR. Vocational science, including German and correspondence. Trade information : I. Entering a calling. (4 weeks.1) Choice of a vocation. Obtaining an apprenticeship. Significance of the vocation of sales girl. II. Labor conditions. (14 weeks.) (а) In the continuation school. Local ordinances; acceptance and dis¬ missal notices ; school regulations. (б) In business. Papers necessary for the sales girl : School certificate, apprenticeship contract, business rules, etc. (c) Duties toward employer: Looking out for his interests, honesty, punctuality, orderliness, avoidance of disputes, care not to in¬ trude personal matters. (d) How shall the sales girl keep healthy and well? Daily care of health: Eyes, skin, hair, hands, and teeth. ( e ) Employment of leisure time: Exercise, walking, games, study, en¬ tertainment. III. Salesmanship. (18 weeks.) Entry and dispatch of goods: (a) Location and equipment of the business. (b) The stock department and its work: Unpacking, checking orders and statements, labeling, packing the goods, careful address¬ ing, etc. (c) Sending goods by messenger, wagon, mail, rail, water. (d) Insuring and clearing goods. Composition. Composition consists of various forms, letters, and themes, based on the material of the technical courses, such as : Correspondence with the continua¬ tion school, descriptions of local ordinances and school regulations, personal letters about positions obtained, etc., compositions on care of health, railroad and mail facilities, etc. 1 Figures in parenthesis indicate the time devoted to each division of the subject. The full course is 40 weeks. The difference between this amount and the time assigned is filled at the discretion of the school authorities. 550 EDUCATION REPORT, 1912. Arithmetic. Extension of school arithmetic to business needs. The four fundamental op¬ erations in whole numbers and fractions, with special reference to selling. Exercises in rapid calculation. Keeping account of personal finances. Most important coins, weights, and measures in world trade. Resolving and reduc¬ ing fractions. Problems based on care of health. Figuring prices of goods. Percentage, SECOND YEAR. Vocational science: Salesmanship. 1. A satisfactory selling method. (Five weeks.) (а) Receiving the customer. (б) Displaying the goods. (c) Indicating the price. ( d ) Concluding the sale: Measuring, weighing, counting purchases, making out the sales check; cashbook and its use; payment (in full or on account). ( e ) Departure of the customer. 2. Difficult cases in selling. (Six weeks.) (a) Attitude toward customers who wish only to look at goods. (b) Waiting on undecided and difficult customers. (c) Waiting on several customers at once. (d) Recourse to other help when a sale threatens to fall through. ( e ) Attitude toward customer with whom a sale did not take place. (/) Exchanging goods. ( g ) Attitude toward just and unjust complaints. 3. Tactful demeanor while selling. (Three weeks.) (a) Obligation of uniform courtesy, without regard to the social position of the customer or the amount of the purchase. (b) Treatment of different kinds of customers according to age, social position, and appearance. (e) Attitude of the disengaged sales girls toward each other, toward the sales girl who is waiting on a customer, and toward the customers. 4. A sales girl as adviser of the customer. (a) Value of a thorough knowledge of the goods. (b) Knowledge of present-day tastes and fashions. (c) Adroit showing of the goods. (d) Interesting the customer in goods not asked for (novelties of the season, reduced-price goods, etc.). (e) Sketching desired articles. (/) Warning against false statements. 5. Settlement of accounts: 1. Cash. 2. Mail. 3. Draft. 4. Other means of settlement. 6. Legal information about selling : Obligations of the seller and of the buyer. Selling on approval or with privilege of exchange. Note. — The theoretical instruction on the detailed processes of salesmanship will by accompanied by practical exercises. Composition. Written reports and correspondence based on technical material, together with practice in correct writing of the various markings common to the trade, espe¬ cially those from foreign countries. Other written reports on selling methods. Billing. Legal questions. EDUCATION IN GERMANY. 551 Arithmetic and bookkeeping. The cashbook. Interest. Invoices. Discount. Price scales. Stock account. THIRD YEAR. Vocational science . Decoration of the show window. (11 weeks.) 1. Aim and importance of the show window. 2. Interior decoration. 3. Methods of tasteful decoration. (a) Skillful grouping of goods. (b) Color schemes. (c) Illumination, etc. Legal status of the sales girl. (4 weeks.) 1. Contracts. 2. Giving notice ; recommendations ; temporary employment ; employment on trial. 3. Essentials of the law against unfair competition (obligation of silence). Economic significance of the retail trade in relation to general trade. (2 weeks.) Continuation of selling exercises and thorough discussion of questions sug¬ gested by the pupils from their own experience. Science of living. (17 weeks in conjunction with vocational science.) I. The sales girl in community life. 1. Value of the vocation. 2. Obligations of the sales girl. (a) Toward herself: Physical and intellectual development; educa¬ tional opportunities; ethical development. (b) Toward the community. ( c ) Toward the employer. 3. Care on the part of the community and State for the working girl. (a) In sickness: Municipal provisions ; hospitals; sanitaria; sickness insurance. (b) In case of accident: Regulations for accident prevention; acci¬ dent insurance, etc. (c) In old age and invalidism: Institutions for the aged; life insur¬ ance, etc. II. The sales girl in home and family. (17 weeks.) The family as the basis for morals and community welfare. 1. Duties of the daughter; duties of children and rights of parents. 2. Duties of the housewife : The wife as companion of the husband ; as guardian of the family purse; her care (a) for the dwelling — Cleaning, ventilation, heating, illumination, providing a comfortable home: (b) for clothing — Adequate and hygienic clothing. Dress. 3. Duties of the mother. (a) The mother and her care of the infant. ( b ) In bringing up the child. (c) In sickness. (d) Work of the mother in early childhood ; in seeing to the child’s attendance at school, etc. Composition. Written reports on show-window decoration and advertising. Drawing up apprenticeship and employment contracts, etc. General reports on the impor- 77236°— ed 1912— vol 1 - 37 552 EDUCATION REPORT, 1912. tance of retail trade. Themes on children’s duties and parents’ rights. Descrip¬ tions of fire and burglary insurance, etc. Discussions of home and housekeep¬ ing problems (leasing, ordering, etc.). Bookkeeping . Introduction to double bookkeeping by American methods. Keeping books for a retail business. Household bookkeeping. Commercial science and economic geography. I. 1. Commercial science. (a) Quality. Marks of difference. Errors and falsifications in articles of the trade. (&) Raw material. (c) Production. ( d ) Utilization of the goods. 2. Materials. (a) Textiles. (&) Commercial art products. ( c ) Food products. In each class the products of these three main groups are to be discussed with special emphasis on the products of the particular trade to which the class belongs. II. ECONOMIC GEOGRAPHY. The last five weeks of every half year are devoted to economic geography : (a) Sources and markets of the products and their highways of trade. (&) Berlin as the field of production and distribution of the goods. (c) The economic conditions of Germany and of its most important trade connections. Germany’s colonies (to be treated at the close of the discussion on textiles). Note. — Geographic conditions will enter into the discussion only so far as they are necessary for an understanding of the economic conditions. Household arts instruction. FIRST YEAR - SEWING AND MENDING. One-fourth year : Machine stitching and other machine work ; making a simple apron. Three-fourths year : Work on linen goods ; mending by hand and by machine alternately ; making shirt, etc., from a given pattern ; mending underwear and outer clothing by hand and with the machine. SECOND YEAR - CUTTING AND IRONING. Three-fourths year : Exercises in copying and altering given patterns in con¬ nection with practical work (blouse, coat, etc.), and making over of old clothing (for example, making a child’s jacket out of a man’s coat). One-fourth year: Ironing (simple and fine linen). THIRD YEAR - COOKING AND FEEDING. Discussion of the most important foods, in respect to kind, origin, food value, taste, price, use. and preservation. Practical exercises in the preparation of simple meals, with social regard to utilizing left-over material. The dishes will be adapted to the different seasons of the year. EDUCATION IN GERMANY. 553 1. Introduction : Producing nutritious, cheap, and simple meals. 2. Methods of cooking. Fuel : Electricity, etc. 3. Water and washing. 4. Milk and milk products. 5. Eggs. 6. Potatoes. 7 and 8. Vegetables. 9. Meat: Slaughtered meat, game, and poultry. 10. Methods of cooking meat : Boiling, stewing, roasting. 11. Fats. 12. Fish. 13. Grains: Products, baking. 14. Spices, etc. 15. Fruit. 16. Drinks : Warning against misuse. 17. Food for the sick. 18. Food for children. From many other parts of Germany come indications of further extension of the girls’ continuation-school idea. In Hamburg the authorities have decided to impose compulsory continuation-school attendance on all girls under 18 years of age employed as clerks, sales¬ women, or apprentices. The regulation is to apply at first to those employed in purely commercial pursuits, but it is indicated that as early as possible the regulations will be extended to all branches of trade and industry. About 2,000 girls are immediately affected, and it is estimated that the cost will be 110,000 marks a year. Saar- brucken has extended the curriculum of the continuation school to include women clerks and salesgirls. In Insterburg the mayor and city council have inaugurated compulsory training for girls, with a one-year course that is to become a three years’ course as soon as financial conditions will allow. Trade schools for girls are demanded by merchants’ organizations of Mannheim and Heidelberg. The city of Ulm will have the first trade school for girls in Wurttemberg. Thuringen is giving special attention to household-arts education for girls. Jena plans a special building that shall not be merely a con¬ tinuation school for girls, but a general-welfare institution. A foster home, peoples’ kitchen, and other features will be connected with the school, including an evening recreation center for girls, where they may rest, read, and study, or hear lectures. The training of teachers for continuation schools has been treated in detail in previous reports of the Commissioner of Education,1 and it is not necessary to add anything to the general discussion here. Prussia has, however, during the past year, worked out a new plan that should be noted: A seminary for trade continuation-school teachers will be established with a one-year course. To this will be admitted those who have passed the second examination (i. e., are regularly qualified teachers) and have been engaged in the continua¬ tion school in a subordinate capacity, and workmen and technical men who have had at least three years of actual work and can show an adequate general education. The entrance examination will in¬ clude both a special and a general test. The general examination may be dispensed with if the applicant’s education is readily verified by academic records, and anyone who has pursued successfully a four- semester course at a satisfactory technical school is absolved from the See Educ. Rept., 1911, Vol. I, pp. 389-417. 554 EDUCATION REPOET, 1912. special examination. In accordance with the preliminary training, the teachers will devote more time to drawing, while the practical men will give more time to practice in teaching. Instruction will be given in vocational science, citizenship, treatment of the drawing courses for the main vocations, with technological explanations, hygiene, and pedagogy. Y. EDUCATION FOR CITIZENSHIP. The demand for thorough “ training in citizenship ” fills the air in Germany to-day. The term is used in a much larger sense than “ civics ” or almost any corresponding term in English. It means the systematic instruction of the pupil in every conceivable subject that will prepare directly for the exercise of the duties of citizenship. For some years educators, statesmen, jurists, and others (including the Emperor himself) have advocated direct citizenship training by the schools, but their agitation appears to have borne little fruit until 1908, when two books_, Karl Negenborn’s “The German as citizen,” and Paul Riihlmann’s “ Political education: What it is and what it signifies,” stirred the widest circles of educated men to a “crusade for national education.” In September, 1908, the “Association for Citizenship Education of the German People ” was founded. The movement did not immediately derive support from public-school teachers — only 3 of the 67 men who signed the first call were teachers, 24 were university professors, 7 were literary men, 5 were mayors, etc., but during the past three or four years the teachers have assumed a leading part, and Director Georg Kerschensteiner, of Munich, is the vice president of the organization and its actual head. The society has published 10 bulletins, 4 of them dealing with education for citi¬ zenship in Switzerland, the Netherlands, Denmark, and France, 5 with questions of method, and 1 a study of Alsace-Lorraine. Lec¬ tures were held in Berlin in the winter of 1910-11, and to a still larger extent in the winter of 1911-12. Some of the subjects of dis¬ cussion at these lectures were: Constitution of the Empire; parlia¬ mentary procedure; public meetings; technique of journalism; sys¬ tems of election; imperial finance reform; insurance; the programs of the political parties. During the year just passed Germany has been flooded with litera¬ ture on the subject of “ education for citizenship,” but “ no new thoughts have been offered,” to quote the opinion of a writer who has recently examined the output of the year. The movement has, how¬ ever, received university sanction in a very direct way. In connection with the vacation school conducted by Prof. Rein at Jena, the asso¬ ciation gave special courses in citizenship lasting from August 12 to 17, 1912. Of the 748 students present at the summer session, 150 took part in the citizenship lectures. EDUCATION IN GERMANY. 555 Part of the time was devoted to general lectures on the main prob¬ lems of economics and government from an international point of view; this work was in charge of Prof. Brandenburg, of Leipzig. Dr. Geffchen, of the Cologne Technical School, treated of the com¬ position of the German Empire and its significance for the citizen of the individual German State. Dr. Ruhlmann’s course on funda¬ mental questions of citizenship training is worthy of particular notice in this connection, because it really amounted to a course in methods for teachers desirous of introducing the new work into their schools. The following were among the subjects which he discussed: The idea of the modern state ; self-government ; suffrage ; economic competition under imperial conditions; the educational system in a modern state; its significance for the process of democratization; agencies of educa¬ tion; the press, organizations, etc.; the school and the modem state; state or community school; the army and the school; child welfare; the school programs of the political parties ; education for citizenship : its dangers; defense of citizenship training; age of maturity for citi¬ zenship training; self-government of the pupils; results of citizenship training in Switzerland, France, Denmark, and Holland. In con¬ nection with the course in methods, Dr. Stutzer, director of the Gym¬ nasium at Gorlitz, lectured on citizenship training in the secondary schools, giving particular attention to the time and manner of presen¬ tation of the subject in secondary education. • The association also maintains a general lecture bureau. Those who join in its work agree beforehand to observe “ a scientific ob¬ jectivity ” and to forego all political partisanship. The agitation is by no means confined to this one society. There are other organizations in and out of the school that have given as¬ sistance. For the past two winters the Citizens’ Association of Ham¬ burg has been holding civic lectures, mainly for boy and girls who have left school. The student societies have also been conspicuous in support of the work. The technical school at Charlottenburg last summer held lectures in education for citizenship, in which special municipal subjects were treated. A number of the women’s organi¬ zations are also aiding in the propaganda. That Dr. Kerschensteiner and other educators most concerned in the movement for citizenship' education have much more in mind than mere instruction in the essentials of government may be seen from the Munich educator’s book, Ber Begriff der Staatsbiirger- lichen Erziehung , where the term is practically made synonymous with all education undertaken by the state for the state. According to Dr. Kerschensteiner the “ problem of civic education of the people is the most difficult of ‘all educational problems, not in theory, but in practice.” He begins by telling what “ citizenship education ” is not. It is not, he says, mere information about government ; it is 556 EDUCATION REPORT, 1912. not mere technical economic education ; it is not identical with politi¬ cal education, nor yet with social education, but makes use of all of these in its larger purpose of equipping for ideal citizenship. The purpose of education for citizenship is, first of all, to teach the pupils through correct organization of the schools, through student societies and their methods of work how to serve the common good; to accustom them to duty, under voluntary adaptation, submission, and mutual consideration ; and, finally, to advance this civilization morally by voluntary personal sacrifice. It is to awaken, through mutual activity in human tasks, that sense of responsibility for all that is done and left undone which alone gives sound basis for the liberties that we prize so highly in a mod¬ ern state. And, finally, it seeks to show that the state, with its almost limitless interrelations of life interests, is only a larger form of school organization which has already laid the basis in the students for the social virtues. In other words, the task of citizenship education is so to educate the citizens that their activity, consciously or unconsciously, directly or indirectly, will serve to bring the concrete state of which they form a part nearer and nearer to the infinitely remote ideal of an ethically perfect commonwealth. Some attempt has been made to introduce the systematic study of citizenship into the elementary school, but Dr. Kerschensteiner does not recommend it, though admitting that such is the practice in France, Denmark, and Finland, where citizenship is taught in the upper grades of the common schools. There is a real place for it in the secondary schools, he believes, though he says he knows of some history courses in secondary schools that are taught with a breadth of view and a background of good citizenship that render any special course in citizenship unnecessary. The one place where Dr. Kerschen¬ steiner is sure training for citizenship ought to be given is in the vocational schools, where the pupils are mature enough and yet im¬ pressionable, so that civic ideals once learned will sink in, and where the element of the population that most needs citizenship training will be reached. While Dr. Kerschensteiner thinks there should be no systematic training for citizenship in the ordinary elementary school, he believes that a great deal of valuable incidental instruction can be given by the teacher in connection with other branches.1 VI. THE TEACHING PROFESSION. There seems to be some question whether the appointment of Wilhelm Rein as the first u ordentlicher ” professor of pedagogy is to be considered a belated recognition for pedagogy as a science, or 1 For more detailed information as to Dr. Kerschensteiner’s present ideas of this sub¬ ject, as well as of the “Arbeitschule ” principle for which he stands sponsor, the reader is referred to the two recent books, Der Begriff der staatsburgerlichen Erziehung and Die Arbeitschule. (B. G. Teubner, Leipzig and Berlin, 1912.) EDUCATION IN GERMANY. 557 simply a personal testimony to the work of Prof. Rein himself, who has just rounded out a quarter of a century at Jena as u ausserordent- licher,” that is, without the usual rights and privileges of a regular member of the faculty. Whatever the motive for the change, Jena now has the first regular professor of pedagogy in Germany. A cer¬ tain amount of academic importance attaches to the altered title that may not at first be apparent. Prof. Rein will not only have voting membership in the university senate, which was denied him as docent, but will direct authoritatively the research work that he has for many years directed in all but name. The German States are bound not to be outdone in teacher train¬ ing. During the past year Bavaria has raised the period of training from five to six years, to correspond to the usual requirement else¬ where in Germany, and at the same time has broadened the curric¬ ulum. For purposes of comparison the new course of study for Bavaria is given below, side by side with that for Prussia. Prussian educators who have examined the Bavarian plan appear rather envious of certain features of it that do not appear in the mere titles of subjects; they note that the content of the different courses seems to have been considerably modernized. Special attention is given in the Bavarian plan to school hygiene: (1) Hygiene of instruction (mental fatigue, etc.); (2) sanitation; (3) hygiene of the teaching profession; (4) school building and equipment. Course of study for training of teachers in Bavaria and Prussia. Bavaria. Prescribed subjects . ■h Ph Religion . 3 3 German . 6 6 Mathematics . 4 4 Geography . 2 2 History . 2 2 Nature study . 2 2 Chemistry... . Physics . Hygiene . Pedagogy: Theory . Practice . Music . 5 5 Drawing . 3 3 Gymnastics . 3 3 Electives: French . 3 3 Stenography.... 1 1 Prussia. Hours a week. Subjects. Hours a week. Prepara¬ tory. Seminary. Total hours. Third year. Fourth year. Fifth year. Sixth year. Total hours. I First year. j Second year. j Third year. | First year. | Second year. Third year. 3 3 3 3 18 Religion . 4 4 3 3 4 1 3 21 6 4 4 2 28 German . 5 5 5 5 5 13 28 4 4 3 19 Mathematics . 5 5 5 5 5 1 1 26 2 1 1 8 Geography . 2 2 2 3 2 1 1 12 2 2 2 "2 12 History . . . 2 2 3 2 2 2 13 2 6 Nature study . 2 4 4 4 4 1 1 19 2 2 4 Pedagogy . 3 3 3 9 3 3 6 Teaching: "2 2 Methods and problems . 4 4 8 3 3 5 11 Practice . 4 6 10 1 10 11 Foreign language . . . 3 3 3 2 2 2 15 5 4 4 3 26 Writing . 2 2 1 5 3 3 3 1 16 Drawing . 2 2 2 2 2 1 11 3 3 3 3 18 Gymnastics . 3 3 3 3 3 13 18 Music . 3 4 5 4 4 4 24 3 2 2 2 15 1 3 1 Methods. 558 EDUCATION REPORT, 1912. Little in the way of improvement in the economic status of the teachers can be reported. From various localities come notices of campaigns for higher salaries, frequently with favorable results, but the increasing cost of living seems to eat up the advance almost before it is conceded. The teachers’ demands for an adequate eco¬ nomic return are well summed up in resolutions adopted at a recent meeting of the German teachers’ associations, when representatives were present from all parts of the Empire. The resolutions were: 1. If the German public school is to fulfill its duties in the service of popular education as well as in economic development, it is the duty of the German people to give their teachers an economic status corresponding to the im¬ portance and difficulty of the task intrusted to them. 2. With all due acknowledgment of the progress which has taken place through legislation in most of the German States during the last few years in teachers’ salaries, it must be said that no salary law thus far passed fully complies with this fundamental demand. 3. The work of the common-school teachers does not differ in character as mental activity from that of the “ academically trained ” teachers. Salary regulations that measure the pay of common-school teachers by half of the pay of academically trained teachers are therefore not justified. On the con¬ trary, the salaries of the common-school teachers, which, aside from rent money, must be equally high in city and country, should be made much nearer those of the academically trained teachers than is at present the case. The German plan of payment for teachers, as is well known, includes “house money”; that is, a certain amount in lieu of residence. An important phase of the cost-of-living problem in Germany has been to make this house allowance adequate for the rapidly rising rents. The cities of Ulm and Frankfort have recently attacked this problem in an interesting way. They have tried the plan of selling to their teachers good municipal land at a low price and accepting a mortgage on it at low interest. In Frankfort this mortgage may amount to 90 per cent of the value, so that the appli¬ cant has to provide but 10 per cent from his own funds. The tax and mortgage payments together, it is said, do not amount to as much as apartment rents in less desirable neighborhoods, and with his regular “ Wohnungsgeld ” the teacher is soon the owner of his own home. This seems to be a novel application of a valuable prin¬ ciple, and the results will be watched with interest. CHAPTER XXII. EDUCATION IN SOUTHERN EUROPE. CONTENTS. Disturbed conditions. Italy : Scope of the educational system ; measures for extending primary instruction ; education of emigrants ; instruction in Arabic ; current legislation. Educational activities in Spain. — Portugal. Greece : Regard for education ; statistics ; chief current interests ; child-labor law. Turkey : System of public instruction ; schools and colleges in Constantinople ; Smyrna ; Mamouret-el-Aziz ; missionary agencies. Educational status of the Balkan nations : Bulgaria ; Servia ; Montenegro. The upheavals and wars which have disturbed all the nations of Southern Europe during the year have seriously interfered with their educational progress. At the same time, these events have raised new demands for the agencies by which intelligence and industrial efficiency are developed. ITALY. Italy, the leading nation of the Mediterranean group, is seriously hampered by the unequal distribution of schools and higher institu¬ tions; and this inequality is reflected in the extremes of culture and ignorance which characterize the people. The general control of education is exercised by the minister of public instruction, but his authority is less than that of the minister in the highly centralized French system. Public schools are classi¬ fied according to their scope as elementary and secondary, the latter subdivided into classical and technical. Above these are the State universities and higher technical institutions. Official reports pertaining to the entire system of general education are issued for five-year periods, the latest of which covers the year 1907-8. From this source, supplemented by later reports of special classes of schools, the following statistics are derived . 559 560 EDUCATION REPORT, 1912. Schools, teachers, and pupils. Number Number Number of nunils. Classes of schools. of of schools. teachers. Male. Female. Total. Infant (asili) . . 3,576 7,392 378,563 Elementary: Public . 63,618 3,504 4,783 233 61, 944 3, 002, 168 148, 081 182,373 9, 347 32,453 Private . 6, 067 Schools for adults . 148,233 34, 140 Higher schools for girls (1901-2) . 1, 906 9,347 29, 792 Normal schools (1909-10) . 134 2, 661 Secondary (1909-10): Classical— Ginnasii . 292 34, 141 13,050 3,919 690 38,060 13, 740 Lycei . 159 Technical (1909-10)— Schools . . 325 77 59,685 17,813 1,353 17,046 1,586 76,731 U9,399 1,353 Institutes . Marine institutes . 20 1 Also 3,332 evening students. MEASURES FOR EXTENDING PRIMARY INSTRUCTION. Measures for extending and improving the means of popular edu¬ cation have engaged the earnest efforts of the Government during the past decade, in view especially of the revelations of the census of 1901, which showed that 42.5 per cent of the males above 6 years of age and 54.4 per cent of the females were illiterate; the lowest ratio being in Piedmont, 17.7 per cent, and the highest in Calabria, 78.7 per cent. This disclosure led to strenuous efforts for the increase of school provision, and at present there are circondari (provincial subdivisions) in which no illiterates are found among the young people 20 years of age. As regards elementary education, the provision of schoolhouses was necessary in many districts before the compulsory school attendance law could be enforced ; in 1906 an act was passed providing for above 18,000 new schoolhouses, to be used particularly in southern and central Italy, and in the islands of Sicily and Sardinia. The 17 State universities had a registration in 1909-10 of 20,652 students; the 4 private universities, of 1,558 students. There are also many institutions of university rank specializing in science, lan¬ guage, etc., which raise the total number of students in higher insti¬ tutions under the ministry of public instruction to 26,584. To this total the special schools under other ministries, i. e., war, navy, finance, etc., would add about 10,000 students. Italy is also well supplied with commercial and industrial schools, including schools of design and modeling, which prepare a great company of students (above 40,000 in 1910) for remunerative careers. Thus, the organized system of public instruction is supplemented by important agencies for vocational, scientific, and technical training. ITALY. 561 Under the education law of June 4, 1911, the State assumed a large part of the expenses for primary schools in the different Provinces, and special committees were formed for promoting school attendance, for the distribution of free meals and clothes, for the establishment of libraries, etc. The salaries of teachers were increased, and induce¬ ments were given for grading the schools in small villages and when possible even in rural districts by a small advance in the salaries of teachers in charge of two classes. A fund was also provided to be loaned to communes on long terms for the purpose of aiding them in building schoolhouses. As a result of these measures it is estimated that the appropriation for education from the public treasury, which in 1911 amounted to 34,000,000 lire ($6,562,000), will reach 74,000,000 lire ($14,282,000) within a decade. The plans of the Government for extending the school provision are seconded by the practical efforts of leading men and women who manifest the liveliest interest in the welfare of the young. This is shown in the provision of open-air schools which originated from the campaign against tuberculosis, conducted by an Italian committee composed of physicians, scientists, and philanthropists, women being specially active in the cause. In 1902 a school colony for consumptive children was established at Barbarano in the Province of Vicenza by Prof. A. de Giovanni, of the University of Padua. In 1905 Alessandro Randi, a prominent physician of Padua, assisted by a committee of the Red Cross, opened an autumnal school colony on the ramparts around that city. Dur¬ ing the present year open-air schools have been maintained by private efforts in the vicinity of Milan, at Rome (on the Janiculum), at Varazze, a seaport town near Genoa, and in several other places. The sites for these schools are chosen with great care, and they are conducted in a truly scientific manner. The system of child training developed by Dr. Maria Montessori in her work, “ 11 Metodo della Pedagogia Scientifica,” has drawn universal attention to Rome as a center of scientific research into the laws and conditions of education considered as a process of develop¬ ment. EDUCATION OF EMIGRANTS. Among the important activities growing out of the revived in¬ terest in education are the measures taken to instruct emigrants on the eve of their departure for foreign lands. The annual exodus of Italians from their native land is enormous; in 1909 more than 600,000 departed to become laborers in other countries of Europe 562 EDUCATION REPORT, 1912. and the New World. With respect to their condition one of their own countrymen, in an official report on the subject, says: From want of instruction these emigrants occupy the lowest place in the scale of emigration to the other side of the ocean, * * * entirely ignorant not alone of the country to which they are going, but of life outside of some mis¬ erable town of the Basilicate or of Sicily, unable to understand any language excepting the patois of their village, as ready to trust any knave who would take advantage of their misery as to suspect the man who seeks to aid and guide them, they fall an easy prey to those who would rob them of their small sav¬ ings. They need protection before they depart.1 In view of these conditions an emigration commission was created at Rome some years ago with local committees throughout the coun¬ try whose business it is to look after the intending emigrants, to direct and protect them. This agency has been supplemented by numerous private societies, such as L’Umanitaria at Milan. The ex¬ perience thus obtained indicates plainly that “ the problem of the pro¬ tection of the emigrant is, in great part, the problem of his instruction,” a conviction which has been deepened by the increasing stringency of the immigration laws of the United States, for it is to this country that the great body of Italian emigrants direct their course. The problem thus presented was the subject of earnest discussion in a congress held in 1911 to consider the condition of Italians in foreign countries, and on that occasion, upon the motion of Signor Cabrini, commissioner of emigration, it was resolved that “ the congress and its individual members should promote all efforts which are intended to elevate the intellectual and moral level of emi¬ grants.” Already classes had been formed for this purpose at vari¬ ous points by private enterprise ; the minister of public instruction, Signor Credaro, had given full support to these efforts, while at the same time he insisted that the rural schools should make this work one of their main purposes. “An Italian teacher in a rural school,” he said, “ who does not instruct his pupils in the mysteries of emigration steals his salary and betrays his pupils.” 2 It is evi¬ dent, however, that under present circumstances the elementary schools can not meet this need very fully, and hence the special classes must be sustained. As explained by Signor Corradini, the director general of primary education, these classes are intended to give the emigrants in a form, brief but exact and effective, information as to their rights in the countries beyond the ocean, of the opportunities they offer, of their geographic and economic features, of the perils and dangers which, as emigrants, they must encounter, etc., and they should also famil- 1 See L’instruction des emigrants en Italie , by Maurice Roger, in Revue Pedagogique, October, 1912, p. 368. 2 Cited from Roger, p. 377. ITALY. 563 iarize the emigrants with two or three hundred words of the foreign language of most immediate use to them in the country to which they may be going. He adds : But the first endeavor of the teachers should be to rouse the sentiment of human dignity and of the importance of the Italian nation, in order that the emigrant may preserve in his heart the sense of his own worth and that of his native land in the countries in which inexorable necessity forces him to seek the means of existence.1 The Government has taken up this work, not in the interests of the emigrants alone, but from national pride as well. In July, 1911, a circular was issued by the minister of public instruction comprising courses of instruction to serve for the guidance of teachers engaging in this work. These model courses carry out in detail the subjects briefly outlined by Signor Corradini. They include matters of common interest to all emigrants, such as the organization of the emigrant service in Italy, railroad services, sanitary inspection, con¬ ditions of ocean travel, exchange of currency, emigrant aid societies, etc. There are also special courses treating of the individual coun¬ tries; for example, the United States, its political divisions, admin¬ istrative and monetary systems, etc.2 Early in 1912 the minister of public instruction arranged for the opening of 100 schools for emigrants, distributed among the different Provinces according to their needs, and in charge of teachers who had been trained for this service. The formal instruction is sup¬ plemented by the circulating libraries which maintain special sections for the literature of emigration. The entire work is animated by philanthropy and patriotism. It aims not only to safeguard the emigrant, but to promote a community of interests among Italian colonists which will strengthen their home ties and preserve in their hearts the sentiment of devotion to their motherland. INSTRUCTION IN ARABIC. On account of the relations resulting from tne war with Tripoli the minister of public instruction presented a bill to the Senate authorizing the introduction of courses in the Arabic language in selected schools. The action is urged as a means of promoting friendly relations with the new possessions through the services of men familiar with the language of the people and able to understand their intellectual processes. The bill calls for a provisional sum, 30,000 lire ($5,000), to meet the original expenses of the experiment. Gratuitous instruction is also offered in several Italian colleges for young men from Tripoli and other parts of Libya. 1 Roger, p. 378. 2 See L’Educazione del Bambini, No. 7, 1912 (Jan. 1), pp. 108-111. 564 EDUCATION REPORT, 1912. Arabic is already included in the courses of several Italian universi¬ ties, but the subject is treated from the philological standpoint. The minister of public instruction has ordered that the language shall be at once included in the technical colleges of Genoa, Naples, Leghorn, and Caltanissetta, following the practical method of instruction used in the principal commercial colleges. Official regulations have been issued determining the scope and details of the examinations which will entitle candidates to the diploma for teachers of Arabic. The examinations include written and oral tests, special stress being placed in the latter upon the correct pronunciation of Arabic words. The candidates are expected to show familiarity with the dictionaries and grammars of the language published in Europe and with the principal periods of Arabic literature. While measures are thus taken by the Government to prepare teachers for the new courses of study, immediate use will be made, so far as possible, of the services of missionaries who have been sta¬ tioned in Tripoli and are not only familiar with the language but also understand the habits and temperament of the people. Thus Italy is following the precedent set by France in its relations with Algeria by carefully devised plans for assimilating to itself through educational processes a people ethnically and socially dissimilar. CURRENT LEGISLATION. The record of current legislation shows the purpose of the Gov¬ ernment to improve the entire system of education without any radical change in the existing organization. A law of June 27, 1912, provides for permanent inspectors of secondary schools, to be chosen among teachers of the same, who had taught for at least 12 years in schools of that order. A second law of June 27, 1912, substitutes in primary and sec¬ ondary schools the plan of promoting from one class to another upon the basis of the work accomplished by the pupils, instead of by examination; pupils who fall below the standard fixed must, however, pass examination. A law of July 14 provides for the reorganization of industrial and commercial schools under the charge of the minister of agricul¬ ture, commerce, and industry, and for a State subsidy for private schools of this character. EDUCATIONAL ACTIVITIES IN SPAIN. Spain has theoretically a very complete system of education, based upon the law of 1857, which was enacted in a period of great activ¬ ity on the part of leading men in the cause of popular enlighten¬ ment. The reactionary influences and the decline that ensued are EDUCATIONAL ACTIVITIES IN SPAIN. 565 matters of history. The present time is characterized by a revival of interest in the cause which is due not alone to the efforts of ad¬ vanced thinkers, but even more to the sense of national danger from the backward condition of the masses of the people. The census of 1900 showed that 63 per cent of the population were illiterate. Even in the cities the proportion was high : In Madrid, 30 per cent ; in Barcelona, 48 per cent. As a consequence of this disclosure, a new office, that of minister of public instruction, was created, and the administration of public schools and higher teaching institutions was separated from other Government functions. The minister immediately ordered an in¬ vestigation into the state of primary education, which revealed con¬ ditions alarming to all thoughtful minds. Testimony from every part of the country showed that school provision was inadequate, school buildings too often unfit for the purpose, many intolerable in fact, teachers without preparation and poorly paid, and the inspectors inefficient and indifferent. The report of the investigation was issued just upon the eve of the revolution which brought the Liberal party into power, and the new minister, Count de Eoma- nones, followed this preliminary action with measures of reform which were in part approved by the Cortes. In January, 1911, the administration of primary education was organized as a separate division of the ministry under its own director, and during the year the amount voted for the expenses of the department was increased from 27,000,000 pesetas ($5,400,000) to 32,000,000 pesetas ($6,400,000), available for 1912. The preparation of teachers was early recognized in Spain as essential to the development of an efficient system of primary educa¬ tion, and the teachings of Pestalozzi and Froebel were adopted as the basis of professional training. The two normal schools at Madrid, one for men and the other for women, still retain the spirit of the great reformers. In addition to the two schools at the capital, the State maintains normal schools in different parts of the Kingdom, but these provincial institutions had fallen into a low state. Among measures for raising their standards and imparting to them a new spirit was the establishment at Madrid of a superior institution for the purpose of training professors for the service of the primary normals. This institution was created by decree of June, 1909, and opened the following year. The National Government has also assumed the salaries for teach¬ ers, which saves them from the uncertain action of local authorities. The salaries are graded in eight classes, the annual minimum ranging from 500 pesetas ($100) in places having less than 500 inhabitants to 2,000 pesetas ($400). A further advance carrying the maximum up to 3,000 pesetas ($600) has been authorized, but the state of the 566 EDUCATION REPORT, 1912. treasury has thus far precluded the payment of the higher rates. The local authorities may increase the salaries, and this is done in Madrid and Barcelona. On account of continued disturbances in the country and the apathy of many local authorities, it is difficult to obtain complete statistics of primary education. The latest official report, published in 1910, shows a total of 34,954 public primary schools, including subsidized parochial schools and 8,100 private primaries. The total enrollment was 2,052,000, which was 10 per cent of the population. The reform of secondary education advocated for more than half a century is becoming every day more and more imperative by reason of the growing commercial and agricultural interests of the nation. In southwestern Spain especially there is a strong movement sup¬ ported by the agricultural society of Seville for instruction in the sciences bearing upon agriculture. The university extension move¬ ment promotes the same purpose by popularizing scientific knowledge. This movement is due, to the efforts of the distinguished historian, Don Rafael Altamira, and his colleagues of the University of Oviedo. Among topics recently selected for the public lectures by workmen themselves are X rays, combustion, the flora of the Tropics, etc. The lectures not only give the working classes some idea of the practical applications of science, but excite their interest in the affairs of life by the discussion of historic and literary subjects. Through the efforts of the leaders in the extension movement, a board for the promotion of studies and scientific research was organ¬ ized at Madrid during the present year, and received a Government appropriation of $140,000 in aid of its work. The board maintains courses of instruction and scientific laboratories, and is the Gov¬ ernment agent for selecting students to be sent abroad for the pursuit of special studies. The Institucion Libre de Ensenanza, which was founded in 1876, has maintained for over a quarter of a century an active propaganda in the cause of modern education and maintains schools and classes in which its principles are practically illustrated. In this connection, also, reference should be made to the work of the International Institute for Girls in Spain, founded by an Ameri¬ can woman, Mrs. Alice Gordon Gulick, liberally supported by friends in America. Under the able management of the present director, Miss Susan D. Huntington, the institute is exercising a profound influence over social and domestic life. A normal course has recently been organized to train teachers for the elementary schools of Madrid. These movements for the intellectual and scientific advancement of the nation had the full sympathy of Premier Canalejas, whose untimely death has deprived the country of invaluable services in the interests both of harmony and of progress. GREECE. 567 PORTUGAL. Prior to the revolution of 1908 active measures had been taken in Portugal looking to the increased supply of primary schools and the introduction of practical courses of instruction in the secondary schools. Among these measures was the provision of an annual ap¬ propriation, equivalent to $100,000, for scholarships available for professors and students selected for special studies and research in the chief centers in technical education in Europe (financial law of 1907). By this means the Government sought to correct the ex¬ cessive regard for literary and speculative studies on the part of educated classes in the Kingdom. The unsettled condition of the country since the Republic was declared has interfered seriously with educational progress, but the subject continues to be one of earnest discussion, as well as of active efforts on the part of private associations. The impetus given to technical education by the re¬ forms inaugaurated by the Marquis of Pombal in 1772 has, indeed, never entirely declined: Lisbon and Oporto are well provided with industrial and technical schools. The former city, which has a population of less than 400,000, has 27 industrial schools with about 5,000 students, 8 technical schools with nearly 500 students, and an important school for training officials for the colonial service. The University of Coimbra, founded in 1290, reported in 1911 a total of 1,352 students. The expenditure by the Government for public education in 1910 was 3,742,569 milreis ($4,041,974), not including 476,896 milreis granted to the ministries of war and marine for the technical schools pertaining to their services. GREECE. Education is prized by the people of Greece, and the present Gov¬ ernment has recognized its importance by legislation and by appro¬ priations, but outside of the chief cities primary schools are few and school attendance is extremely irregular. The total enrollment in the schools in 1908, as shown in the table, was less than 9 per cent of the population; in part, this low ratio is explained by the prevailing indifference to the education of girls, but the enrollment of boys was only 12 per cent of the total male population. In respect to the desire for education, the alert people of the vil¬ lages and cities offer a marked contrast with the peasantry, and it is the latter who, by reason of indifference and natural obstacles, keep down the general average of school attendance. Aspiring youth of the peasant class desert the country for the cities. 77236°— ed 1912— vol 1 - 38 568 EDUCATION REPORT, 1912. Notwithstanding the unsatisfactory provision for elementary edu¬ cation, the traditions of culture are very strong in the nation, and the secondary schools are well attended. Under this head are classed the Hellenic schools and the gymnasia. The former are in scope similar to the higher grade primary schools, which are authorized by law, and are maintained in a few places. The Hellenic schools, however, pay special attention to the Greek language and literature, which occupy fully one-third the time in the three years’ course. The proposition has been made to provide for the special study of Greek by adding one year to the higher primary course and a pre¬ paratory year to the gymnasia or secondary school proper. The latter follow German models in their organization and courses of instruction. Statistics of the school system of Greece for 1907-8. Elementary Hellenic. Gymnasia. (deme). Public. Private. Schools . 3,418 4,336 170,374 71,059 6, 690, 098 314 26 11 Teachers . 940 209 103 Students: Boys . 20,517 3,941 1,352 Girls . Total expense: Drachmas . 2,477,022 $478, 065 767,376 259,900 $50, 161 $37.92 Dollars . $1,291,575 $148, 110 $37. 58 Expense per pupil . $5.35 $23. 30 CHIEF CURRENT INTERESTS. The chief current activities in regard to education pertain to the interests of the rural population and to the advancement of women. Efforts have been made to introduce modem agricultural implements and methods, and for the success of these endeavors better roads and better primary schools are recognized as essential. The foremost women of Greece have been very active in the “ woman movement,” and have enlisted the cooperation of eminent men in their cause. The results are seen in the greater interests in the education of girls, and more particularly in the preparation of women for teaching and for other professional services. The most important school for girls above the primary grade is a private institution, named from its founder and benefactor, the Arsakion. It is situated at Athens, but has branches in other cities and has about 1,800 students on its register. The program includes a three years’ special course for intending teachers, and the certificate is accepted for. admission to the position of teacher in an elementary school. TURKEY. 569 The opening of the University of Athens to women is an important outcome of the general movement. Already one woman has gradu¬ ated from the medical faculty and entered upon professional duties, in which the services of women are particularly desirable. This expansion of facilities was particularly noticed in the ceremonies attending the seventy-fifth anniversary of the foundation of the university, which occurred April 6, 1912. CHILD LABOR LAW. The awakening sense of public responsibility with reference to children is largely due to the influence of progressive women. They were active in securing the passage at the legislative session of 1911- 12, of a child labor law which forbids the employment of children under 12 years of age in mills, factories, mines, on buildings or other outdoor work, in messenger or transportation service, in shops, res¬ taurants, coffeehouses, wine shops, bakeries, or hotels. After five years these occupational restrictions will be applied also to children be¬ tween 12 and 14 years and to those who have not completed their attendance at the primary schools. For such children the day’s * work will be limited to 6 hours, with 10 hours for children above school age but under 18 years, who will not be permitted, however, to work more than 8 hours on Saturdays or legal holidays. The law also places restrictions upon the employment of women and of children between 12 and 16 years of age. Although the provisions are very moderate, the law brings Greece into accord with the social development of the principal nations. TURKEY. SYSTEM OF PUBLIC INSTRUCTION. The revolutionary government etablished in 1909 included educa¬ tion in its proposed reforms, but effected no change in the education law of 1869. This law therefore was in force when the Balkan War broke out, and is the basis on which the existing schools are operat¬ ing in the Turkish Empire, as the expression may still be understood. The law of 1869 required that a primary school be established in every commune, and wherever possible a separate school for girls, and made the instruction of boys compulsory from ages 6 to 17 years and of girls from the ages of 6 to 10. Both public and private schools were recognized, the former being Mohammedan. In addi¬ tion to the Koran and the elements of ciphering, the programs were extended to include the outlines of Ottoman history, notions of geography, and object lessons. 570 EDUCATION REPORT, 1912. Higher primary schools and secondary schools of two orders to be maintained by the State were also provided for by the law of 1869; the higher secondary leading to the university and special schools. For instruction in modern branches, the French language was prescribed. In addition to the public, or Government, system, the law sanc¬ tioned the schools maintained by the various religious denominations, which followed pretty closely the program of corresponding schools in other European countries. In 1910 it was estimated that there were in all the Empire 36,230 schools, with 1,331,200 pupils, equivalent to 5.3 per cent of the popu¬ lation. The number of schools given is three times as great as the number reported in 1908, and may be an exaggeration, although it is known that schools have multiplied during the past few years, especially in cities and towns. SCHOOLS AND COLLEGES IN CONSTANTINOPLE. The deposed Sultan, Abdul Hamid, was eager to make his capital a model city, and, among other enterprises, he ordered the establish¬ ment of military and medical schools patterned after those of * Paris. At the time the Revolution broke out (1909) there were in Constantinople, according to official reports, 561 primary schools of the lower grade, 65 higher primary (34 public, 31 private), and of secondary institutions 11 preparatory and 1 college. The plans of the former Sultan for a university at Constantinople for instruction in Moslem theology, supplemented by modern sub¬ jects, have never been realized, although the university has official recognition; the Imperial School of Medicine, already in existence, forms one of its departments; the Imperial Art School, the “ Great Greek National School,” and the Greek Theological Seminary, are also at Constantinople. To these must be added two American in¬ stitutions of high repute and remarkable history: Robert College and the American College for Girls. Robert College, founded in 1859 by a merchant of New York, whose name it bears, and maintained half a century by donations from friends in America, has been placed upon a solid basis by a legacy of $2,500,000 from the estate of Mr. John S. Kennedy, of New York. The announcement of this bequest was made at the com¬ mencement exercises of 1910 by the president of the college, Caleb F. Gates, L.L. D., who at the same time outlined plans for enlarging the scope of the institution, as follows: A portion of this sum will be used for extending the campus and increasing the buildings, and the remainder will constitute a permanent endowment, which will yield a sufficient income to enable us to take care of nearly three times as many students as at present. TURKEY. 571 We have had only 23 acres of land, but have already purchased 50 additional acres for a campus at the top of the bluff, and are negotiating for the purchase of 50 acres more, which will give us the entire slope to the shores of the Bosphorus. It is proposed to erect a number of new buildings of stone, to be quarried on the campus, at a cost of nearly half a million dollars, which, in addition to the present buildings, will provide accommodations for more than a thousand stu¬ dents. The present limit is 450. Prof. A. D. F. Hamlin, of the chair of architecture of Columbia University, New York City, who is a son of Dr. Cyrus Hamlin, the first president of Robert College, has made the designs for the new buildings, has laid out the campus on the American plan, and will superintend the improvements, in association with Prof. John R. Allen, the dean of our new engineering department. Prof. Hamlin has laid out playgrounds, golf links, tennis courts, football and baseball fields, dormitories, lecture halls, gymnasium, laboratories, a new administration buiding, residences for the president and professors, in a most ingenious and artistic manner, with terraces, gardens, and groves. FACILITIES FOR ATHLETICS. The extension of our facilities for athletics is recognized as of great im¬ portance, and special attention is given to reservations for those purposes. Both the playgrounds and the football fields will have stands that will accom¬ modate large numbers of spectators, and we propose to educate public senti¬ ment on the subject of outdoor sports, which have never been encouraged among the orientals. Physical culture is another important feature — one of the most important in our curriculum. Our original gymnasium was built and equipped by the late William E. Dodge, of New York. His son, Cleveland H. Dodge, brought out a full equip¬ ment in 1904, and it is now as good as any college gymnasium in the United States, and much better than many. It is the only gymnasium of the kind in the East. We consider it of the greatest importance, not only for the physical development of the students to counteract the natural and traditional habits of the orientals, but of even greater importance as a leveler in bringing together students of different nation¬ alities and rank. The football field and the gymnasium are the most complete demonstrations of social democracy that can be furnished. There all of our students meet on a common level, regardless of their birth and rank and titles. The most important addition to the institution, however, will be a school of engineering. It will occupy two large buildings, with workshops, an electric- light and power plant, and a model mechanical laboratory, located in a con¬ spicuous position overlooking the Bosphorus, upon a terrace south of the present buildings. An engineering school has been needed for a long time, and is necessary to meet the demand for trained engineers for the development of the material resources of the Empire. There is no school of engineering in this part of the world — none south of the Danube. The engineering school will be under the direction of Prof. John R. Allen, recently in charge of the department of mechanical engineering in the Uni¬ versity of Michigan. He will have charge of the organization of the school and the erection of the plant, and will be dean of the department as soon as the facilities are provided. * * * There never was such a pressure for educational privileges as is found in Turkey to-day. 572 EDUCATION KEPOET, 1912. The people of this Empire are fully awake to the advantages of education. They realize the backward condition of their country and the opportunities that exist for educated men and the value of the material resources that are lying idle around them. They realize the disadvantages under which they are labor¬ ing and their need of trained men. Hitherto no Turk has ever had an opportunity of advancement except in the military service or in official position. The new regime offers fields of profit and honor for- thousands of young men. There is great rivalry among the sons of the intelligent families of Turkey to enter it. The American College for Girls, at Constantinople, has developed from a high school established by the woman’s board of missions in Boston, Mass., and opened for its first session in October, 1871. In 1890 the standard of scholarship in this school was approved by the Legislature of Massachusetts as sufficiently high to justify the granting of a college charter, and consequently the institution was incorporated as a college by “ act of the Commonwealth of Massa¬ chusetts.” The work of this college for the education of women is quite as remarkable as that of Robert College for men. Its students are drawn from all nationalities comprised in the Turkish Empire, and under the direction of its president, Mary Mills Patrick, Ph. D., and a strong faculty comprising graduates from the principal uni¬ versities of the United States, it is imparting to its students ideals of home life and social relations, while maintaining at the same time high scholastic standards. The status of education in Asiatic Turkey is best indicated by ref¬ erence to particular communities. Smyrna . — According to a consular report, at the time of the break¬ ing out of the revolution of 1909, the situation in Smyrna, the chief city of Asia Minor, was as follows: The chief dependence of the city for modern education was the Jewish schools, of which there were 14 public and 3 private, with a total attendance of 1,810 pupils. In the environs there were 9 schools under the same auspices, with 968 pupils, or altogether 3,098 pupils. Of these schools, 4 in the city proper and 6 in the suburbs were maintained by the “Alliance Israelite.” The two chief schools of the class were a school for boys (322 pupils) and one for girls (303 pupils), in which French and English were taught, as well as Turkish and Hebrew, the elements of science, geography, general history, Jewish history, bookkeeping, commercial correspondence, drawing, gymnastics, singing, and needlework. The majority of the teachers had French diplomas. All the schools of the “Alliance Israelite” are subsidized by that society, whose seat is in Paris, and by Jewish communities through¬ out Europe. Some of them also receive subsidies from the Anglo- Jewish Association in London. In all the schools the majority of the pupils pay a small tuition fee, in accordance with their means. This TURKEY. 573 varies between 20 cents and $1 per month. The attendance, however, of a great number of pupils is entirely free. The following particulars, derived from a recent consular report, pertain to the vilayet (district) of Mamouret-ul-Aziz. School attendance and illiteracy. Nationalities. Population. School attendance. Percentage of illiteracy. Approximate school attendance under 14 years. Turks . . 218, 168 11,750 90 7,750 Greeks . 1,047 150 50 90 Armenians: Gregorians . 72,700 9,270 35 6,270 Protestants . 9,373 1,370 30 870 Catholics . 2,983 750 32 500 Syrians . 1,508 290 50 210 Kurds . . 188, 171 1,000 99 750 Total . 493, 948 24,580 16,440 The population of the vilayet, it will be seen, is about half a million, and, although this is a part of ancient Armenia, the Ar¬ menian inhabitants, or the Christians, number hardly one-fourth of the population, yet they furnish nearly one-half of the children in attendance upon school, viz, 11,830 out of a total attendance of 24,580 children. The Moslem inhabitants, it is stated, do not appreciate the im¬ portance of educating their children ; the Kurds, who are practically all Moslems, are indifferent in this matter. In the larger towns of the district there are a fair number of schools under Moslem and State control, but in the villages there are none. The Armenian com¬ munities, on the contrary, even in isolated villages, are awake to the importance of educating their children of both sexes and tax themselves quite heavily to keep their schools running, while the Moslem communities can and do have schools with Government aid when they show an inclination to send their children. Practically all the Armenian males can speak Turkish, and fully one-third can read and write the language. In respect to the education of girls, the consul says : Under the former regime it was seldom that Turkish girls had an opportunity to learn to read and write, but within the past few years there have been several schools for girls opened in the larger towns of the district, but crochet¬ ing and embroidery work and the simplest exercises in reading are about all that is taught at present. A Moslem girls’ school is such a new feature in this district that it will be some time before they will be extensively patronized. The Kurds are in a different class from any of the other races of this district ; practically all of them are illiterate, only a very few being able to read or write Turkish, although a considerable number of them can speak Turkish. 574 EDUCATION REPORT, 1912. They have no alphabet in their language. It is simply a spoken language with a small vocabulary, and as no assistance is given them in educational matters their condition is not encouraging at present.1 An agricultural school, Or Iehouda, is maintained by the Jewish Colonization Association, whose seat is also at Paris. On a model farm, extending some 30,000 donoums, or about 7,500 acres, young men coming out of the primary schools of Turkey, Bulgaria, and Roumania learn agricultural work, both practical and theoretical. The teaching is done by special professors who have first studied at the Practical Agricultural School of Mikveh Israel, near Jaffa, and then in the superior agricultural schools of France. The young men prepared at Or Iehouda establish themselves either as colonists or at the farm itself or in foreign lands, principally in Canada, the United States, Argentina, and in Egypt. The means by which the mission societies are promoting the indus¬ trial interests of the young people of Turkey is illustrated by the work of the Industrial Institute, maintained by the American Mis¬ sion, at Our fa, Syria. This institute is an adjunct of the orphanage belonging to the mission, but does not limit its work strictly to the boys of the orphanage. According to a report covering the year 1912, the industrial equip¬ ment of the institute includes carpentry, ironsmith, machine, tailor¬ ing, and shoemaking shops. During the year there were 43 boys under training, 20 from the orphanage and the remainder from the city. For the orphanage boys the plan of half-day school alternat¬ ing with half-day shopwork has been introduced. The boys are dis¬ tributed among the shops, the larger proportion in the carpentry and cabinet department. With regard to the influence exercised by the industrial training, the report says: This year both the ironshop and carpentry shops made a small profit. Grad¬ ually we are getting the shopwork of the institute on a self-supporting basis. To do this it has been necessary to build up business in the trades represented by these shops. When the institute was started, 10 years ago, the amount of business in these trades was almost negligible. Very few even of the Christian natives wore European styles of clothing or shoes, and practically none of their houses contained such furniture as chairs, tables, stoves, and bedsteads, while the ironwork of the city was limited to that of the rudest kinds and the trade itself regarded with contempt. But gradually a trade in these lines has been built up, and the educational value of the institute is shown in the increased demand for its products and the popularizing of the trades which it teaches. The construction of railroads through the land and the opening up of the coun¬ try to European trade is bound to result in a great increase in business in all of these lines. But it is the educational value of this institute that is its justi¬ fication, and this consists not merely in the technical training which the boys receive, but also the new system of business ethics which they learn : That pros¬ perity is the result of increased and improved production rather than shrewd, 1 From report by William W. Masterson, the American consul at Harput, Turkey, Mar. 8, 1912. EDUCATIONAL STATUS OF THE BALKAN NATIONS. 575 tricky bargaining, which is the oriental idea of successful business. The ethical value of this new business policy is beyond estimation in the training of the native Christians for missionary service to the Moslems. The mission maintains also a woman’s industrial department, which, at the beginning of the year, employed 2,480 women and girls in lace-handkerchief work, but it has been greatly affected by the events of the year, which have forced a great reduction in the number of women employed.1 MISSIONARY AGENCIES. Missionary societies and various orders of the Roman Catholic Church carry on an extensive educational work throughout the Turkish Empire, and very particularly in the Asiatic section. Re¬ cent summarized statements pertaining to nine Amerioan societies which are working in the Empire give the number of schools and higher institutions under their charge as 670, with about 40,000 pupils. The work employs 750 American supervisors and teachers and nearly 2,300 trained native assistants. The medical and hos¬ pital service maintained by these societies is extensive, and through this service the attention of the people is directed to the importance of modern medical science. The extensive printing plants main¬ tained by the societies issue, it is estimated, about 75,000,000 pages annually. EDUCATIONAL STATUS OF THE BALKAN NATIONS. The devastating war against Turkey, with its far-reaching effects, imparts great interest to the internal affairs of the Balkan nations. Their long preparation for the conflict by effective military training is evident, but undoubtedly general education has played a part in the preparation of the confederates, second only to that of military discipline and native valor. The primary agent in the development of these nations was the Greek Church, which formed the common bond between them while they were yet under Turkish rule ; for teaching is a function of the Greek Church, as of the Roman Catholic Church, and in many respects its teachings have been in accord with those which Rome imparted to western Europe. It is noticeable also that the divisions of the Greek Church in the Balkan nations have overcome a tendency to absolutism, which has been fostered by the same church in the Russian Empire. Beginning with Greece, which was the first to be freed from the Turkish yoke, everyone of the allied kingdoms has made education compulsory. Although it has been impossible to enforce these laws, their presence on the 1 Report forwarded by Mr. Jesse B. Jackson, American consul, Aleppo, Syria. 576 EDUCATION REPORT, 1912. statute boojts gives sanction to every effort for their practical realiza¬ tion. While the control of education has not been left to the church, clerical authorities have a place in the central administration and in the local supervision of schools. Higher education is represented in Bulgaria by the University of Sophia and in Servia by the University of Belgrade. The former had 2,116 students (including 237 not matriculated) in the summer semester of 1912 and the latter 1,025 (14 not matriculated) in the summer semester of 1911. Women are admitted to both universities. There is a Government military academy at Belgrade, but the mili¬ tary officers of the Balkan armies generally get their training in the military schools of neighboring nations. BULGARIA. Bulgaria declared her independence of the Turkish Government October 5, 1908, and the first law relative to public instruction was passed by the National Assembly February 18, 1909, and amended by a law of March 8, 1910, which related especially to the adminis¬ tration and classification of schools and the requirements for teachers and professors. The latter law provided that in case a commune able to bear the expense for the erection of a school building refused to provide one, the Government itself should construct the school building and withhold from that commune an equivalent amount from its share in the public appropriation for elementary education. The census of 1910 showed a population of 4,329,108, of whom 77 per cent belonged to the Greek Church and 14 per cent were Moham¬ medans. According to the latest report of education in this Kingdom (1909-10) , there were 3,786 elementary schools, with 8,697 teachers and an enrollment of 483,011 pupils (262,374 boys and 167,717 girls), 14.8 per cent of the total population, a ratio equal to the average for the States of central and western Europe. The provision for secondary education included 27 gymnasia, with 10,299 pupils, of whom 3,307 were girls; 292 lower middle schools, with 48,199 pupils, of whom 15,141 were girls. There were also technical and industrial schools, with nearly 9,500 pupils, of whom one-half were girls. The period of obligatory instruction is brief, covering ages 8 to 12 years. Instruction is gratuitous in the element¬ ary schools; the wealthier people are charged a small fee for their children attending the secondary schools. SERVIA. The population of Servia in 1910 was 2,911,700, of whom 99 per cent are adherents of the Greek Orthodox Church. The latest sta¬ tistics of education, which pertain to 1909, give a total of 138,434 EDUCATIONAL STATUS OF THE BALKAN NATIONS. 577 pupils (109,433 boys and 29,001 girls) in the elementary schools; the total, it will be seen, is less than 5 per cent of the population. This backward condition is due largely to the fact that 70 per cent of the people live by agriculture, and the lack of roads and means of trans¬ portation has made it very difficult to establish rural schools. MONTENEGRO. Montenegro, hemmed in by Austrian and Turkish territory, covers an area of 3,630 square miles. Its population is estimated at 250,000, a peasant people, mainly industrial and agricultural. The military discipline is very rigid, every male subject being practically a part of the army from the eighteenth to the sixty-second year of his age, or for a period of 45 years. Of this time, 2 years are spent in the recruit service, 33 in the active army (during which period at least 10 days’ actual service is required annually), and 10 years in the reserve. All recruits unable to read and write are given elementary instruction while in camp. The women of Montenegro are inured to hardship, and thus far little interest has been manifested in their education. There is a high school for girls, having about 100 pupils, maintained at the expense of the Empress of Russia. ROUMANIA. Using the term Balkan States in its geographic sense, Rou- mania should be included. Among the transformations wrought in that country by King Carol I, in the 31 years that have elapsed since he accepted the proffered crown, not the least important is the awak¬ ened spirit with regard to education. Provision has been made by law for a complete system of public instruction; and attendance upon elementary schools, where such exist, is compulsory for a period of four years, ages 8 to 12. The supply of public elementary schools steadily increases, and in addition to the elements of knowledge the spirit of patriotism is inculcated by all teachers. Under the vigorous rule of King Carol the revenue of the Kingdom has advanced from an annual value of $10,000,000 to $95,000,000; the extent of its rail¬ ways from nothing to a length of 3,473 kilometers; and through the system of agricultural holdings and rural banks 5,979,000 acres of land have come into the possession of peasant owners. The annual expenditure for education, which in 1866 was practically nothing, now exceeds $10,000,000 a year; thousands of schools have been built, lycees that will bear comparison with those of Paris, two universi¬ ties, a medical school and auxiliary institutions, museum, libraries, etc. The talents and influence of the Queen, “ Carmen Sylva,” have awakened a passion for the liberal arts among the people and given Roumania an enviable reputation in the world of letters. CHAPTER XXIII. EDUCATION IN RUSSIA. Contents : Magnitude and complexity of the population ; Controlling authorities ; Pri¬ mary-school law of 1864 ; Educational work of the third Duma ; Agencies for rural uplift ; Secondary and higher education ; Technical schools ; Appropriations for educa¬ tion in 1911 and 1912. MAGNITUDE AND COMPLEXITY OF THE POPULATION. It is impossible to comprehend the current record of education in Russia without reference to certain social and political features of the Empire. Its area comprises one-seventh of the land surface of the globe; its population, as officially estimated in 1910, was 163,778,000, of whom 135,860,000 belonged to European Russia. In this division of the Empire the density of population is 68 per square mile; in Asiatic Russia, only 4 to a square mile. Finland, which up to a recent date was treated as an allied State, is not included in these estimates; as regards popular education^ this Grand Duchy is far in advance of the Empire as a whole. The city population of Russia is comparatively small, only 19 towns in the vast Empire having over 100,000 inhabitants; for the most part the peasant population is collected in small villages. The established religion of the Empire is the Greco-Russian, offi¬ cially called the “ Orthodox faith.” The adherents of the State church are estimated at 70 per cent of the population; the Mohamme¬ dans, numbering about 14 millions, at 11 per cent; and the Roman Catholics, about 11 J millions, at 9 per cent. Of the remainder, the Jews form the largest body, comprising 51 millions, followed by the Lutherans with 31 millions. Religion, which has been a determining force in education throughout the Empire, makes for diversity in¬ stead of unity, and this tendency is increased by the racial distinc¬ tions of the people. Considering, therefore, the population alone, its magnitude and complexity, the problem of education throughout Russia is one of enormous difficulty. CONTROLLING AUTHORITIES. Education is strictly controlled by the imperial authority, which is, theoretically although not actually, restricted by the action of the Duma, a representative body called into existence by decree of 1905, 579 580 EDUCATION REPORT, 1912. and formed at present under a carefully prescribed electoral system. The chief Government agencies for the direction of schools and higher institutions are the minister of public instruction and the Holy Synod. The latter body, which has charge of parochial schools, is the supreme authority in ecclesiastical affairs, but subject to the Emperor in respect to its organization and its civil activities. Its membership consists of metropolitans, archbishops, and bishops, all appointed by the Emperor. Other ministries control schools which are either special or estab¬ lished under special conditions. The schools called, collectively, the Empress Maria Institutions have a semiofficial character. The fol¬ lowing table, compiled from the latest official report, summarizes the statistics of primary schools for 1910: Statistics of primary schools. Number of schools. Number of teachers. Number of pupils. Ministry of Public Instruction . 37,046 40,028 848 84, 121 67, 907 1,058 1,102 2,650,058 1,476, 124 46, 420 20,510 5,097 2,822 1,599 237 Holy Synod . Ministry of War . Ministry of Interior . 553 Department of the Institutions of the Empress Maria . 153 210 Imperial Philanthropic Society . 40 179 Ministry of the Court and Domains . 23 63 Ministry of Finance . 4 12 Ministry of Marine . 4 379 Total . 78,699 154,652 4,203,246 PRIMARY-SCHOOL LAW OF 18 64. The education of the common people excited little attention prior to the emancipation of the serfs in 1861. This action necessitated a readjustment of community life and industry, and the primary-school law of 1864 is one of the measures devised for that purpose ; it was, indeed, necessary for the success of the other measures ; for it was seen that unless the millions of freed people were taught at least the rudi¬ ments of knowledge it would be impossible to carry out the scheme for the redistribution of the land, the new judicial system, and the work of the zemstvos, the organs of local administration. The law of 1864 authorized the union into a single group of schools of different denominations; required the admission of all children without distinction of creed, rank, or sex, unless separate schools were provided, and a common program for all. In addition to the three elementary branches, this program included church singing and religion. The religious instruction must be given by the parish priest or by a special instructor approved by the district school council. The Russian language alone was recognized as the medium of instruc¬ tion. The zemstvos were authorized to establish and support public EDUCATION IN RUSSIA. 581 schools ; their control^ however, was committed to district councils to be formed by the central authority, but including two representatives of the zemstvos. Modifications of the law of 1864 have increased the central control over the primary schools of all classes, and subsequent decrees have fostered parochial schools at the expense of the public schools, that is, those maintained by the zemstvos. Hence the spread of primary education has been hindered by the struggle between the two school systems, the public and the parochial, and between local and imperial authority. EDUCATIONAL WORK OF THE THIRD DUMA. Reactionary and progressive forces are contending for control throughout the entire field of educational activity. This struggle has been emphasized the present year by the measures passed by the Third Duma, but finally rejected by the Imperial Council. Their bearing is indicated by the following epitome of the action of the Duma, condensed from an article by the vice chairman of the education committee of that body.1 The proceedings of the Duma in respect to education took two forms: Criticism of the defects of the present system and construc¬ tive legislation. Criticism was made, as a rule, in addresses before the open sessions, and therefore excited much discussion in journals and public gath¬ erings. The criticisms bore chiefly upon the “ indifference of the Government,” the “ meagerness of the credits for education,” the destructive influence of successive statutes, depriving higher insti¬ tutions, especially the universities, of self-government, the formal character of secondary education, and measures restricting the prog¬ ress of the public primary schools. Several prominent members of the education committee went so far as to oppose the appropriations for education in their reluctance to continue the present conditions. The constructive work in education “ was done chiefly in the com¬ mittees of the budget and of education, partly in the committee on gymnasia, and also in conferences for the discussion of individual bills ” ; the ultimate decisions of the education committee were em¬ bodied in a series of bills most of which were passed by the Duma. Notwithstanding the fact that the Imperial Council failed to sanc¬ tion these measures, they are of great interest as showing the con¬ victions of the conservative leaders of progress in the Empire. In addition to securing “ very satisfactory statistics,” the Duma established certain principles, or “ new traditions,” which it is be¬ lieved will gradually work themselves into the educational policies 1 Cited, by permission, from an article by Evgrav Kovalevsky, “ The Duma and Public Instruction,” Russian Review, July, 1912. 582 EDUCATION REPORT, 1912. of the Government. The outcome is summed up by Mr. Kovalevsky as follows: The first of these new traditions is the advocacy of the interests of teachers of all schools and of all ranks, which has taken the form of increase of salary, periodical augmentations, and, lastly, pensions for the teachers of lower schools. (Law of June 14, 1910.) We have already spoken of the sympathetic attitude of the Duma toward women in the sphere of education. Besides this — acting on a broad conception of educational needs, the Imperial Duma was always disposed to support the wish of non-Russian nationalities to preserve their culture and languages, within limits which did not openly infringe the interest of the State. An important factor in the legislative work of the Duma was its aim of decentralizing the administration of schools and associating unofficial bodies T 821,090 551,560 1,220,483 1,095,164 1,124,711 Gov¬ ern¬ ment.1 1 a § 53 94 99 1,209 1,761 947 1,843 53 S' 6,467 5,500 5, 671 .4,893 Students and pupils. Total. 1 lH I § sasllll 38 S3 "S" 23<0’*''8§ § o | 1881 §§ijs cc'co'cc'io' Private. 1 S 8 " IS i as : 20,984 20, 089 1 g 223,519 226,376 226, 272 218,548 201, 878 Public. 6,438, 142 354 23,422 is i SS j 1,538 263,329 1 CO s Si o' ! 6,372,807 6,075,364 5,840,075 5,615,980 Gov¬ ern¬ ment.1 1,647 371 1 1 8831988 a ! r-T O s a' 27,921 26, 222 24, 658 23, 444 Instructors and teachers. Total. 144,506 242 1,406 424 62 20 5,891 2,743 332 594 1,760 6, 574 i s S' 160, 878 147,086 139,568 131.530 Pri¬ vate. 1 s SI ; * CO g 12, 462 12,331 11,844 11,487 10, 466 Public. 143, 709 42 1,406 gg I -tfol j iSl 1 157, 653 8388 Ill's Gov¬ ern¬ ment.1 62 17 3 8 1,993 1,854 1, 788 1,636 1,567 Number of schools. Total. 26,084 42 78 2 2 2 305 ms 3 60 5, 644 3 2,248 sf 8SS8 wcown Pri¬ vate. Sj §§ S3 : § S' Ills 1 Pub- iic. 1 "S £ as i rs : ** 1 32,587 32, 347 33,189 32, 494 31, 150 Gov¬ ern¬ ment.1 CO T-t > o 3 Pi S o O a o i 3 4-> O Eh Number. Per cent of enrollment. Men. Women. Total. Total. Per capita of enrollment. Per capita of population. 1910 1911 6-14 6-12 243,839 1 100,024 157,498 70,194 64. 59 70. 17 1,236 1,509 5,900 2,745 $5,791,725 1,825,644 $23. 75 18.25 $3. 51 3.01 1911 7-13 53,494 37,427 69. 96 386 939 1,325 894,400 16. 71 2.18 1910 1911 6-14 6-14 235,042 35,347 145,968 30,168 62.00 85.34 379 721 4,957 1,100 3,875,086 748,931 29. 45 21.18 2.94 2.65 1911 7-13 28,821 18, 130 62.90 406, 660 14.10 2.12 Statistics of private schools and of universities. States. Private schools, 1910.1 Teachers. Universities, 1912. Number. Enroll¬ ment. Number. Students. New South Wales . 774 59,247 3,602 1 1,387 Queensland . 149 12. 790 666 1 (2) South Australia . : . 189 11,978 1 642 Victoria . . 641 49,964 2,067 1 1,248 West Australia . 119 8.910 1 (2) Tasmania . 126 7,462 1 434 1 Statistics incomplete. 2 Recently established. CURRENT ACTIVITIES. The activity with respect to education, which has been particularly marked since the formation of the Commonwealth, has been con¬ tinued during the past year. In all the States, two tendencies are noticeable : First, that of careful inquiry and investigation, especially in regard to the educational provision in foreign countries; second, the tendency to increase the scope of the central authority in the sev¬ eral States. Within the past few years the States of New South Wales and Victoria have sent commissions of experts to inspect and report on the methods adopted in the schools of the chief countries of Europe and of America, and several of the States have appointed commissions to make exhaustive investigation of home conditions. An educational commission of the latter character was appointed 608 EDUCATION REPORT, 1912. also in New Zealand in 1908, and its report lias been issued during the current year. The work of these commissions has excited wide¬ spread discussion in the public press and in legislative assemblies, and consequently the people of Australia, and of New Zealand also, have been excited to a very lively interest in the measures proposed for improving and extending the means of education in their midst. The following statements pertaining to individual States embody the results of these preliminary measures so far as they have been reported to this office. NEW SOUTH WALES. The success of the Labor Party in New South Wales, with the con¬ sequent formation of a labor ministry, draws special attention to the plans for education adopted under the new party. It was well known that the ministry came into office with a definite and long-considered plan respecting public education about which expert opinion had been sought. As set forth in a communication to the London Times, the chief features of this plan were as follows : (a) A complete chain of schools leading up from the existing primary State schools either to the university or to the child’s future work, and (ft) control of this chain, as far as possible, by a reformed and widened university senate, working in friendly cooperation with the department of education. The first wTas mainly administrative work, the second needed legislation. According to the correspondent referred to, it was expected that the whole scheme would be in working order by February, 1911, but unexpected obstacles arose, and thus far little has been accomplished, excepting with reference to secondary schools, which part of the scheme, as carried out, is described as follows: A child leaving the primary school, usually about IS years old, has three courses open to him or her. One ends in the university — not necessarily in the faculty of arts. One ends in the adoption of some wage-earning calling two years later. One contemplates that adoption at once. It is the State’s busi¬ ness, according to the reformers (whose ranks extend far beyond the Labor Party), to shepherd its young people through all these stages; and this is how it Is done. The candidate for university teaching may pass through a four years’ course at a State high school, or may be assisted with a bursary to take a similar course at one of the private secondary schools which has agreed to submit itself to proper inspection. Both the bursary examinations and the “leaving certificates ” issued at the end of the four years are controlled by a board in the choice of which the university has the chief voice ; and the certificates are accepted by the university as equivalent to matriculation. Under the univer¬ sity bill most of these certificate holders will pay no university fees, the State increasing its subsidy instead. This arrangement is to apply to the professional faculties as well as to that of arts. The child who can not be spared from wage earning for more than two years after leaving the primary school is placed in the upper division of a “ superior ** State school, and at the close of a two years’ course may gain an “ interme- AUSTRALIA. 609 diate” certificate — which the department describes as of a standard “roughly corresponding to the Oxford and Cambridge junior local examination.” The subjects, however, will be very different, as these superior schools are being organised into artisan, commercial, and domestic divisions, so that pupils may receive instruction more or less adapted to their future needs. Here, as in all other cases, entrants who have obtained from their last school a certificate of “ regular attendance, good conduct, and reasonable proficiency ” will obtain their education free. For the child who must begin to earn wages at once there are evening con¬ tinuation schools; attendance at these is still voluntary, but the ministerial policy contemplates compulsion as soon as time can be found to pass the neces¬ sary legislation. These, too, are divided into artisan and commercial (for boys) and domestic (for girls), and provide six hours’ instruction weekly; but the training is not specialized, for reasons stated thus by an officer high in the department : As a rule apprenticeship, or the definite choice of a vocation which determines the kind of special training that the youth will need, does not take place before the age of 16; it is the intervening period between 14 and 16. with its danger of casual and variable occupation, that the evening continuation school is de¬ signed to fill — so thajt, when the age of definite choice arrives, it will find the youth with a groundwork on which to build his more specialized training. The artisan schools give instruction in English, mathematics, science, and drawing and manual work; the commercial schools in English, arithmetic, geography, shorthand, business principles, and bookkeeping; the domestic schools in English, cookery, home management and hygiene, personal hygiene, care and management of sick and infants, housewifery, and needlework. Pupils must take English and at least two other subjects. Among the teachers of such subjects as business principles and manual work are men actually engaged during the day in commercial or artisan callings; and for students who have passed through the schools, and have definitely entered on their special career, trade and technical schools are being scattered through the more populous centers of the State. Of the continuation schools there are now 38, with an enrollment of about 3,000 and an average attendance not far short of that number. A fee of 6 pence per week is charged, but remitted to all who attend regularly. While these figures probably represent the ambitious youths within reach of existing schools, they are not considered at all satisfactory; in Sydney alone more than 13,000 boys of from 14 to 17 are apprenticed to trades, and it is believed that the S ate contains quite 116,000 children between those ages who are getting no education whatever. Only compulsion, therefore, will make the system prop¬ erly effective in turning into good citizens this untouched tenth of the popula¬ tion,1 Provision has been made for the organization of day continuation classes, under the charge of a special official, who bears the title Inspector of Continuation Schools.2 The continuation classes are formed in the higher grade public schools and are intended for pupils who can continue in attendance for two years after completing the primary course of five years. In other words, the continuation classes are parallel with the sixth and 1 The Times Educational Supplement, [London], Jan. 7, 1913. 2 The incumbent of this office is Mr. S. H, Smith, who, it will be recalled, made a visit to the United States in 1910 in the interest of his department. 610 EDUCATION REPORT, 1912. seventh grades of the ordinary school. They specialize in three direc¬ tions, namely, commercial, technical, and domestic science, for each of which a distinctive program is arranged, adapted to the subject, and also to the conditions of New South Wales. The programs in¬ clude as common subjects: English; morals and civics, comprising history and Scripture; music and social exercises; physical training and organized games. The remaining branches pertain to the respec¬ tive specialties of the three divisions. A qualifying certificate is required for admission to these classes, which may be gained by the average pupil at about 13 years of age, and he then spends two years in vocational training. VICTORIA. In 1910 a bill 1 was passed by the Legislature of Victoria the pur¬ pose of which was “ to establish a direct path from the elementary schools to the university.” This necessitated the coordination of elementary and secondary schools and of the higher technical schools with the university, and the extension of Government supervision to the entire field. Consequently provision was made in the law for a council of public education, charged with advisory functions with reference to all questions that may arise in respect to the administra¬ tion and conduct of public instruction. This council consists of 20 members: Four will represent the education department; four, exist¬ ing schools; three, the university; three, technical education; one, music education ; and five, industrial interests. Two out of five must be interested in agriculture. The act provides for the creation of higher elementary schools and district high schools, and as a means of extending the opportunity for education in secondary schools authorizes appropriations for 200 public scholarships, each one of which shall entitle the holder to free education at a district high school or technical school, or to an allowance of not less than £12 ($60) a year toward the payment of fees at a secondary school, with an additional allowance for living expenses. The act also provides that — evening continuation schools may be established by the minister in approved centers, and pupils under 17 years of age may be required to attend, unless they are receiving instruction elsewhere. A penalty is imposed where an employer exacts such service as would preclude a pupil’s attendance at such continuation classes. Compulsory education is extended to defectives, i. e., blind and deaf and dumb children. The importance of vocational education is emphasized in the act by the authority given to the central depart- 1 For particulars respecting the education act of 1910 this office is indebted to Dr. A. C. Tutton, Melbourne, Australia. AUSTRALIA. 611 ment to assume direction of technical institutions, including trade and preparatory schools. From the current report of the minister of public instruction (1912) it appears that the council of public education was formed according to the provisions of the act, and has been seriously engaged during the year in examining questions of pressing moment, and particularly those pertaining to the coordination of different classes of schools. The following extract from the report presents the results of a conference between a committee of the council and rep¬ resentatives of the University of Melbourne and the director of agriculture respecting agricultural education : 1. That in the opinion of this conference there should only be one institution in the State dealing with education in the higher branches of agriculture. 2. That a university agricultural school be established in the vicinity of Mel¬ bourne, and that a suitable area of farm land should be attached to such school. 3. That such school and farm should be under the direction and control of the faculty of agriculture, to be reconstituted with a liberal departmental repre¬ sentation. 4. That the university school farm should be accessible to Melbourne and should adjoin the demonstration farm of the department of agriculture. 5. That there should be a coordination between the work of the department of agriculture and the university, particularly in giving instruction to farmers’ classes. 6. That the conference is strongly of opinion that the Dookie and Longerenong Agricultural Colleges and the agricultural high schools should be placed under the joint control of the departments of agriculture and education. 7. That the establishment of all agricultural high schools in the future and the selection of sites for such schools should be subject to the approval of the depart¬ ments of education and agriculture. WESTERN AUSTRALIA. During the current year (1912) the education department of West¬ ern Australia issued a report upon continuation schools and the question of compulsory attendance, by Cecil Andrews, inspector general of schools, embodying the results of an extended educational investigation in foreign countries. In summing up his observations, Mr. Andrews draws comparison between conditions in his own country and those in Germany, as follows: Our problem here differs in many ways from that which is being solved in Germany. The whole scheme of German education is based upon a caste sys¬ tem which has no parallel in our democratic community. In Germany the son of a workman nearly always becomes a workman, and remains in his father’s class. The clever boy in the higher classes of a primary school has no chance of rising to the university or to the higher technical schools or to any of the “ learned professions.” If he was destined for one of these, he would necessarily have left the primary school at the age of 10, and entered upon an entirely distinct course. Those who remain in the primary school are there¬ fore a group with comparatively uniform aims, and can be systematically 612 EDUCATION REPORT, 1912. guided into certain definite channels. A German boy’s future calling is gen¬ erally settled at an earlier age than is the case with the Australian boy. In southern Germany a strict apprenticeship system is still in force; in northern Germany, where this is not the case, the specialized continuation school takes the boy at once and gives him a pride in his own trade or craft, and a belief in the value of good work. Tie realizes that he is still a learner and must give proof of his expert work before he can become a qualified tradesman. At the same time he is learning something of his duty to the State and the Empire and the relation of his craft to the whole community. From 18 to 20 he under¬ goes compulsory military service and learns the habit of subordination. “ The habit of military subordination unquestionably renders possible and easier the industrial enterprises of Germany, which are models of smooth and quiet organization.” With us the conditions are widely different. The boy of 13 in one of the upper classes of the primary school may be destined for any profession or calling. The education that is given him must be on broad and general lines until he has decided whether he will go to a higher school or not; it can not be narrowed, as it is in Munich, so as to become merely the avenue to a trade school. Even after the boy has left he does not, as a rule, like the German boy, immediately decide, once for all, upon his particular trade. Conditions in a new and growing country are less settled, and change may be necessary. The continuation school courses that will suit our conditions best will resemble those of England and Scotland rather than those of Germany. For the first two years the work should not be too much specialized; the industrial course should be one that will give a serviceable grounding for any skilled trade that may subsequently be selected. The continuation classes will be the link be¬ tween the primary school and the trade classes of the technical school, but will be a general prepa ration for the latter, and will not be subdivided into classes for particular trades. A course in English, practical arithmetic, mensuration, and elementary mechanics, mechanical drawing, and practical work with tools for two years will produce students well prepared to take up intelligently and efficiently the specialized work of the trades classes. ******* As far as our skilled trades are concerned, the need for organized continuation classes is probably as great as in any other country. The old system of appren¬ ticeship, under which the master workman taught his apprentice the whole of his trade work, is practically extinct. A boy who is called an apprentice may be little more than a messenger boy or may be employed merely for odd jobs. In larger works, where there is much subdivision of labor, the boy’s work may be confined to a few operations, and he may get no chance of becoming systematically acquainted with the whole of the processes that it is necessary for him to learn if he is to become a thoroughly skilled and competent work¬ man. The trade classes in our technical schools have to some extent met the need, but they have generally attracted and indeed have been designed for the adult rather than for the boy who has just left school. Preparatory classes to lead up to the specialized work need further development, and, as far as possi¬ ble, should be held in the daytime. The State has set an excellent example in the railway department. All the boys employed in the workshops at Midland Junction are required to attend classes which are held during working hours. Since my return I have met, with the director of technical education, the repre¬ sentative of one of the leading trade unions to discuss the possibility of a similar arrangement for the boys employed in his trade. The union recognizes the necessity of systematic instruction in the principles and practice of the trade, NEW ZEALAND EDUCATIONAL SYSTEM. 613 and the fact that this can only be obtained by continuation classes. The matter has not yet been finally settled, but the prospect of the establishment of day classes for this trade seems bright. If the principle is once recognized in this way, no doubt other trades will follow suit, and the way will thus be paved for a compulsory system in the future. In each such case it will be necessary to secure competent tradesmen as teachers of the practical work. We have suc¬ ceeded in doing this for the trades classes already in existence. But if a con¬ siderable development of such courses is to take place we shall probably find that the securing of competent teachers is a matter of great difficulty. With the growth of a larger system of continuation classes, we shall need many teachers, both of industrial and of commercial subjects, who must have real practical experience of the work, and at the same time must be skilled as teachers. It will not be long before we shall be obliged to formulate some scheme of special training for them, whether in connection with the training college or the technical school or the university. In connection with each of the trades courses to which the preparatory con¬ tinuation classes will lead there should be a small committee, which should include representatives of the employers and of the workers. Recent awards of the arbitration court have recognized the value of such classes in the training of apprentices. First, in the case of the painters’ union, and next in the case of the carpenters and joiners, the court has included in its award a clause providing that, whenever facilities are provided at the technical school, apprentices shall attend classes and that the employers shall pay the class fees and generally assist the apprentices to obtain regular instruction. Evening classes are at work in the technical school in house painting, sign writing, decorating, graining, and marbling, as well as in carpentry and joinery and many other trades; the results will be more satisfactory if arrangements can be made to hold the classes in the daytime. We have already established, in the last two years, continuation classes in Perth, Fremantle, Claremont, Midland Junction, Kalgoorlie, Boulder, Coolgardie, Day Dawn, Northam, Geraldton, Albany, Wagin, and Bunbury. These classes are free for students under 18, provided that they take a course of three sub¬ jects, of which English must be one. The greatest demand at present has been for commercial subjects — arithmetic, history and geography, bookkeeping, and shorthand. A combined course of arithmetic and mensuration and courses in elementary mathematics are also taken in several centers, and woodwork in every -center except one, where there is as yet no room provided for the purpose. Dressmaking, millinery, and cookery are taken by the girls. NEW ZEALAND EDUCATIONAL SYSTEM. New Zealand comprises an area of 104,751 square miles, with a population of 1,071,428, or 10 inhabitants to a square mile. Its capi¬ tal is Wellington, which has a population of 70,729. The system of public instruction forms an executive department under the minister, but the direct management of the schools is in¬ trusted to local boards. Elementary schools are free and secular, and attendance upon them for children not otherwise instructed is compulsory for the ages 7 to 14. Secondary education is the prov¬ ince chiefly of private schools. Arrangements are made, however, 614 EDUCATION REPORT, 1912. by which classes of secondary grade may be formed in public schools, and for these special subsidies are granted. In 1911 the total enrollment in the primary schools was 161,648, equivalent to 15 per cent of the population; the average attendance was 142,186, or 88 per cent of the enrollment ; the teachers numbered 4,551, of whom 1,672 (36 per cent) were men. The schools were maintained at an expenditure of $3,855,442, or $23.85 per capita of enrollment and $3.59 per capita of population. There were also 318 private schools of primary and secondary grade, with an attend¬ ance of 18,981 pupils and 892 teachers. The University of New Zea¬ land is an examining and degree-conferring body; the matriculated students, who numbered 1,900 in 1911, pursue their studies in the four affiliated colleges. EDUCATIONAL COMMISSION. The year has been marked in New Zealand by the publication of the report of the commission appointed in 1908 to investigate the system of public instruction with special reference to means for increasing its efficiency. In a communication accompanying a copy of the report, the chair¬ man 1 of the commission states that — The new government is not disposed, on account of the heavy legislative program which it has in hand at present, to ask the legislature to adopt any of the many recommendations we have made; but from the exceedingly favorable reception that has been accorded to our report from all sections of intelligent educational thought in this country, I am quite prepared to see the Government invite Parliament next year to carry out the majority of our recommendations. imong the subjects included in the recommendations of the com¬ mission the provision of continuation schools, combined with an extension of the period of compulsory education, is emphasized. In connection with this subject that of coeducation has arisen and promises to bring on a very interesting discussion, as opinions are almost evenly divided in respect to this particular. The continuation classes and schools that are already in existence are chiefly technical in character ; with reference to them Mr. Cohen states that — Satisfactory progress continues to be made by the “ controlling authorities ” and managers of technical schools and colleges throughout the Dominion in the matter of providing, improving, and extending facilities for technical instruc¬ tion. The interest taken in them by the local governing bodies and by the various industrial unions has not only been encouraging but has spurred the managers to increased effort, as well as helped to make their financial burdens much lighter. During 1911 nearly £5,000 ($25,000) in the way of voluntary 1 Mark Cohen, Esq., editor of the Dunedin Evening Star, and distinguished for his long- continued services in the cause of popular education. NEW ZEALAND EDUCATIONAL SYSTEM. 615 contributions was received from sympathetic public bodies, and to these dona¬ tions the State gave a subsidy of £1 for £1. In all, the Government during last year found something like £11,500 ($57,500) by way of building grants, and at the moment of writing (August, 1912) the city of Auckland is building a splen¬ did technical college of three stories for the present, but intended to be carried to five stories, on the construction and equipment of which over £60,000 :( $300,000) will be spent, and toward this sum the trustees of the local savings bank have contributed £10,000 ($50,000) from their accumulated profits. When the entire design is carried out it will be one of the most up-to-date and thoroughly equipped technical colleges to be found in the southern hemisphere. Similarly, at Dunedin, the southern capital of the Dominion, the citizens are pressing forward to mark in an appropriate manner the beneficent reign of King Edward the Peacemaker, to whose memory they have just dedicated a memorial building which will cost them from first to last £40,000 ($200,000). In the various technical classes, both day and evening, there were, at the close of 1911, 13,632 pupils, besides 1,341 in attendance at day technical schools. The last mentioned is a comparatively new departure, but it has Come to stay. There are 8 such schools in operation, the principal being at Auckland (317 pupils), Wellington (268), Christchurch (349), and Dunedin (210). These day schools, which provide fairly full courses in science and technology, domestic economy, agriculture, and commercial instruction, are well attended and apparently attract a number of young people who, in the absence of such oppor¬ tunities, would not continue to improve themselves once they had left the primaries. Attention is called to the fact that, while the majority of the pupils in attendance at the technical schools pursue commercial and indus¬ trial courses, or, in the case of girls, courses in domestic subjects, interest is being excited in farming pursuits. On this subject Mr. Cohen says : There is a satisfactory increase in the number of such classes, and the rural course includes wool sorting and wool classing, sheep shearing, dairying, veteri¬ nary science, agriculture, horticulture, beekeeping, and poultry farming. Last year no less than 17,200 pupils attended the various rural courses. An immense fillip will be given to agricultural education in the near future by the establish¬ ment of an agricultural college in the educational district of Auckland. It is stated further that for this purpose a munificent bequest has recently been made. 77236°— ed 1912— vol 1 — -41 CHAPTER XXVI. EVENTS OF INTERNATIONAL INTEREST. CONTENTS. International foundations: Amerikarlnstitut; Carnegie Endowment for International Peace; Continua¬ tion committee, World Missionary Conference. University events: Congress of the universities of the British Empire; anniversary of the University of Athens; university at Frankfort on the Main; Hamburg University; new universities, in Hungary; University of Hongkong; new university for India; South African University; University of Mexico; astronomers at Brazil. International celebrations and congresses: Musical festival at Paris; Fifteenth Modem Language Con¬ ference; congresses at London; Third International. Congress of American Students; First Inter¬ national Congress on Eugenics; Convention of American Teachers at Berlin; Fourth International Congress- for Drawing, and Art Instruction; Fifth International Congress of Mathematicians; Fourth International Congress of the History of Religions; Second International Moral Education Congress; Eighth International Congress of Applied Chemistry; Fifth International Congress of Chambers of Commerce and Commercial and Industrial Associations; Fifteenth International Congress, of Hy¬ giene and Demography; Tenth International Congress for the Study of the History of Art; addi¬ tional international congresses; International Educational and Industrial Exhibition. INTERNATIONAL FOUNDATIONS. AMERIKA-INSTITUT . The Amerika-Institut, founded at Berlin, October, 1910, under tbe auspices of the Prussian ministry of education, is now fully organized for effective operation. The aim of the institute is to advance and strengthen the cultural relations between Germany and the United States by providing an organization that shall act as a medium of inquiry and exchange in matters that come within its province. These matters pertain to education and scholarship, to literature and art, to technique and social welfare, to travel and public interests, to peace and inter¬ national understanding. The services of the institute are specially important to Americans who seek to avail themselves of the facilities for study and research offered by German institutions. The number of these steadily increases and includes students in particular subjects, officials inves¬ tigating administrative problems, professors on sabbatical leave, representatives of scientific organizations, learned societies, etc. An important part of the work of the foundation is the exchange of 617 618 EDUCATION REPORT, 1912. information relating, for instance, to the equivalence of university degrees and the advantages offered at different centers of learning. The library of the institute (now numbering about- 9,200 volumes) is intended- to be a representative collection of Americana, dealing with the history, life, and conditions of the United States. It is the purpose to provide a good working collection, and, by making the books more informally available, to supplement the service of other libraries in Berlin. The whole exchange between the Smithsonian Institution in Washington and its correspondents in Germany, the transmission of official documents, and the arrangements for copyrights are under¬ taken by the Amerika-Institut. During the two years of its exist¬ ence 1,190 books have been copyrighted through its agency. In connection with this service, encouragement is given to the transla¬ tion of books of one country into the language of the other, a work which is facilitated by the location of the institute in the new build¬ ing of the Koval Library in Berlin. The financial support of the institute is furnished chiefly by the banking house of Koppel, in Berlin, and Mr. James Speyer, of New York; Dr. R. B. Drechsler is the present director. CAKNEGIE ENDOWMENT FOR INTERNATIONAL PEACE. The Carnegie Endowment for International Peace may be regarded as a nonacademic educational movement, since its purposes are to be promoted by scientific research, by propaganda, and by activities directly educational in character. The last named are comprised in the division of intercourse and education, which, in accordance with the recommendations of its acting director, Nicholas Murray Butler, LL. D., maintains a secretariat and bureau at Paris. The division is assisted also by an advisory council, composed of representative European statesmen and publicists identified with the cause of peace and international arbitration. Baron d’Estournelles de Constant, well known for his interest in the peace movement, has consented to act as president of this council, and Mr. Prudhommeaux, editor of La Paix par le Droit, has accepted the office of secretary general of the Paris office at a nominal salary. According to the statement of the director: The division of intercourse and education will undertake to give practical effect to the scientific work of the other two divisions by popularizing the results of their investigations. It will endeavor to educate public opinion to a higher sense of inter¬ national rights and duties; to a realization of the inherent injustice of war in cases where arbitration or peaceful settlement is possible; and to an understanding of the causes and effects of war, upon whom its burdens fall, and what economic losses result from it to the peoples as a whole. This work of propaganda, to be effective, must be world-wide. EVENTS OP INTERNATIONAL INTEREST. 619 This division, therefore, has a threefold purpose; to diffuse information and to educate public opinion as to causes, nature, and effects of war; to cultivate friendly feelings between the inhabitants of different countries; and to maintain, promote, and assist the various existing agencies calculated to accomplish the purposes of the endowment. Apart from the organization effected, the practical work of this division has been carried out in several directions during the current year. Under agreement with the Government of Japan, a plan of educational exchange has been effected, in accordance with which a representative scholar, scientist, or mail of affairs will be sent to the United States in each alternate year at the expense of his Govern¬ ment. Arrangements will be made — for the residence of this representative of Japan at six American colleges and universi¬ ties for periods of approximately six weeks each. At each institution at which he is in residence the representative of Japan is to have opportunity, in addition to whatever formal and academic lectures may be arranged, to meet, in the freest possible way, teachers and students and citizens of the neighborhood, as well as to meet and address on various subjects boards of trade, chambers of commerce, literary, scientific, fra¬ ternal, and other organizations. Dr. Inazo Nitobe, the president of the Imperial University of Tokyo, who holds also the chair on the policy of colonization at the university, was delegated as the first exchange professor to the United States and delivered courses of lectures on Japan at the six universities included in the arrangement, beginning at Columbia University in November, 1911. (See p. 43.) With regard to the international visits of representative men, the director of the division in his report for 1911 states that: The visit of Baron d’Estournelles de Constant to the United States during the current year was the first visit of this kind to be undertaken by the endowment; and upon Dr. Butler’s recommendation, and with the approval of the executive committee, Dr. Charles W. Eliot, president emeritus of Harvard University, has proceeded to Japan as the first American representative of scholarship, conciliation, and good understanding. The plan of subsidizing existing international agencies, both institutions and journals, engaged in the peace movement has been approved and has been the subject of tentative experiment during the current year. The appropriations for the administration of the endowment made by the board of trustees for the fiscal years ending June 30, 1912, and June 30, 1913, amounted, respectively, to $28,785 and $51,570. For the division of intercourse and education the sum of $100,425 was appropriated for the year ending June 30, 1912, and $203,850 for the year ending June 30, 1913. The total appropriation for the year ending June, 1912, was $275,985. The endowment is administered by a board of trustees, of which the president is Hon. Elihu Root. The permanent office is located 620 EDUCATION REPORT, 1912. at Washington, D. C., in change of James Brown Scott, secretary of the Carnegie Endowment for International Peace and director of the division of international law. CONTINUATION COMMITTEE, WOELD MISSIONARY CONFERENCE. One of the most important movements in the world is in charge of the 1 ‘continuation committee” appointed at the World Conference on Foreign Missions, which met at Edinburgh, Scotland, in 1911. This committee represents all the great missionary societies of the Protestant churches, and was formed to examine the missionary fields throughout the world with a view to unifying their work for the promotion of economy and efficiency. For this purpose it was arranged that the secretary of the committee, Mr. John R. Mott, should make an extensive tour, holding conferences at appointed places with the missionaries in the field and also with native converts and thus learn from those most familiar with the conditions the actual workings and results of missionary efforts. Mr. Mott started on his tour in October, 1912, accompanied by several co workers, having arranged for about 20 conferences in northern Africa, Asia Minor, India, Siam, Japan, Korea, and the Pacific islands. The extensive work of instruction carried on by the missionary societies throughout the world, including provision for the medical training of native students and large hospital services, imparts to these conferences an educational character which is quite as distinctive as their moral purpose. It is estimated that the combined expenditure in the foreign field of the different societies represented by the “continuation committee” is not less than $28,000,000. UNIVERSITY EVENTS. CONGRESS OF THE UNIVERSITIES OF THE BRITISH EMPIRE. By Kendric C. Babcock, Specialist in higher education, Bureau of Education . A notable event of the year in the field of higher education in Great Britain, an event truly international in its significance, was the Con¬ gress of Universities of the Empire, which met in London July 2-5, 1912. Preparations for this great gathering had been in progress since 1909, when the senate- of the University of London voted that it was desirable to hold an imperial universities congress. While the University of London made itself responsible for the expenses of tee congress, it received generous assistance from various universities EVENTS OF INTERNATIONAL INTEREST. 621 of Great Britain and Ireland, the Rhodes trustees, the Carnegie trustees, and eight of the great city companies. The thoroughness and wisdom of the preparations are evidenced by the fact that a delegate or delegates appeared in the congress from every one of the universities of the Empire. The very state¬ ment of the geographical distribution of these 51 institutions thus represented suggests both the extent of the influence of the congress and the complexity of the problems which it met to discuss. Of the institutions, 11 are in England and Wales; 4 in Scotland; 3 in Ire¬ land; 6 in Australia; 1 each in New Zealand, South Africa, Hong¬ kong, and Malta; 5 in India; and 18 in Canada — from the University of St. Francis Xavier, in Nova Scotia, on the east to the University of British Columbia on the west. Through the courtesy of the organizing committee other persons than delegates who are interested in higher education were made associate members of the congress and included in the interesting social functions connected with the meeting. Among those thus invited to become members or guests, rather than delegates or representatives, were five from the United States, including the specialist in higher education of the Bureau of Education and the commissioner of education of the State of New York. The dignity and impressiveness of the congress wrere enhanced by the remarkable series of addresses by great statesmen of the Empire, who served as chairmen of the different sessions. The Earl of Roseberry, who presided at the opening session, dwelt upon the rapid increase in the number of universities and their relation to the Empire, saying: I sometimes wonder if universities sufficiently recognize the function that they have to discharge to the Empire in furnishing the Empire with men to carry on its work. * * * Take the case of Australia alone. I may be wrong in my figures, because I add them up on my fingers and I am not always sure that I have not left a parliament out, but I think Australia enjoys the privilege of not less than seven parliaments for a population not more than half that of Greater London. These seven parliaments, seven ministries, seven prime ministers represent a drain on the intelligence and vitality of the Australian nation that can only be adequately met if the universities of that country do their duty. * * * No one who observes the signs of the times can fail to see that it will be increasingly difficult to maintain this Empire in its entirety and cohesion without an intensity of character and devotion which it must be the task of the universities preeminently to maintain. The Right Hon. Arthur J. Balfour, presiding at another session, referred to the difficulties arising from endeavors to adapt occidental education to oriental races: In the West the changes of knowledge and the changes of tradition have gone on by relatively small degrees. There has been in that case mutual adjustment, and though in practice we may not be conscious of the difficulties of teaching due to the necessity of keeping up that adjustment, nobody is likely to underrate those diffi¬ culties, even in the West. The difficulties are incomparably small compared with 622 EDUCATION REPORT, 1912. those which necessarily come upon us when we bring in upon a society unprepared by the long training which we have gone through generation after generation the full stress and weight of modern scientific, critical, and industrial knowledge. * * * How, then, are you going to diminish the shock with which this sudden invasion of a wholly alien learning must meet the cultured society of the East? * * * We are forced to be catastrophic. It is impossible to graft by a gradual process on the East what we have acquired to by a gradual process, but which, having been matured up to its present stage in the West, is suddenly carried, full fledged, unchanged, and planted down as it were in these new surroundings. Lord Curzon, of Kedleston, presiding at another session, dwelt upon the interrelation between the older universities and those of the newer colonies and dependencies, saying: The field is too wide to be covered by any one institution or even a group of institu¬ tions. * * * We know no rivalry in this happy competition; there is no room either for superiority or inferiority; we are all contingents in the same army, fighting the same enemy, obeying the same commander, and occupying with a well- ordered strategy, with what I hope, after the meetings of a congress like this, will be a better-ordered strategy in the future, different parts of a single and almost boundless field. And, gentlemen, if these are our sentiments toward these younger universities which give a more technical training and provide a more strictly professional outlook in our own country, with feelings not less warm may we contemplate the efforts of those who * * * are engaged in creating for the first time and in maintaining the standards in the over-sea dominions of the Crown and who, for their part, when they send their representatives home on such an occasion as this, we would fain believe, regard such institutions as Oxford and Cambridge, not as venerable relics of an obsolete past, but as sanctuaries of a spirit that never dies but breathes in their bodies and burns in their veins just as in ours. Another presiding officer was Lord Strathcona, the chancellor of the Universities of Aberdeen and McGill. Referring to the develop¬ ment of higher institutions in Canada, he said: The pioneers of that Empire, we do well to remember, have often been men who owed little or nothing to universities, and in most cases the first settlers who followed them were equally devoid of the experience of academic discipline. It is all the more remarkable that among the national traditions which they continued in the lands of their exile, none has been more persistently followed or more generously endowed than that of higher education. * * * Canada began in 1788, with the estab¬ lishment of King’s College, Nova Scotia, and when I went to America, now 75 years ago, there were only three more — Dalhousie, McGill, and Toronto * * *. It is an inspiring story (the development of 18 universities in Canada), full of proofs of the indispensable part which the overseas universities have discharged and must continue to discharge in the material and spiritual development of our Empire. The carefully prepared papers and discussions which followed were alike marked by earnestness, acumen, and conciseness. Among the topics discussed were: “Specialization among universities,” with papers by the vice chancellor of Victoria University, Manchester, and the president of Magdalen College of the University of Oxford; “Interuniversity arrangements for postgraduate and research stu¬ dents,” with a paper by the principal of McGill University, Montreal, and a discussion by representatives of the University of Cambridge, EVENTS OF INTERNATIONAL INTEREST. 623 and universities in Wales, Australia, Calcutta, Edinburgh, and Mani¬ toba; “The relation of universities to technical and professional education and to education for the public service,’’ with papers by the professor of chemistry of the University of Leeds and by the first civil service commissioner; “The problem of universities in the East in regard to the influence on character and moral ideals”; “Conditions of entrance to universities and the possibility of equiva¬ lence and mutual recognition of entrance tests to degree courses,” which really involved a discussion of the whole question of stand¬ ardization for the Empire; “The position of women in universities”; and “The establishment of a central bureau,” with a paper by the organizing representative of the Rhodes. Scholarship Trust, Dr. George R. Parkin, whose unparalleled experience with universities in all parts of the English-speaking world gave his utterance special weight. The problems discussed in the paper of Dr. Parkin are peculiarly pertinent to the agitation for better coordination of institutions in the United States, and the final action of the congress in creating a central bureau is suggestive of the possibility of organized coopera¬ tion between existing agencies in America. At its final session the congress resolved in favor of a congress of the universities of the Empire at intervals of five years. It advised the holding of annual meetings of the home universities and periodical meetings of the representatives of universities in the various overseas dominions, and provided that a committee of the congress be ap¬ pointed to take steps for the formation in London of a bureau of information for the universities of the Empire, such committee to consist of 14 members, of whom 7 shall be nominated by the home universities committee of this congress, and 7 by the universities overseas, viz, for Canada, 2 ; Australia, 1 ; New Zealand, 1 ; the Cape, 1 ; India, 1; other parts of the Empire, 1. The congress was preceded and followed by tours of the delegates and guests among the home universities. During the days of the congress the delegates and members were accorded notable social courtesies, including a luncheon as guests of the British Government ; a reception by Prince Arthur of Connaught, in the great Hall of the University of London; and a most delightful entertainment at the Mansion House by the Lord Mayor of London and the Lady Mayoress. ANNIVERSARY OF THE UNIVERSITY OF ATHENS. The seventy-fifth anniversary of the University of Athens 'was celebrated Easter week, April, 1912, with exercises of a peculiarly festive character. These included a series of pan-Hellenic games, military maneuvers, and the performance of the GEdipus Rex of Sophocles in the Royal Theater. Delegates were present from the 624 EDUCATION REPORT, 1912, principal universities of the world, and the part which western Europe has taken in the revival of Athens as a center of learning was a recur¬ rent theme in the addresses of the occasion. Around the university are grouped a number of foreign schools of archaeology, directed by eminent scholars, attracting students from all parts of Europe and America,, and furnishing a basis for research in every region of the Greek world. In this way an international character has been imparted to the university. The Congress of Orientalists which was held in connection with the university jubilee caused special emphasis to be placed upon the facilities for oriental research centering in the historic city. UNIVERSITY AT FRANKFORT ON THE MAIN. The proposals for the foundation of a university at Frankfort on the Main, which have been under consideration for several years, have taken definite shape in a scheme which has been submitted by the magistracy of the city to the town council. It is understood that the scheme has the support of the Prussian minister of education, and it is expected that the university will be opened in the summer term of 1914. The scheme provides for a teaching university, with the three faculties of law, philosophy (including history and litera¬ ture), and medicine; the fourth faculty, theology, which is found in all the other German universities, will not be included. Several existing institutions, among them a medical school maintained in connection with the municipal hospital, will form the nucleus of the new university. The city spends at present about $430,006 on these institutions, and this sum will be supplemented by the proceeds of several benefactions which have been left by wealthy citizens for the advancement of learning. This will be the first German uni¬ versity for many centuries past which owTes its origin to private initiative. Although it is not a public foundation, it will be subject to State control; the ordinary professors will be appointed by the Crown, and the extraordinary professors by the minister of education. HAMBURG UNIVERSITY. It is officially stated that the proposed new university for Ham¬ burg, Germany, will comprise the four faculties, philosophy, natural science, law, and a faculty of the colonial sciences; for local reasons it will contain no faculty of medicine. The city, it is understood, will appropriate a capital of 25,000,000 marks ($5,950,000) for the maintenance of the university. NEW UNIVERSITIES IN HUNGARY. The year has been marked in Hungary by the creation of two new centers of higher learning — one at Pozsony (Presbourg) and the other at De Breezen. The decrees authorizing their establish- EVENTS OF INTERNATIONAL INTEREST. 625 ment provide for the full complement of faculties (that is four) at each center, but it is not expected that they will be hi complete working order for some years to come. UNIVERSITY OF HONGKONG. The University of Hongkong (China), which owes its establish¬ ment to private initiative and contributions, is reported to be in full working order, with over 70 undergraduates in residence. Of the students enrolled, a considerable number were transferred from the college of medicine, and are doing second, third, and fourth year work. The majority of the first-year students elected to be trained in engineering science; and altogether more than half the total number of students, including those who entered from the college of medicine, are pursuing technical courses of instruction. It was the chief object of the founders of the university to train Chinese students as engineers, on account of the enormous demand that is sure to arise for experts to assist in the development of the internal resources of the country. The spirit which animates this depart¬ ment is indicated by a recent address delivered to the Institution of Engineers and Shipbuilders of Hongkong, by Prof. C. A. M. Smith, of the engineering department of the university. As cited in Nature,1 Prof. Smith said: In Hongkong we wish to train men who know the East to develop China’s natural resources. For that development they must obtain machinery — if we do our work aright we shall secure a market for those who are at home, and provide greatly in¬ creased freightage for the shipping to this port. * * * We require at once machines for demonstration and experimental purposes. We want to equip laboratories for testing the materials of construction, such as steel, concrete, copper, etc. We want oil, gas, and steam engines, and refrigerators, as well as dynamos and all sorts of elec¬ trical apparatus. * * * We will house your gifts and keep your samples running and in good condition. We will show your present and future customers the merits of your machines, and we will advertise your goods in the center of the greatest market of the near future. NEW UNIVERSITY FOR INDIA. The project of a new university at Dacca, India, was referred to a special committee which entered upon its duties June 20, 1912, and submitted its report January 1, 1913. This is merely a preliminary step, as the final action must be determined by the Governments of Bengal and of India and the secretary of state hi council. SOUTH AFRICAN UNIVERSITY. The project of a South African university was announced at the opening session of the Union Parliament in November, 1910, by the governor general, who said: My ministers are considering a scheme for the establishment of a national South African university, which will be submitted for your approval in due course. 1 Nature, Jan. 16, 1913, pp. 560-561. 626 EDUCATION REPORT, 1912. The matter is still under consideration, as difficulties have arisen with reference to the choice of a site; meanwhile, the entire subject of higher education in South Africa has been committed to a com¬ mission which, it is expected, will advise as to final action with respect to the university. The gift of half a million sterling from the estates of the late Sir Julius Wernher and Mr. Otto Beit promises a rich endowment for the new institution. UNIVERSITY OF MEXICO. The University of Mexico was organized by law of May 26, 1910, and includes the schools of law, medicine, engineering, and archi¬ tecture, which had been previously established, and a national prepara¬ tory school of collegiate grade. To these was added a graduate school, intended for the conduct of special research in every field of science. The development of the graduate school, which bears the name La EscuelaNacional de Altos Estudios, has been pushed as rapidly as the political conditions of the country have allowed. For the current year (1912) the following courses were maintained: A course in botany, with 10 regular students, of whom 4 were women, and 5 auditors; a course in philosophical studies, with 55 regular students, of whom 1 was a women, and 35 auditors; a course in the English language and literature, with 13 regular students, of whom 1 was a woman, and 19 auditors. An interesting feature of the graduate school is the arrangement by which professors from other countries are invited to give courses of lectures in their respective specialties. Under this arrangement Dr. Franz Boas, of Columbia University, conducted during the year a seminar with laboratory exercises in anthropology, and Dr. James Mark Baldwin, who had been called to direct the reorganization of higher education in Mexico, conducted an important course in philosophy and the social sciences. The director of the graduate school, Dr. D. Alfonso Pruneda, states that efforts have been made during the year to provide the material resources required in the different orders of research. Atten¬ tion has been particularly directed to the collection of a library adequate to the needs of the various divisions of the school. It is also intended that this library shall exercise directive influence over all the scientific libraries of the country, with particular refer¬ ence to the use of a uniform system of cataloguing. In this endeavor the cooperation of all the public libraries throughout Mexico is solicited. The expenditure for the graduate school for the fiscal year 1911-12, as reported by the director, amounted to $58,535, of which $30,495 was used for salaries and administrative expenses. EYENTS OF INTERNATIONAL INTEREST. 627 ASTRONOMERS AT BRAZIL. The Brazilian Government extended a cordial invitation to for¬ eign astronomers to avail themselves of the opportunity for viewing the eclipse of the sun which took place October 10, 1912. The eclipse was visible throughout Brazil, and was total over a strip of territory 85 kilometers in width during almost two minutes. The interest of the Brazilian Government in the anticipated visit of foreign observers was indicated by the petition of the minister of agriculture to the Federal Congress for an appropriation of $23,000 to be used for the reception and entertainment of visiting astrono¬ mers. The minister also requested that their professional instru¬ ments and private effects should be granted the privilege of free customs entry, that repairs to their instruments should be made in Government workshops and that they should be furnished with railroad passes and telegraphic franks. INTERNATIONAL CELEBRATIONS AND CONGRESSES. MUSICAL FESTIVAL AT PARIS. The international gatherings which characterize the holiday season in Europe began with the International Musical Festival, held at Paris from May 25 to 29. A marked feature of this festival was the participation of the school children of London and Paris in a musical competition. In accordance with previous arrangements, 500 children from the public schools of London and 300 from private schools crossed the channel on the 25th of May and were met at Boulogne by the mayor and town councilmen, and from that moment became guests of the French authorities. In the musical exercise which took place at the Theatre Chatelet, Paris, the children ex¬ ceeded the anticipations of their trainers, and, to the surprise of all persons familiar with the admirable singing of the Paris school children, it was decided that the children from London should be awarded highest rank in the judgments. The result was attributed to the fine organization of the chon, which relieved the children from all nervousness and excitement. The great purpose of this visit was not to excite competition between children, but to pro¬ mote good will between the two nations, and in this respect the event Was an unqualified success. Everything was done to enable the child visitors to see the chief attractions of Paris, a great feature of the program being the “ motor-bus rides’7 through the boulevards. All along the routes the people lined the footway in thousands, cheering vociferously. Bich and poor alike greeted the procession 628 EDUCATION REPORT, 1912. of “ busses” as they passed the Louvre, the Chatelet, the Hippo¬ drome, etc. Parents held their little ones up to shake hands with “les petits Anglais et les petites Anglaises,” and were delighted when by chance they got near enough to kiss. The French children and the English children fraternized in the most delightful manner. The girls of the two nations became friends and parted with every show of reluctance. At the College Chaptal the pupils left in the establishment welcomed the English boys, joined them in games and in the songs of both nations. The Paris press was full of praise of the manner in which the whole arrangement was carried out, and the London papers of apprecia¬ tion for the courtesies shown their young representatives. FIFTEENTH MODERN LANGUAGE CONFERENCE. The Modern Language Conference (Allgemeine Deutche Neu- philologentag), which is held every two years, convened at Frankfort on the Main, May 27-31, 1912. The conference always attracts a large company of teachers from Germany, Austria, and Switzerland; and this year, as the result of a special invitation, several universities and colleges of the LTnited States were represented. Unusual interest attached to the meeting, on account of the increasing international relations. The papers and discussions of the conference bore chiefly upon the scope that should be given to literary and historic matter in the scheme of modern language instruction considered as a means of discipline and culture; the sub¬ ject was presented almost exclusively from the standpoint of German requirements. In this connection, it is interesting to note the issue of a circular during the year by the English board of education on the subject of modern languages in secondary schools. Aside from details of classification and staff peculiar to English schools, the circular sets forth the requirements and the difficulties in respect to modern language instruction which affect all English-speaking countries to a greater degree than those in constant contact with people speaking different languages.1 CONGRESSES AT LONDON. The Imperial Teachers’ Congress, held in London from the 13th to the 17th of July, brought together delegates from ail the Australian States, from India, the Crown colonies, and Canada, together with an immense concourse of colonial visitors not included in the number of official delegates. The subjects of the widest interest discussed 1 Board of education. Memoranda on teaching and organization in secondary schools. Modern lan¬ guages. Circular 797, 1912. EVENTS OE INTERNATIONAL INTEREST. 629 were as follows : Rural schools ; the training of teachers, under which head special reference was made to the training for vocational sub¬ jects; and the methods of teaching different branches, in particular, English and English literature, history, and geography. The neces¬ sity for concerted effort on the part of English nations to preserve the purity of the English language in the increasing contact with other nationalities was emphasized, and the proposition was made for the appointment of a language commission to inquire into the subject of the teaching of the mother tongue and to report as to the best means for its preservation and improvement. The conference called by the Association for the International Interchange of Students was held at London, June 28 and 29. Reference to its proceedings will be found elsewhere in this volume (pp. 46-47). THIRD INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS OF AMERICAN STUDENTS. In accordance with a resolution adopted by the Second Inter¬ national Congress of American Students at Buenos Aires, in 1911, the third international congress of this series was held at Lima, July 21-28, 1912, under the auspices of the Centro Universitario de Lima. This congress, like those held previously at Montevideo and Buenos Aires, discussed pedagogical questions and the means of promoting fraternal union between the students of the American countries. Although devoid of official character, the congress had the firm support of the Peruvian Government, and the various universities of America were earnestly requested to participate in the proceedings by accredited delegates. In response to the invitation the leading universities of the United States expressed great interest in the purposes of the congress, but very few were able to comply with the request for representation; so that the participants were almost entirely from the Latin American States. It is evident, however, that these congresses offer oppor¬ tunity for strengthening the ties between the universities of North and South America, such as exist already between the latter and the universities of France. FIRST INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS ON EUGENICS. The first international congress on eugenics convened in London, July 24-30, 1912, upon the invitation of the Eugenics Education Society, England. Above 800 delegates were present represen ting many different countries. Among the eminent men participating were the Right Hon. Arthur J. Balfour, of the British Association; Prof. A. Pinard, of the French Academy of Medicine; Prof. Tedeschi, of the University of Padua; Gen. von Bardeleben, president of the Yerein “Herold,” Berlin; and Dr. Fred. L. Hoffman, statistician of 630 EDUCATION REPORT, 1912. the Prudential Insurance Co., United States. The proceedings of the congress have been published by the English society in an unbound volume. The proposition for a permanent executive committee to be located at London was adopted by the congress, and the commit¬ tee was authorized to proceed with preparations for the next congress to meet at the expiration of three years (1915) at either Paris or San Francisco. The permanent office of the English society is 6 York Building, Adelphi, London, W. C.; the secretary is Mrs. Gotto. CONVENTION OF AMERICAN TEACHERS AT BERLIN. The Convention of American Teachers held at Berlin in August, under the auspices of the National German- American Teachers’ Association, afforded to the large company of American teachers participating opportunity for hearing the principles of their pro¬ fession discussed by eminent exponents of educational philosophjL Among those whose services were freely offered were Prof. W. Rein (Jena), Prof. Hugo Muensterberg (Berlin), Prof. v. Schulze- Gaevernitz (Freiburg), Dr. G. Kerschensteiner (Munich), and Dr. Eugen Kuehnemann (Breslau). At the close of the congress the visiting teachers had the choice of several delightful itineraries. (See also pp. 4’5-46.) FOURTH INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS FOR DRAWING AND ART INSTRUCTION. The Fourth International Congress for Drawing and Art Instruc¬ tion held at Dresden, August 12-18, 1912, drew together about 2,200 delegates, many of them from remote parts of the world. The chief topics discussed at the congress were: The psychological principles of drawing; training of teachers of drawing; artistic pen¬ manship; value of museums in popular education; drawing in the secondary schools; commercial draftsmanship. At the exposition held coincidentally with the congress, the exhibit of art work from schools of the United States received much attention. The specimens of decorative drawing and applied design were specially commended by foreign observers. The official delegates from the United States to the congress were: Mr. John S. Ankeney, director art department, University of Mis¬ souri, Columbia, Mo.; Mr. Ernest A. Batchelder, director School of Design, Pasadena, Cal.; and Mr. James Frederick Hopkins, director schools of art and design, Maryland, Institute, Baltimore, Md. FIFTH INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS OF MATHEMATICIANS. The Fifth Intermational Congress of Mathematicians, held at Cam¬ bridge, August 21-28, 1912, was marked by the consideration of the work of the International Commission on Mathematical Instruction, EVENTS OF INTERNATIONAL INTEREST. 631 which occupied three sessions of the section to which this subject was assigned. A report of the proceedings of this section emphasizes the following points: The presentation of 150 printed reports showing the status of mathematics, from the kindergarten through the university, in most of the leading countries of the world, and affording teachers of mathematics the means of comparing their work with the best in every country; plan suggested for summarizing the mam results of the work of the commission in a form available for teachers; comparison of America with other countries in respect to mathematical teaching; report on the teaching of mathematics from 1900 to 1912.1 The congress adopted the following resolution, which was trans¬ mitted from the international commission : Resolved, That the congress expresses its appreciation of the support given to its; commission on the teaching of mathematics by various governments, institutions, and individuals; That the central committee composed of F. Klein (Gottingen), Sir G. Greenhill (London), and H. Fehr (Geneva) be continued in power and that, at its request, David Eugene Smith (New York) be added to its number; That the delegates be requested to continue their good offices in securing the coop eration of their respective Governments, and in carrying on the work; And that the commission be requested to make such further report at the sixth inter¬ national congress, and to hold such conferences in the meantime as the circumstances, warrant. The congress joined heartily in a resolution of thanks for the pub¬ lication of the bibliography on mathematical teaching, which was assumed by the Bureau of Education at Washington.2 FOURTH INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS OF THE HISTORY OF RELIGIONS. The Fourth International Congress of the History of Religions was held at Leiden, the Netherlands, September 9-13, 1912. As in previous congresses of this series, papers and discussion were strictly limited to historic research, all questions of faith and dogma being excluded. Many countries were represented at the congress by official delegates, among them the United States, whose representatives were as follows: T. C. Hall, D. D., of Union Theological Seminary; B. W. Bacon, D. D., LL. D., of Yale University; and Morris Jastrow, jr.y Ph. D., of the University of Pennsylvania. Many learned societies and universities were also represented by delegates. In an account, of the congress, Dr. Jastrow notes that: Some 70 papers were presented, embracing the entire range of the history of religions— primitive cults, the religions of China and Japan, the older Semitic religions, Islamism,. the religions of India and Persia, of the Greeks and Romans, of the Celts and Teutons* and finally Christianity.3 1 Smith, David Eugene. The international commission on the teaching of mathematics. Educational Review, January, 1813, pp. 1-7. 2 Smith, David Eugene> and Goldziher, Charles. Bibliography of the teaching of mathematics, 1900-1912*. Bulletin, 1912, No. 29. 3 The Nation, Oct. 3, 1912, pp. 304-306. 77236° — fjd 1912 — von 1 42 632 EDUCATION REPORT, 1912. With regard to the spirit that prevailed throughout the sessions, Dr. Jastrow says: The scientific meetings passed off without a jarring note. Despite the delicacy of some of the subjects presented, the discussions were entirely courteous, and the proof was once more furnished that it is possible to hold a congress of this kind without in¬ troducing ‘ ‘ questions of religious belief,” which the laws of the congress distinctly exclude from consideration.1 SECOND INTERNATIONAL MORAL EDUCATION CONGRESS. The First International Moral Education Congress was held at the University of London in September, 1908. The importance of the subject and the service which the congress rendered in giving definite expression to prevailing opinions and practices in respect to its treat¬ ment as a distinct branch of formal instruction excited wide interest in the call for the second congress of the series, to meet at The Hague, August 22-27, 1912. The congress convened under the auspices of the Queen of the Netherlands and with the active cooperation of rep¬ resentative men of many nations. The program was organized in four divisions, dealing, respectively, with the consideration of moral education from different standpoints, religious, ethical, etc.; with physical training as a means of character building, with the moral training of adolescents — i. e., in schools beyond the primary grade; in training colleges for teachers and military men, in family life and in society at large; and finally with the moral training of abnormals, which was the topic of the fourth section. Notwithstanding the fact that the congress was well organized, and that abstracts of the papers to be submitted were in print before its assembly, the number of papers precluded extensive discussions of any one of the topics. The report of the proceedings, omitting the papers by the American members, which were published separately at the expense of the committee for the United States, comprises a quarto volume of 1,072 pages. Apart from the publication of the report, which is a mine of infor¬ mation relative to the specialties considered, and the inspiring influ¬ ence of the congress upon the participants, its chief outcome is the mpressive evidence it offers that the movement for a new emphasis upon moral education is world-wide in extent and profoundly sig¬ nificant. Provision was made for future action by the continuance of the international committee, with instructions to prepare for the third congress of this series. The office of the executive of this com¬ mittee is at London; J. W. Adamson, chairman; Fred Charles, honor¬ ary secretary. 1 The Nation, Oct. 3, 1912, pp. 304-306. EVENTS OF INTERNATIONAL INTEREST. 633 EIGHTH INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS OF APPLIED CHEMISTRY. The Eighth International Congress of Applied Chemistry was held at Columbia University, New York City, September 6-13, 1912. The officers of the congress were: Dr. Edward W. Morley, of Hartford, Conn., honorary president; Dr. William Henry Nichols, of New York, president; and Bernhard C. Hesse, of New York, secretary. The arrangements for the congress were elaborated by an able executive committee, and the occasion brought together a distinguished com¬ pany of specialists representing the principal countries and the lead¬ ing industries of the world. One of the most interesting papers presented before the congress was by Dr. Hugo Schweitzer, vice president of the Farbenfabriken Co., of Elberfeld, who reviewed the remarkable achievements of chem¬ istry in the nineteenth century, which have revolutionized many industries and greatly increased the demand for men specially trained in the science. The next meeting of the congress will be held at St. Petersburg in 1915. The exact date has not yet been determined. FIFTH INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS OF CHAMBERS OF COMMERCE AND COMMERCIAL AND INDUSTRIAL ASSOCIATIONS. The Fifth International Congress of Chambers of Commerce and Commercial and Industrial Associations, which was held at Boston, September 24-26, 1912, although not an educational congress, had important bearings upon education. In particular it has given stim¬ ulus to current efforts for promoting the higher orders of commercial education on the part of several of the leading universities of the United States. Some 50 different countries were represented by the 770 delegates, of whom 535 were from foreign countries. The topics discussed by the congress included the establishment of an international court of arbitral justice and the unification of legis¬ lation relating to checks, both of which are of interest to schools of commerce and law. FIFTEENTH INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS OF HYGIENE AND DEMOGRAPHY. The Fifteenth International Congress of Hygiene and Demography was held at Washington, September 23-28, 1912, and was distin¬ guished by its large membership, reaching nearly 4,000, by the num¬ ber of delegates eminent in the sciences to which it related, and by the great public interest which it excited. Prominence was given in the proceedings to the section of public health and hygiene, and both in this section and in the exhibit which 634 EDUCATION REPORT, 1912, accompanied the congress emphasis was placed upon the inseparable relation between the broad field of municipal hygiene and sanitation and the service of school hygiene and medical inspection.1 TENTH INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS FOR THE STUDY OF THE HISTORY OF ART. This congress was held at Rome, October 16-21, 1912. The United States was officially represented by Mr. Ralph R. Lati¬ mer, formerly vice principal of the Maryland Institute Schools of Art and Design, Baltimore, Md. From a report presented by the delegate the following particulars are derived: The congress was held in the old Corsini falace, near the Tiber, on the Vatican side of the river. This fine old palace, built by a nephew of Pope Sixtus IV, has been purchased by the Italian Government to become the site of the Accademia dei Lincei, an institution for the promotion of education of all sorts. The congress did not in any way deal with the practical teaching of drawing or painting, but was concerned with the study of existing works of art, which show the growth and influence of a sense of beauty in different communities. The sessions were occupied by papers and discussions and were interspersed with elaborate entertainments for the delegates, who numbered 600, chiefly from Italy and the neighboring countries. They had unusual opportunity for viewing many treasures of art seldom open to visitors, among them the Villa Albani, noted for its beautiful grounds and pavilions full of interesting statues, among them the lotus-crowned Antinnos. At the final session it was announced that the next congress would probably be held at Paris. ADDITIONAL INTERNATIONAL CONGRESSES. The dates and places of assembly of additional international con¬ gresses of which notice was received at the Bureau of Education were as follows: The Eighteenth International Congress of Americanists was held at London, May 27-June 1, 1912. The object of the congress is to promote scientific inquiry into the history of both Americas and their inhabitants. The Second International Congress on Home Protection was held at Stuttgart, June 12-15, 1912. Third International Congress for the Deaf and Dumb, Paris, Au¬ gust, 1912. 1 Dresslar, F. B. The Fifteenth International Congress on Hygiene and Demography. Bureau of Education. Bulletin, 1913, No. 18. EVENTS OE INTERNATIONAL INTEREST. 635 Second International Home Work Congress, Zurich, September 8-9, 1912. Fourteenth International Congress of Prehistoric Anthropology and Archaeology, Geneva, Switzerland, September 9-15, 1912. Offi¬ cial delegates from the United States were Dr. Charles Peabody, director of European archaeology, Peabody Museum, Harvard Uni¬ versity, Cambridge, Mass.; Dr. George Grant MacCurdy, assistant professor of archaeology, Yale University; Dr. Ales Hrdlicka, Na¬ tional Museum, Washington, D. C. Sixth International Gynecological Congress, Berlin, September 10- 12, 1912. Congress of International Association for the Study of Infantile Hygiene and Pathology, Paris, October 7, 1912. First International Congress on Comparative Pathology, Paris, October 17-23, 1912. Fourth International Congress on Physical Education, Pome, Italy, October 24-27, 1912. INTERNATIONAL EDUCATIONAL AND INDUSTRIAL EXHIBITION. An International Educational and Industrial Exhibition pertaining to the organization and equipment of schools was held at St. Peters¬ burg from April 15 to July 30, 1912, under the direction of the Impe¬ rial Russian Technical Society. The matter of the exhibit was classified as follows: School archi¬ tecture; school furnishing and hygiene; educational appliances and illustrative material; equipment of laboratories, workshops, etc.; gymnastic apparatus and objects used in school sports; equipment of different classes of technical schools. Arrangements were made for lectures pertaining to the collections and their use for demonstration. ' INDEX A. Abbott, F. H., on Indian education, 420-428. Academic anniversaries, 35-36. Academic celebrations, 32-36. Academies, Roman Catholic, 231-232, 239-241. Administration, school, developments, 126-129. Africa, modern education, 600-604. African Methodist Episcopal Church, money for negro schools, 254. Agricultural clubs, boys and girls, 197-202. Agricultural colleges, extension service, 266; types of service rendered, 264. Agricultural education, Asiatic Turkey, 574; Brazil, 478-479; Canada, 464-465; general survey, 263-280; Ireland, 508-509; legislation, 276-277; list of works, 210-212; Mexico, 472; New Zealand, 615; Porto Rico, 447-449; Victoria, Australia, 611. Agricultural extension work, 266-267. Agricultural fairs, effect on education, 274-275. Agricultural press, influence, 276. Agricultural schools and the industries, 77-80. Agriculture, demonstration work in Southern States, benefactions, 40; extension teaching, Fed¬ eral aid, 282; graduate school, Ohio State Uni¬ versity, 264. Alabama, educational legislation, 63; progress of rural schools, 212-213. Alabama, University of, library economy, instruc¬ tion, 383; new president, 34. Alaska, education, 407-420. Albion College, Mich., benefactions, 40; library econ¬ omy, instruction, 383. Alderman, L. R., on home industrial work, 204. Alfred University, N. Y., library economy, instruc¬ tion, 383. Algeria, education, 600. Allegheny College, Pa., benefactions, 40. Allen, W. H., on educational needs of public schools, 17. American Association for Labor Legislation, educa¬ tional work, 303-304. American Association for the Advancement of Science, and conservation of human life, 304. American Association for the Conservation of Vis¬ ion, work, 334. American Association of Medical Milk Commis¬ sions, work, 354. American Civic Association, health work, 3044505. American College for Girls, Constantinople, work, 572. American Federation for Sex Hygiene, educational work, 337-339. American Interchurch College for Religious and Social Workers, work, 107. American Library Association, meeting, 403-405. American Library Institute, meetings, 404. American Medical Association for Public Health Education among Women and its Affiliated Organizations, work, 310-314. American Missionary Association, aid for negro schools, 254. American Public Health Association, educational work, 302-303. American Red Cross, work, 309-310. American Samoa, education, 455-456. American Society for the Study of Alcohol and other Narcotics, work, 308. American teachers, convention, Berlin, proceed¬ ings, 630. American Vigilance Association, work, 343. Amerika-Institut, organization and aim, 617-618. Amherst College, inauguration of Alexander Meikle- john as president, 33-34. Andrews, Cecil, on education in Western Australia, 611-613. Anniversaries, academic, 35-36; colleges and univer¬ sities, 623-624. Anti-Cigarette League of America (Eastern Divi¬ sion), educational work, 309. Anti-Tuberculosis Committee of One Hundred, ■Winston-Salem, N. C., work, 328-329. Antituberculosis leagues, etc., work, 325-333. Arabic, instruction, Italy, 563-564. Argentina, education, 475-477. Arithmetic, textbooks, criticisms, 8; written tests, 7-8. Arizona, educational legislation, 49, 54, 57, 61, 64-66, 70, 73, 75, 78, 80-81, 276. Arizona, University of, library economy, instruc¬ tion, 383; scholarships, 80. Armenians, education, 573-574. Art, education, international congress, 630; history, international congress, 634. Asia, spread of modern influences, 589. Asiatic Turkey, education, 572-575. Association for the International Exchange of Stu¬ dents, meeting, 46-47. Astronomers, at Brazil, 627. Athens, University of, seventy-fifth anniversary, 623-624. Athletics, college, criticism, 47-48; high school, criti¬ cism, 5; Philippine public schools, 439-440. Atkinson Academy, Atkinson, N. H., one hundred and twenty-fifth anniversary, 36. Atlanta, Ga., teachers’ salaries, 29. 637 638 INDEX. Atlanta Chamber of Commerce, health activities, 324. Attendance, State school systems, xv, 13. Australia, education, 605-613. Average daily attendance. See Attendance. Ayres, L. P., on the eighth-grade arithmetic text¬ books, 8. B. Babcock, K. C., Higher education, 83-124; on Con¬ gress of the Universities of the British Empire, 620-623. Babies Milk Dispensary, of Buffalo, work, 355. Bainter, E. M., president of University of Porto Rico, 35. Baker, J. H., on a national university, 38. Balfour, A. J., on endeavors to adapt occidental edu¬ cation to oriental races, 621-622. Balkan States, education, 575-577. Baltimore, Md., investigation of school system, 138-139. Barnes, Earl, on Montessori movement, 27-28. Barrows, Xlice P., on vocational guidance, 25-26. Bates, L. W., on mercurial poisoning in the indus¬ tries cf New York, 306-307. Bavaria, training of teachers, 557. Belgium, education, 516-519. Beloit College, Wis., benefactions, 39-40; library economy, instruction, 383. Benefactions, colleges and universities, 39-42; private, 39-42. Bibliography, rural education, 210-211. Binet-Simon tests, exceptional children, 259. Bimey, Mrs. T. W., and National Congress of Mothers, 359. Blair, F. G., on condition of public schools, 2-3. Blaisdell, J. A., president of Pomona College, 35. Blind, schools, legislation, 81; Roman Catholic, 232-233. Blindness, societies for the prevention, 334-336. Bliss, D. C., on sex instruction in city schools, 167-168. Bloomfield, N. J., differentiation in grammar-school courses, 143. Boards of control. See Central boards of control. Boards of education. See County boards of educa¬ tion; State boards of education. Boards of health, educational campaigns, 314-315. Bolivia, education, 479. Bonds, school, legislation, 61-63. Boston Association for the Relief and Control of Tuberculosis, work, 325-326. Boston Chamber of Commerce, work in prevention of disease, 323-324. Boston Home and School Association, health teaching work, 349. Boyd, D. R., president of University of New Mexico, 35. Boykin, J. C., Educational legislation in 1912, 49-82. Brazil, education, 477-479. British Columbia, manual training schools, 466-467. Brooklyn, N. Y., anniversary of Erasmus Hall High School, 36. Brooklyn Institute of Arts and Sciences, course in eugenics for teachers, 357. Brooks, S. D., inauguration as president of the University of Oklahoma, 34. Brown University, postgraduate courses, 81. Brumbaugh, M. G., on “quiet zones” around schools, 169-170. Bryant, L. S., on school lunches, 186. Buell, Jennie, on the educational value of the grange, 273-274. Buffalo, N. Y., establishment of kindergartens, 149; differentiation in grammar-school courses, 143. Buildings, library, notable structures completed, 380. Buildings, school, legislation, 63 , 451-452; wider use, 63. Bulgaria, education, 576. Bureau of Education. See United States Bureau of Education. Butler, N. M., on board of education of New York City, 127; on school of journalism, 116. C. Caldwell College, Ky., benefaction, 40. California, junior college work, high schools, 101. California, University of, benefactions, 40-41. California Association for the Study and Prevention of Tuberculosis, educational work, 329-331. California Social Hygiene Society, work, 339-340. Canada, educational activities, 459-469; higher edu¬ cation, development, 622. Canal Zone, education, 454. Canning clubs, girls, work, 201. Cape Colony, education commission, 602-604. Carnegie, Andrew, gifts to libraries, 379. Carnegie Corporation, gifts to libraries, 379. Carnegie Endowment for International Peace, work, 618-620. Carnegie Foundation for the Advancement of Teaching, and educational problems, 17-18; expenditures, 39. Caroline Rest and School for Mothers, educational influence, 317. Carpenter, F. P., gift of public library to Man¬ chester, N. H., 379. Carson College for Orphan Girls, benefaction, 42. Cassidy, M. A., on moral education, 144. Catholic Educational Association, organization and influence, 236-237. Catholic University of America, benefactions, 41. Celebrations, academic, 32-36. Central America, education, 472-474. Central boards of control, State institutions, 88-97. Certificates, teachers, legislation, 64; negro schools, 253. Charities Organization for School of Philanthropy, benefactions, 42. Charleston, S. C., city schools, simplification of course of study, 140. Chautauquas, and agricultural education, 275-276. Chemistry, applied, international congress, 638. Chicago, Ill., junior college work, high schools, 101. Chicago School Extension Committee, health teach¬ ing work, 349-350. Chicago Society of Social Hygiene, work, 340-241. Chicago Tuberculosis Institute, work, 326-327. Chicago University, benefaction, 41. Child labor, legislation, 70-71, 569. Children, exceptional, discussion, 257-262. Children, welfare work, 81, 162, 472, 491-492, 505, 517-518. See also Health-teaching agencies. INDEX. 639 Chile, education, 480. China, higher education, 625. Chinese students, and the revolution, 48. Cincinnati, Ohio, teachers’ salaries, 29. Cincinnati Anti-Tuberculosis League, work, 325. Citizenship, instruction, American schools, 23; Germany, 554-556. City school systems, general survey, 125-175; re¬ organized, 129-132. See also Rural schools. City superintendents, notable changes during 1911— 12, 138; salaries and tenure of office, 136-138. Claxton, P. P., introduction to annual report, xv- xxvi. Cleveland, Ohio, school gardens, city school sys¬ tems, 172. Cleveland Health League, educational work, 331. Coe College, Iowa, benefactions, 40. Cohoes, N. Y., committee to prevent tuberculosis, 331-332. College entrance examinations, modern tendency regarding, 12. College fraternities, discussion, 158-159. College presidents, inauguration, 32. Colleges, recently created, 110-114; standard and junior, 97-102. Colleges and universities, anniversaries, 35-36; ap¬ propriations, State, 80-81; benefactions, 39-42; competition and cooperation, 104-107; consolida¬ tion, 102-104; instruction in library work, 380- 384; resume of statistics, xvi-xvii; Roman Cath¬ olic, 231-232, 239-241; standardization, 97-102; training teachers for elementary schools, 122-123; Turkey, 570-572. See also Higher education. See also under name of institution. Colleges and universities, State central boards, of control, 88-97;. correlation, 84-88. Colorado, progress of rural schools, 213. Colorado College, benefaction, 41. Colored Methodist Episcopal Church, funds for negro schools, 254. Columbia University, benefactions, 41-42, 379; school of journalism, 115, 117, 119. Columbus, Ohio, course of study,- junior high school, 156. Commercial and industrial associations, interna¬ tional congress, 633. Commercial schools, Philippine Islands, 438-439. Compulsory attendance, legislation, 68-69. Concord, N. H., reorganization of school system, 131-132. Condon, R. J., on standards and programs, 18. Congress of the Universities of the British Empire, 620-623. Congresses, educational, review of proceedings, 45-16, 627-635. Connecticut, progress of rural schools, 213; voca¬ tional education, legislation, 284-285. Connecticut Society of Social Hygiene, work, 343. Consolidation of schools, legislation, 71-73; list of books, 211. See also Transportation of children to school. Constantinople, schools and colleges, 570-575. Continuation schools, Germany, 548-554; need in France, 526-527; New South Wales, 609; New Zealand, 614-615; Saxony, 543-544; • Scotland, 503-505; Switzerland, 537-538. Cooking, instruction, Porto Rico, 450. Cooperation among farmers, 272. Cooperative courses, city school systems, 146. Corn clubs, establishment and work, 197-202. Cornell University, library economy, instruction, 383. Correlation of universities and theological schools, 107-110. Cosmopolitan clubs, movement in Germany, 46. Costa Rica, education, 472-473. Cottingham, W. W., tenure of office, 138. Council of Jewish Women, health-teaching work, 345. Country-life commissions, 76. County boards of education, legislation, 56-58. County superintendents, legislation, 56-58; salaries, New Jersey, 56. Courses of study, agriculture, 271; city school sys¬ tems, 138-145; eugenics, 357; French secondary schools, 530-532; high schools, 156; sexual hy¬ giene, 344; teachers, Bavaria and Prussia, 557; time schedules, elementary grades, 145; voca¬ tional schools, Germany, 549-553. Covington, Ky., reorganization of school board, 58. Craighead, E. B., president of University of Mon¬ tana, 35. Crane Technical High School, Chicago, junior- college work, 101. Crookston, Minn., differentiation in grammar- school courses, 143. “Cultural” and “practical” subjects, 10. Curriculum, criticisms, the three R’s argument, 7-8; rigidity, 9. See also Courses of study. Curzon, Lord, on interrelation between the older universities and those of the newer colonies and dependencies (British Empire), 622. D. Davidson College, new president, 35. Davis, C. O., on reorganizing the elementary and high school, 18-19. Davis, Jackson, and rural schools for negroes, 248. Deaf-mutes, schools, legislation, 81; Roman Cath¬ olic, 233. Defective classes, schools, legislation, 81. Degrees, colleges and universities, xvi. Delinquents, schools, legislation, 81. Democracy and the public school, 15. Demonstration schools, rural, 191. Denmark, education, 511-514. Denny, G. H., president of University of Alabama, 34. Denominational boards, negro, 250-251. Denominational colleges, growth, 106-107. Dental hygiene, societies, 336-337. Dental schools, legislation, 81. Denver, Colo., teachers’ salaries, 29. Departmental teaching, grammar grades, 141-142. De Pauw University, new president, 35. Dependent peoples, United States, reports on edu¬ cational progress, 407-458. Dependents and delinquents, legislation, 81. Detroit Society for Sex Hygiene, work, 343-344. Dexter, E. G., on education in Porto Rico, 444-453. Differentiation in grammar-school courses, 142. Divinity schools. See Theological schools. Donlon, A. J., president of Georgetown University, 34. 640 INDEX. Drawing, international congress, 630. Dresslar, F. B., Typical health-teaching agencies of the United States, 299-358. Dual system of control, industrial training, 147. Duniway, C. A., president of University of Wyom¬ ing, 35. E. East St. Louis Dental Society, work, 337. Education, changing purpose, 3-4. Efficiency, commissions, 16. Egypt, education, 600. Elective studies, college, 33. Elementary education, length of time devoted, 6. Elementary schools, course in European history, 143; England and Wales, 487-500; problems, 4; reorganization, 18-19; seven years’ course of study, 141; training of teachers for, 119-124. Elson, W. H., on parent-teacher associations, 372. Emerson, H. P., on kindergarten movement, 149. Emigrants, education, Italy, 561-563. Endowments, estimates for higher institutions, 40. Engineering, education, China, 625; students, Mon¬ tana, 85. England and Wales, function of board of education, 492; public elementary schools, general survey and statistics, 487-500. Enrollment, public schools, Porto Rico, 452; South American Republics, 474; Stateschoolsystems,xv. Erasmus Hall High School, Brooklyn, N. Y., one hundred and twenty-fifth anniversary, 36. Ethical and civic training, Denmark, 513-514. Eugenics, congress, 629-630; course for teachers, 357. Eugenics, School of, Boston, instruction in sex hygiene, 341-342. Examinations and home work, 12-13; old sets of questions, Springfield (Mass.) schools, 7-8; teach¬ ers, legislation, 64. Exceptional children, discussion, 257-262. Exchange professors, existing foundations, 43. F. Fairchild, E. T., president of New Hampshire Col¬ lege of Agriculture and Mechanic Arts, 35. Fairs, agricultural. See Agricultural fairs. Farm demonstration work, 76-77, 299-250. Farm schools, gaining in popularity, 271-272. Farmers, cooperation among, 272. Farmers’ institutes, and extension work, 275. Farms, experimental, 76. Federal aid, industrial education, 148; vocational education, 282. Finance, school, legislation, 59-60. Fitchburg, Mass., vocational education, 22. Florida, educational legislation, 62. Foreigners, library service, 397-403. France, education, 521-535. Frankfort on the Main, proposals for foundation of a university, 624. Fraternities, high-school, problems, 156-159; for¬ bidden in State institutions, Mississippi, 80. Fresno, Cal., junior college work, high schools, 101, Funds, school, legislation, 59-60. G. Gardens, school, city school systems, 170-172. Gary, Ind., reorganization of school system, 130. General Education Board, expenditures, 39-40. | General Federation of Women’s Clubs, and voca¬ tional education, 289. George Peabody College for Teachers, Nashville, Tenn., benefactions, 39; organization, 113. Georgetown University, new president, 34. Georgia, agricultural schools, curriculum, 271; edu¬ cational legislation, 52-53, 57, 59, 62; progress of rural schools, 213-214. Germany, cosmopolitan club movement, 46; edu¬ cation, 539-558; lecture courses in journalism, 119. Gifts and bequests, American libraries, 379. Girls’ canning clubs, work, 201; education, Asiatic Turkey, 573; secondary education, France, 532- 533. Good roads, development, 361. Grades, grammar, departmental teaching, 141-142; seven-year, 141. Graduates, high schools, xvi; normal schools, xvii. Grammar schools, differentiation in courses of study, 142-143. Grand Rapids, Mich., open-air schools, 164-165. Grange, The, education a factor, 273-274. Great Britain and Ireland, education, 487-510. Greece, education, 567-569. Greenwood, J. M., on Dr. Shepard’s services to National Education Association, 377; on seven- years’ course of study, 141; on vacation schools, 159-160. Gregory, B. C., on schools of the present and past, 8. Gregory, C. R., lecture tour in United States and Canada, 44. Grose, G. R., president of De Pauw Umversity, 35. Groszmann, M. P. E., Progress of the movement for the benefit of the exceptional child, in the year 1912, 257-262. Guam, education, statistics, 456-458. H. Hamburg, Germany, proposed new university, 24. Hamilton, Ohio, teachers’ salaries, 29. Hamilton College, Clinton, N. Y., library instruc¬ tion, 383. Hamilton College, Ohio, benefaction, 41. Hamline University, new president, 35. Hammond, Ind., reorganization of school system, 131. Hanus, P. H., inquiry into New York City school system, 19-21, 134-136. Harvard University, examinations, 12; benefac¬ tions, 41, 79. Hawaii, education, 442-441. Hazleton, Pa., open-air schools, 164. Health, State boards, educational campaigns, 314-315. Health Education League, Boston, work, 357. Health-teaching agencies, typical, 299-358. Helena, Mont., city schools, simplification of course of study, 139. “ Henrico plan,” rural schools for negroes, 248-249. Hibben, J. G., on the doctrine of prescribed and elective college studies, 33; inauguration as presi¬ dent of Princeton University, 32-33. High cost of living, effect on teachers, 29-31. “High school,” definition of term, West Virginia legislature, 224. High-school fraternities. See Fraternities, high- school. INDEX, 641 High, seheois, aiMeiaes, criticism, 5; anniversaries, 36; city school systems, review, 152-159; Den in ark, ethical and civic education, 513-514; Chicago, junior college work:, Ml; increase in attendance xvi; Larin, study, 9; legislation, 74-75; Porto flic©, statistics, 446-447; reorganization, 18-19; Roman Catholic, 233-235; teaching agriculture, 267-272; uniform standards, 4-5. High schools, public and private, number, xvi. Higher education, Balkan States, 576; Canada, 468-459, 622; Prance, statistics, 533-535; legisla¬ tion, 80-81; negroes, 254; progress, 83-124; Russia, statistics, 585-586. See also Colleges and uni¬ versities; Universities. Hightower, G. R., president of Mississippi Agri¬ cultural and Mechanical College, 35. Hill, J. J., gift of public library to St. Paul, Minn., 379. History, European, elementary schools, 143. Holmes, H. W., on Montessori movement, 26. Holy Cross College, Mass., benefaction, 41. Home and School League of Philadelphia, health- teaching work, 348-349. Home and school leagues, health-teaching activities, 348-350. Home industrial work. See Industrial work, home. Home work, and examinations, 12-13. Hongkong, University of, work, €25. Hood, W. R., City school systems, 1911-12, 125-175. Hookworm disease, eradication, 355-356. Household industries, instruction, Philippine Islands, 437-438; Porto Rico, 450. Howard University, new president, 34. Hungary, creation of two new universities, 624. Hyatt, Edward, on parent-teacher associations, 372. Hygiene, college work, 357; dental, societies, 336- 337; mental, education, 350-352; school, 46, 472 sex. See Sex hygiene. I. Idaho, traveling libraries, 390. Idaho, University of, library economy, instruction, 383. Ihlder, John, on sanitary inspection, 308-309. Illinois, money for State education Building, 36; statistics of teachers, 120; vocational education, legislation, 286. Illinois, University of, library economy, instruction, 383. illiteracy, campaign against, Kentucky, 215-216; Tennessee, 222; general statistics, xlx, xxii-xxv; statistics, Asiatic Turkey, 573. Imperial Teachers’ Congress, London, review of proceedings, 628^629. Inaugurations of college presidents, 32. India, education, general survey and statistics, 594-599; new university, 625. Indian education, development and present status, 420-428. Indiana, progress of rural schools, 213; social hy¬ giene, 343; traveling libraries, 390; vocational education, legislation, 282-284. Indiana Commission on Industrial Education, investigations and recommendations, 277-280. Indiana University, library economy, instruction, 383. Industrial and educational exhibit, St. Petersburg, 635. Industrial education, Asiatic Turkey, 574-575; Canada, 467-468; city school systems, 145-148; commissions, 277-2S0; legislation, 75-80, 277; New South Wales, 608-610; Philippine Islands, 435-438; Porto Rico, 449-450; training of teachers, 293-296; Western Australia, 611-613. See .also Vocational education. Industrial establishments, health work of typical, 352-354. Industrial schools, rural, for negroes, 255-256. Industrial, trade, and technical schools, partial list of new, 297. Industrial work, home, school credit for, 202-296. Industries, unhealthful, report, 306-397. Infant Welfare Association of New Haven, Conn., 322. Infant Welfare Department of Duluth Consistory, Scottish Rite Masons, work, 323. Infant Welfare Society of Chicago, work, 321. Inspectors, rural schools, 189-196. Instruction, methods, contradictory criticisms, 11-12. Intermediate schools, Oakland, Cal., schedule of studies, 156. International celebrations and congresses, review, 627-635. International Congress for Drawing and Art In¬ struction, Dresden, proceedings, 630. International Congress for the Study of the History of Art, proceedings, 634. International Congress of American Students, Buenos Aires, proceedings, 629. international Congress of Applied Chemistry, New York City, proceedings, 638. International Congress of Chambers of Commerce, etc., Boston, proceedings, 633. International Congress of Hygiene and Demog¬ raphy, Washington, proceedings, 633-634. International Congress of Mathematicians, Cam¬ bridge, England, proceedings, 630-631.. International Congress of the History of Religions, Leiden, proceedings, 631-632. International Congress on Eugenics, London, 629-630. International Educational and Industrial Exhibi¬ tion, St. Petersburg, classification of exhibits, 635. International exchange of students, 46-47. International foundations, 617-620. International interchange, universities, 43-48. International interest, events, 617-635. International Moral Education Congress, proceed¬ ings, 632. International Musical Festival, Paris, proceedings, 627-628. Iowa, rural school commission, 185-187; traveling libraries, 390-391. Iowa, University of, library instruction, 383. Iowa State College, new president, 35. Ireland, education, 505-510. Italy, education, 559-564. 642 INDEX, J. James. E. J., on National university, 36-37. Japan, education, survey and statistics, 589-593. Jeanes Fund, work, 246-247. Jenks, F. B., A review of agricultural education in 1911-12, 263-280. Jews, Asiatic Turkey, interest in education, 572-573. Johns Hopkins University, appropriations for applied science and advanced technology, 80; benefaction, 41. Joint Board of Sanitary Control in the Cloak, Suit, and Skirt Industry of Greater New York, work, 353-354. Jones, T. J., Recent movements in negro educa¬ tion, 243-256. Journalism, education, 115-119; lecture courses in German universities, 119. Junior High School, Columbus, Ohio, course of study, 156. Juvenile courts, development, 361-352; legislation* 82. Juvenile workers, England and Wales, extension or medical service, 496. K. Kansas, traveling libraries, 391-392. Kansas State Agriculture College, library economy, instruction, 383. • Katmai volcano, Alaska, eruption, 409-410. Kentucky, educational legislation, 50, 54, 56-58, 61, 63-64, 68-69, 72, 80-81, 206-207, 277; eradication of illiteracy, 215-216; progress of rural schools, 214- 216; school building commission, 63; traveling libraries, 392. Kentucky Normal and Industrial Institute for Colored Persons, appropriation for, 80. Kentucky Society for the Prevention of Blindness, work, 334. Kerfoot, S. F., president of Hamline University, 35. Kerschensteiner, Georg, American tour, 146. Kilpatrick, W. H., on Montessori movement, 27. Kindergarten and Montessori movement, 27; city school systems, 148-149. Knoxville, Tenn., city schools, simplification of course of study, 140. Kovalevsky, Evgrav, on educational work of the third Duma, Russia, 582-583. L. La Crosse, Wis., city schools, simplification of course of study, 140. Lake Forest College, Ill., benefactions, 40. Lane Technical High School, Chicago, junior-college work, 101. Languages, modern, conference, 628. Latin-American States, education, 471-485. Latin language, high schools, criticism, 9. Law schools, discontinuance of, 102. League of Library Commissions, work, 404-405. Leavenworth, Kans., city schools, simplification of course of study, 140. Legislation, educational, 49-82, 276-277, 281-287, 440-442, 564, 580-581. See also under names of States. Lever bill (U. S. House of Representatives), voca¬ tional education, 148, 282. Lexington, Ky., reorganization of school board, 58. Librarians, appointments during 1911-12, 405-406. Libraries, benefactions, 42, 379; development 379- 406. Lopp, W. T., Report on education in Alaska, 407- 420. Los Angeles, Cal., growth of kindergartens, 149; high schools, 101. Los Angeles Society of Social Hygiene, work, 341. Louisiana, educational legislation, 50, 54, 57-58, 61, 64-65, 79. Lowell, D. O. S., on peculiar traits of American life, 14. Lunches, school. See School lunches. M. Macalester College, Minn., benefactions, 40. McKeesport, Pa., city schools, simplification of course of study, 140. Maine, progress of rural schools, 216-217; traveling libraries, 392. Maine, University of, library economy, instruction, 383. Manchester, N. H., gift of public library, 379. Manitoba, manual training schools, 467. Manual arts, instruction, Canada, 463-464. Manual training, schools, Canada, 466-467. Martin, G. H., on play movement and vocational movement, 23. Martin, W. J., president of Davidson College, 35. Maryland, country life commission, 76; educational legislation, 53, 59-60, 65, 67-70, 74, 80, 82. Maryland Society for the Prevention of Blindness, work, 334. Maryland Society of Social Hygiene, work, 342. Massachusetts, agricultural fairs, premiums on animals and farm crops, 277 ; educational legisla¬ tion, 51, 55, 58-59, 63, 68, 71, 74, 77-78, 80, 82; prog¬ ress of rural schools, 217; traveling libraries, 392; vocational education, 281-282, 286, 296. Massachusetts Agricultural College, courses, 265- 266; State appropriations, 51. Massachusetts Charitable Eye and Ear Infirmary, work, 335. Massachusetts Commission for the Blind, work, 336. Massachusetts Hospitals for Consumptives, educa¬ tional work, 329. Massachusetts Institute of Technology, benefac¬ tions, 41; State scholarships, 80. Massachusetts Milk Consumers’ Association, work, .354-355. Mathematics, international congress, 630-631. Maxwell, W. H., on sex instruction in city schools, 168-169; tenure of office, 138. Mead, E. D., on development of cosmopolitan clubs, 46. Meals, provision for, school children of England and Wales, 495. Meams, W. H., on uniform standards in the high schools, 4-5. Mechanical and mining engineering, problems, 87. Medical inspection of schools, 162; England and Wales, 491-494; France, 523. INDEX. 643 Medical schools, discontinuance, 102; legislation, 81. Medical work, Alaska, 408-409. Medicine, reorganization of studies in France, 534- 535. Meiklejohn, Alexander, inaugurated as president of Amherst College, 33-34; on the ideals of the college teacher, 33-34. Mental hygiene, education, 350-352. Messenger laws, child labor legislation, 71. Methodist Episcopal Church, campaign for negro schools, 254. Methodist Episcopal Church South, tabulation of its educational institutions, 100. Methodist Federation for Social Service, work, 344- 345. Metropolitan Museum of Art, benefaction, 42. Mexico, education, 471-472. Mexico, University of, work, 626. Miami University, Oxford, Ohio, library instruc¬ tion, 384. Michigan, progress of rural schools, 217. Michigan, University of, seventy -fifth anniversary, 36; benefaction, 41; instruction in bibliography, 384. Middlebury College, Vt., benefaction, 41. Miles, H. E., on industrial education, 147-148. Milk, clean, associations for securing, 354-355. Mills College, Cal., library economy, instruction, 384. Milwaukee Child-Welfare Commission, educational work, 318-319. Minnesota, State board of control, functions, 89; traveling libraries, 392-393. Minnesota, University of, course in agriculture, 266; function of State board of control, 89. Minnesota State Board of Health, work, 315. Missions, educational work, Turkish Empire, 574- -575. Missions, foreign, work, 620. Mississippi, educational legislation, 53, 60, 62, 68, 70-71, 78-80, 277; progress of rural schools, 217-219. Mississippi Agricultural and Mechanical College, new president, 35. Missouri, progress of rural schools, 219. Missouri, University of, course in. journalism, 118. Modern Language Conference, Frankfort on the Main, proceedings, 628. Monahan, A. C., Rural education, 177-225. Montana, University of, new president, 35; statis¬ tics of students, 85. Montana State College of Agriculture and Mechanic Arts, statistics of students, 85. Montana State School of Mines, statistics of stu¬ dents, 85. Montenegro, education, 577. Montessori system, discussion, 26-28, 149. Moral education, international congress, 632; city school system, 143-145. Morgan, J. P., gift to Trinity College, Conn., 379. Mormons, schools in American Samoa, 456. Mortier, Professor, on vocational education in France, 527. Mount Holyoke College, Mass., benefaction, 41; seventy-fifth anniversary, 35. Miinsterburg, Hugo, on teaching profession, 10. Municipal health associations, work, 315-325. Music, international congress, Paris, 627-628; in¬ struction, Porto Rico, 450. N. National Association for the Study and Education of Exceptional Children, work, 258-260. National Association for the Study and Prevention of Tuberculosis, report on open-air schools, 163. National Association of Manufacturers, and Voca¬ tional Education, 288-289. National Civic Federation on Dangerous and Unhealthful Industries, investigations, 306-308. National Committee for Mental Hygiene, educa¬ tional work, 350. National Conference of Charities and Correction, and conservation of health, 305-306. National Congress of Mothers, and child hygiene, 306; parent-teacher cooperative associations, work, 359-373. National Council of Education, commission on school efficiency, 16. National Country Life Congress, work, 223. National Education Association, and vocational education, 289; committee on rural schools, out¬ line of work, 182-185; investigation into question of teachers’ salaries, 29-32; report of secretary, 357-377; report on teachers’ pensions, 151; reso¬ lutions regarding the exceptional child, 261-262. National Government, and vocational education, 282. National Housing Association, educational work, 308-309. National League on Urban Conditions, work, 358. National Mouth Hygiene Association, work, 336- 337. National Pan-Hellenic Congress of College Fra¬ ternities, and secondary schools, 158. National Society for the Promotion of Industrial Education, and Vocational Education, 290-291. National University, plan, 36-38. National Woman’s Christian Temperance Union, work, 306. Nebraska, traveling libraries, 393. Negro Organization Society of Virginia, work, 250, 357,-358. Negroes, agricultural education, Louisiana, 79; educational benefactions, 40; illiteracy, xxiii; in¬ dustrial education, legislation, 80; industrial su¬ pervisors, rural schools, 194r-196; organizations for health teaching, 357-358; recent movements in education, 243-256; Roman Catholic schools, 232- 233; schools, 252, 254; self-help, 254; teachers’ salaries and certificates, 253-254. Netherlands, The, education, 519-520. Nevada, University of, benefaction, 41. New Bedford, Mass., proposed legislation regard¬ ing school committee, 58. New Britain, Conn., differentiation in grammar- school courses, 142. New Brunswick, Canada, manual training schools, 466. New Hampshire College of Agricultural and Me¬ chanic Arts, new president, 34. New Haven, Conn., teachers’ salaries, 29. New Jersey, educational legislation, 50-51, 56, 67-68, 71-72, 74, 80-81, 82, 208, 284; traveling libraries, 393-394. New Orleans, reorganization of school board, 58; teachers’ tenure of office, 65. New Mexico, educational legislation, 49, 54, 59-60, 74, 78, 277, 287. 644 INDEX. New Mexico, University of, library economy, in¬ struction, 384; new president, 35. New South Wales, education, 608-610. New York Association for Improving the Condition of the Poor, educational work, 316-317. New York Association for the Blind, work, 335. New York City, early nineteenth century schools, 12; child hygiene, 319-320; growth of kindergar¬ tens, 149; health work, 356; pay of high school prin¬ ciples, 56; public schools, inquiry (Hanus), 19-21; school administration, 126; teachers’ salaries, ele¬ mentary schools, 151; vacation schools, 159; voca¬ tional guidance survey, 25-26. New York, College of the City of, benefactions, 41. New York Diet Kitchen Association, educational work, 322. New York Public Library, benefaction, 42. New York State, bureau of industries and immigra¬ tion, 325; educational legislation, 50, 67, 71, 81-82; traveling libraries, 394; vocational education, 285-286, 296. New York State Education Building, Albany, dedication, 36. New York University, benefaction, 41-42. New Zealand, education, 613-615. Newark, N. J., vacation schools, 161-162. Newman, George, on medical inspection of schools, 491-492. Newman, S. M., president of Howard University, 34. Newport, Ky., reorganization of school board, 58. Night schools, Porto Rico, 451. Normal schools, legislation, 68; resume of statistics; training teachers for elementary schools, 119-124. North Carolina, educational legislation, 62; progress of rural schools, 219-220. North Carolina State Board of Health, work, 314- 315. North Dakota, rural school commission, 187-188. North Dakota, University of, library economy, instruction, 383. Northern Europe, education, 511-520. Northwestern University, benefaction, 41. Norway, education, 515-516. Nova Scotia, technical education, 465. O. Oakland, Cal., city schools, simplification of course of study, 139; intermediate schools, schedule of studies, 156; open-air schools, 163. Oberlin College, Ohio, benefaction, 41; library economy, instruction, 384. Ohio, city 'school boards, 120-129; correlation of State-supported and State-controlled universi¬ ties, 97. Ohio Commission for the Blind, work, 334. Ohio State University, agricultural bibliography, instruction, 383; graduate school of agriculture, 264. Oklahoma, University of, inauguration of S. D. Brooks as president, 34. Oliver, J. P., on negro education, 247-248. Open-air schools, city school systems, 162-165. Oregon, engineering education, correlation, 87 ; traveling libraries, 395. Oregon Agricultural College, library economy, in¬ struction, 383. Organization, school, Catholic school system, 228- 229; problem, 6. Orphan asylums, Roman Catholic, 232. O’Shea, M. V., on parent-teacher associations, 372. Overlook, M. G., on personal hygiene and preven¬ tive medicine, 339-331. P. Paducah, Ky., reorganization of school board, 58. Page bill (U. S. Senate), vocational education, 148, 282. Panama, education, 473-474. Paraguay, education, 481. Parent-teacher cooperative associations, 359-373. Parkin, G. R., on the Rhodes scholarships, 47-48. Parochial schools, Roman Catholic, 232, 239-241. Peabody College for Teachers, Nashville, Tenn., benefaction, 42. Peabody Educational Fund, disbursements, 39. Peace movement, status, 618-620. Pearson, R. A., president of Iowa State College, 35. Pennsylvania, school administration, 127; traveling libraries, 395; vocational education, legislation, 284. Pennsylvania, University of, benefaction, 42. Pennsylvania Society for the Prevention of Social Diseases, work, 339. Pennsylvania State College, bibliography, instruc¬ tion, 383. Pensions, teachers, city school systems, 151-152; legislation, 65-68. Perry, A. C. , on problems of the elemen tary school , 4. Perry, C. A., on school social centers, 170. Peru, education, 481-482. Philadelphia, early nineteenth century schools, 12. Philippine Bureau of Education, work, 432-135. Philippine Islands, education (1910-1912), 428-442. Philippine School of Arts and Trades, work, 438. Philippine School of Commerce, work, 438-439. Physical welfare, school children, 162-170. Pittsburgh, Pa., reorganization of school system, 130-131. Play movement, 23. Playground and Recreation Association of America, educational work, 309. Playgrounds, eity school systems, 173-175; legisla¬ tion, 73-74. Poincare, M., on education in France, 526. Pomona College, new president, 35. Porto Rico, education, 444-453. Porto Rico, University of, new president, 35. Portugal, education, 567. “Practical” and “cultural” subjects, 10. Presbyterian Board of Aid for Colleges and Acade¬ mies, benefaction, 42. Presbyterian Board of Home Missions, health-teach¬ ing work, 344. Presidents, college, inauguration, 32. Primary schools, Russia, statistics, 580. Prince Edward Island, Canada, manual training schools, 466. Princeton University, and examinations, 12; bene¬ factions, 42; elective and prescribed studies, 33; inauguration of president, 32-33. Private schools, Australia, statistics, 607. Professional investigations, city school systems, 132-136. INDEX. 645 Professional schools, discontinuance as departments of universities, 102; legislation, 81; statistics, xvii. Professorships, secondary education, State univer¬ sities of the South, 40. Programs, reconstructive, 15-16. Programs and standards of education, 18. Property, total value, State school systems, xv. Prosser, C. A., Progress in vocational education, 281-297. Providence, R. I., hoard of education, legislation, 59. Providence Nursing Association, work, 318. Prussia, exchange of teachers between, and United States, 44-45; training of teachers, 557. Public schools, business methods, legislation, 60-61; current criticisms, 2-15; democracy and, 15; in¬ accuracy and, 14-15; measuring by results, 13; needs, 17-18; negroes, notable improvements, 243- 246; problem of organization, 6; wider activities, 5. See also City school systems; State school sys¬ tems. Pulitzer, Joseph, on study of journalism, 115-116. Pupils, elimination of the “average,” 13-14; high schools, statistics, xvi. Purdue University, Ind., agricultural education, 265. Q. “ Quiet zones” around schools, 169-170. R. Reed College, Oreg., extension eourse on sexual hygiene and morals, 344. Reindeer service, Alaska, report, 415-420. Religions, international congress, 631-632. Religious education, Cape Colony, 602-603; Saxony, 544 — 545. Religious organizations, health teaching, 344-348. Religious question, Germany, discussion, 546-548. Rhode Island, educational legislation, 51-52, 54, 59, 74, 78, 81, 277, 286-287. Rhodes scholarships, status, 47-48. Rice Institute of Liberal and Technical Learning, resources, 114. Robert College, Constantinople, Turkey, work, 42, 570-572. Rochester Dental Society, educational work, 337. Rochester Public Health Association, educational work, 317-318. Rochester, University of, benefactions, 40, 42. Rockefeller Sanitary Commission for the Eradica¬ tion of Hookworm Disease, work, 355-356. Roman Catholic schools, Canada, 461; general sur¬ vey and statistics, 227-241. Roseberry, Earl of, on universities and the British Empire, 621. Roumania, education, 577. Rural education, general survey, 177-225; legisla¬ tion, 206-208; publications, 210-212. Rural library extension, 384-389. Rural school commissions, State, 185-188. Rural schools, Canada, 466; Denmark, 512-513; gen¬ eral survey, 177-225. Rural uplift, England and Wales, 498-499; Ireland, 507-508; legislation, 76-77; Russia, 583-585. Russell Sage Foundation, and educational prob¬ lems, 17. Russia, education, 579-587. Ryan, W. C., jr., Education in Germany, 539-558; Survey of education during 1911-12, 1-48. S. St. Louis Society for the Relief and Prevention of Tuberculosis, work, 327. St. Louis Society of Social Hygiene, work, 342-343. St. Paul, Minn., gift for public library, 379. Salaries, city superintendents, 136-137; county su¬ perintendents, legislation, 56-58. Salaries, teachers, city school systems, 149-151; in¬ vestigation, 29-31; legislation, 64-65; negro schools, 253; Porto Rico, 453; Spain, 565-566; State school systems, xv. Salem, Mass., school committee, legislation, 58. Samoa, American, education, 455-456. San Francisco, gift of public library, 379. San Francisco Association for the Study and Pre¬ vention of Tuberculosis, 327-328. Santa Clara, University of, change of name, 103-104. Savings banks, school. See School savings banks. Saxony, proposed school law, 541-546 Scholarships, legislation, 80-81. School administration. See Administration, school. School age, State school systems, xv. School boards, city, reductions, 127-128; diocesan, 229-230, 237-238; municipal legislation, 58-59. School bonds, legislation, 61-63. School building commission, Kentucky, 63. School buildings. See Buildings, school. Sehool finance, legislation, 59-60. School funds. See Funds, school. School gardens, city school systems, 170-172. School hygiene, international congress, 46; Mexico, 472. School improvement associations, rural schools, 196-197. Sehool inquiries, 16. School laws. See Legislation. School lunches, city school systems, 165-166.. School of Eugenics of Boston, instruction in sex hygiene, 341-342. School officers, legislation, 53-58. School organization. See Organization, school. School savings banks, city systems, 172-173. School supervision. See Supervision, school. School systems. See City school systems; State school systems. School term, average annual. State school sys¬ tems, xviii-xxii. Science, applied, appropriations for, 80. Scotland, education, 500-505. Seaman A. Knapp School of Country Life, estab¬ lishment, 39. Seattle Society of Social and Moral Hygiene, educa¬ tional work, 339. Secondary education, Argentina, 477; France, 528- 533; postponement, 6; professorships, State uni¬ versities of the South, 40; Russia, statistics, 585. Secondary schools, anniversaries, 36; negroes, 254. Selma University, Ala., funds for, 254. Seminaries, Roman Catholic, statistics, 231, 239-241. Servia, education, 576-577. Sewing, instruction, Porto Rico, 450. Sex hygiene, organizations, 337-344. Sex instruction, city school systems, 166-169. Shepard, Irwin, services to National Education Association, 376-377. “Six-and-six” plan, grammar schools of New Eng¬ land, 141. Slaton, W. M., on parent-teacher associations, 371- 372. 646 INDEX, Smith, Anna T., Educational activities in Canada, 459-469. Smith, C. A. M., on engineering department of the University of Hongkong, 625. Smith, H. L., president of Washington and Lee University, 35. Smyrna, Turkey, education, 572. Snedden, David, on parent-teacher associations, 372. Social centers, city school systems, 170. Social hygiene. See Sex instruction. Social Hygiene Society of Portland, Oreg., educa¬ tional work, 340. Social League of Middletown, Conn., health work, 324-325. Social purity, organizations, 337-344. Social service work. See Health-teaching agencies. South Africa, education, 601-604; project of a uni¬ versity, 625-626. South American Republics, education, 474-485. South Carolina, educational legislation, 53, 57, 59, 60, 63, 71-73, 79, 81-82, 207-208; negro schools, progress, 246; progress of rural schools, 220-222; South End House Women’s Residence, Boston, health education, 320. . Southern Europe, education, 559-577. Southern States, benefactions for demonstrations in agriculture, 40; boy prize winners, corn raising, 200; professorships of secondary education, 40; schoolhouse construction, use of bonds, 63. Southern University, La., reorganization, 79. Spain, education, 564-566. Special classes, schools, legislation, 81. Spelling, written tests, 7-S. Spokane Society for Social and Moral Hygiene, work, 344. Springfield, Mass., schools, old sets of examination questions, 7-8. Standardization, colleges, 97-102. Standards and programs of education, 18. State boards of education, legislation, 53-55. State boards of health, educational campaigns, 314- 315. State Charities Aid Association of New York, edu¬ cational work, 332-333; mental hygiene movement 351-352. State College of Washington, summer school of agri¬ culture, 266. State Education Building, Albany, N. Y., dedica¬ tion, 36. State school systems, attendance, xv; enrollment, xv. State superintendents, legislation, 55-56. State-supported institutions, correlation, 84-88. . State universities, centralization of control, 88-97. Strathcona, Lord, on development of higher insti¬ tutions in Canada, 622. Students, Chinese, and the revolution, 48; interna¬ tional congress, 46; international exchange, 46-47 ; negro schools, enrollment, 253. Studies, elective and prescribed, colleges, 33. Subnormal child. See Exceptional children. Summer schools, rdsumd of statistics, xviiL Sunday-School Superintendents’ Union of Boston and Vicinity, health teaching work, 345-346. Superintendents, Alaskan service, 411. Superintendents, city, notable changes during 1911- 12, 138; salaries and tenure of office, 136-138. Supervision, school, criticisms of, 6-7; Roman Cath¬ olic schools, 230-231. Supervisors, county, rural schools, 192-196; Roman Catholic schools, statistics, 237-238; State, negro rural schools, 248-249; rural schools, 189-192. Sweden, education, 515. Swimming, instruction, 347. Switzerland, education , 535-538. Syria, educational activities, 574. T. Tate, W. K., on negro schools of South Carolina, 246. Teachers, and the high cost of living, 28-32; agri¬ culture, lack of properly trained, 268; Alaskan service, 412-414; American, Philippine Islands, 429-431; associations, negroes, 250; certificates, negro schools, 253; college, ideals, 33-34; confer¬ ences, Porto Rico, 451; examination and certifica¬ tion, legislation, 64; expenditures, 32; Filipino, status, 431-432; France, changed conditions, 523-526; Germany, status and training, 556-558; Guam, statistics, 457; home ownership, 30; inade¬ quacy of supply, 11; industrial, 193-196, 247; institutes, 124; international visits, 45-46; lack of preparation, xviii; life insurance, 31; negro schools, 253; pensions. See Pensions, teachers; persons dependent upon, for support, 29-30; preparation in Spain, 565; property, 30; Prussian exchange, 44G45; public elementary and high schools, num¬ ber, xvi; public elementary schools, England and Wales, 489-491; quality of instruction, 10; sala¬ ries. See Salaries, teachers; savings, 31; syndi¬ cates, France, complications, 524-526; tenure of office, legislation, 64-65; training, Cape Colony, 603; courses of study in Bavaria and Prussia, 557; elementary schools, 119-124; vocational edu¬ cation, 293-295. Technical education, Belgium, 518-519; Ireland, 508-509; legislation, 80; Russia, review and sta¬ tistics, 586-587. Tennessee, campaign against illiteracy, 222; progress of rural schools, 220; traveling libraries, 395-396. Tennessee Federation of Women’s Clubs, work, 334. Tenure of office, city superintendents, 137-138. Texas Anti-Tuberculosis Association, work, 328. Textbooks, commission abolished, Louisiana, 54^55; legislation, 73; used in Guam, 457. Theological schools, correlation of universities, 107-110. Thomas, M. C., on higher education of women, 35. Thompson, W. O., on a National university, 38. Time schedules, city school systems, 145. Townsley, C. P., superintendent of United States Military Academy, 35. Trade schools, recommended, 288. Trades’ unions, attitude toward vocational educa¬ tion, 288-290. Transportation of pupils to school, legislation, 71-73. Transylvania University, benefaction, 42. Traveling libraries, development, 389-397. Trinity College, Conn., benefactions, 42, 379. Tuberculosis, educational campaign against. See Health-teaching agencies; effect of open-air schools on, 163. Turkey, education, 569-575. INDEX. 647 u. United Agricultural Board of Virginia, reorganiza¬ tion, 76. United States, Federal aid for vocational education, 282. United States Bureau of Education, bulletins on vocational training, 293; collaborators, 181; divi¬ sion of rural education, 180-182; standardization of higher institutions, xvi. United States Congress, measures providing aid for vocational education, 282. United States Department of Agriculture, report on corn clubs, 200. United States Military Academy, new superintend¬ ent, 35. United States Public Health Service, educational work, 302. Universities, Australia, statistics, 607; Canada, statistics, 469; China, 625; correlation with theo¬ logical schools, 107-110; foreign, new, 624-626; Great Britain and Ireland, statistics of attend¬ ance, 510; inauguration of presidents, 32-33; inter¬ national relations, new official arrangements, 43; Japan, statistics, 592; Mexico, 626; Russia, sta¬ tistics, 585; State, centralization of control, 88-97; State, France, statistics, 533-534. See also Colleges and universities; Higher education. Universities and theological schools, correlation, 107-110. University events, review, 620-627. University of the South, discontinuance of law and medical schools, 102. Uruguay, education, 482-484. Utah Agricultural College, library economy, instruction, 383. V. Vacation schools, city school systems, 159-162. Van Hise, C. H., on a National university, 37-38. Venezuela, education, 484-485. Vermont, traveling libraries, 396. Victoria, Australia, education, 610-611. Villanova College, Pa., benefaction, 42. Virginia, educational legislation, 52, 62, 66-67, 81- 82; farm demonstration work, 76-77; traveling libraries, 397. Virginia Military Institute, State cadets, relieved of obligation to teach, 81. Visiting Nurse Association of Detroit, work, 318. Visiting Nurse Society of Philadelphia, work, 318. Vocational agricultural training, newest forms, 268- 271. Vocational education, 21-24; England, 496-498, 499- 500; exceptional children, 258; France, 526-527; Germany, 548-554; legislation, 78, 281-287; New South Wales, 608-610; progress, 281-297. See also Continuation schools; Industrial education, Trade schools. Vocational Guidance Survey of New York City, organization and work, 24-25. Vocational schools, new, Massachusetts^ ,296: 77236°— ed 1912— vol 1 - 43 w. W ales, education. See England and Wales. Wang, Ching-Chun, on effects of American educa¬ tion upon Chinese students, 48. Washington, B. T., on negro education, 254-255. Washington, progress of rural schools, 222-223; trav¬ eling libraries, 397; vocational education, legisla¬ tion, 286. Washington, University of, course in journalism, 118; library economy, instruction, 383. Washington and Lee University, new president, 35. Weeks, Mary H., Purposes, methods, and results of the Parent-Teacher Cooperative Associations of the National Congress of Mothers, 359-373. Welfare work, children, Belgium, 517-518; England and Wales, 491-492; Scotland, 505. See also Health-teaching agencies. West Virginia, centralized government, State-sup¬ ported institutions, 91; progress of rural schools, 223-225. West Virginia Society of Social Hygiene, work, 340. W est Virginia University, library economy, instruc¬ tion, 384; summer school of agriculture, 266. Western Australia, education, 611-613. White, F. R., on education in the Philippines, 428- 442. Whitman College, Wash., benefactions, 40,42. Widener, Mrs. G. D., gift to Harvard University, 379. Winona, Minn., city schools, simplification of course of study, 140. Winthrop Normal and Industrial College, S. C., ex¬ perimental rural school, 220-221. Wirt, W. A., on advantages of “ Gary plan,” 130. Wisconsin, progress of rural schools, 225; rural school commission, 188-189; traveling libraries, 397 ; vocational education, 147, 296, 281. Wolcott, J. D., Recent aspects of library develop¬ ment, 379-406. Women, education, Japan, 591; higher education, Russia, 586; public health education among, 310- 314; teachers, equal pay to that of men, 150-151. Women’s clubs, and agricultural education, 275. Women’s Municipal League of Boston, infant social service, 320-321. W oonsocket, R . I. , board of education, legislation, 59. Worcester Polytechnic Institute, benefactions, 42. Work, M. N., on negro education, 251. World Missionary Conference, continuation com¬ mittee work, 620. World’s Purity Federation, work, 341. Wright, H. F., Roman Catholic schools, 227-241. Wyoming, University of, new president, 35. Y. Yale University, and examinations, 12; benefac¬ tions, 42. Young, E. F., on kindergarten movement, 149; on parent-teacher associations, 373. Young Men’s Christian Association, international committee, health-teaching work, 346-347. Young Women’s Christian Association, health- teaching work,' 3 48. ; O I